diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/dialup-firewall/article.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/dialup-firewall/article.sgml index 2916c685b7..c76119415a 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/dialup-firewall/article.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/dialup-firewall/article.sgml @@ -1,361 +1,361 @@ - %man; ]>
- + Dialup firewalling with FreeBSD Marc Silver
marcs@draenor.org
 - $Date: 2001-02-27 12:45:43 $ + $Date: 2001-04-17 15:53:37 $ This article documents how to setup a firewall using a PPP dialup with FreeBSD and IPFW, and specifically with firewalling over a dialup with a dynamically assigned IP address. This document does not cover setting up your PPP connection in the first place. - + Preface Dialup Firewalling with FreeBSD This document aims to cover the process that is required in order to setup firewalling with FreeBSD when are dynamically assigned an IP address by your ISP. While every effort has been made to make this document as informative and correct as possible, you are welcome to mail your comments/suggestions to the maintainer. Kernel Options The first thing you'll need to do is recompile your kernel in FreeBSD. If you need more information on how to recompile the kernel, then the best place to start is the kernel configuration section in the Handbook. You need to compile the following options into the kernel: options IPFIREWALL Enables the kernel's firewall code. options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE Sends logged packets to the system logger. options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT=100 Limits the number of times a matching entry is logged. This stops your log files filling up with lots of repetitive entries. 100 is a reasonable number to use, but you can adjust it based on your requirements. options IPDIVERT Enables divert sockets, which will be shown later. There are also some other OPTIONAL items that you can compile into the kernel for some added security. These are not required in order to get firewalling to work, but some more paranoid users may want to use them. options TCP_RESTRICT_RST This option blocks all TCP RST packets. This is best used for systems that might be exposed to SYN flooding (IRC Servers are a good example) or for those who do not want to be easily portscannable. options TCP_DROP_SYNFIN This option ignores TCP packets with SYN and FIN. This prevents tools such as nmap etc from identifying the TCP/IP stack of the machine, but breaks support for RFC1644 extensions. This is NOT recommended if the machine will be running a web server. Don't reboot once you have recompiled the kernel. Hopefully, we will need to reboot just once in order to complete the installing of the firewall. Changing <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> to load the firewall We now need to make some changes to /etc/rc.conf in order to tell it about the firewall. Simply add the following lines: firewall_enable="YES" firewall_script="/etc/firewall/fwrules" natd_enable="YES" natd_interface="tun0" natd_flags="-dynamic" For more information on what the above do take a look at /etc/defaults/rc.conf and read &man.rc.conf.5; Disable PPP's network address translation You may already be using PPP's built in network address translation (NAT). If that is the case you will have to disable it, as these examples use &man.natd.8; to do the same. If you already have a block of entries to automatically start PPP it probably looks like this: ppp_enable="YES" ppp_mode="auto" ppp_nat="YES" ppp_profile="profile" If so, remove the ppp_nat="YES" line. You will also need to remove any nat enable yes or alias enable yes in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The ruleset for the firewall We're nearly done now. All that remains now is to define the firewall rules and then we can reboot and the firewall should be up and running. I realise that everyone will want something slightly different when it comes to their rulebase. What I've tried to do is write a rulebase that suits most dialup users. You can obviously modify it to your needs by simply using the following rules as the foundation for your own rulebase. First, let's start with the basics of closed firewalling. What you want to do is deny everything by default and then only open up for the things you really need. Rules should be in the order of allow first and then deny. The premise is that you add the rules for your allows, and then everything else is denied. :) Now, let's make the dir /etc/firewall. Change into the directory and edit the file fwrules as we specified in rc.conf. Please note that you can change this filename to be anything you wish. This guide just gives an example of a filename. Now, let's look at a sample firewall file, and we'll detail everything in it. # Firewall rules # Written by Marc Silver (marcs@draenor.org) # http://draenor.org/ipfw # Freely distributable # Define the firewall command (as in /etc/rc.firewall) for easy # reference. Helps to make it easier to read. fwcmd="/sbin/ipfw" # Force a flushing of the current rules before we reload. $fwcmd -f flush # Divert all packets through the tunnel interface. $fwcmd add divert natd all from any to any via tun0 # Allow all data from my network card and localhost. Make sure you # change your network card (mine was fxp0) before you reboot. :) $fwcmd add allow ip from any to any via lo0 $fwcmd add allow ip from any to any via fxp0 # Allow all connections that I initiate. $fwcmd add allow tcp from any to any out xmit tun0 setup # Once connections are made, allow them to stay open. $fwcmd add allow tcp from any to any via tun0 established # Everyone on the internet is allowed to connect to the following # services on the machine. This example shows that people may connect # to ssh and apache. $fwcmd add allow tcp from any to any 80 setup $fwcmd add allow tcp from any to any 22 setup # This sends a RESET to all ident packets. $fwcmd add reset log tcp from any to any 113 in recv tun0 # Allow outgoing DNS queries ONLY to the specified servers. $fwcmd add allow udp from any to x.x.x.x 53 out xmit tun0 # Allow them back in with the answers... :) $fwcmd add allow udp from x.x.x.x 53 to any in recv tun0 # Allow ICMP (for ping and traceroute to work). You may wish to # disallow this, but I feel it suits my needs to keep them in. $fwcmd add 65435 allow icmp from any to any # Deny all the rest. $fwcmd add 65435 deny log ip from any to any You now have a fully functional firewall that will allow on connections to ports 80 and 22 and will log any other connection attempts. Now, you should be able to safely reboot and your firewall should come up fine. If you find this incorrect in anyway or experience any problems, or have any suggestions to improve this page, please email me. Questions Why are you using natd and ipfw when you could be using the built in ppp-filters? I'll have to be honest and say there's no definitive reason why I use ipfw and natd instead of the built in ppp filters. From the discussions I've had with people the consensus seems to be that while ipfw is certainly more powerful and more configurable than the ppp filters, what it makes up for in functionality it loses in being easy to customise. One of the reasons I use it is because I prefer firewalling to be done at a kernel level rather than by a userland program. If I'm using private addresses internally, such as in the 192.168.0.0 range, Could I add a command like $fwcmd add deny all from any to 192.168.0.0:255.255.0.0 via tun0 to the firewall rules to prevent outside attempts to connect to internal machines? The simple answer is no. The reason for this is that natd is doing address translation for anything being diverted through the tun0 device. As far as it's concerned incoming packets will speak only to the dynamically assigned IP address and NOT to the internal network. Note though that you can add a rule like $fwcmd add deny all from 192.168.0.4:255.255.0.0 to any via tun0 which would limit a host on your internal network from going out via the firewall. There must be something wrong. I followed your instructions to the letter and now I am locked out. This tutorial assumes that you are running userland-ppp, therefore the supplied ruleset operates on the tun0 interface, which corresponds to the first connection made with &man.ppp.8; (a.k.a. user-ppp). Additional connections would use tun1, tun2 and so on. You should also note that &man.pppd.8; uses the ppp0 interface instead, so if you start the connection with &man.pppd.8; you must substitute tun0 for ppp0. A quick way to edit the firewall rules to reflect this change is shown below. The original ruleset is backed up as fwrules_tun0. &prompt.user; cd /etc/firewall /etc/firewall&prompt.user; su Password: /etc/firewall&prompt.root; mv fwrules fwrules_tun0 /etc/firewall&prompt.root; cat fwrules_tun0 | sed s/tun0/ppp0/g > fwrules To know whether you are currently using &man.ppp.8; or &man.pppd.8; you can examine the output of &man.ifconfig.8; once the connection is up. E.g., for a connection made with &man.pppd.8; you would see something like this (showing only the relevant lines): &prompt.user; ifconfig (skipped...) ppp0: flags=8051<UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 1524 inet xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx --> xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx netmask 0xff000000 (skipped...) On the other hand, for a connection made with &man.ppp.8; (user-ppp) you should see something similar to this: &prompt.user; ifconfig (skipped...) ppp0: flags=8010<POINTOPOINT,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 (skipped...) tun0: flags=8051<UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 1524 (IPv6 stuff skipped...) inet xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx --> xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx netmask 0xffffff00 Opened by PID xxxxx (skipped...)
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/diskless-x/article.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/diskless-x/article.sgml index 1ca1a15061..692ea3367f 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/diskless-x/article.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/diskless-x/article.sgml @@ -1,349 +1,349 @@ - %man; ]>
- + Diskless X Server: a how to guide Jerry Kendall
jerry@kcis.com
28-December-1996 1996 Jerry Kendall With the help of some friends on the FreeBSD-hackers list, I have been able to create a diskless X terminal. The creation of the X terminal required first creating a diskless system with minimal utilities mounted via NFS. These same steps were used to create 2 separate diskless systems. The first is altair.kcis.com. A diskless X terminal that I run on my old 386DX-40. It has a 340Meg hard disk but, I did not want to change it. So, it boots from antares.kcis.com across a Ethernet. The second system is a 486DX2-66. I setup a diskless FreeBSD (complete) that uses no local disk. The server in that case is a Sun 670MP running SunOS 4.1.3. The same setup configuration was needed for both. I am sure that there is stuff that needs to be added to this. Please send me any comments. - + Creating the boot floppy (On the diskless system) Since the network boot loaders will not work with some of the TSR's and such that MS-DOS uses, it is best to create a dedicated boot floppy or, if you can, create an MS-DOS menu that will (via the config.sys/autoexec.bat files) ask what configuration to load when the system starts. The later is the method that I use and it works great. My MS-DOS (6.x) menu is below. <filename>config.sys</filename> [menu] menuitem=normal, normal menuitem=unix, unix [normal] .... normal config.sys stuff ... [unix] <filename>autoexec.bat</filename> @ECHO OFF goto %config% :normal ... normal autoexec.bat stuff ... goto end :unix cd \netboot nb8390.com :end Getting the network boot programs (On the server) Compile the 'net-boot' programs that are located in /usr/src/sys/i386/boot/netboot. You should read the comments at the top of the Makefile. Adjust as required. Make a backup of the original in case it gets foobar'd. When the build is done, there should be 2 MS-DOS executables, nb8390.com and nb3c509.com. One of these two programs will be what you need to run on the diskless server. It will load the kernel from the boot server. At this point, put both programs on the MS-DOS boot floppy created earlier. Determine which program to run (On the diskless system) If you know the chipset that your Ethernet adapter uses, this is easy. If you have the NS8390 chipset, or a NS8390 based chipset, use nb8390.com. If you have a 3Com 509 based chipset, use the nb3C509.com boot program. If you are not sure which you have, try using one, if it says No adapter found, try the other. Beyond that, you are pretty much on your own. Booting across the network Boot the diskless system with out any config.sys/autoexec.bat files. try running the boot program for your Ethernet adapter. My Ethernet adapter is running in WD8013 16bit mode so I run nb8390.com C:> cd \netboot C:> nb8390 Boot from Network (Y/N) ? Y BOOTP/TFTP/NFS bootstrap loader ESC for menu Searching for adapter.. WD8013EBT base 0x0300, memory 0x000D8000, addr 00:40:01:43:26:66 Searching for server... At this point, my diskless system is trying to find a machine to act as a boot server. Make note of the addr line above, you will need this number later. Reset the diskless system and modify your config.sys and autoexec.bat files to do these steps automatically for you. Perhaps in a menu. If you had to run nb3c509.com instead of nb8390.com the output is the same as above. If you got No adapter found at the Searching for adapter... message, verify that you did indeed set the compile time defines in the Makefile correctly. Allowing systems to boot across the network (On the server) Make sure the /etc/inetd.conf file has entries for tftp and bootps. Mine are listed below: tftp dgram udp wait nobody /usr/libexec/tftpd tftpd /tftpboot # # Additions by who ever you are bootps dgram udp wait root /usr/libexec/bootpd bootpd /etc/bootptab If you have to change the /etc/inetd.conf file, send a HUP signal to inetd. To do this, get the process ID of inetd with ps -ax | grep inetd | grep -v grep. Once you have it, send it a HUP signal. Do this by kill -HUP <pid>. This will force inetd to re-read its config file. Did you remember to note the addr line from the output of the boot loader on the diskless system? Guess what, here is where you need it. Add an entry to /etc/bootptab (maybe creating the file). It should be laid out identical to this: altair:\ :ht=ether:\ :ha=004001432666:\ :sm=255.255.255.0:\ :hn:\ :ds=199.246.76.1:\ :ip=199.246.76.2:\ :gw=199.246.76.1:\ :vm=rfc1048: The lines are as follows: altair the diskless systems name without the domain name. ht=ether the hardware type of 'ethernet'. ha=004001432666 the hardware address (the number noted above). sm=255.255.255.0 the subnet mask. hn tells server to send client's hostname to the client. ds=199.246.76.1 tells the client who the domain server is. ip=199.246.76.2 tells the client what it's IP address is. gw=199.246.76.1 tells the client what the default gateway is. vm=... just leave it there. Be sure to setup the IP addresses correctly, the addresses above are my own. Create the directory '/tftpboot' on the server it will contain the configuration files for the diskless systems that the server will serve. These files will be named 'cfg.<ip>' where <ip> is the IP address of the diskless system. The config file for 'altair' is /tftpboot/cfg.199.246.76.2. The contents is: rootfs 199.246.76.1:/DiskLess/rootfs/altair hostname altair.kcis.com The line hostname altair.kcis.com simply tells the diskless system what its fully qualified domain name is. The line rootfs 199.246.76.1:/DiskLess/rootfs/altair tells the diskless system where its NFS mountable root filesystem is located. The NFS mounted root filesystem will be mounted read only. The hierarchy for the diskless system can be re-mounted allowing read-write operations if required. I use my spare 386DX-40 as a dedicated X terminal. The hierarchy for 'altair' is: / /bin /etc /tmp /sbin /dev /dev/fd /usr /var /var/run The actual list of files is: -r-xr-xr-x 1 root wheel 779984 Dec 11 23:44 ./kernel -r-xr-xr-x 1 root bin 299008 Dec 12 00:22 ./bin/sh -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 499 Dec 15 15:54 ./etc/rc -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 1411 Dec 11 23:19 ./etc/ttys -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 157 Dec 15 15:42 ./etc/hosts -rw-r--r-- 1 root bin 1569 Dec 15 15:26 ./etc/XF86Config.altair -r-x------ 1 bin bin 151552 Jun 10 1995 ./sbin/init -r-xr-xr-x 1 bin bin 176128 Jun 10 1995 ./sbin/ifconfig -r-xr-xr-x 1 bin bin 110592 Jun 10 1995 ./sbin/mount_nfs -r-xr-xr-x 1 bin bin 135168 Jun 10 1995 ./sbin/reboot -r-xr-xr-x 1 root bin 73728 Dec 13 22:38 ./sbin/mount -r-xr-xr-x 1 root wheel 1992 Jun 10 1995 ./dev/MAKEDEV.local -r-xr-xr-x 1 root wheel 24419 Jun 10 1995 ./dev/MAKEDEV Don't forget to run MAKEDEV all in the dev directory. My /etc/rc for altair is: #!/bin/sh # PATH=/bin:/ export PATH # # configure the localhost /sbin/ifconfig lo0 127.0.0.1 # # configure the ethernet card /sbin/ifconfig ed0 199.246.76.2 netmask 0xffffff00 # # mount the root filesystem via NFS /sbin/mount antares:/DiskLess/rootfs/altair / # # mount the /usr filesystem via NFS /sbin/mount antares:/DiskLess/usr /usr # /usr/X11R6/bin/XF86_SVGA -query antares -xf86config /etc/XF86Config.altair > /dev/null 2>&1 # # Reboot after X exits /sbin/reboot # # We blew up.... exit 1 Any comments and all questions welcome.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/fonts/article.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/fonts/article.sgml index d737fedd50..a15a3ef658 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/fonts/article.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/fonts/article.sgml @@ -1,988 +1,988 @@ - + - %man; ]>
- + Fonts and FreeBSD A Tutorial Dave Bodenstab
imdave@synet.net
Wed Aug 7, 1996 This document contains a description of the various font files that may be used with FreeBSD and the syscons driver, X11, Ghostscript and Groff. Cookbook examples are provided for switching the syscons display to 80x60 mode, and for using type 1 fonts with the above application programs. - + Introduction There are many sources of fonts available, and one might ask how they might be used with FreeBSD. The answer can be found by carefully searching the documentation for the component that one would like to use. This is very time consuming, so this tutorial is an attempt to provide a shortcut for others who might be interested. Basic terminology There are many different font formats and associated font file suffixes. A few that will be addressed here are: .pfa, .pfb Postscript type 1 fonts. The .pfa is the Ascii form and .pfb the Binary form. .afm The font metrics associated with a type 1 font. .pfm The printer font metrics associated with a type 1 font. .ttf A TrueType font .fot An indirect reference to a TrueType font (not an actual font) .fon, .fnt Bitmapped screen fonts The .fot file is used by Windows as sort of a symbolic link to the actual TrueType font (.ttf) file. The .fon font files are also used by Windows. I know of no way to use this font format with FreeBSD. What font formats can I use? Which font file format is useful depends on the application being used. FreeBSD by itself uses no fonts. Application programs and/or drivers may make use of the font files. Here is a small cross reference of application/driver to the font type suffixes: Driver syscons .fnt Application Ghostscript .pfa, .pfb, .ttf X11 .pfa, .pfb Groff .pfa, .afm Povray .ttf The .fnt suffix is used quite frequently. I suspect that whenever someone wanted to create a specialized font file for their application, more often than not they chose this suffix. Therefore, it is likely that files with this suffix are not all the same format; specifically, the .fnt files used by syscons under FreeBSD may not be the same format as a .fnt file one encounters in the MSDOS/Windows environment. I have not made any attempt at using other .fnt files other than those provided with FreeBSD. Setting a virtual console to 80x60 line mode First, an 8x8 font must be loaded. To do this, /etc/rc.conf should contain the line (change the font name to an appropriate one for your locale): font8x8="iso-8x8" # font 8x8 from /usr/share/syscons/fonts/* (or NO). The command to actually switch the mode is &man.vidcontrol.1;: &prompt.user; vidcontrol VGA_80x60 Various screen orientated programs, such as &man.vi.1;, must be able to determine the current screen dimensions. As this is achieved this through ioctl calls to the console driver (such as &man.syscons.4;) they will correctly determine the new screen dimensions. To make this more seamless, one can embed these commands in the startup scripts so it takes place when the system boots. To do this is add this line to /etc/rc.conf allscreens_flags="VGA_80x60" # Set this vidcontrol mode for all virtual screens References: &man.rc.conf.5;, &man.vidcontrol.1;. Using type 1 fonts with X11 X11 can use either the .pfa or the .pfb format fonts. The X11 fonts are located in various subdirectories under /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts. Each font file is cross referenced to its X11 name by the contents of the fonts.dir file in each directory. There is already a directory named Type1. The most straight forward way to add a new font is to put it into this directory. A better way is to keep all new fonts in a separate directory and use a symbolic link to the additional font. This allows one to more easily keep track of ones fonts without confusing them with the fonts that were originally provided. For example: Create a directory to contain the font files &prompt.user; mkdir -p /usr/local/share/fonts/type1 &prompt.user; cd /usr/local/share/fonts/type1 Place the .pfa, .pfb and .afm files here One might want to keep readme files, and other documentation for the fonts here also &prompt.user; cp /cdrom/fonts/atm/showboat/showboat.pfb . &prompt.user; cp /cdrom/fonts/atm/showboat/showboat.afm . Maintain an index to cross reference the fonts &prompt.user; echo showboat - InfoMagic CICA, Dec 1994, /fonts/atm/showboat >>INDEX Now, to use a new font with X11, one must make the font file available and update the font name files. The X11 font names look like: -bitstream-charter-medium-r-normal-xxx-0-0-0-0-p-0-iso8859-1 | | | | | | | | | | | | \ \ | | | | | \ \ \ \ \ \ \ +----+- character set | | | | \ \ \ \ \ \ \ +- average width | | | | \ \ \ \ \ \ +- spacing | | | \ \ \ \ \ \ +- vertical res. | | | \ \ \ \ \ +- horizontal res. | | | \ \ \ \ +- points | | | \ \ \ +- pixels | | | \ \ \ foundry family weight slant width additional style A new name needs to be created for each new font. If you have some information from the documentation that accompanied the font, then it could serve as the basis for creating the name. If there is no information, then you can get some idea by using &man.strings.1; on the font file. For example: &prompt.user; strings showboat.pfb | more %!FontType1-1.0: Showboat 001.001 %%CreationDate: 1/15/91 5:16:03 PM %%VMusage: 1024 45747 % Generated by Fontographer 3.1 % Showboat 1991 by David Rakowski. Alle Rechte Vorbehalten. FontDirectory/Showboat known{/Showboat findfont dup/UniqueID known{dup /UniqueID get 4962377 eq exch/FontType get 1 eq and}{pop false}ifelse {save true}{false}ifelse}{false}ifelse 12 dict begin /FontInfo 9 dict dup begin /version (001.001) readonly def /FullName (Showboat) readonly def /FamilyName (Showboat) readonly def /Weight (Medium) readonly def /ItalicAngle 0 def /isFixedPitch false def /UnderlinePosition -106 def /UnderlineThickness 16 def /Notice (Showboat 1991 by David Rakowski. Alle Rechte Vorbehalten.) readonly def end readonly def /FontName /Showboat def --stdin-- Using this information, a possible name might be: -type1-Showboat-medium-r-normal-decorative-0-0-0-0-p-0-iso8859-1 The components of our name are: Foundry Lets just name all the new fonts type1. Family The name of the font. Weight Normal, bold, medium, semibold, etc. From the &man.strings.1; output above, it appears that this font has a weight of medium. Slant roman, italic, oblique, etc. Since the ItalicAngle is zero, roman will be used. Width Normal, wide, condensed, extended, etc. Until it can be examined, the assumption will be normal. Additional style Usually omitted, but this will indicate that the font contains decorative capital letters. Spacing proportional or monospaced. Proportional is used since isFixedPitch is false. All of these names are arbitrary, but one should strive to be compatible with the existing conventions. A font is referenced by name with possible wild cards by an X11 program, so the name chosen should make some sense. One might begin by simply using …-normal-r-normal-…-p-… as the name, and then use &man.xfontsel.1; to examine it and adjust the name based on the appearance of the font. So, to complete our example: Make the font accessible to X11 &prompt.user; cd /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/Type1 &prompt.user; ln -s /usr/local/share/fonts/type1/showboat.pfb . Edit fonts.dir and fonts.scale, adding the line describing the font and incrementing the number of fonts which is found on the first line. &prompt.user; ex fonts.dir :1p 25 :1c 26 . :$a showboat.pfb -type1-showboat-medium-r-normal-decorative-0-0-0-0-p-0-iso8859-1 . :wq fonts.scale seems to be identical to fonts.dir… &prompt.user; cp fonts.dir fonts.scale Tell X11 that things have changed &prompt.user; xset fp rehash Examine the new font &prompt.user; xfontsel -pattern -type1-* References: &man.xfontsel.1;, &man.xset.1;, The X Windows System in a Nutshell, O'Reilly & Associates. Using type 1 fonts with Ghostscript Ghostscript references a font via its Fontmap file. This must be modified in a similar way to the X11 fonts.dir file. Ghostscript can use either the .pfa or the .pfb format fonts. Using the font from the previous example, here is how to use it with Ghostscript: Put the font in Ghostscript's font directory &prompt.user; cd /usr/local/share/ghostscript/fonts &prompt.user; ln -s /usr/local/share/fonts/type1/showboat.pfb . Edit Fontmap so Ghostscript knows about the font &prompt.user; cd /usr/local/share/ghostscript/4.01 &prompt.user; ex Fontmap :$a /Showboat (showboat.pfb) ; % From CICA /fonts/atm/showboat . :wq Use Ghostscript to examine the font &prompt.user; gs prfont.ps Aladdin Ghostscript 4.01 (1996-7-10) Copyright (C) 1996 Aladdin Enterprises, Menlo Park, CA. All rights reserved. This software comes with NO WARRANTY: see the file PUBLIC for details. Loading Times-Roman font from /usr/local/share/ghostscript/fonts/tir_____.pfb... /1899520 581354 1300084 13826 0 done. GS>Showboat DoFont Loading Showboat font from /usr/local/share/ghostscript/fonts/showboat.pfb... 1939688 565415 1300084 16901 0 done. >>showpage, press <return> to continue<< >>showpage, press <return> to continue<< >>showpage, press <return> to continue<< GS>quit References: fonts.txt in the Ghostscript 4.01 distribution Using type 1 fonts with Groff Now that the new font can be used by both X11 and Ghostscript, how can one use the new font with groff? First of all, since we are dealing with type 1 postscript fonts, the groff device that is applicable is the ps device. A font file must be created for each font that groff can use. A groff font name is just a file in /usr/share/groff_font/devps. With our example, the font file could be /usr/share/groff_font/devps/SHOWBOAT. The file must be created using tools provided by groff. The first tool is afmtodit. This is not normally installed, so it must be retrieved from the source distribution. I found I had to change the first line of the file, so I did: &prompt.user; cp /usr/src/gnu/usr.bin/groff/afmtodit/afmtodit.pl /tmp &prompt.user; ex /tmp/afmtodit.pl :1c #!/usr/bin/perl -P- . :wq This tool will create the groff font file from the metrics file (.afm suffix.) Continuing with our example: Many .afm files are in Mac format… ^M delimited lines We need to convert them to unix style ^J delimited lines &prompt.user; cd /tmp &prompt.user; cat /usr/local/share/fonts/type1/showboat.afm | tr '\015' '\012' >showboat.afm Now create the groff font file &prompt.user; cd /usr/share/groff_font/devps &prompt.user; /tmp/afmtodit.pl -d DESC -e text.enc /tmp/showboat.afm generate/textmap SHOWBOAT The font can now be referenced with the name SHOWBOAT. If ghostscript is used to drive the printers on the system, then nothing more needs to be done. However, if true postscript printers are used, then the font must be down loaded to the printer in order for the font to be used (unless the printer happens to have the showboat font built in or on an accessible font disk.) The final step is to create a down loadable font. The pfbtops tool is used to create the .pfa format of the font, and the download file is modified to reference the new font. The download file must reference the internal name of the font. This can easily be determined from the groff font file as illustrated: Create the .pfa font file &prompt.user; pfbtops /usr/local/share/fonts/type1/showboat.pfb >showboat.pfa Of course, if the .pfa file is already available, just use a symbolic link to reference it. Get the internal font name &prompt.user; fgrep internalname SHOWBOAT internalname Showboat Tell groff that the font must be down loaded &prompt.user; ex download :$a Showboat showboat.pfa . :wq To test the font: &prompt.user; cd /tmp &prompt.user; cat >example.t <<EOF .sp 5 .ps 16 This is an example of the Showboat font: .br .ps 48 .vs (\n(.s+2)p .sp .ft SHOWBOAT ABCDEFGHI .br JKLMNOPQR .br STUVWXYZ .sp .ps 16 .vs (\n(.s+2)p .fp 5 SHOWBOAT .ft R To use it for the first letter of a paragraph, it will look like: .sp 50p \s(48\f5H\s0\fRere is the first sentence of a paragraph that uses the showboat font as its first letter. Additional vertical space must be used to allow room for the larger letter. EOF &prompt.user; groff -Tps example.t >example.ps To use ghostscript/ghostview &prompt.user; ghostview example.ps To print it &prompt.user; lpr -Ppostscript example.ps References: /usr/src/gnu/usr.bin/groff/afmtodit/afmtodit.man, &man.groff.font.5;, &man.groff.char.7;, &man.pfbtops.1;. Converting TrueType fonts to a groff/postscript format for groff This potentially requires a bit of work, simply because it depends on some utilities that are not installed as part of the base system. They are: ttf2pf TrueType to postscript convertsion utilities. This allows conversion of a TrueType font to an ascii font metric (.afm) file. Currently available at http://sunsite.icm.edu.pl/pub/GUST/contrib/BachoTeX98/ttf2pf. Note: These files are postscript programs and must be downloaded to disk by holding down the Shift key when clicking on the link. Otherwise, your browser may try to launch ghostview to view them. The files of interest are: GS_TTF.PS PF2AFM.PS ttf2pf.ps The funny upper/lower case is due to their being intended also for DOS shells. ttf2pf.ps makes use of the others as upper case, so any renaming must be consistent with this. (Actually, GS_TTF.PS and PFS2AFM.PS are supposedly part of the ghostscript distribution, but it's just as easy to use these as an isolated utility. FreeBSD doesn't seem to include the latter.) You also may want to have these installed to /usr/local/share/groff_font/devps(?). afmtodit Creates font files for use with groff from ascii font metrics file. This usually resides in the directory, /usr/src/contrib/groff/afmtodit, and requires some work to get going. If you're paranoid about working in the /usr/src tree, simply copy the contents of the above directory to a work location. In the work area, you'll need to make the utility. Just type: # make -f Makefile.sub afmtodit You may also need to copy /usr/contrib/groff/devps/generate/textmap to /usr/share/groff_font/devps/generate if it doesn't already exist. Once all these utilities are in place, you're ready to commence: Create the .afm file by typing: % gs -dNODISPLAY -q -- ttf2pf.ps TTF_name PS_font_name AFM_name Where, TTF_name is your TrueType font file, PS_font_name is the file name for the .pfa file, AFM_name is the name you wish for the .afm file. If you do not specify output file names for the .pfa or .afm files, then default names will be generated from the TrueType font file name. This also produces a .pfa file, the ascii postscript font metrics file (.pfb is for the binrary form). This won't be needed, but could (I think) be useful for a fontserver. For example, to convert the 30f9 Barcode font using the default file names, use the following command: % gs -dNODISPLAY -- ttf2pf.ps 3of9.ttf Aladdin Ghostscript 5.10 (1997-11-23) Copyright (C) 1997 Aladdin Enterprises, Menlo Park, CA. All rights reserved. This software comes with NO WARRANTY: see the file PUBLIC for details. Converting 3of9.ttf to 3of9.pfa and 3of9.afm. If you want the converted fonts to be stored in A.pfa and B.afm, then use this command: % gs -dNODISPLAY -- ttf2pf.ps 3of9.ttf A B Aladdin Ghostscript 5.10 (1997-11-23) Copyright (C) 1997 Aladdin Enterprises, Menlo Park, CA. All rights reserved. This software comes with NO WARRANTY: see the file PUBLIC for details. Converting 3of9.ttf to A.pfa and B.afm. Create the groff postscript file: Change directories to /usr/share/groff_font/devps so as to make the following command easier to execute. You'll probably need root priviledges for this. (Or, if you're paranoid about working there, make sure you reference the files DESC, text.enc and generate/textmap as being in this directory.) % afmtodit -d DESC -e text.enc file.afm \ generate/textmap PS_font_name Where, file.afm is the AFM_name created by ttf2pf.ps above, and PS_font_name is the font name used from that command, as well as the name that &man.groff.1; will use for references to this font. For example, assuming you used the first tiff2pf.ps command above, then the 3of9 Barcode font can be created using the command: % afmtodit -d DESC -e text.enc 3of9.afm \ generate/textmap 3of9 Ensure that the resulting PS_font_name file (e.g., 3of9 in the example above) is located in the directory /usr/share/groff_font/devps by copying or moving it there. Note that if ttf2pf.ps assigns a font name using the one it finds in the TrueType font file and you want to use a different name, you must edit the .afm file prior to running afmtodit. This name must also match the one used in the Fontmap file if you wish to pipe &man.groff.1; into &man.gs.1;. Can TrueType fonts be used with other programs? The TrueType font format is used by Windows, Windows 95, and Mac's. It is quite popular and there are a great number of fonts available in this format. Unfortunately, there are few applications that I am aware of that can use this format: Ghostscript and Povray come to mind. Ghostscript's support, according to the documentation, is rudimentary and the results are likely to be inferior to type 1 fonts. Povray version 3 also has the ability to use TrueType fonts, but I rather doubt many people will be creating documents as a series of raytraced pages :-). This rather dismal situation may soon change. The FreeType Project is currently developing a useful set of FreeType tools: The freetype module is included with XFree86 4.x. For more information please see the FreeBSD Handbook or the XFree86 4.0.2 Fonts page. The xfsft font server for X11 can serve TrueType fonts in addition to regular fonts. Though currently in beta, it is said to be quite useable. See Juliusz Chroboczek's page for further information. Porting instructions for FreeBSD can be found at Stephen Montgomery's software page. xfstt is another font server for X11, available under ftp://sunsite.unc.edu/pub/Linux/X11/fonts. A program called ttf2bdf can produce BDF files suitable for use in an X environment from TrueType files. Linux binaries are said to be available from ftp://crl.nmsu.edu/CLR/multiling/General/. For people requiring the use of Asian TrueType fonts, the XTT font server may be worth a look. Information about XTT can be found at URL: http://hawk.ise.chuo-u.ac.jp/student/person/tshiozak/study/freebsd-at-random/x-tt/index-en.html. and others … The FreeType Projects page is a good starting point for information on these and other free TrueType projects. Where can additional fonts be obtained? Many fonts are available on the Internet. They are either entirely free, or are share-ware. In addition, there are many inexpensive CDROMs available that contain many fonts. Some Internet locations (as of August 1996) are: ftp://ftp.winsite.com (Formerly CICA) http://www.simtel.net/simcgi-bin/dosfind.cgi ftp://ftp.coast.net/ http://af-pc-plloyd.ecel.uwa.edu.au/fonts/index.html http://www.esselte.com/letraset/index.html http://www.inil.com/users/elfring/esf.htm Additional questions What use are the .pfm files? Can one generate the .afm file from a .pfa or .pfb? How to generate the groff character mapping files for postscript fonts with non-standard character names? Can xditview and devX?? devices be setup to access all the new fonts? It would be good to have examples of using TrueType fonts with povray and ghostscript.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/formatting-media/article.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/formatting-media/article.sgml index 6708d35396..c6854498eb 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/formatting-media/article.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/formatting-media/article.sgml @@ -1,603 +1,603 @@ - %man; ]> - +
- + Formatting Media For Use With FreeBSD 2.2-RELEASE A Tutorial Doug White
dwhite@resnet.uoregon.edu
March 1997 This document describes how to slice, partition, and format hard disk drives and similar media for use with FreeBSD. The examples given have been tested under FreeBSD 2.2-GAMMA and may work for other releases. - + Introduction & Definitions Overview Successfully adding disks to an existing system is the mark of an experienced system administrator. Slicing, partitioning, and adding disks requires a careful dance of proper command and name syntax. One slipped finger and an entire disk could disappear in seconds. This document is written in an attempt to simplify this process and avoid accidents. Thankfully, enhancements to existing tools (notably sysinstall) have greatly improved this process in recent releases of FreeBSD. There are two possible modes of disk formatting: compatibility mode: Arranging a disk so that it has a slice table for use with other operating systems. dangerously dedicated mode: Formatting a disk with no slice table. This makes the process of adding disks easier, however non-FreeBSD operating systems may not accept the disk. For most cases, dedicated mode is the easiest to set up and use in existing systems, as a new disk is usually dedicated entirely to FreeBSD. However, compatibility mode insures optimum interoperability with future installations at a cost of increased complexity. In addition to selecting the mode, two methods of slicing the disk are available. One is using the system installation tool /stand/sysinstall. 2.1.7-RELEASE and later versions of sysinstall contain code to ease setup of disks during normal system operation, mainly allowing access to the Label and Partition editors and a Write feature which will update just the selected disk and slice without affecting other disks. The other method is running the tools manually from a root command line. For dangerously dedicated mode, only three or four commands are involved while sysinstall requires some manipulation. Definitions UNIX disk management over the centuries has invented many new definitions for old words. The following glossary covers the definitions used in this document and (hopefully) for FreeBSD in general. compatibility mode: Arranging a disk so that it has a slice table for use with other operating systems. Oppose dangerously dedicated mode. dangerously dedicated mode: Formatting a disk with no slice table. This makes the process of adding disks easier, however non-FreeBSD operating systems may not accept the disk. Oppose compatibility mode. disk: A circular disc, covered with magnetic or similarly manipulable material, spun by a motor under a head. Data is stored on the disk by changing the pattern of magnetism on the disc, which can be later read. Hard disks, CD-ROMs, Magneto-optical,and Zip/Jaz removables are examples of disks. slice: A division of a disk. Up to four slices are permitted on one disk in the PC standard. Slices are composed of contiguous sectors. Slices are recorded in a slice table used by the system BIOS to locate bootable partitions. The slice table is usually called the Partition Table in DOS parlance. Maintained by the fdisk utility. partition: A division of a slice. Usually used in reference to divisions of the FreeBSD slice of a disk. Each filesystem and swap area on a disk resides in a partition. Maintained using the disklabel utility. sector: Smallest subdivision of a disk. One sector usually represents 512 bytes of data. Warnings & Pitfalls Building disks is not something to take lightly. It is quite possible to destroy the contents of other disks in your system if the proper precautions are not taken. Check your work carefully. It is very simple to destroy the incorrect disk when working with these commands. When in doubt consult the kernel boot output for the proper device. Needless to say, we are not responsible for any damage to any data or hardware that you may experience. You work at your own risk! Zip, Jaz, and Other Removables Removable disks can be formatted in the same way as normal hard disks. It is essential to have the disk drive connected to the system and a disk placed in the drive during startup, so the kernel can determine the drive's geometry. Check the dmesg output and make sure your device and the disk's size is listed. If the kernel reports Can't get the size then the disk was not in the drive. In this case, you will need to restart the machine before attempting to format disks. Formatting Disks in Dedicated Mode Introduction This section details how to make disks that are totally dedicated to FreeBSD. Remember, dedicated mode disks cannot be booted by the PC architecture. Making Dedicated Mode Disks using Sysinstall /stand/sysinstall, the system installation utility, has been expanded in recent versions to make the process of dividing disks properly a less tiring affair. The fdisk and disklabel editors built into sysinstall are GUI tools that remove much of the confusion from slicing disks. For FreeBSD versions 2.1.7 and later, this is perhaps the simplest way to slice disks. Start sysinstall as root by typing &prompt.root; /stand/sysinstall from the command prompt. Select Index. Select Partition. Select the disk to edit with arrow keys and SPACE. If you are using this entire disk for FreeBSD, select A. When asked: Do you want to do this with a true partition entry so as to remain cooperative with any future possible operating systems on the drive(s)? answer No. When asked if you still want to do this, answer Yes. Select Write. When warned about Writing on installed systems, answer Yes. Quitthe FDISK Editor and ESCAPE back to the Index menu. Select Label from the Index menu. Label as desired. For a single partition, enter C to Create a partition, accept the default size, partition type Filesystem, and a mountpoint (which isn't used). Enter W when done and confirm to continue. The filesystem will be newfs'd for you, unless you select otherwise (for news partitions you'll want to do this!). You'll get the error: Error mounting /mnt/dev/wd2s1e on /mnt/blah : No such file or directory Ignore. Exit out by repeatedly pressing ESCAPE. Making Dedicated Mode Disks Using the Command Line Execute the following commands, replacing wd2 with the disk name. &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rwd2 count=2 &prompt.root; disklabel /dev/rwd2 | disklabel -B -R -r wd2 /dev/stdin We only want one partition, so using slice 'c' should be fine: &prompt.root; newfs /dev/rwd2c If you need to edit the disklabel to create multiple partitions (such as swap), use the following: &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rwd2 count=2 &prompt.root; disklabel /dev/r$d > /tmp/label Edit disklabel to add partitions: &prompt.root; vi /tmp/label &prompt.root; disklabel -B -R -r wd2 /tmp/label newfs partitions appropriately Your disk is now ready for use. Making Compatibility Mode Disks Introduction The command line is the easiest way to make dedicated disks, and the worst way to make compatibility disks. The command-line fdisk utility requires higher math skills and an in-depth understanding of the slice table, which is more than most people want to deal with. Use sysinstall for compatibility disks, as described below. Making Compatibility Mode Disks Using Sysinstall Start sysinstall as root by typing &prompt.root; /stand/sysinstall from the command prompt. Select Index. Select Partition. Select the disk to edit with arrow keys and SPACE. If you are using this entire disk for FreeBSD, select A. When asked: Do you want to do this with a true partition entry so as to remain cooperative with any future possible operating systems on the drive(s)? answer yes. Select Write. When asked to install the boot manager, select None with SPACE then hit ENTER for OK. Quit the FDISK Editor. You'll be asked about the boot manager, select None again. Select Label from the Index menu. Label as desired. For a single partition, accept the default size, type filesystem, and a mountpoint (which isn't used). The filesystem will be newfs'd for you, unless you select otherwise (for news partitions you'll want to do this!). You'll get the error: Error mounting /mnt/dev/wd2s1e on /mnt/blah : No such file or directory Ignore. Exit out by repeatedly pressing ESCAPE. Your new disk is now ready for use. Other Disk Operations Adding Swap Space As a system grows, it's need for swap space can also grow. Although adding swap space to existing disks is very difficult, a new disk can be partitioned with additional swap space. To add swap space when adding a disk to a system: When partitioning the disk, edit the disklabel and allocate the amount of swap space to add in partition `b' and the remainder in another partition, such as `a' or `e'. The size is given in 512 byte blocks. When newfsing the drive, do NOT newfs the `c' partition. Instead, newfs the partition where the non-swap space lies. Add an entry to /etc/fstab as follows: /dev/wd0b none swap sw 0 0 Change /dev/wd0b to the device of the newly added space. To make the new space immediately available, use the swapon command. &prompt.root; swapon /dev/sd0b swapon: added /dev/sd0b as swap space Copying the Contents of Disks Submitted By: Renaud Waldura (renaud@softway.com) To move file from your original base disk to the fresh new one, do: &prompt.root; mount /dev/wd2 /mnt &prompt.root; pax -r -w -p e /usr/home /mnt &prompt.root; umount /mnt &prompt.root; rm -rf /usr/home/* &prompt.root; mount /dev/wd2 /usr/home Creating Striped Disks using CCD Commands Submitted By: Stan Brown (stanb@awod.com) The Concatenated Disk Driver, or CCD, allows you to treat several identical disks as a single disk. Striping can result in increased disk performance by distributing reads and writes across the disks. See the &man.ccd.4; and &man.ccdconfig.8; man pages or the CCD Homepage for further details. To create a new CCD, execute the following commands. This describes how to add three disks together; simply add or remove devices as necessary. Remember that the disks to be striped must be identical. Before executing these commands, make sure you add the line pseudo-device ccd 4 to your kernel. &prompt.root; cd /dev ; sh MAKDEV ccd0 &prompt.root; disklabel -r -w sd0 auto &prompt.root; disklabel -r -w sd1 auto &prompt.root; disklabel -r -w sd2 auto &prompt.root; disklabel -e sd0c change type to 4.2BSD &prompt.root; disklabel -e sd1c change type to 4.2BSD &prompt.root; disklabel -e sd2c change type to 4.2BSD &prompt.root; ccdconfig ccd0 32 0 /dev/sd0c /dev/sd1c /dev/sd2c &prompt.root; newfs /dev/rccd0c Now you can mount and use your CCD by referencing device /dev/ccd0c. Credits The author would like to thank the following individuals for their contributions to this project: Darryl Okahata (darrylo@hpnmhjw.sr.hp.com) for his simple dedicated mode setup documentation which I have used repeatedly on freebsd-questions. Jordan Hubbard (jkh@FreeBSD.org) for making sysinstall useful for this type of task. John Fieber (jfieber@indiana.edu) for making information and examples of the DocBook DTD on which this document is based. Greg Lehey (grog@FreeBSD.org) for checking my work and pointing out inaccuracies, as well as miscellaneous support.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/mh/article.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/mh/article.sgml index fef11739c2..27ff6c8651 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/mh/article.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/mh/article.sgml @@ -1,782 +1,782 @@ - + - +
- + An MH Primer Matt Midboe
matt@garply.com
v1.0, 16 January 1996 This document contains an introduction to using MH on FreeBSD - + Introduction MH started back in 1977 at the RAND Corporation, where the initial philosophies behind MH were developed. MH isn't so much a monolithic email program but a philosophy about how best to develop tools for reading email. The MH developers have done a great job adhering to the KISS principle: Keep It Simple Stupid. Rather than have one large program for reading, sending and handling email they have written specialized programs for each part of your email life. One might liken MH to the specialization that one finds in insects and nature. Each tool in MH does one thing, and does it very well. Beyond just the various tools that one uses to handle their email MH has done an excellent job keeping the configuration of each of these tools consistent and uniform. In fact, if you are not quite sure how something is supposed to work or what the arguments for some command are supposed to be then you can generally guess and be right. Each MH command is consistent about how it handles reading the configuration files and how it takes arguments on the command line. One useful thing to remember is that you can always add a to the command to have it display the options for that command. The first thing that you need to do is to make sure that you have installed the MH package on your FreeBSD machine. If you installed from CDROM you should be able to execute the following to load mh: &prompt.root; pkg_add /cdrom/packages/mh-6.8.3.tgz You will notice that it created a /usr/local/lib/mh directory for you as well as adding several binaries to the /usr/local/bin directory. If you would prefer to compile it yourself then you can anonymous ftp it from ftp.ics.uci.edu or louie.udel.edu. This primer is not a full comprehensive explanation of how MH works. This is just intended to get you started on the road to happier, faster mail reading. You should read the man pages for the various commands. Also you might want to read the comp.mail.mh newsgroup. Also you can read the FAQ for MH. The best resource for MH is the O'Reilly and Associates book written by Jerry Peek. Reading Mail This section covers how to use inc, show, scan, next, prev, rmm, rmf, and msgchk. One of the best things about MH is the consistent interface between programs. A few things to keep in mind when using these commands is how to specify message lists. In the case of inc this doesn't really make any sense but with commands like show it is useful to know. A message list can consist of something like 23 20 16 which will act on messages 23, 20 and 16. This is fairly simple but you can do more useful things like 23-30 which will act on all the messages between 23 and 30. You can also specify something like cur:10 which will act on the current message and the next 9 messages. The cur, last, and first messages are special messages that refer to the current, last or first message in the folder. <command>inc</command>, <command>msgchk</command>—read in your new email or check it If you just type in inc and hit return you will be well on your way to getting started with MH. The first time you run inc it will setup your account to use all the MH defaults and ask you about creating a Mail directory. If you have mail waiting to be downloaded you will see something that looks like: 29 01/15 Doug White Re: Another Failed to boot problem<<On Mon, 15 J 30 01/16 "Jordan K. Hubbar Re: FBSD 2.1<<> Do you want a library instead of 31 01/16 Bruce Evans Re: location of bad144 table<<>> >It would appea 32 01/16 "Jordan K. Hubbar Re: video is up<<> Anyway, mrouted won't run, ev 33 01/16 Michael Smith Re: FBSD 2.1<<Nate Williams stands accused of sa This is the same thing you will see from a scan (see ). If you just run inc with no arguments it will look on your computer for email that is supposed to be coming to you. A lot of people like to use POP for grabbing their email. MH can do POP to grab your email. You will need to give inc a few command line arguments. &prompt.user; inc -host mail.pop.org -user username -norpop That tells inc to go to mail.pop.org to download your email, and that your username on their system is username. The option tells inc to use plain POP3 for downloading your email. MH has support for a few different dialects of POP. More than likely you will never ever need to use them though. While you can do more complex things with inc such as audit files and scan format files this will get you going. The msgchk command is used to get information on whether or not you have new email. msgchk takes the same and options that inc takes. <command>show</command>, <command>next</command> and <command>prev</command>—displaying and moving through email show is to show a letter in your current folder. Like inc, show is a fairly straightforward command. If you just type show and hit return then it displays the current message. You can also give specific message numbers to show: &prompt.user; show 32 45 56 This would display message numbers 32, 45 and 56 right after each other. Unless you change the default behavior show basically just does a more on the email message. next is used to move onto the next message and prev will go to the previous message. Both commands have an implied show command so that when you go to the next message it automatically displays it. <command>scan</command>—shows you a scan of your messages scan will display a brief listing of the messages in your current folder. This is an example of what the scan command will give you. 30+ 01/16 "Jordan K. Hubbar Re: FBSD 2.1<<> Do you want a library instead of 31 01/16 Bruce Evans Re: location of bad144 table<<>> >It would appea 32 01/16 "Jordan K. Hubbar Re: video is up<<> Anyway, mrouted won't run, ev 33 01/16 Michael Smith Re: FBSD 2.1<<Nate Williams stands accused of sa Like just about everything in MH this display is very configurable. This is the typical default display. It gives you the message number, the date on the email, the sender, the subject line, and a sentence fragment from the very beginning of the email if it can fit it. The + means that message is the current message, so if you do a show it will display that message. One useful option for scan is the option. This will list your messages with the highest message number first and lowest message number last. Another useful option with scan is to have it read from a file. If you want to scan your incoming mailbox on FreeBSD without having to inc it you can do scan -file /var/mail/username. This can be used with any file that is in the mbox format. <command>rmm</command> and <command>rmf</command>—remove the current message or folder rmm is used to remove a mail message. The default is typically to not actually remove the message but to rename the file to one that is ignored by the MH commands. You will need to through periodically and physically delete the removed messages. The rmf command is used to remove folders. This doesn't just rename the files but actually removes the from the hard drive so you should be careful when you use this command. A typical session of reading with MH The first thing that you will want to do is inc your new mail. So at a shell prompt just type in inc and hit return. &prompt.user; inc Incorporating new mail into inbox... 36+ 01/19 "Stephen L. Lange Request...<<Please remove me as contact for pind 37 01/19 Matt Thomas Re: kern/950: Two PCI bridge chips fail (multipl 38 01/19 "Amancio Hasty Jr Re: FreeBSD and VAT<<>>> Bill Fenner said: > In &prompt.user; This shows you the new email that has been added to your mailbox. So the next thing to do is show the email and move around. &prompt.user; show Received: by sashimi.wwa.com (Smail3.1.29.1 #2) id m0tdMZ2-001W2UC; Fri, 19 Jan 96 13:33 CST Date: Fri, 19 Jan 1996 13:33:31 -0600 (CST) From: "Stephen L. Lange" <stvlange@wwa.com> To: matt@garply.com Subject: Request... Message-Id: <Pine.BSD.3.91.960119133211.824A-100000@sashimi.wwa.com> Mime-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: TEXT/PLAIN; charset=US-ASCII Please remove me as contact for pindat.com &prompt.user; rmm &prompt.user; next Received: from localhost (localhost [127.0.0.1]) by whydos.lkg.dec.com (8.6.11/8 .6.9) with SMTP id RAA24416; Fri, 19 Jan 1996 17:56:48 GMT Message-Id: <199601191756.RAA24416@whydos.lkg.dec.com> X-Authentication-Warning: whydos.lkg.dec.com: Host localhost didn't use HELO pro tocol To: hsu@clinet.fi Cc: hackers@FreeBSD.org Subject: Re: kern/950: Two PCI bridge chips fail (multiple multiport ethernet boards) In-Reply-To: Your message of "Fri, 19 Jan 1996 00:18:36 +0100." <199601182318.AA11772@Sysiphos> X-Mailer: exmh version 1.5omega 10/6/94 Date: Fri, 19 Jan 1996 17:56:40 +0000 From: Matt Thomas <matt@lkg.dec.com> Sender: owner-hackers@FreeBSD.org Precedence: bulk This is due to a typo in pcireg.h (to which I am probably the guilty party). The rmm removed the current message and the next command moved me on to the next message. Now if I wanted to look at ten most recent messages so I could read one of them here is what I would do: &prompt.user; scan last:10 26 01/16 maddy Re: Testing some stuff<<yeah, well, Trinity has 27 01/17 Automatic digest NET-HAPPENINGS Digest - 16 Jan 1996 to 17 Jan 19 28 01/17 Evans A Criswell Re: Hey dude<<>From matt@tempest.garply.com Tue 29 01/16 Karl Heuer need configure/make volunteers<<The FSF is looki 30 01/18 Paul Stephanouk Re: [alt.religion.scientology] Raw Meat (humor)< 31 01/18 Bill Lenherr Re: Linux NIS Solaris<<--- On Thu, 18 Jan 1996 1 34 01/19 John Fieber Re: Stuff for the email section?<<On Fri, 19 Jan 35 01/19 support@foo.garpl [garply.com #1138] parlor<<Hello. This is the Ne 37+ 01/19 Matt Thomas Re: kern/950: Two PCI bridge chips fail (multipl 38 01/19 "Amancio Hasty Jr Re: FreeBSD and VAT<<>>> Bill Fenner said: > In &prompt.user; Then if I wanted to read message number 27 I would do a show 27 and it would be displayed. As you can probably tell from this sample session MH is pretty easy to use and looking through emails and displaying them is fairly intuitive and easy. Folders and Mail Searching Anybody who gets lots of email definitely wants to be able to prioritize, stamp, brief, de-brief, and number their emails in a variety of different ways. MH can do this better than just about anything. One thing that we haven't really talked about is the concept of folders. You have undoubtedly come across the folders concept using other email programs. MH has folders too. MH can even do sub-folders of a folder. One thing you should keep in mind with MH is that when you ran inc for the first time and it asked you if it could create a Mail directory it began storing everything in that directory. If you look at that directory you will find a directory named inbox. The inbox directory houses all of your incoming mail that hasn't been thrown anywhere else. Whenever you create a new folder a new directory is going to be created underneath your MH Mail directory, and messages in that folder are going to be stored in that directory. When new email comes in that new email is thrown into your inbox directory with a file name that is equivalent to the message number. So even if you didn't have any of the MH tools to read your email you could still use standard UNIX commands to munge around in those directories and just more your files. It's this simplicity that really gives you a lot of power with what you can do with your email. Just as you can use message lists like 23 16 42 with most MH commands there is a folder option you can specify with just about every MH command. If you do a scan +freebsd it will scan your freebsd folder, and your current folder will be changed to freebsd. If you do a show +freebsd 23 16 42, show is going to switch to your freebsd folder and display messages 23, 16 and 42. So remember that syntax. You will need to make sure you use it to make commands process different folders. Remember you default folder for mail is inbox so doing a folder +inbox should always get you back to your mail. Of course, in MH's infinite flexibility this can be changed but most places have probably left it as inbox. <command>pick</command>—search email that matches certain criteria pick is one of the more complex commands in the MH system. So you might want to read the pick1 man page for a more thorough understanding. At its simplest level you can do something like &prompt.user; pick -search pci 15 42 55 56 57 This will tell pick to look through every single line in every message in your current folder and tell you which message numbers it found the word pci in. You can then show those messages and read them if you wish or rmm them. You would have to specify something like show 15 42 55-57 to display them though. A slightly more useful thing to do is this: &prompt.user; pick -search pci -seq pick 5 hits &prompt.user; show pick This will show you the same messages you just didn't have to work as hard to do it. The option is really an abbreviation of and pick is just a sequence which contains the message numbers that matched. You can use sequences with just about any MH command. So you could have done an rmm pick and all those messages would be removed instead. You sequence can be named anything. If you run pick again it will overwrite the old sequence if you use the same name. Doing a pick -search can be a bit more time consuming than just searching for message from someone, or to someone. So pick allows you to use the following predefined search criteria: search based upon who the message is to search based on who is in the cc list search for who sent the message search for emails with this subject find emails with a matching dat search for any other component in the header. (i.e. to find all emails with a certain reply-to in the header) This allows you to do things like &prompt.user; pick -to freebsd-hackers@FreeBSD.org -seq hackers to get a list of all the email send to the FreeBSD hackers mailing list. pick also allows you to group these criteria in different ways using the following options: … … … &hellip … … These commands allow you to do things like &prompt.user; pick -to freebsd-hackers -and -cc freebsd-hackers That will grab all the email in your inbox that was sent to freebsd-hackers or cc'd to that list. The brace options allow you to group search criteria together. This is sometimes very necessary as in the following example &prompt.user; pick -lbrace -to freebsd-hackers -and -not -cc freebsd-questions -rbrace -and -subject pci Basically this says pick (to freebsd-hackers and not cc'd on freebsd-questions) and the subject is pci. It should look through your folder and find all messages sent to the freebsd-hackers list that aren't cc'd to the freebsd-questions list that contain something on pci in the subject line. Ordinarily you might have to worry about something called operator precedence. Remember in math how you evaluate from left to right and you do multiplication and division first and addition and subtraction second? MH has the same type of rules for pick. It's fairly complex so you might want to study the man page. This document is just to help you get acquainted with MH. <command>folder</command>, <command>folders</command>, <command>refile</command>—three useful programs for folder maintenance There are three programs which are primarily just for manipulating your folders. The folder program is used to switch between folders, pack them, and list them. At its simplest level you can do a folder +newfolder and you will be switched into newfolder. From there on out all your MH commands like comp, repl, scan, and show will act on that newfolder folder. Sometimes when you are reading and deleting messages you will develop holes in your folders. If you do a scan you might just see messages 34, 35, 36, 43, 55, 56, 57, 80. If you do a folder -pack this will renumber all your messages so that there are no holes. It doesn't actually delete any messages though. So you may need to periodically go through and physically delete rmm'd messages. If you need statistics on your folders you can do a folders or folder -all to list all your folders, how many messages they have, what the current message is in each one and so on. This line of stats it displays for all your folders is the same one you get when you change to a folder with folder +foldername. A folders command looks like this: Folder # of messages ( range ); cur msg (other files) announce has 1 message ( 1- 1). drafts has no messages. f-hackers has 43 messages ( 1- 43). f-questions has 16 messages ( 1- 16). inbox+ has 35 messages ( 1- 38); cur= 37. lists has 8 messages ( 1- 8). netfuture has 1 message ( 1- 1). out has 31 messages ( 1- 31). personal has 6 messages ( 1- 6). todo has 58 messages ( 1- 58); cur= 1. TOTAL= 199 messages in 13 folders. The refile command is what you use to move messages between folders. When you do something like refile 23 +netfuture message number 23 is moved into the netfuture folder. You could also do something like refile 23 +netfuture/latest which would put message number 23 in a subfolder called latest under the netfuture folder. If you want to keep a message in the current folder and link it you can do a refile -link 23 +netfuture which would keep 23 in your current inbox but also list in your netfuture folder. You are probably beginning to realize some of the really powerful things you can do with MH. Sending Mail Email is a two way street for most people so you want to be able to send something back. The way MH handles sending mail can be a bit difficult to follow at first, but it allows for incredible flexibility. The first thing MH does is to copy a components file into your outgoing email. A components file is basically a skeleton email letter with stuff like the To: and Subject: headers already in it. You are then sent into your editor where you fill in the header information and then type the body of your message below the dashed lines in the message. Then to the whatnow program. When you are at the What now? prompt you can tell it to send, list, edit, edit, push, and quit. Most of these commands are self-explanatory. So the message sending process involves copying a component file, editing your email, and then telling the whatnow program what to do with your email. <command>comp</command>, <command>forw</command>, <command>reply</command>—compose, forward or reply to a message to someone The comp program has a few useful command line options. The most important one to know right now is the option. When MH is installed the default editor is usually a program called prompter which comes with MH. It's not a very exciting editor and basically just gets the job done. So when you go to compose a message to someone you might want to use comp -editor /usr/bin/vi/ or comp -editor /usr/local/bin/pico/ instead. Once you have run comp you are in your editor and you see something that looks like this: To: cc: Subject: -------- You need to put the person you are sending the mail to after the To: line. It works the same way for the other headers also, so you would need to put your subject after the Subject: line. Then you would just put the body of your message after the dashed lines. It may seem a bit simplistic since a lot of email programs have special requesters that ask you for this information but there really isn't any point to that. Plus this really gives you excellent flexibility. To:freebsd-rave@FreeBSD.org cc: Subject:And on the 8th day God created the FreeBSD core team -------- Wow this is an amazing operating system. Thanks! You can now save this message and exit your editor. You will see the What now? prompt and you can type in send or s and hit return. Then the FreeBSD core team will receive their just rewards. As I mentioned earlier you can also use other commands, for example quit if you don't want to send the message. The forw command is stunningly similar. The big difference being that the message you are forwarding is automatically included in the outgoing message. When you run forw it will forward your current message. You can always tell it to forward something else by doing something like forw 23 and then message number 23 will be put in your outgoing message instead of the current message. Beyond those small differences forw functions exactly the same as comp. You go through the exact same message sending process. The repl command will reply to whatever your current message is, unless you give it a different message to reply to. repl will do its best to go ahead and fill in some of the email headers already. So you will notice that the To: header already has the address of the recipient in there. Also the Subject: line will already be filled in. You then go about the normal message composition process and you are done. One useful command line option to know here is the option. You can use all, to, cc, me after the option to have repl automatically add the various addresses to the cc list in the message. You have probably noticed that the original message isn't included. This is because most MH setups are configured to do this from the start. <filename>components</filename>, and <filename>replcomps</filename>—components files for <command>comp</command> and <command>repl</command> The components file is usually in /usr/local/lib/mh. You can copy that file into your MH Mail directory and edit to contain what you want it to contain. It is a fairly basic file. You have various email headers at the top, a dashed line and then nothing. The comp command just copies this components file and then edits it. You can add any kind of valid RFC822 header you want. For instance you could have something like this in your components file: To: Fcc: out Subject: X-Mailer: MH 6.8.3 X-Home-Page: http://www.FreeBSD.org/ ------- MH would then copy this components file and throw you into your editor. The components file is fairly simple. If you wanted to have a signature on those messages you would just put your signature in that components file. The replcomps file is a bit more complex. The default replcomps looks like this: %(lit)%(formataddr %<{reply-to}%?{from}%?{sender}%?{return-path}%>)\ %<(nonnull)%(void(width))%(putaddr To: )\n%>\ %(lit)%(formataddr{to})%(formataddr{cc})%(formataddr(me))\ %<(nonnull)%(void(width))%(putaddr cc: )\n%>\ %<{fcc}Fcc: %{fcc}\n%>\ %<{subject}Subject: Re: %{subject}\n%>\ %<{date}In-reply-to: Your message of "\ %<(nodate{date})%{date}%|%(pretty{date})%>."%<{message-id} %{message-id}%>\n%>\ -------- It's in the same basic format as the components file but it contains quite a few extra formatting codes. The %(lit) command makes room for the address. The %(formataddr is a function that returns a proper email address. The next part is %< which means if and the {reply-to} means the reply-to field in the original message. So that might be translated this way: %<if {reply-to} the original message has a reply-to then give that to formataddr, %? else {from} take the from address, %? else {sender} take the sender address, %? else {return-path} take the return-path from the original message, %> endif. As you can tell MH formatting can get rather involved. You can probably decipher what most of the other functions and variables mean. All of the information on writing these format strings is in the MH-Format man page. The really nice thing is that once you have built your customized replcomps file you won't need to touch it again. No other email program really gives you the power and flexibility that MH gives you.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/multi-os/article.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/multi-os/article.sgml index f7ee999f88..63394e6f5f 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/multi-os/article.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/multi-os/article.sgml @@ -1,743 +1,743 @@ - - + +
- + Installing and Using FreeBSD With Other Operating Systems Jay Richmond
jayrich@sysc.com
6 August 1996 This document discusses how to make FreeBSD coexist nicely with other popular operating systems such as Linux, MS-DOS, OS/2, and Windows 95. Special thanks to: Annelise Anderson andrsn@stanford.edu, Randall Hopper rhh@ct.picker.com, and Jordan K. Hubbard jkh@time.cdrom.com - + Overview Most people can't fit these operating systems together comfortably without having a larger hard disk, so special information on large EIDE drives is included. Because there are so many combinations of possible operating systems and hard disk configurations, the section may be of the most use to you. It contains descriptions of specific working computer setups that use multiple operating systems. This document assumes that you have already made room on your hard disk for an additional operating system. Any time you repartition your hard drive, you run the risk of destroying the data on the original partitions. However, if your hard drive is completely occupied by DOS, you might find the FIPS utility (included on the FreeBSD CD-ROM in the \TOOLS directory or via ftp) useful. It lets you repartition your hard disk without destroying the data already on it. There is also a commercial program available called Partition Magic, which lets you size and delete partitions without consequence. Overview of Boot Managers These are just brief descriptions of some of the different boot managers you may encounter. Depending on your computer setup, you may find it useful to use more than one of them on the same system. Boot Easy This is the default boot manager used with FreeBSD. It has the ability to boot most anything, including BSD, OS/2 (HPFS), Windows 95 (FAT and FAT32), and Linux. Partitions are selected with the function keys. OS/2 Boot Manager This will boot FAT, HPFS, FFS (FreeBSD), and EXT2 (Linux). It will also boot FAT32 partitions. Partitions are selected using arrow keys. The OS/2 Boot Manager is the only one to use its own separate partition, unlike the others which use the master boot record (MBR). Therefore, it must be installed below the 1024th cylinder to avoid booting problems. It can boot Linux using LILO when it is part of the boot sector, not the MBR. Go to Linux HOWTOs on the World Wide Web for more information on booting Linux with OS/2's boot manager. OS-BS This is an alternative to Boot Easy. It gives you more control over the booting process, with the ability to set the default partition to boot and the booting timeout. The beta version of this programs allows you to boot by selecting the OS with your arrow keys. It is included on the FreeBSD CD in the \TOOLS directory, and via ftp. LILO, or LInux LOader This is a limited boot manager. It will boot FreeBSD, though some customization work is required in the LILO configuration file. About FAT32 FAT32 is the replacement to the FAT filesystem included in Microsoft's OEM SR2 Beta release, which is expected to be utilitized on computers pre-loaded with Windows 95 towards the end of 1996. It converts the normal FAT file system and allows you to use smaller cluster sizes for larger hard drives. FAT32 also modifies the traditional FAT boot sector and allocation table, making it incompatible with some boot managers. A Typical Installation Let's say I have two large EIDE hard drives, and I want to install FreeBSD, Linux, and Windows 95 on them. Here's how I might do it using these hard disks: /dev/wd0 (first physical hard disk) /dev/wd1 (second hard disk) Both disks have 1416 cylinders. I boot from a MS-DOS or Windows 95 boot disk that contains the FDISK.EXE utility and make a small 50 meg primary partition (35-40 for Windows 95, plus a little breathing room) on the first disk. Also create a larger partition on the second hard disk for my Windows applications and data. I reboot and install Windows 95 (easier said than done) on the C: partition. The next thing I do is install Linux. I'm not sure about all the distributions of Linux, but slackware includes LILO (see ). When I am partitioning out my hard disk with Linux fdisk, I would put all of Linux on the first drive (maybe 300 megs for a nice root partition and some swap space). After I install Linux, and are prompted about installing LILO, make SURE that I install it on the boot sector of my root Linux partition, not in the MBR (master boot record). The remaining hard disk space can go to FreeBSD. I also make sure that my FreeBSD root slice does not go beyond the 1024th cylinder. (The 1024th cylinder is 528 megs into the disk with our hypothetical 720MB disks). I will use the rest of the hard drive (about 270 megs) for the /usr and / slices if I wish. The rest of the second hard disk (size depends on the amount of my Windows application/data partition that I created in step 1 can go to the /usr/src slice and swap space. When viewed with the Windows 95 fdisk utility, my hard drives should now look something like this: --------------------------------------------------------------------- Display Partition Information Current fixed disk drive: 1 Partition Status Type Volume_Label Mbytes System Usage C: 1 A PRI DOS 50 FAT** 7% 2 A Non-DOS (Linux) 300 43% Total disk space is 696 Mbytes (1 Mbyte = 1048576 bytes) Press Esc to continue --------------------------------------------------------------------- Display Partition Information Current fixed disk drive: 2 Partition Status Type Volume_Label Mbytes System Usage D: 1 A PRI DOS 420 FAT** 60% Total disk space is 696 Mbytes (1 Mbyte = 1048576 bytes) Press Esc to continue --------------------------------------------------------------------- ** May say FAT16 or FAT32 if you are using the OEM SR2 update. See ). Install FreeBSD. I make sure to boot with my first hard disk set at NORMAL in the BIOS. If it is not, I'll have the enter my true disk geometry at boot time (to get this, boot Windows 95 and consult Microsoft Diagnostics (MSD.EXE), or check your BIOS) with the parameter hd0=1416,16,63 where 1416 is the number of cylinders on my hard disk, 16 is the number of heads per track, and 63 is the number of sectors per track on the drive. When partitioning out the hard disk, I make sure to install Boot Easy on the first disk. I don't worry about the second disk, nothing is booting off of it. When I reboot, Boot Easy should recognize my three bootable partitions as DOS (Windows 95), Linux, and BSD (FreeBSD). Special Considerations Most operating systems are very picky about where and how they are placed on the hard disk. Windows 95 and DOS need to be on the first primary partitiin on the first hard disk. OS/2 is the exception. It can be installed on the first or second disk in a primary or extended partition. If you are not sure, keep the beginning of the bootable partitions below the 1024th cylinder. If you install Windows 95 on an existing BSD system, it will destroy the MBR, and you will have to reinstall your previous boot manager. Boot Easy can be reinstalled by using the BOOTINST.EXE utility included in the \TOOLS directory on the CD-ROM, and via ftp. You can also re-start the installation process and go to the partition editor. From there, mark the FreeBSD partition as bootable, select Boot Manager, and then type W to (W)rite out the information to the MBR. You can now reboot, and Boot Easy should then recognize Windows 95 as DOS. Please keep in mind that OS/2 can read FAT and HPFS partitions, but not FFS (FreeBSD) or EXT2 (Linux) partitions. Likewise, Windows 95 can only read and write to FAT and FAT32 (see ) partitions. FreeBSD can read most file systems, but currently cannot read HPFS partitions. Linux can read HPFS partitions, but can't write to them. Recent versions of the Linux kernel (2.x) can read and write to Windows 95 VFAT partitions (VFAT is what gives Windows 95 long file names - it's pretty much the same as FAT). Linux can read and write to most file systems. Got that? I hope so. Examples (section needs work, please send your example to jayrich@sysc.com). FreeBSD+Win95: If you installed FreeBSD after Windows 95, you should see DOS on the Boot Easy menu. This is Windows 95. If you installed Windows 95 after FreeBSD, read above. As long as your hard disk does not have 1024 cylinders you should not have a problem booting. If one of your partitions goes beyond the 1024th cylinder however, and you get messages like invalid system disk under DOS (Windows 95) and FreeBSD will not boot, try looking for a setting in your BIOS called > 1024 cylinder support or NORMAL/LBA mode. DOS may need LBA (Logical Block Addressing) in order to boot correctly. If the idea of switching BIOS settings every time you boot up doesn't appeal to you, you can boot FreeBSD through DOS via the FBSDBOOT.EXE utility on the CD (It should find your FreeBSD partition and boot it.) FreeBSD+OS/2+Win95: Nothing new here. OS/2's boot manger can boot all of these operating systems, so that shouldn't be a problem. FreeBSD+Linux: You can also use Boot Easy to boot both operating systems. FreeBSD+Linux+Win95: (see ) Other Sources of Help There are many Linux HOW-TOs that deal with multiple operating systems on the same hard disk. The Linux+DOS+Win95+OS2 mini-HOWTO offers help on configuring the OS/2 boot manager, and the Linux+FreeBSD mini-HOWTO might be interesting as well. The Linux-HOWTO is also helpful. The NT Loader Hacking Guide provides good information on multibooting Windows NT, '95, and DOS with other operating systems. And Hale Landis's "How It Works" document pack contains some good info on all sorts of disk geometry and booting related topics. You can find it at ftp://fission.dt.wdc.com/pub/otherdocs/pc_systems/how_it_works/allhiw.zip. Finally, don't overlook FreeBSD's kernel documentation on the booting procedure, available in the kernel source distribution (it unpacks to file:/usr/src/sys/i386/boot/biosboot/README.386BSD. Technical Details (Contributed by Randall Hopper, rhh@ct.picker.com) This section attempts to give you enough basic information about your hard disks and the disk booting process so that you can troubleshoot most problems you might encounter when getting set up to boot several operating systems. It starts in pretty basic terms, so you may want to skim down in this section until it begins to look unfamiliar and then start reading. Disk Primer Three fundamental terms are used to describe the location of data on your hard disk: Cylinders, Heads, and Sectors. It's not particularly important to know what these terms relate to except to know that, together, they identify where data is physically on your disk. Your disk has a particular number of cylinders, number of heads, and number of sectors per cylinder-head (a cylinder-head also known nown as a track). Collectively this information defines the "physical disk geometry" for your hard disk. There are typically 512 bytes per sector, and 63 sectors per track, with the number of cylinders and heads varying widely from disk to disk. Thus you can figure the number of bytes of data that'll fit on your own disk by calculating: (# of cylinders) × (# heads) × (63 sectors/track) × (512 bytes/sect) For example, on my 1.6 Gig Western Digital AC31600 EIDE hard disk,that's: (3148 cyl) × (16 heads) × (63 sectors/track) × (512 bytes/sect) which is 1,624,670,208 bytes, or around 1.6 Gig. You can find out the physical disk geometry (number of cylinders, heads, and sectors/track counts) for your hard disks using ATAID or other programs off the net. Your hard disk probably came with this information as well. Be careful though: if you're using BIOS LBA (see ), you can't use just any program to get the physical geometry. This is because many programs (e.g. MSD.EXE or FreeBSD fdisk) don't identify the physical disk geometry; they instead report the translated geometry (virtual numbers from using LBA). Stay tuned for what that means. One other useful thing about these terms. Given 3 numbers—a cylinder number, a head number, and a sector-within-track number—you identify a specific absolute sector (a 512 byte block of data) on your disk. Cylinders and Heads are numbered up from 0, and Sectors are numbered up from 1. For those that are interested in more technical details, information on disk geometry, boot sectors, BIOSes, etc. can be found all over the net. Query Lycos, Yahoo, etc. for boot sector or master boot record. Among the useful info you'll find are Hale Landis's How It Works document pack. See the section for a few pointers to this pack. Ok, enough terminology. We're talking about booting here. The Booting Process On the first sector of your disk (Cyl 0, Head 0, Sector 1) lives the Master Boot Record (MBR). It contains a map of your disk. It identifies up to 4 partitions, each of which is a contiguous chunk of that disk. FreeBSD calls partitions slices to avoid confusion with it's own partitions, but we won't do that here. Each partition can contain its own operating system. Each partition entry in the MBR has a Partition ID, a Start Cylinder/Head/Sector, and an End Cylinder/Head/Sector. The Partition ID tells what type of partition it is (what OS) and the Start/End tells where it is. lists a smattering of some common Partition IDs. Partition IDs ID (hex) Description 01 Primary DOS12 (12-bit FAT) 04 Primary DOS16 (16-bit FAT) 05 Extended DOS 06 Primary big DOS (> 32MB) 0A OS/2 83 Linux (EXT2FS) A5 FreeBSD, NetBSD, 386BSD (UFS)
Note that not all partitions are bootable (e.g. Extended DOS). Some are—some aren't. What makes a partition bootable is the configuration of the Partition Boot Sector that exists at the beginning of each partition. When you configure your favorite boot manager, it looks up the entries in the MBR partition tables of all your hard disks and lets you name the entries in that list. Then when you boot, the boot manager is invoked by special code in the Master Boot Sector of the first probed hard disk on your system. It looks at the MBR partition table entry corresponding to the partition choice you made, uses the Start Cylinder/Head/Sector information for that partition, loads up the Partition Boot Sector for that partition, and gives it control. That Boot Sector for the partition itself contains enough information to start loading the operating system on that partition. One thing we just brushed past that's important to know. All of your hard disks have MBRs. However, the one that's important is the one on the disk that's first probed by the BIOS. If you have only IDE hard disks, its the first IDE disk (e.g. primary disk on first controller). Similarly for SCSI only systems. If you have both IDE and SCSI hard disks though, the IDE disk is typically probed first by the BIOS, so the first IDE disk is the first probed disk. The boot manager you will install will be hooked into the MBR on this first probed hard disk that we've just described. Booting Limitations and Warnings Now the interesting stuff that you need to watch out for. The dreaded 1024 cylinder limit and how BIOS LBA helps The first part of the booting process is all done through the BIOS, (if that's a new term to you, the BIOS is a software chip on your system motherboard which provides startup code for your computer). As such, this first part of the process is subject to the limitations of the BIOS interface. The BIOS interface used to read the hard disk during this period (INT 13H, Subfunction 2) allocates 10 bits to the Cylinder Number, 8 bits to the Head Number, and 6 bits to the Sector Number. This restricts users of this interface (i.e. boot managers hooked into your disk's MBR as well as OS loaders hooked into the Boot Sectors) to the following limits: 1024 cylinders, max 256 heads, max 64 sectors/track, max (actually 63, 0 isn't available) Now big hard disks have lots of cylinders but not a lot of heads, so invariably with big hard disks the number of cylinders is greater than 1024. Given this and the BIOS interface as is, you can't boot off just anywhere on your hard disk. The boot code (the boot manager and the OS loader hooked into all bootable partitions' Boot Sectors) has to reside below cylinder 1024. In fact, if your hard disk is typical and has 16 heads, this equates to: 1024 cyl/disk × 16 heads/disk × 63 sect/(cyl-head) × 512 bytes/sector which is around the often-mentioned 528MB limit. This is where BIOS LBA (Logical Block Addressing) comes in. BIOS LBA gives the user of the BIOS API calls access to physical cylinders above 1024 though the BIOS interfaces by redefining a cylinder. That is, it remaps your cylinders and heads, making it appear through the BIOS as though the disk has fewer cylinders and more heads than it actually does. In other words, it takes advantage of the fact that hard disks have relatively few heads and lots of cylinders by shifting the balance between number of cylinders and number of heads so that both numbers lie below the above-mentioned limits (1024 cylinders, 256 heads). With BIOS LBA, the hard disk size limitation is virtually removed (well, pushed up to 8 Gigabytes anyway). If you have an LBA BIOS, you can put FreeBSD or any OS anywhere you want and not hit the 1024 cylinder limit. To use my 1.6 Gig Western Digital as an example again, it's physical geometry is: (3148 cyl, 16 heads, 63 sectors/track, 512 bytes/sector) However, my BIOS LBA remaps this to: (787 cyl, 64 heads, 63 sectors/track, 512 bytes/sector) giving the same effective size disk, but with cylinder and head counts within the BIOS API's range (Incidentally, I have both Linux and FreeBSD existing on one of my hard disks above the 1024th physical cylinder, and both operating systems boot fine, thanks to BIOS LBA). Boot Managers and Disk Allocation Another gotcha to watch out when installing boot managers is allocating space for your boot manager. It's best to be aware of this issue up front to save yourself from having to reinstall one or more of your OSs. If you followed the discussion in about the Master Boot Sector (where the MBR is), Partition Boot Sectors, and the booting process, you may have been wondering just exactly where on your hard disk that nifty boot manager is going to live. Well, some boot managers are small enough to fit entirely within the Master Boot Sector (Cylinder 0, Head 0, Sector 0) along with the partition table. Others need a bit more room and actually extend a few sectors past the Master Boot Sector in the Cylinder 0 Head 0 track, since that's typically free…typically. That's the catch. Some operating systems (FreeBSD included) let you start their partitions right after the Master Boot Sector at Cylinder 0, Head 0, Sector 2 if you want. In fact, if you give FreeBSD's sysinstall a disk with an empty chunk up front or the whole disk empty, that's where it'll start the FreeBSD partition by default (at least it did when I fell into this trap). Then when you go to install your boot manager, if it's one that occupies a few extra sectors after the MBR, it'll overwrite the front of the first partition's data. In the case of FreeBSD, this overwrites the disk label, and renders your FreeBSD partition unbootable. The easy way to avoid this problem (and leave yourself the flexibility to try different boot managers later) is just to always leave the first full track on your disk unallocated when you partition your disk. That is, leave the space from Cylinder 0, Head 0, Sector 2 through Cylinder 0, Head 0, Sector 63 unallocated, and start your first partition at Cylinder 0, Head 1, Sector 1. For what it's worth, when you create a DOS partition at the front of your disk, DOS leaves this space open by default (this is why some boot managers assume it's free). So creating a DOS partition up at the front of your disk avoids this problem altogether. I like to do this myself, creating 1 Meg DOS partition up front, because it also avoids my primary DOS drive letters shifting later when I repartition. For reference, the following boot managers use the Master Boot Sector to store their code and data: OS-BS 1.35 Boot Easy LILO These boot managers use a few additional sectors after the Master Boot Sector: OS-BS 2.0 Beta 8 (sectors 2-5) OS/2's boot manager What if your machine won't boot? At some point when installing boot managers, you might leave the MBR in a state such that your machine won't boot. This is unlikely, but possible when re-FDISKing underneath an already-installed boot manager. If you have a bootable DOS partition on your disk, you can boot off a DOS floppy, and run: A:\> FDISK /MBR to put the original, simple DOS boot code back into the system. You can then boot DOS (and DOS only) off the hard drive. Alternatively, just re-run your boot manager installation program off a bootable floppy.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/new-users/article.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/new-users/article.sgml index 78b47e6677..92a862ed06 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/new-users/article.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/new-users/article.sgml @@ -1,1052 +1,1052 @@ - + - +
- + For People New to Both FreeBSD and Unix Annelise Anderson
andrsn@andrsn.stanford.edu
 August 15, 1997 Congratulations on installing FreeBSD! This introduction is for people new to both FreeBSD and Un*x—so it starts with basics. It assumes you're using version 2.0.5 or later of FreeBSD as distributed by BSDi or FreeBSD.org, your system (for now) has a single user (you)—and you're probably pretty good with DOS/Windows or OS/2. - + Logging in and Getting Out - Log in (when you see login:) as a user you created during + Log in (when you see login:) as a user you created during installation or as root. (Your FreeBSD installation will already have an account for root; root can go anywhere and do anything, including deleting essential files, so be careful!) The symbols &prompt.user; and &prompt.root; in the following stand for the prompt (yours may be different), with &prompt.user; indicating an ordinary user and &prompt.root; indicating root. - To log out (and get a new login: prompt) type + To log out (and get a new login: prompt) type &prompt.root; exit as often as necessary. Yes, press enter after commands, and remember that Unix is case-sensitive—exit, not EXIT. To shut down the machine type &prompt.root; /sbin/shutdown -h now Or to reboot type &prompt.root; /sbin/shutdown -r now or &prompt.root; /sbin/reboot You can also reboot with CtrlAltDelete. Give it a little time to do its work. This is equivalent to /sbin/reboot in recent releases of FreeBSD and is much, much better than hitting the reset button. You don't want to have to reinstall this thing, do you? Adding A User with Root Privileges If you didn't create any users when you installed the system and are thus logged in as root, you should probably create a user now with &prompt.root; adduser The first time you use adduser, it might ask for some defaults to save. You might want to make the default shell csh instead of sh, if it suggests sh as the default. Otherwise just press enter to accept each default. These defaults are saved in /etc/adduser.conf, an editable file. Suppose you create a user jack with full name Jack Benimble. Give jack a password if security (even kids around who might pound on the keyboard) is an issue. When it asks you if you want to invite jack into other groups, type wheel Login group is ``jack''. Invite jack into other groups: wheel This will make it possible to log in as jack and use the su command to become root. Then you won't get scolded any more for logging in as root. You can quit adduser any time by typing CtrlC, and at the end you'll have a chance to approve your new user or simply type n for no. You might want to create a second new user (jill?) so that when you edit jack's login files, you'll have a hot spare in case something goes wrong. Once you've done this, use exit to get back to a login prompt and log in as jack. In general, it's a good idea to do as much work as possible as an ordinary user who doesn't have the power—and risk—of root. If you already created a user and you want the user to be able to su to root, you can log in as root and edit the file /etc/group, adding jack to the first line (the group wheel). But first you need to practice vi, the text editor--or use the simpler text editor, ee, installed on recent version of FreeBSD. To delete a user, use the rmuser command. Looking Around Logged in as an ordinary user, look around and try out some commands that will access the sources of help and information within FreeBSD. Here are some commands and what they do: id Tells you who you are! pwd Shows you where you are—the current working directory. ls Lists the files in the current directory. ls Lists the files in the current directory with a * after executables, a / after directories, and an @ after symbolic links. ls Lists the files in long format—size, date, permissions. ls Lists hidden dot files with the others. If you're root, the dot files show up without the switch. cd Changes directories. cd .. backs up one level; note the space after cd. cd /usr/local goes there. cd ~ goes to the home directory of the person logged in—e.g., /usr/home/jack. Try cd /cdrom, and then ls, to find out if your CDROM is mounted and working. view filename Lets you look at a file (named filename) without changing it. Try view /etc/fstab. :q to quit. cat filename Displays filename on screen. If it's too long and you can see only the end of it, press ScrollLock and use the up-arrow to move backward; you can use ScrollLock with man pages too. Press ScrollLock again to quit scrolling. You might want to try cat on some of the dot files in your home directory—cat .cshrc, cat .login, cat .profile. You'll notice aliases in .cshrc for some of the ls commands (they're very convenient). You can create other aliases by editing .cshrc. You can make these aliases available to all users on the system by putting them in the system-wide csh configuration file, /etc/csh.cshrc. Getting Help and Information Here are some useful sources of help. Text stands for something of your choice that you type in—usually a command or filename. apropos text Everything containing string text in the whatis database. man text The man page for text. The major source of documentation for Un*x systems. man ls will tell you all the ways to use the ls command. Press Enter to move through text, Ctrlb to go back a page, Ctrlf to go forward, q or Ctrlc to quit. which text Tells you where in the user's path the command text is found. locate text All the paths where the string text is found. whatis text Tells you what the command text does and its man page. Typing whatis * will tell you about all the binaries in the current directory. whereis text Finds the file text, giving its full path. You might want to try using whatis on some common useful commands like cat, more, grep, mv, find, tar, chmod, chown, date, and script. more lets you read a page at a time as it does in DOS, e.g., ls -l | more or more filename. The * works as a wildcard—e.g., ls w* will show you files beginning with w. Are some of these not working very well? Both locate and whatis depend on a database that's rebuilt weekly. If your machine isn't going to be left on over the weekend (and running FreeBSD), you might want to run the commands for daily, weekly, and monthly maintenance now and then. Run them as root and give each one time to finish before you start the next one, for now. &prompt.root; periodic daily output omitted &prompt.root; periodic weekly output omitted &prompt.root; periodic monthly output omitted If you get tired of waiting, press AltF2 to get another virtual console, and log in again. After all, it's a multi-user, multi-tasking system. Nevertheless these commands will probably flash messages on your screen while they're running; you can type clear at the prompt to clear the screen. Once they've run, you might want to look at /var/mail/root and /var/log/messages. Running such commands is part of system administration—and as a single user of a Unix system, you're your own system administrator. Virtually everything you need to be root to do is system administration. Such responsibilities aren't covered very well even in those big fat books on Unix, which seem to devote a lot of space to pulling down menus in windows managers. You might want to get one of the two leading books on systems administration, either Evi Nemeth et.al.'s UNIX System Administration Handbook (Prentice-Hall, 1995, ISBN 0-13-15051-7)—the second edition with the red cover; or Æleen Frisch's Essential System Administration (O'Reilly & Associates, 1993, ISBN 0-937175-80-3). I used Nemeth. Editing Text To configure your system, you need to edit text files. Most of them will be in the /etc directory; and you'll need to su to root to be able to change them. You can use the easy ee, but in the long run the text editor vi is worth learning. There's an excellent tutorial on vi in /usr/src/contrib/nvi/docs/tutorial if you have that installed; otherwise you can get it by ftp to ftp.cdrom.com in the directory FreeBSD/FreeBSD-current/src/contrib/nvi/docs/tutorial. Before you edit a file, you should probably back it up. Suppose you want to edit /etc/rc.conf. You could just use cd /etc to get to the /etc directory and do: &prompt.root; cp rc.conf rc.conf.orig This would copy rc.conf to rc.conf.orig, and you could later copy rc.conf.orig to rc.conf to recover the original. But even better would be moving (renaming) and then copying back: &prompt.root; mv rc.conf rc.conf.orig &prompt.root; cp rc.conf.orig rc.conf because the mv command preserves the original date and owner of the file. You can now edit rc.conf. If you want the original back, you'd then mv rc.conf rc.conf.myedit (assuming you want to preserve your edited version) and then &prompt.root; mv rc.conf.orig rc.conf to put things back the way they were. To edit a file, type &prompt.root; vi filename Move through the text with the arrow keys. Esc (the escape key) puts vi in command mode. Here are some commands: x delete letter the cursor is on dd delete the entire line (even if it wraps on the screen) i insert text at the cursor a insert text after the cursor Once you type i or a, you can enter text. Esc puts you back in command mode where you can type :w to write your changes to disk and continue editing :wq to write and quit :q! to quit without saving changes /text to move the cursor to text; /Enter (the enter key) to find the next instance of text. G to go to the end of the file nG to go to line n in the file, where n is a number CtrlL to redraw the screen Ctrlb and Ctrlf go back and forward a screen, as they do with more and view. Practice with vi in your home directory by creating a new file with vi filename and adding and deleting text, saving the file, and calling it up again. vi delivers some surprises because it's really quite complex, and sometimes you'll inadvertently issue a command that will do something you don't expect. (Some people actually like vi—it's more powerful than DOS EDIT—find out about the :r command.) Use Esc one or more times to be sure you're in command mode and proceed from there when it gives you trouble, save often with :w, and use :q! to get out and start over (from your last :w) when you need to. Now you can cd to /etc, su to root, use vi to edit the file /etc/group, and add a user to wheel so the user has root privileges. Just add a comma and the user's login name to the end of the first line in the file, press Esc, and use :wq to write the file to disk and quit. Instantly effective. (You didn't put a space after the comma, did you?) Printing Files from DOS At this point you probably don't have the printer working, so here's a way to create a file from a man page, move it to a floppy, and then print it from DOS. Suppose you want to read carefully about changing permissions on files (pretty important). You can use the command man chmod to read about it. The command &prompt.user; man chmod | col -b > chmod.txt will remove formatting codes and send the man page to the chmod.txt file instead of showing it on your screen. Now put a dos-formatted diskette in your floppy drive a, su to root, and type &prompt.root; /sbin/mount -t msdos /dev/fd0 /mnt to mount the floppy drive on /mnt. Now (you no longer need to be root, and you can type exit to get back to being user jack) you can go to the directory where you created chmod.txt and copy the file to the floppy with: &prompt.user; cp chmod.txt /mnt and use ls /mnt to get a directory listing of /mnt, which should show the file chmod.txt. You might especially want to make a file from /sbin/dmesg by typing &prompt.user; /sbin/dmesg > dmesg.txt and copying dmesg.txt to the floppy. /sbin/dmesg is the boot log record, and it's useful to understand it because it shows what FreeBSD found when it booted up. If you ask questions on freebsd-questions@FreeBSD.org or on a USENET group—like FreeBSD isn't finding my tape drive, what do I do?—people will want to know what dmesg has to say. You can now dismount the floppy drive (as root) to get the disk out with &prompt.root; /sbin/umount /mnt and reboot to go to DOS. Copy these files to a DOS directory, call them up with DOS EDIT, Windows Notepad or Wordpad, or a word processor, make a minor change so the file has to be saved, and print as you normally would from DOS or Windows. Hope it works! man pages come out best if printed with the dos print command. (Copying files from FreeBSD to a mounted dos partition is in some cases still a little risky.) Getting the printer printing from FreeBSD involves creating an appropriate entry in /etc/printcap and creating a matching spool directory in /var/spool/output. If your printer is on lpt0 (what dos calls LPT1), you may only need to go to /var/spool/output and (as root) create the directory lpd by typing: mkdir lpd, if it doesn't already exist. Then the printer should respond if it's turned on when the system is booted, and lp or lpr should send a file to the printer. Whether or not the file actually prints depends on configuring it, which is covered in the FreeBSD handbook. Other Useful Commands df shows file space and mounted systems. ps aux shows processes running. ps ax is a narrower form. rm filename remove filename. rm -R dir removes a directory dir and all subdirectories—careful! ls -R lists files in the current directory and all subdirectories; I used a variant, ls -AFR > where.txt, to get a list of all the files in / and (separately) /usr before I found better ways to find files. passwd to change user's password (or root's password) man hier man page on the Unix file system Use find to locate filename in /usr or any of its subdirectories with &prompt.user; find /usr -name "filename" You can use * as a wildcard in "filename" (which should be in quotes). If you tell find to search in / instead of /usr it will look for the file(s) on all mounted file systems, including the CDROM and the dos partition. An excellent book that explains Unix commands and utilities is Abrahams & Larson, Unix for the Impatient (2nd ed., Addison-Wesley, 1996). There's also a lot of Unix information on the Internet. Try the Unix Reference Desk. Next Steps You should now have the tools you need to get around and edit files, so you can get everything up and running. There is a great deal of information in the FreeBSD handbook (which is probably on your hard drive) and FreeBSD's web site. A wide variety of packages and ports are on the CDROM as well as the web site. The handbook tells you more about how to use them (get the package if it exists, with pkg_add /cdrom/packages/All/packagename, where packagename is the filename of the package). The cdrom has lists of the packages and ports with brief descriptions in cdrom/packages/index, cdrom/packages/index.txt, and cdrom/ports/index, with fuller descriptions in /cdrom/ports/*/*/pkg/DESCR, where the *s represent subdirectories of kinds of programs and program names respectively. If you find the handbook too sophisticated (what with lndir and all) on installing ports from the cdrom, here's what usually works: Find the port you want, say kermit. There will be a directory for it on the cdrom. Copy the subdirectory to /usr/local (a good place for software you add that should be available to all users) with: &prompt.root; cp -R /cdrom/ports/comm/kermit /usr/local This should result in a /usr/local/kermit subdirectory that has all the files that the kermit subdirectory on the CDROM has. Next, create the directory /usr/ports/distfiles if it doesn't already exist using mkdir. Now check check /cdrom/ports/distfiles for a file with a name that indicates it's the port you want. Copy that file to /usr/ports/distfiles; in recent versions you can skip this step, as FreeBSD will do it for you. In the case of kermit, there is no distfile. Then cd to the subdirectory of /usr/local/kermit that has the file Makefile. Type &prompt.root; make all install During this process the port will ftp to get any compressed files it needs that it didn't find on the cdrom or in /usr/ports/distfiles. If you don't have your network running yet and there was no file for the port in /cdrom/ports/distfiles, you will have to get the distfile using another machine and copy it to /usr/ports/distfiles from a floppy or your dos partition. Read Makefile (with cat or more or view) to find out where to go (the master distribution site) to get the file and what its name is. Its name will be truncated when downloaded to DOS, and after you get it into /usr/ports/distfiles you'll have to rename it (with the mv command) to its original name so it can be found. (Use binary file transfers!) Then go back to /usr/local/kermit, find the directory with Makefile, and type make all install. The other thing that happens when installing ports or packages is that some other program is needed. If the installation stops with a message can't find unzip or whatever, you might need to install the package or port for unzip before you continue. Once it's installed type rehash to make FreeBSD reread the files in the path so it knows what's there. (If you get a lot of path not found messages when you use whereis or which, you might want to make additions to the list of directories in the path statement in .cshrc in your home directory. The path statement in Unix does the same kind of work it does in DOS, except the current directory is not (by default) in the path for security reasons; if the command you want is in the directory you're in, you need to type ./ before the command to make it work; no space after the slash.) You might want to get the most recent version of Netscape from their ftp site. (Netscape requires the X Window System.) There's now a FreeBSD version, so look around carefully. Just use gunzip filename and tar xvf filename on it, move the binary to /usr/local/bin or some other place binaries are kept, rehash, and then put the following lines in .cshrc in each user's home directory or (easier) in /etc/csh.cshrc, the system-wide csh start-up file: setenv XKEYSYMDB /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/XKeysymDB setenv XNLSPATH /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/nls This assumes that the file XKeysymDB and the directory nls are in /usr/X11R6/lib/X11; if they're not, find them and put them there. If you originally got Netscape as a port using the CDROM (or ftp), don't replace /usr/local/bin/netscape with the new netscape binary; this is just a shell script that sets up the environment variables for you. Instead rename the new binary to netscape.bin and replace the old binary, which is /usr/local/netscape/netscape. Your Working Environment Your shell is the most important part of your working environment. In DOS, the usual shell is command.com. The shell is what interprets the commands you type on the command line, and thus communicates with the rest of the operating system. You can also write shell scripts, which are like DOS batch files: a series of commands to be run without your intervention. Two shells come installed with FreeBSD: csh and sh. csh is good for command-line work, but scripts should be written with sh (or bash). You can find out what shell you have by typing echo $SHELL. The csh shell is okay, but tcsh does everything csh does and more. It It allows you to recall commands with the arrow keys and edit them. It has tab-key completion of filenames (csh uses the escape key), and it lets you switch to the directory you were last in with cd -. It's also much easier to alter your prompt with tcsh. It makes life a lot easier. Here are the three steps for installing a new shell: Install the shell as a port or a package, just as you would any other port or package. Use rehash and which tcsh (assuming you're installing tcsh) to make sure it got installed. As root, edit /etc/shells, adding a line in the file for the new shell, in this case /usr/local/bin/tcsh, and save the file. (Some ports may do this for you.) Use the chsh command to change your shell to tcsh permanently, or type tcsh at the prompt to change your shell without logging in again. It can be dangerous to change root's shell to something other than sh or csh on early versions of FreeBSD and many other versions of Unix; you may not have a working shell when the system puts you into single user mode. The solution is to use su -m to become root, which will give you the tcsh as root, because the shell is part of the environment. You can make this permanent by adding it to your .tcshrc file as an alias with alias su su -m. When tcsh starts up, it will read the /etc/csh.cshrc and /etc/csh.login files, as does csh. It will also read the .login file in your home directory and the .cshrc file as well, unless you provide a .tcshrc file. This you can do by simply copying .cshrc to .tcshrc. Now that you've installed tcsh, you can adjust your prompt. You can find the details in the manual page for tcsh, but here is a line to put in your .tcshrc that will tell you how many commands you have typed, what time it is, and what directory you are in. It also produces a > if you're an ordinary user and a # if you're root, but tsch will do that in any case: set prompt = "%h %t %~ %# " This should go in the same place as the existing set prompt line if there is one, or under "if($?prompt) then" if not. Comment out the old line; you can always switch back to it if you prefer it. Don't forget the spaces and quotes. You can get the .tcshrc reread by typing source .tcshrc. You can get a listing of other environmental variables that have been set by typing env at the prompt. The result will show you your default editor, pager, and terminal type, among possibly many others. A useful command if you log in from a remote location and can't run a program because the terminal isn't capable is setenv TERM vt100. Other As root, you can dismount the CDROM with /sbin/umount /cdrom, take it out of the drive, insert another one, and mount it with /sbin/mount_cd9660 /dev/cd0a /cdrom assuming cd0a is the device name for your CDROM drive. The most recent versions of FreeBSD let you mount the cdrom with just /sbin/mount /cdrom. Using the live file system—the second of FreeBSD's CDROM disks—is useful if you've got limited space. What is on the live file system varies from release to release. You might try playing games from the cdrom. This involves using lndir, which gets installed with the X Window System, to tell the program(s) where to find the necessary files, because they're in the /cdrom file system instead of in /usr and its subdirectories, which is where they're expected to be. Read man lndir. Comments Welcome If you use this guide I'd be interested in knowing where it was unclear and what was left out that you think should be included, and if it was helpful. My thanks to Eugene W. Stark, professor of computer science at SUNY-Stony Brook, and John Fieber for helpful comments. Annelise Anderson, andrsn@andrsn.stanford.edu
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/programming-tools/article.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/programming-tools/article.sgml index e0c0a9c99d..eabcea2da8 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/programming-tools/article.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/programming-tools/article.sgml @@ -1,2256 +1,2256 @@ - + - +
- + A User's Guide to FreeBSD Programming Tools James Raynard
jraynard@FreeBSD.org
August 17, 1997 1997 James Raynard This document is an introduction to using some of the programming tools supplied with FreeBSD, although much of it will be applicable to many other versions of Unix. It does not attempt to describe coding in any detail. Most of the document assumes little or no previous programming knowledge, although it is hoped that most programmers will find something of value in it - + Introduction<anchor id=foo> FreeBSD offers an excellent development environment. Compilers for C, C++, and Fortran and an assembler come with the basic system, not to mention a Perl interpreter and classic Unix tools such as sed and awk. If that is not enough, there are many more compilers and interpreters in the Ports collection. FreeBSD is very compatible with standards such as POSIX and ANSI C, as well with its own BSD heritage, so it is possible to write applications that will compile and run with little or no modification on a wide range of platforms. However, all this power can be rather overwhelming at first if you've never written programs on a Unix platform before. This document aims to help you get up and running, without getting too deeply into more advanced topics. The intention is that this document should give you enough of the basics to be able to make some sense of the documentation. Most of the document requires little or no knowledge of programming, although it does assume a basic competence with using Unix and a willingness to learn! Introduction to Programming A program is a set of instructions that tell the computer to do various things; sometimes the instruction it has to perform depends on what happened when it performed a previous instruction. This section gives an overview of the two main ways in which you can give these instructions, or commands as they are usually called. One way uses an interpreter, the other a compiler. As human languages are too difficult for a computer to understand in an unambiguous way, commands are usually written in one or other languages specially designed for the purpose. Interpreters With an interpreter, the language comes as an environment, where you type in commands at a prompt and the environment executes them for you. For more complicated programs, you can type the commands into a file and get the interpreter to load the file and execute the commands in it. If anything goes wrong, many interpreters will drop you into a debugger to help you track down the problem. The advantage of this is that you can see the results of your commands immediately, and mistakes can be corrected readily. The biggest disadvantage comes when you want to share your programs with someone. They must have the same interpreter, or you must have some way of giving it to them, and they need to understand how to use it. Also users may not appreciate being thrown into a debugger if they press the wrong key! From a performance point of view, interpreters can use up a lot of memory, and generally do not generate code as efficiently as compilers. In my opinion, interpreted languages are the best way to start if you have not done any programming before. This kind of environment is typically found with languages like Lisp, Smalltalk, Perl and Basic. It could also be argued that the Unix shell (sh, csh) is itself an interpreter, and many people do in fact write shell scripts to help with various housekeeping tasks on their machine. Indeed, part of the original Unix philosophy was to provide lots of small utility programs that could be linked together in shell scripts to perform useful tasks. Interpreters available with FreeBSD Here is a list of interpreters that are available as FreeBSD packages, with a brief discussion of some of the more popular interpreted languages. To get one of these packages, all you need to do is to click on the hotlink for the package, then run &prompt.root; pkg_add package name as root. Obviously, you will need to have a fully functional FreeBSD 2.1.0 or later system for the package to work! BASIC Short for Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code. Developed in the 1950s for teaching University students to program and provided with every self-respecting personal computer in the 1980s, BASIC has been the first programming language for many programmers. It's also the foundation for Visual Basic. The Bywater Basic Interpreter and the Phil Cockroft's Basic Interpreter (formerly Rabbit Basic) are available as FreeBSD FreeBSD packages Lisp A language that was developed in the late 1950s as an alternative to the number-crunching languages that were popular at the time. Instead of being based on numbers, Lisp is based on lists; in fact the name is short for List Processing. Very popular in AI (Artificial Intelligence) circles. Lisp is an extremely powerful and sophisticated language, but can be rather large and unwieldy. FreeBSD has GNU Common Lisp available as a package. Perl Very popular with system administrators for writing scripts; also often used on World Wide Web servers for writing CGI scripts. The latest version (version 5) comes with FreeBSD. Scheme A dialect of Lisp that is rather more compact and cleaner than Common Lisp. Popular in Universities as it is simple enough to teach to undergraduates as a first language, while it has a high enough level of abstraction to be used in research work. FreeBSD has packages of the Elk Scheme Interpreter, the MIT Scheme Interpreter and the SCM Scheme Interpreter. Icon The Icon Programming Language. Logo Brian Harvey's LOGO Interpreter. Python The Python Object-Oriented Programming Language Compilers Compilers are rather different. First of all, you write your code in a file (or files) using an editor. You then run the compiler and see if it accepts your program. If it did not compile, grit your teeth and go back to the editor; if it did compile and gave you a program, you can run it either at a shell command prompt or in a debugger to see if it works properly. If you run it in the shell, you may get a core dump. Obviously, this is not quite as direct as using an interpreter. However it allows you to do a lot of things which are very difficult or even impossible with an interpreter, such as writing code which interacts closely with the operating system—or even writing your own operating system! It's also useful if you need to write very efficient code, as the compiler can take its time and optimise the code, which would not be acceptable in an interpreter. And distributing a program written for a compiler is usually more straightforward than one written for an interpreter—you can just give them a copy of the executable, assuming they have the same operating system as you. Compiled languages include Pascal, C and C++. C and C++ are rather unforgiving languages, and best suited to more experienced programmers; Pascal, on the other hand, was designed as an educational language, and is quite a good language to start with. Unfortunately, FreeBSD doesn't have any Pascal support, except for a Pascal-to-C converter in the ports. As the edit-compile-run-debug cycle is rather tedious when using separate programs, many commercial compiler makers have produced Integrated Development Environments (IDEs for short). FreeBSD does not have an IDE as such; however it is possible to use Emacs for this purpose. This is discussed in . Compiling with <command>cc</command> This section deals only with the GNU compiler for C and C++, since that comes with the base FreeBSD system. It can be invoked by either cc or gcc. The details of producing a program with an interpreter vary considerably between interpreters, and are usually well covered in the documentation and on-line help for the interpreter. Once you've written your masterpiece, the next step is to convert it into something that will (hopefully!) run on FreeBSD. This usually involves several steps, each of which is done by a separate program. Pre-process your source code to remove comments and do other tricks like expanding macros in C. Check the syntax of your code to see if you have obeyed the rules of the language. If you have not, it will complain! Convert the source code into assembly language—this is very close to machine code, but still understandable by humans. Allegedly. To be strictly accurate, cc converts the source code into its own, machine-independent p-code instead of assembly language at this stage. Convert the assembly language into machine code—yep, we are talking bits and bytes, ones and zeros here. Check that you have used things like functions and global variables in a consistent way. For example, if you have called a non-existent function, it will complain. If you are trying to produce an executable from several source code files, work out how to fit them all together. Work out how to produce something that the system's run-time loader will be able to load into memory and run. Finally, write the executable on the file system. The word compiling is often used to refer to just steps 1 to 4—the others are referred to as linking. Sometimes step 1 is referred to as pre-processing and steps 3-4 as assembling. Fortunately, almost all this detail is hidden from you, as cc is a front end that manages calling all these programs with the right arguments for you; simply typing &prompt.user; cc foobar.c will cause foobar.c to be compiled by all the steps above. If you have more than one file to compile, just do something like &prompt.user; cc foo.c bar.c Note that the syntax checking is just that—checking the syntax. It will not check for any logical mistakes you may have made, like putting the program into an infinite loop, or using a bubble sort when you meant to use a binary sort. In case you didn't know, a binary sort is an efficient way of sorting things into order and a bubble sort isn't. There are lots and lots of options for cc, which are all in the man page. Here are a few of the most important ones, with examples of how to use them. The output name of the file. If you do not use this option, cc will produce an executable called a.out. The reasons for this are buried in the mists of history. &prompt.user; cc foobar.c executable is a.out &prompt.user; cc -o foobar foobar.c executable is foobar Just compile the file, do not link it. Useful for toy programs where you just want to check the syntax, or if you are using a Makefile. &prompt.user; cc -c foobar.c This will produce an object file (not an executable) called foobar.o. This can be linked together with other object files into an executable. Create a debug version of the executable. This makes the compiler put information into the executable about which line of which source file corresponds to which function call. A debugger can use this information to show the source code as you step through the program, which is very useful; the disadvantage is that all this extra information makes the program much bigger. Normally, you compile with while you are developing a program and then compile a release version without when you're satisfied it works properly. &prompt.user; cc -g foobar.c This will produce a debug version of the program. Note, we didn't use the flag to specify the executable name, so we will get an executable called a.out. Producing a debug version called foobar is left as an exercise for the reader! Create an optimised version of the executable. The compiler performs various clever tricks to try and produce an executable that runs faster than normal. You can add a number after the to specify a higher level of optimisation, but this often exposes bugs in the compiler's optimiser. For instance, the version of cc that comes with the 2.1.0 release of FreeBSD is known to produce bad code with the option in some circumstances. Optimisation is usually only turned on when compiling a release version. &prompt.user; cc -O -o foobar foobar.c This will produce an optimised version of foobar. The following three flags will force cc to check that your code complies to the relevant international standard, often referred to as the ANSI standard, though strictly speaking it is an ISO standard. Enable all the warnings which the authors of cc believe are worthwhile. Despite the name, it will not enable all the warnings cc is capable of. Turn off most, but not all, of the non-ANSI C features provided by cc. Despite the name, it does not guarantee strictly that your code will comply to the standard. Turn off all cc's non-ANSI C features. Without these flags, cc will allow you to use some of its non-standard extensions to the standard. Some of these are very useful, but will not work with other compilers—in fact, one of the main aims of the standard is to allow people to write code that will work with any compiler on any system. This is known as portable code. Generally, you should try to make your code as portable as possible, as otherwise you may have to completely re-write the program later to get it to work somewhere else—and who knows what you may be using in a few years time? &prompt.user; cc -Wall -ansi -pedantic -o foobar foobar.c This will produce an executable foobar after checking foobar.c for standard compliance. Specify a function library to be used during when linking. The most common example of this is when compiling a program that uses some of the mathematical functions in C. Unlike most other platforms, these are in a separate library from the standard C one and you have to tell the compiler to add it. The rule is that if the library is called libsomething.a, you give cc the argument . For example, the math library is libm.a, so you give cc the argument . A common gotcha with the math library is that it has to be the last library on the command line. &prompt.user; cc -o foobar foobar.c -lm This will link the math library functions into foobar. If you are compiling C++ code, you need to add , or if you are using FreeBSD 2.2 or later, to the command line argument to link the C++ library functions. Alternatively, you can run c++ instead of cc, which does this for you. c++ can also be invoked as g++ on FreeBSD. &prompt.user; cc -o foobar foobar.cc -lg++ For FreeBSD 2.1.6 and earlier &prompt.user; cc -o foobar foobar.cc -lstdc++ For FreeBSD 2.2 and later &prompt.user; c++ -o foobar foobar.cc Each of these will both produce an executable foobar from the C++ source file foobar.cc. Note that, on Unix systems, C++ source files traditionally end in .C, .cxx or .cc, rather than the MS-DOS style .cpp (which was already used for something else). gcc used to rely on this to work out what kind of compiler to use on the source file; however, this restriction no longer applies, so you may now call your C++ files .cpp with impunity! Common <command>cc</command> Queries and Problems I am trying to write a program which uses the sin() function and I get an error like this. What does it mean? /var/tmp/cc0143941.o: Undefined symbol `_sin' referenced from text segment When using mathematical functions like sin(), you have to tell cc to link in the math library, like so: &prompt.user; cc -o foobar foobar.c -lm All right, I wrote this simple program to practice using . All it does is raise 2.1 to the power of 6. #include <stdio.h> int main() { float f; f = pow(2.1, 6); printf("2.1 ^ 6 = %f\n", f); return 0; } and I compiled it as: &prompt.user; cc temp.c -lm like you said I should, but I get this when I run it: &prompt.user; ./a.out 2.1 ^ 6 = 1023.000000 This is not the right answer! What is going on? When the compiler sees you call a function, it checks if it has already seen a prototype for it. If it has not, it assumes the function returns an int, which is definitely not what you want here. So how do I fix this? The prototypes for the mathematical functions are in math.h. If you include this file, the compiler will be able to find the prototype and it will stop doing strange things to your calculation! #include <math.h> #include <stdio.h> int main() { ... After recompiling it as you did before, run it: &prompt.user; ./a.out 2.1 ^ 6 = 85.766121 If you are using any of the mathematical functions, always include math.h and remember to link in the math library. I compiled a file called foobar.c and I cannot find an executable called foobar. Where's it gone? Remember, cc will call the executable a.out unless you tell it differently. Use the option: &prompt.user; cc -o foobar foobar.c OK, I have an executable called foobar, I can see it when I run ls, but when I type in foobar at the command prompt it tells me there is no such file. Why can it not find it? Unlike MS-DOS, Unix does not look in the current directory when it is trying to find out which executable you want it to run, unless you tell it to. Either type ./foobar, which means run the file called foobar in the current - directory, or change your PATH environment + directory, or change your PATH environment variable so that it looks something like bin:/usr/bin:/usr/local/bin:. The dot at the end means look in the current directory if it is not in any of the others. I called my executable test, but nothing happens when I run it. What is going on? Most Unix systems have a program called test in /usr/bin and the shell is picking that one up before it gets to checking the current directory. Either type: &prompt.user; ./test or choose a better name for your program! I compiled my program and it seemed to run all right at first, then there was an error and it said something about core dumped. What does that mean? The name core dump dates back to the very early days of Unix, when the machines used core memory for storing data. Basically, if the program failed under certain conditions, the system would write the contents of core memory to disk in a file called core, which the programmer could then pore over to find out what went wrong. Fascinating stuff, but what I am supposed to do now? Use gdb to analyse the core (see ). When my program dumped core, it said something about a segmentation fault. What's that? This basically means that your program tried to perform some sort of illegal operation on memory; Unix is designed to protect the operating system and other programs from rogue programs. Common causes for this are: Trying to write to a NULL pointer, eg char *foo = NULL; strcpy(foo, "bang!"); Using a pointer that hasn't been initialised, eg char *foo; strcpy(foo, "bang!"); The pointer will have some random value that, with luck, will point into an area of memory that isn't available to your program and the kernel will kill your program before it can do any damage. If you're unlucky, it'll point somewhere inside your own program and corrupt one of your data structures, causing the program to fail mysteriously. Trying to access past the end of an array, eg int bar[20]; bar[27] = 6; Trying to store something in read-only memory, eg char *foo = "My string"; strcpy(foo, "bang!"); Unix compilers often put string literals like "My string" into read-only areas of memory. Doing naughty things with malloc() and free(), eg char bar[80]; free(bar); or char *foo = malloc(27); free(foo); free(foo); Making one of these mistakes will not always lead to an error, but they are always bad practice. Some systems and compilers are more tolerant than others, which is why programs that ran well on one system can crash when you try them on an another. Sometimes when I get a core dump it says bus error. It says in my Unix book that this means a hardware problem, but the computer still seems to be working. Is this true? No, fortunately not (unless of course you really do have a hardware problem…). This is usually another way of saying that you accessed memory in a way you shouldn't have. This dumping core business sounds as though it could be quite useful, if I can make it happen when I want to. Can I do this, or do I have to wait until there's an error? Yes, just go to another console or xterm, do &prompt.user; ps to find out the process ID of your program, and do &prompt.user; kill -ABRT pid where pid is the process ID you looked up. This is useful if your program has got stuck in an infinite loop, for instance. If your program happens to trap SIGABRT, there are several other signals which have a similar effect. Make What is <command>make</command>? When you're working on a simple program with only one or two source files, typing in &prompt.user; cc file1.c file2.c is not too bad, but it quickly becomes very tedious when there are several files—and it can take a while to compile, too. One way to get around this is to use object files and only recompile the source file if the source code has changed. So we could have something like: &prompt.user; cc file1.o file2.o … file37.c &hellip if we'd changed file37.c, but not any of the others, since the last time we compiled. This may speed up the compilation quite a bit, but doesn't solve the typing problem. Or we could write a shell script to solve the typing problem, but it would have to re-compile everything, making it very inefficient on a large project. What happens if we have hundreds of source files lying about? What if we're working in a team with other people who forget to tell us when they've changed one of their source files that we use? Perhaps we could put the two solutions together and write something like a shell script that would contain some kind of magic rule saying when a source file needs compiling. Now all we need now is a program that can understand these rules, as it's a bit too complicated for the shell. This program is called make. It reads in a file, called a makefile, that tells it how different files depend on each other, and works out which files need to be re-compiled and which ones don't. For example, a rule could say something like if fromboz.o is older than fromboz.c, that means someone must have changed fromboz.c, so it needs to be re-compiled. The makefile also has rules telling make how to re-compile the source file, making it a much more powerful tool. Makefiles are typically kept in the same directory as the source they apply to, and can be called makefile, Makefile or MAKEFILE. Most programmers use the name Makefile, as this puts it near the top of a directory listing, where it can easily be seen. They don't use the MAKEFILE form as block capitals are often used for documentation files like README. Example of using <command>make</command> Here's a very simple make file: foo: foo.c cc -o foo foo.c It consists of two lines, a dependency line and a creation line. The dependency line here consists of the name of the program (known as the target), followed by a colon, then whitespace, then the name of the source file. When make reads this line, it looks to see if foo exists; if it exists, it compares the time foo was last modified to the time foo.c was last modified. If foo does not exist, or is older than foo.c, it then looks at the creation line to find out what to do. In other words, this is the rule for working out when foo.c needs to be re-compiled. The creation line starts with a tab (press the tab key) and then the command you would type to create foo if you were doing it at a command prompt. If foo is out of date, or does not exist, make then executes this command to create it. In other words, this is the rule which tells make how to re-compile foo.c. So, when you type make, it will make sure that foo is up to date with respect to your latest changes to foo.c. This principle can be extended to Makefiles with hundreds of targets—in fact, on FreeBSD, it is possible to compile the entire operating system just by typing make world in the appropriate directory! Another useful property of makefiles is that the targets don't have to be programs. For instance, we could have a make file that looks like this: foo: foo.c cc -o foo foo.c install: cp foo /home/me We can tell make which target we want to make by typing: &prompt.user; make target make will then only look at that target and ignore any others. For example, if we type make foo with the makefile above, make will ignore the install target. If we just type make on its own, make will always look at the first target and then stop without looking at any others. So if we typed make here, it will just go to the foo target, re-compile foo if necessary, and then stop without going on to the install target. Notice that the install target doesn't actually depend on anything! This means that the command on the following line is always executed when we try to make that target by typing make install. In this case, it will copy foo into the user's home directory. This is often used by application makefiles, so that the application can be installed in the correct directory when it has been correctly compiled. This is a slightly confusing subject to try and explain. If you don't quite understand how make works, the best thing to do is to write a simple program like hello world and a make file like the one above and experiment. Then progress to using more than one source file, or having the source file include a header file. The touch command is very useful here—it changes the date on a file without you having to edit it. FreeBSD Makefiles Makefiles can be rather complicated to write. Fortunately, BSD-based systems like FreeBSD come with some very powerful ones as part of the system. One very good example of this is the FreeBSD ports system. Here's the essential part of a typical ports Makefile: MASTER_SITES= ftp://freefall.cdrom.com/pub/FreeBSD/LOCAL_PORTS/ DISTFILES= scheme-microcode+dist-7.3-freebsd.tgz .include <bsd.port.mk> Now, if we go to the directory for this port and type make, the following happens: A check is made to see if the source code for this port is already on the system. If it isn't, an FTP connection to the URL in MASTER_SITES is set up to download the source. The checksum for the source is calculated and compared it with one for a known, good, copy of the source. This is to make sure that the source was not corrupted while in transit. Any changes required to make the source work on FreeBSD are applied—this is known as patching. Any special configuration needed for the source is done. (Many Unix program distributions try to work out which version of Unix they are being compiled on and which optional Unix features are present—this is where they are given the information in the FreeBSD ports scenario). The source code for the program is compiled. In effect, we change to the directory where the source was unpacked and do make—the program's own make file has the necessary information to build the program. We now have a compiled version of the program. If we wish, we can test it now; when we feel confident about the program, we can type make install. This will cause the program and any supporting files it needs to be copied into the correct location; an entry is also made into a package database, so that the port can easily be uninstalled later if we change our mind about it. Now I think you'll agree that's rather impressive for a four line script! The secret lies in the last line, which tells make to look in the system makefile called bsd.port.mk. It's easy to overlook this line, but this is where all the clever stuff comes from—someone has written a makefile that tells make to do all the things above (plus a couple of other things I didn't mention, including handling any errors that may occur) and anyone can get access to that just by putting a single line in their own make file! If you want to have a look at these system makefiles, they're in /usr/share/mk, but it's probably best to wait until you've had a bit of practice with makefiles, as they are very complicated (and if you do look at them, make sure you have a flask of strong coffee handy!) More advanced uses of <command>make</command> Make is a very powerful tool, and can do much more than the simple example above shows. Unfortunately, there are several different versions of make, and they all differ considerably. The best way to learn what they can do is probably to read the documentation—hopefully this introduction will have given you a base from which you can do this. The version of make that comes with FreeBSD is the Berkeley make; there is a tutorial for it in /usr/share/doc/psd/12.make. To view it, do &prompt.user; zmore paper.ascii.gz in that directory. Many applications in the ports use GNU make, which has a very good set of info pages. If you have installed any of these ports, GNU make will automatically have been installed as gmake. It's also available as a port and package in its own right. To view the info pages for GNU make, you will have to edit the dir file in the /usr/local/info directory to add an entry for it. This involves adding a line like * Make: (make). The GNU Make utility. to the file. Once you have done this, you can type info and then select make from the menu (or in Emacs, do C-h i). Debugging The Debugger The debugger that comes with FreeBSD is called gdb (GNU debugger). You start it up by typing &prompt.user; gdb progname although most people prefer to run it inside Emacs. You can do this by: M-x gdb RET progname RET Using a debugger allows you to run the program under more controlled circumstances. Typically, you can step through the program a line at a time, inspect the value of variables, change them, tell the debugger to run up to a certain point and then stop, and so on. You can even attach to a program that's already running, or load a core file to investigate why the program crashed. It's even possible to debug the kernel, though that's a little trickier than the user applications we'll be discussing in this section. gdb has quite good on-line help, as well as a set of info pages, so this section will concentrate on a few of the basic commands. Finally, if you find its text-based command-prompt style off-putting, there's a graphical front-end for it xxgdb in the ports collection. This section is intended to be an introduction to using gdb and does not cover specialised topics such as debugging the kernel. Running a program in the debugger You'll need to have compiled the program with the option to get the most out of using gdb. It will work without, but you'll only see the name of the function you're in, instead of the source code. If you see a line like: … (no debugging symbols found) … when gdb starts up, you'll know that the program wasn't compiled with the option. At the gdb prompt, type break main. This will tell the debugger to skip over the preliminary set-up code in the program and start at the beginning of your code. Now type run to start the program—it will start at the beginning of the set-up code and then get stopped by the debugger when it calls main(). (If you've ever wondered where main() gets called from, now you know!). You can now step through the program, a line at a time, by pressing n. If you get to a function call, you can step into it by pressing s. Once you're in a function call, you can return from stepping into a function call by pressing f. You can also use up and down to take a quick look at the caller. Here's a simple example of how to spot a mistake in a program with gdb. This is our program (with a deliberate mistake): #include <stdio.h> int bazz(int anint); main() { int i; printf("This is my program\n"); bazz(i); return 0; } int bazz(int anint) { printf("You gave me %d\n", anint); return anint; } This program sets i to be 5 and passes it to a function bazz() which prints out the number we gave it. When we compile and run the program we get &prompt.user; cc -g -o temp temp.c &prompt.user; ./temp This is my program anint = 4231 That wasn't what we expected! Time to see what's going on! &prompt.user; gdb temp GDB is free software and you are welcome to distribute copies of it under certain conditions; type "show copying" to see the conditions. There is absolutely no warranty for GDB; type "show warranty" for details. GDB 4.13 (i386-unknown-freebsd), Copyright 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc. (gdb) break main Skip the set-up code Breakpoint 1 at 0x160f: file temp.c, line 9. gdb puts breakpoint at main() (gdb) run Run as far as main() Starting program: /home/james/tmp/temp Program starts running Breakpoint 1, main () at temp.c:9 gdb stops at main() (gdb) n Go to next line This is my program Program prints out (gdb) s step into bazz() bazz (anint=4231) at temp.c:17 gdb displays stack frame (gdb) Hang on a minute! How did anint get to be 4231? Didn't we set it to be 5 in main()? Let's move up to main() and have a look. (gdb) up Move up call stack #1 0x1625 in main () at temp.c:11 gdb displays stack frame (gdb) p i Show us the value of i $1 = 4231 gdb displays 4231 Oh dear! Looking at the code, we forgot to initialise i. We meant to put … main() { int i; i = 5; printf("This is my program\n"); &hellip but we left the i=5; line out. As we didn't initialise i, it had whatever number happened to be in that area of memory when the program ran, which in this case happened to be 4231. gdb displays the stack frame every time we go into or out of a function, even if we're using up and down to move around the call stack. This shows the name of the function and the values of its arguments, which helps us keep track of where we are and what's going on. (The stack is a storage area where the program stores information about the arguments passed to functions and where to go when it returns from a function call). Examining a core file A core file is basically a file which contains the complete state of the process when it crashed. In the good old days, programmers had to print out hex listings of core files and sweat over machine code manuals, but now life is a bit easier. Incidentally, under FreeBSD and other 4.4BSD systems, a core file is called progname.core instead of just core, to make it clearer which program a core file belongs to. To examine a core file, start up gdb in the usual way. Instead of typing break or run, type (gdb) core progname.core If you're not in the same directory as the core file, you'll have to do dir /path/to/core/file first. You should see something like this: &prompt.user; gdb a.out GDB is free software and you are welcome to distribute copies of it under certain conditions; type "show copying" to see the conditions. There is absolutely no warranty for GDB; type "show warranty" for details. GDB 4.13 (i386-unknown-freebsd), Copyright 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc. (gdb) core a.out.core Core was generated by `a.out'. Program terminated with signal 11, Segmentation fault. Cannot access memory at address 0x7020796d. #0 0x164a in bazz (anint=0x5) at temp.c:17 (gdb) In this case, the program was called a.out, so the core file is called a.out.core. We can see that the program crashed due to trying to access an area in memory that was not available to it in a function called bazz. Sometimes it's useful to be able to see how a function was called, as the problem could have occurred a long way up the call stack in a complex program. The bt command causes gdb to print out a back-trace of the call stack: (gdb) bt #0 0x164a in bazz (anint=0x5) at temp.c:17 #1 0xefbfd888 in end () #2 0x162c in main () at temp.c:11 (gdb) The end() function is called when a program crashes; in this case, the bazz() function was called from main(). Attaching to a running program One of the neatest features about gdb is that it can attach to a program that's already running. Of course, that assumes you have sufficient permissions to do so. A common problem is when you are stepping through a program that forks, and you want to trace the child, but the debugger will only let you trace the parent. What you do is start up another gdb, use ps to find the process ID for the child, and do (gdb) attach pid in gdb, and then debug as usual. That's all very well, you're probably thinking, but by the time I've done that, the child process will be over the hill and far away. Fear not, gentle reader, here's how to do it (courtesy of the gdb info pages): &hellip if ((pid = fork()) < 0) /* _Always_ check this */ error(); else if (pid == 0) { /* child */ int PauseMode = 1; while (PauseMode) sleep(10); /* Wait until someone attaches to us */ &hellip } else { /* parent */ &hellip Now all you have to do is attach to the child, set PauseMode to 0, and wait for the sleep() call to return! Using Emacs as a Development Environment Emacs Unfortunately, Unix systems don't come with the kind of everything-you-ever-wanted-and-lots-more-you-didn't-in-one-gigantic-package integrated development environments that other systems have. At least, not unless you pay out very large sums of money. However, it is possible to set up your own environment. It may not be as pretty, and it may not be quite as integrated, but you can set it up the way you want it. And it's free. And you have the source to it. The key to it all is Emacs. Now there are some people who loathe it, but many who love it. If you're one of the former, I'm afraid this section will hold little of interest to you. Also, you'll need a fair amount of memory to run it—I'd recommend 8MB in text mode and 16MB in X as the bare minimum to get reasonable performance. Emacs is basically a highly customisable editor—indeed, it has been customised to the point where it's more like an operating system than an editor! Many developers and sysadmins do in fact spend practically all their time working inside Emacs, leaving it only to log out. It's impossible even to summarise everything Emacs can do here, but here are some of the features of interest to developers: Very powerful editor, allowing search-and-replace on both strings and regular expressions (patterns), jumping to start/end of block expression, etc, etc. Pull-down menus and online help. Language-dependent syntax highlighting and indentation. Completely customisable. You can compile and debug programs within Emacs. On a compilation error, you can jump to the offending line of source code. Friendly-ish front-end to the info program used for reading GNU hypertext documentation, including the documentation on Emacs itself. Friendly front-end to gdb, allowing you to look at the source code as you step through your program. You can read Usenet news and mail while your program is compiling. And doubtless many more that I've overlooked. Emacs can be installed on FreeBSD using the Emacs port. Once it's installed, start it up and do C-h t to read an Emacs tutorial—that means hold down the control key, press h, let go of the control key, and then press t. (Alternatively, you can you use the mouse to select Emacs Tutorial from the Help menu). Although Emacs does have menus, it's well worth learning the key bindings, as it's much quicker when you're editing something to press a couple of keys than to try and find the mouse and then click on the right place. And, when you're talking to seasoned Emacs users, you'll find they often casually throw around expressions like M-x replace-s RET foo RET bar RET so it's useful to know what they mean. And in any case, Emacs has far too many useful functions for them to all fit on the menu bars. Fortunately, it's quite easy to pick up the key-bindings, as they're displayed next to the menu item. My advice is to use the menu item for, say, opening a file until you understand how it works and feel confident with it, then try doing C-x C-f. When you're happy with that, move on to another menu command. If you can't remember what a particular combination of keys does, select Describe Key from the Help menu and type it in—Emacs will tell you what it does. You can also use the Command Apropos menu item to find out all the commands which contain a particular word in them, with the key binding next to it. By the way, the expression above means hold down the Meta key, press x, release the Meta key, type replace-s (short for replace-string—another feature of Emacs is that you can abbreviate commands), press the return key, type foo (the string you want replaced), press the return key, type bar (the string you want to replace foo with) and press return again. Emacs will then do the search-and-replace operation you've just requested. If you're wondering what on earth the Meta key is, it's a special key that many Unix workstations have. Unfortunately, PC's don't have one, so it's usually the alt key (or if you're unlucky, the escape key). Oh, and to get out of Emacs, do C-x C-c (that means hold down the control key, press x, press c and release the control key). If you have any unsaved files open, Emacs will ask you if you want to save them. (Ignore the bit in the documentation where it says C-z is the usual way to leave Emacs—that leaves Emacs hanging around in the background, and is only really useful if you're on a system which doesn't have virtual terminals). Configuring Emacs Emacs does many wonderful things; some of them are built in, some of them need to be configured. Instead of using a proprietary macro language for configuration, Emacs uses a version of Lisp specially adapted for editors, known as Emacs Lisp. This can be quite useful if you want to go on and learn something like Common Lisp, as it's considerably smaller than Common Lisp (although still quite big!). The best way to learn Emacs Lisp is to download the Emacs Tutorial However, there's no need to actually know any Lisp to get started with configuring Emacs, as I've included a sample .emacs file, which should be enough to get you started. Just copy it into your home directory and restart Emacs if it's already running; it will read the commands from the file and (hopefully) give you a useful basic setup. A sample <filename>.emacs</filename> file Unfortunately, there's far too much here to explain it in detail; however there are one or two points worth mentioning. Everything beginning with a ; is a comment and is ignored by Emacs. In the first line, the -*- Emacs-Lisp -*- is so that we can edit the .emacs file itself within Emacs and get all the fancy features for editing Emacs Lisp. Emacs usually tries to guess this based on the filename, and may not get it right for .emacs. The tab key is bound to an indentation function in some modes, so when you press the tab key, it will indent the current line of code. If you want to put a tab character in whatever you're writing, hold the control key down while you're pressing the tab key. This file supports syntax highlighting for C, C++, Perl, Lisp and Scheme, by guessing the language from the filename. Emacs already has a pre-defined function called next-error. In a compilation output window, this allows you to move from one compilation error to the next by doing M-n; we define a complementary function, previous-error, that allows you to go to a previous error by doing M-p. The nicest feature of all is that C-c C-c will open up the source file in which the error occurred and jump to the appropriate line. We enable Emacs's ability to act as a server, so that if you're doing something outside Emacs and you want to edit a file, you can just type in &prompt.user; emacsclient filename and then you can edit the file in your Emacs! - Many Emacs users set their EDITOR environment to + Many Emacs users set their EDITOR environment to emacsclient so this happens every time they need to edit a file. A sample <filename>.emacs</filename> file ;; -*-Emacs-Lisp-*- ;; This file is designed to be re-evaled; use the variable first-time ;; to avoid any problems with this. (defvar first-time t "Flag signifying this is the first time that .emacs has been evaled") ;; Meta (global-set-key "\M- " 'set-mark-command) (global-set-key "\M-\C-h" 'backward-kill-word) (global-set-key "\M-\C-r" 'query-replace) (global-set-key "\M-r" 'replace-string) (global-set-key "\M-g" 'goto-line) (global-set-key "\M-h" 'help-command) ;; Function keys (global-set-key [f1] 'manual-entry) (global-set-key [f2] 'info) (global-set-key [f3] 'repeat-complex-command) (global-set-key [f4] 'advertised-undo) (global-set-key [f5] 'eval-current-buffer) (global-set-key [f6] 'buffer-menu) (global-set-key [f7] 'other-window) (global-set-key [f8] 'find-file) (global-set-key [f9] 'save-buffer) (global-set-key [f10] 'next-error) (global-set-key [f11] 'compile) (global-set-key [f12] 'grep) (global-set-key [C-f1] 'compile) (global-set-key [C-f2] 'grep) (global-set-key [C-f3] 'next-error) (global-set-key [C-f4] 'previous-error) (global-set-key [C-f5] 'display-faces) (global-set-key [C-f8] 'dired) (global-set-key [C-f10] 'kill-compilation) ;; Keypad bindings (global-set-key [up] "\C-p") (global-set-key [down] "\C-n") (global-set-key [left] "\C-b") (global-set-key [right] "\C-f") (global-set-key [home] "\C-a") (global-set-key [end] "\C-e") (global-set-key [prior] "\M-v") (global-set-key [next] "\C-v") (global-set-key [C-up] "\M-\C-b") (global-set-key [C-down] "\M-\C-f") (global-set-key [C-left] "\M-b") (global-set-key [C-right] "\M-f") (global-set-key [C-home] "\M-<") (global-set-key [C-end] "\M->") (global-set-key [C-prior] "\M-<") (global-set-key [C-next] "\M->") ;; Mouse (global-set-key [mouse-3] 'imenu) ;; Misc (global-set-key [C-tab] "\C-q\t") ; Control tab quotes a tab. (setq backup-by-copying-when-mismatch t) ;; Treat 'y' or <CR> as yes, 'n' as no. (fset 'yes-or-no-p 'y-or-n-p) (define-key query-replace-map [return] 'act) (define-key query-replace-map [?\C-m] 'act) ;; Load packages (require 'desktop) (require 'tar-mode) ;; Pretty diff mode (autoload 'ediff-buffers "ediff" "Intelligent Emacs interface to diff" t) (autoload 'ediff-files "ediff" "Intelligent Emacs interface to diff" t) (autoload 'ediff-files-remote "ediff" "Intelligent Emacs interface to diff") (if first-time (setq auto-mode-alist (append '(("\\.cpp$" . c++-mode) ("\\.hpp$" . c++-mode) ("\\.lsp$" . lisp-mode) ("\\.scm$" . scheme-mode) ("\\.pl$" . perl-mode) ) auto-mode-alist))) ;; Auto font lock mode (defvar font-lock-auto-mode-list (list 'c-mode 'c++-mode 'c++-c-mode 'emacs-lisp-mode 'lisp-mode 'perl-mode 'scheme-mode) "List of modes to always start in font-lock-mode") (defvar font-lock-mode-keyword-alist '((c++-c-mode . c-font-lock-keywords) (perl-mode . perl-font-lock-keywords)) "Associations between modes and keywords") (defun font-lock-auto-mode-select () "Automatically select font-lock-mode if the current major mode is in font-lock-auto-mode-list" (if (memq major-mode font-lock-auto-mode-list) (progn (font-lock-mode t)) ) ) (global-set-key [M-f1] 'font-lock-fontify-buffer) ;; New dabbrev stuff ;(require 'new-dabbrev) (setq dabbrev-always-check-other-buffers t) (setq dabbrev-abbrev-char-regexp "\\sw\\|\\s_") (add-hook 'emacs-lisp-mode-hook '(lambda () (set (make-local-variable 'dabbrev-case-fold-search) nil) (set (make-local-variable 'dabbrev-case-replace) nil))) (add-hook 'c-mode-hook '(lambda () (set (make-local-variable 'dabbrev-case-fold-search) nil) (set (make-local-variable 'dabbrev-case-replace) nil))) (add-hook 'text-mode-hook '(lambda () (set (make-local-variable 'dabbrev-case-fold-search) t) (set (make-local-variable 'dabbrev-case-replace) t))) ;; C++ and C mode... (defun my-c++-mode-hook () (setq tab-width 4) (define-key c++-mode-map "\C-m" 'reindent-then-newline-and-indent) (define-key c++-mode-map "\C-ce" 'c-comment-edit) (setq c++-auto-hungry-initial-state 'none) (setq c++-delete-function 'backward-delete-char) (setq c++-tab-always-indent t) (setq c-indent-level 4) (setq c-continued-statement-offset 4) (setq c++-empty-arglist-indent 4)) (defun my-c-mode-hook () (setq tab-width 4) (define-key c-mode-map "\C-m" 'reindent-then-newline-and-indent) (define-key c-mode-map "\C-ce" 'c-comment-edit) (setq c-auto-hungry-initial-state 'none) (setq c-delete-function 'backward-delete-char) (setq c-tab-always-indent t) ;; BSD-ish indentation style (setq c-indent-level 4) (setq c-continued-statement-offset 4) (setq c-brace-offset -4) (setq c-argdecl-indent 0) (setq c-label-offset -4)) ;; Perl mode (defun my-perl-mode-hook () (setq tab-width 4) (define-key c++-mode-map "\C-m" 'reindent-then-newline-and-indent) (setq perl-indent-level 4) (setq perl-continued-statement-offset 4)) ;; Scheme mode... (defun my-scheme-mode-hook () (define-key scheme-mode-map "\C-m" 'reindent-then-newline-and-indent)) ;; Emacs-Lisp mode... (defun my-lisp-mode-hook () (define-key lisp-mode-map "\C-m" 'reindent-then-newline-and-indent) (define-key lisp-mode-map "\C-i" 'lisp-indent-line) (define-key lisp-mode-map "\C-j" 'eval-print-last-sexp)) ;; Add all of the hooks... (add-hook 'c++-mode-hook 'my-c++-mode-hook) (add-hook 'c-mode-hook 'my-c-mode-hook) (add-hook 'scheme-mode-hook 'my-scheme-mode-hook) (add-hook 'emacs-lisp-mode-hook 'my-lisp-mode-hook) (add-hook 'lisp-mode-hook 'my-lisp-mode-hook) (add-hook 'perl-mode-hook 'my-perl-mode-hook) ;; Complement to next-error (defun previous-error (n) "Visit previous compilation error message and corresponding source code." (interactive "p") (next-error (- n))) ;; Misc... (transient-mark-mode 1) (setq mark-even-if-inactive t) (setq visible-bell nil) (setq next-line-add-newlines nil) (setq compile-command "make") (setq suggest-key-bindings nil) (put 'eval-expression 'disabled nil) (put 'narrow-to-region 'disabled nil) (put 'set-goal-column 'disabled nil) ;; Elisp archive searching (autoload 'format-lisp-code-directory "lispdir" nil t) (autoload 'lisp-dir-apropos "lispdir" nil t) (autoload 'lisp-dir-retrieve "lispdir" nil t) (autoload 'lisp-dir-verify "lispdir" nil t) ;; Font lock mode (defun my-make-face (face colour &optional bold) "Create a face from a colour and optionally make it bold" (make-face face) (copy-face 'default face) (set-face-foreground face colour) (if bold (make-face-bold face)) ) (if (eq window-system 'x) (progn (my-make-face 'blue "blue") (my-make-face 'red "red") (my-make-face 'green "dark green") (setq font-lock-comment-face 'blue) (setq font-lock-string-face 'bold) (setq font-lock-type-face 'bold) (setq font-lock-keyword-face 'bold) (setq font-lock-function-name-face 'red) (setq font-lock-doc-string-face 'green) (add-hook 'find-file-hooks 'font-lock-auto-mode-select) (setq baud-rate 1000000) (global-set-key "\C-cmm" 'menu-bar-mode) (global-set-key "\C-cms" 'scroll-bar-mode) (global-set-key [backspace] 'backward-delete-char) ; (global-set-key [delete] 'delete-char) (standard-display-european t) (load-library "iso-transl"))) ;; X11 or PC using direct screen writes (if window-system (progn ;; (global-set-key [M-f1] 'hilit-repaint-command) ;; (global-set-key [M-f2] [?\C-u M-f1]) (setq hilit-mode-enable-list '(not text-mode c-mode c++-mode emacs-lisp-mode lisp-mode scheme-mode) hilit-auto-highlight nil hilit-auto-rehighlight 'visible hilit-inhibit-hooks nil hilit-inhibit-rebinding t) (require 'hilit19) (require 'paren)) (setq baud-rate 2400) ; For slow serial connections ) ;; TTY type terminal (if (and (not window-system) (not (equal system-type 'ms-dos))) (progn (if first-time (progn (keyboard-translate ?\C-h ?\C-?) (keyboard-translate ?\C-? ?\C-h))))) ;; Under UNIX (if (not (equal system-type 'ms-dos)) (progn (if first-time (server-start)))) ;; Add any face changes here (add-hook 'term-setup-hook 'my-term-setup-hook) (defun my-term-setup-hook () (if (eq window-system 'pc) (progn ;; (set-face-background 'default "red") ))) ;; Restore the "desktop" - do this as late as possible (if first-time (progn (desktop-load-default) (desktop-read))) ;; Indicate that this file has been read at least once (setq first-time nil) ;; No need to debug anything now (setq debug-on-error nil) ;; All done (message "All done, %s%s" (user-login-name) ".") Extending the Range of Languages Emacs Understands Now, this is all very well if you only want to program in the languages already catered for in the .emacs file (C, C++, Perl, Lisp and Scheme), but what happens if a new language called whizbang comes out, full of exciting features? The first thing to do is find out if whizbang comes with any files that tell Emacs about the language. These usually end in .el, short for Emacs Lisp. For example, if whizbang is a FreeBSD port, we can locate these files by doing &prompt.user; find /usr/ports/lang/whizbang -name "*.el" -print and install them by copying them into the Emacs site Lisp directory. On FreeBSD 2.1.0-RELEASE, this is /usr/local/share/emacs/site-lisp. So for example, if the output from the find command was /usr/ports/lang/whizbang/work/misc/whizbang.el we would do &prompt.root; cp /usr/ports/lang/whizbang/work/misc/whizbang.el /usr/local/share/emacs/site-lisp Next, we need to decide what extension whizbang source files have. Let's say for the sake of argument that they all end in .wiz. We need to add an entry to our .emacs file to make sure Emacs will be able to use the information in whizbang.el. Find the auto-mode-alist entry in .emacs and add a line for whizbang, such as: … ("\\.lsp$" . lisp-mode) ("\\.wiz$" . whizbang-mode) ("\\.scm$" . scheme-mode) … This means that Emacs will automatically go into whizbang-mode when you edit a file ending in .wiz. Just below this, you'll find the font-lock-auto-mode-list entry. Add whizbang-mode to it like so: ;; Auto font lock mode (defvar font-lock-auto-mode-list (list 'c-mode 'c++-mode 'c++-c-mode 'emacs-lisp-mode 'whizbang-mode 'lisp-mode 'perl-mode 'scheme-mode) "List of modes to always start in font-lock-mode") This means that Emacs will always enable font-lock-mode (ie syntax highlighting) when editing a .wiz file. And that's all that's needed. If there's anything else you want done automatically when you open up a .wiz file, you can add a whizbang-mode hook (see my-scheme-mode-hook for a simple example that adds auto-indent). Further Reading Brian Harvey and Matthew Wright Simply Scheme MIT 1994. ISBN 0-262-08226-8 Randall Schwartz Learning Perl O'Reilly 1993 ISBN 1-56592-042-2 Patrick Henry Winston and Berthold Klaus Paul Horn Lisp (3rd Edition) Addison-Wesley 1989 ISBN 0-201-08319-1 Brian W. Kernighan and Rob Pike The Unix Programming Environment Prentice-Hall 1984 ISBN 0-13-937681-X Brian W. Kernighan and Dennis M. Ritchie The C Programming Language (2nd Edition) Prentice-Hall 1988 ISBN 0-13-110362-8 Bjarne Stroustrup The C++ Programming Language Addison-Wesley 1991 ISBN 0-201-53992-6 W. Richard Stevens Advanced Programming in the Unix Environment Addison-Wesley 1992 ISBN 0-201-56317-7 W. Richard Stevens Unix Network Programming Prentice-Hall 1990 ISBN 0-13-949876-1
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/zip-drive/article.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/zip-drive/article.sgml index 3a2fe2db78..4e1aeeacaa 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/zip-drive/article.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/zip-drive/article.sgml @@ -1,267 +1,267 @@ - %man; ]>
- + ZIP Drives Jason Bacon
acadix@execpc.com
 - + ZIP Drive Basics ZIP disks are high capacity, removable, magnetic disks, which can be read or written by ZIP drives from iomega corporation. ZIP disks are similar to floppy disks, except that they are much faster, and have a much greater capacity. While floppy disks typically hold 1.44 megabytes, ZIP disks are available in two sizes, namely 100 megabytes and 250 megabytes. ZIP drives should not be confused with the super-floppy, a 120 megabyte floppy drive which also handles traditional 1.44 megabyte floppies. IOMEGA also sells a higher capacity, higher performance drive called the JAZZ drive. JAZZ drives come in 1 gigabyte and 2 gigabyte sizes. ZIP drives are available as internal or external units, using one of three interfaces: The SCSI (Small Computer Standard Interface) interface is the fastest, most sophisticated, most expandable, and most expensive interface. The SCSI interface is used by all types of computers from PC's to RISC workstations to minicomputers, to connect all types of peripherals such as disk drives, tape drives, scanners, and so on. SCSI ZIP drives may be internal or external, assuming your host adapter has an external connector. If you are using an external SCSI device, it is important never to connect or disconnect it from the SCSI bus while the computer is running. Doing so may cause file-system damage on the disks that remain connected. If you want maximum performance and easy setup, the SCSI interface is the best choice. This will probably require adding a SCSI host adapter, since most PC's (except for high-performance servers) don't have built-in SCSI support. Each SCSI host adapter can support either 7 or 15 SCSI devices, depending on the model. Each SCSI device has it's own controller, and these controllers are fairly intelligent and well standardized, (the second `S' in SCSI is for Standard) so from the operating system's point of view, all SCSI disk drives look about the same, as do all SCSI tape drives, etc. To support SCSI devices, the operating system need only have a driver for the particular host adapter, and a generic driver for each type of device, i.e. a SCSI disk driver, SCSI tape driver, and so on. There are some SCSI devices that can be better utilized with specialized drivers (e.g. DAT tape drives), but they tend to work OK with the generic driver, too. It's just that the generic drivers may not support some of the special features. Using a SCSI zip drive is simply a matter of determining which device file in the /dev directory represents the ZIP drive. This can be determined by looking at the boot messages while FreeBSD is booting (or in /var/log/messages after booting), where you'll see a line something like this: da1: <IOMEGA ZIP 100 D.13> Removable Direct Access SCSI-2 Device This means that the ZIP drive is represented by the file /dev/da1. The IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) interface is a low-cost disk drive interface used by many desktop PC's. Most IDE devices are strictly internal. Performance of IDE ZIP drives is comparable to SCSI ZIP drives. (The IDE interface is not as fast as SCSI, but ZIP drives performance is limited mainly by the mechanics of the drive, not by the bus interface.) The drawback of the IDE interface is the limitations it imposes. Most IDE adapters can only support 2 devices, and IDE interfaces are not typically designed for the long term. For example, the original IDE interface would not support hard disks with more than 1024 cylinders, which forced a lot of people to upgrade their hardware prematurely. If you have plans to expand your PC by adding another disk, a tape drive, or scanner, you may want to invest in a SCSI host adapter and a SCSI ZIP drive to avoid problems in the future. IDE devices in FreeBSD are prefixed with a w. For example, an IDE hard disk might be /dev/wd0, an IDE (ATAPI) cdrom might be /dev/wcd1, and so on. The parallel port interface is popular for portable external devices such as external ZIP drives and scanners, because virtually every computer has a standard parallel port (usually used for printers). This makes things easy for people to transfer data between multiple computers by toting around their ZIP drive. Performance will generally be slower than a SCSI or IDE ZIP drive, since it is limited by the speed of the parallel port. Parallel port speed varies considerably between various computers, and can often be configured in the system BIOS. Some machines will also require BIOS configuration to operate the parallel port in bidirectional mode. (Parallel ports were originally designed only for output to printers) Parallel ZIP: The <devicename>vpo</devicename> Driver To use a parallel-port ZIP drive under FreeBSD, the vpo driver must be configured into the kernel. Parallel port ZIP drives also have a built-in SCSI controller. The vpo driver allows the FreeBSD kernel to communicate with the ZIP drive's SCSI controller through the parallel port. Since the vpo driver is not a standard part of the kernel (as of FreeBSD 3.2), you will need to rebuild the kernel to enable this device. The process of building a kernel is outlined in detail in another section. The following steps outline the process in brief for the purpose of enabling the vpo driver: Run /stand/sysinstall, and install the kernel source code on your system. &prompt.root; cd /sys/i386/conf &prompt.root; cp GENERIC MYKERNEL Edit MYKERNEL, change the ident line to MYKERNEL, and uncomment the line describing the vpo driver. If you have a second parallel port, you may need to copy the section for ppc0 to create a ppc1 device. The second parallel port usually uses IRQ 5 and address 378. Only the IRQ is required in the config file. If you're root hard disk is a SCSI disk, you might run into a problem with probing order, which will cause the system to attempt to use the ZIP drive as the root device. This will cause a boot failure, unless you happen to have a FreeBSD root file-system on your ZIP disk! In this case, you will need to wire down the root disk, i.e. force the kernel to bind a specific device to /dev/da0, the root SCSI disk. It will then assign the ZIP disk to the next available SCSI disk, e.g. /dev/da1. To wire down your SCSI hard drive as da0, change the line device da0 to disk da0 at scbus0 target 0 unit 0 You may need to change the target above to match the SCSI ID of your disk drive. You should also wire down the scbus0 entry to your controller. For example, if you have an Adaptec 15xx controller, you would change controller scbus0 to controller scbus0 at aha0 Lastly, as long as you're editing the kernel config, you can take the opportunity to remove all the unnecessary drivers. This should be done with a great deal of caution, and only if you feel confident about making kernel modifications. Removing unnecessary drivers will reduce the kernel size, leaving more memory available for your applications. To determine which drivers are not needed, go to the end of the file /var/log/messages, and look for lines reading "not found". Then, comment out these devices in your config file. You can also change other options to reduce the size and increase the speed of your kernel. Read the section on rebuilding your kernel for more complete information. Now it's time to compile the kernel: &prompt.root; /usr/sbin/config MYKERNEL &prompt.root; cd ../../compile/MYKERNEL &prompt.root; make clean depend && make all install After the kernel is rebuilt, you'll need to reboot. Make sure the ZIP drive is connected to the parallel port before the boot begins. You should see the ZIP drive show up in the boot messages as device vpo0 or vpo1, depending on which parallel port the drive is attached to. It should also show which device file the ZIP drive has been bound to. This will be /dev/da0 if you have no other SCSI disks in the system, or /dev/da1 if you have a SCSI hard disk wired down as the root device. Mounting ZIP disks To access the ZIP disk, you simply mount it like any other disk device. The file-system is represented as slice 4 on the device, so for SCSI or parallel ZIP disks, you would use: &prompt.root; mount_msdos /dev/da1s4 /mnt For IDE ZIP drives, use: &prompt.root; mount_msdos /dev/wd1s4 /mnt It will also be helpful to update /etc/fstab to make mounting easier. Add a line like the following, edited to suit your system: /dev/da1s4 /zip msdos rw,noauto 0 0 and create the directory /zip. Then, you can mount simply by typing &prompt.root; mount /zip and unmount by typing &prompt.root; umount /zip For more information on the format of /etc/fstab, see &man.fstab.5;. You can also create a FreeBSD file-system on the ZIP disk using &man.newfs.8;. However, the disk will only be usable on a FreeBSD system, or perhaps a few other Unix clones that recognize FreeBSD file-systems. (Definitely not DOS or Windows.)
diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/dialup-firewall/article.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/dialup-firewall/article.sgml index 2916c685b7..c76119415a 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/dialup-firewall/article.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/dialup-firewall/article.sgml @@ -1,361 +1,361 @@ - %man; ]>
- + Dialup firewalling with FreeBSD Marc Silver
marcs@draenor.org
 - $Date: 2001-02-27 12:45:43 $ + $Date: 2001-04-17 15:53:37 $ This article documents how to setup a firewall using a PPP dialup with FreeBSD and IPFW, and specifically with firewalling over a dialup with a dynamically assigned IP address. This document does not cover setting up your PPP connection in the first place. - + Preface Dialup Firewalling with FreeBSD This document aims to cover the process that is required in order to setup firewalling with FreeBSD when are dynamically assigned an IP address by your ISP. While every effort has been made to make this document as informative and correct as possible, you are welcome to mail your comments/suggestions to the maintainer. Kernel Options The first thing you'll need to do is recompile your kernel in FreeBSD. If you need more information on how to recompile the kernel, then the best place to start is the kernel configuration section in the Handbook. You need to compile the following options into the kernel: options IPFIREWALL Enables the kernel's firewall code. options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE Sends logged packets to the system logger. options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT=100 Limits the number of times a matching entry is logged. This stops your log files filling up with lots of repetitive entries. 100 is a reasonable number to use, but you can adjust it based on your requirements. options IPDIVERT Enables divert sockets, which will be shown later. There are also some other OPTIONAL items that you can compile into the kernel for some added security. These are not required in order to get firewalling to work, but some more paranoid users may want to use them. options TCP_RESTRICT_RST This option blocks all TCP RST packets. This is best used for systems that might be exposed to SYN flooding (IRC Servers are a good example) or for those who do not want to be easily portscannable. options TCP_DROP_SYNFIN This option ignores TCP packets with SYN and FIN. This prevents tools such as nmap etc from identifying the TCP/IP stack of the machine, but breaks support for RFC1644 extensions. This is NOT recommended if the machine will be running a web server. Don't reboot once you have recompiled the kernel. Hopefully, we will need to reboot just once in order to complete the installing of the firewall. Changing <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> to load the firewall We now need to make some changes to /etc/rc.conf in order to tell it about the firewall. Simply add the following lines: firewall_enable="YES" firewall_script="/etc/firewall/fwrules" natd_enable="YES" natd_interface="tun0" natd_flags="-dynamic" For more information on what the above do take a look at /etc/defaults/rc.conf and read &man.rc.conf.5; Disable PPP's network address translation You may already be using PPP's built in network address translation (NAT). If that is the case you will have to disable it, as these examples use &man.natd.8; to do the same. If you already have a block of entries to automatically start PPP it probably looks like this: ppp_enable="YES" ppp_mode="auto" ppp_nat="YES" ppp_profile="profile" If so, remove the ppp_nat="YES" line. You will also need to remove any nat enable yes or alias enable yes in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The ruleset for the firewall We're nearly done now. All that remains now is to define the firewall rules and then we can reboot and the firewall should be up and running. I realise that everyone will want something slightly different when it comes to their rulebase. What I've tried to do is write a rulebase that suits most dialup users. You can obviously modify it to your needs by simply using the following rules as the foundation for your own rulebase. First, let's start with the basics of closed firewalling. What you want to do is deny everything by default and then only open up for the things you really need. Rules should be in the order of allow first and then deny. The premise is that you add the rules for your allows, and then everything else is denied. :) Now, let's make the dir /etc/firewall. Change into the directory and edit the file fwrules as we specified in rc.conf. Please note that you can change this filename to be anything you wish. This guide just gives an example of a filename. Now, let's look at a sample firewall file, and we'll detail everything in it. # Firewall rules # Written by Marc Silver (marcs@draenor.org) # http://draenor.org/ipfw # Freely distributable # Define the firewall command (as in /etc/rc.firewall) for easy # reference. Helps to make it easier to read. fwcmd="/sbin/ipfw" # Force a flushing of the current rules before we reload. $fwcmd -f flush # Divert all packets through the tunnel interface. $fwcmd add divert natd all from any to any via tun0 # Allow all data from my network card and localhost. Make sure you # change your network card (mine was fxp0) before you reboot. :) $fwcmd add allow ip from any to any via lo0 $fwcmd add allow ip from any to any via fxp0 # Allow all connections that I initiate. $fwcmd add allow tcp from any to any out xmit tun0 setup # Once connections are made, allow them to stay open. $fwcmd add allow tcp from any to any via tun0 established # Everyone on the internet is allowed to connect to the following # services on the machine. This example shows that people may connect # to ssh and apache. $fwcmd add allow tcp from any to any 80 setup $fwcmd add allow tcp from any to any 22 setup # This sends a RESET to all ident packets. $fwcmd add reset log tcp from any to any 113 in recv tun0 # Allow outgoing DNS queries ONLY to the specified servers. $fwcmd add allow udp from any to x.x.x.x 53 out xmit tun0 # Allow them back in with the answers... :) $fwcmd add allow udp from x.x.x.x 53 to any in recv tun0 # Allow ICMP (for ping and traceroute to work). You may wish to # disallow this, but I feel it suits my needs to keep them in. $fwcmd add 65435 allow icmp from any to any # Deny all the rest. $fwcmd add 65435 deny log ip from any to any You now have a fully functional firewall that will allow on connections to ports 80 and 22 and will log any other connection attempts. Now, you should be able to safely reboot and your firewall should come up fine. If you find this incorrect in anyway or experience any problems, or have any suggestions to improve this page, please email me. Questions Why are you using natd and ipfw when you could be using the built in ppp-filters? I'll have to be honest and say there's no definitive reason why I use ipfw and natd instead of the built in ppp filters. From the discussions I've had with people the consensus seems to be that while ipfw is certainly more powerful and more configurable than the ppp filters, what it makes up for in functionality it loses in being easy to customise. One of the reasons I use it is because I prefer firewalling to be done at a kernel level rather than by a userland program. If I'm using private addresses internally, such as in the 192.168.0.0 range, Could I add a command like $fwcmd add deny all from any to 192.168.0.0:255.255.0.0 via tun0 to the firewall rules to prevent outside attempts to connect to internal machines? The simple answer is no. The reason for this is that natd is doing address translation for anything being diverted through the tun0 device. As far as it's concerned incoming packets will speak only to the dynamically assigned IP address and NOT to the internal network. Note though that you can add a rule like $fwcmd add deny all from 192.168.0.4:255.255.0.0 to any via tun0 which would limit a host on your internal network from going out via the firewall. There must be something wrong. I followed your instructions to the letter and now I am locked out. This tutorial assumes that you are running userland-ppp, therefore the supplied ruleset operates on the tun0 interface, which corresponds to the first connection made with &man.ppp.8; (a.k.a. user-ppp). Additional connections would use tun1, tun2 and so on. You should also note that &man.pppd.8; uses the ppp0 interface instead, so if you start the connection with &man.pppd.8; you must substitute tun0 for ppp0. A quick way to edit the firewall rules to reflect this change is shown below. The original ruleset is backed up as fwrules_tun0. &prompt.user; cd /etc/firewall /etc/firewall&prompt.user; su Password: /etc/firewall&prompt.root; mv fwrules fwrules_tun0 /etc/firewall&prompt.root; cat fwrules_tun0 | sed s/tun0/ppp0/g > fwrules To know whether you are currently using &man.ppp.8; or &man.pppd.8; you can examine the output of &man.ifconfig.8; once the connection is up. E.g., for a connection made with &man.pppd.8; you would see something like this (showing only the relevant lines): &prompt.user; ifconfig (skipped...) ppp0: flags=8051<UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 1524 inet xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx --> xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx netmask 0xff000000 (skipped...) On the other hand, for a connection made with &man.ppp.8; (user-ppp) you should see something similar to this: &prompt.user; ifconfig (skipped...) ppp0: flags=8010<POINTOPOINT,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 (skipped...) tun0: flags=8051<UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 1524 (IPv6 stuff skipped...) inet xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx --> xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx netmask 0xffffff00 Opened by PID xxxxx (skipped...)
diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/diskless-x/article.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/diskless-x/article.sgml index 1ca1a15061..692ea3367f 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/diskless-x/article.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/diskless-x/article.sgml @@ -1,349 +1,349 @@ - %man; ]>
- + Diskless X Server: a how to guide Jerry Kendall
jerry@kcis.com
28-December-1996 1996 Jerry Kendall With the help of some friends on the FreeBSD-hackers list, I have been able to create a diskless X terminal. The creation of the X terminal required first creating a diskless system with minimal utilities mounted via NFS. These same steps were used to create 2 separate diskless systems. The first is altair.kcis.com. A diskless X terminal that I run on my old 386DX-40. It has a 340Meg hard disk but, I did not want to change it. So, it boots from antares.kcis.com across a Ethernet. The second system is a 486DX2-66. I setup a diskless FreeBSD (complete) that uses no local disk. The server in that case is a Sun 670MP running SunOS 4.1.3. The same setup configuration was needed for both. I am sure that there is stuff that needs to be added to this. Please send me any comments. - + Creating the boot floppy (On the diskless system) Since the network boot loaders will not work with some of the TSR's and such that MS-DOS uses, it is best to create a dedicated boot floppy or, if you can, create an MS-DOS menu that will (via the config.sys/autoexec.bat files) ask what configuration to load when the system starts. The later is the method that I use and it works great. My MS-DOS (6.x) menu is below. <filename>config.sys</filename> [menu] menuitem=normal, normal menuitem=unix, unix [normal] .... normal config.sys stuff ... [unix] <filename>autoexec.bat</filename> @ECHO OFF goto %config% :normal ... normal autoexec.bat stuff ... goto end :unix cd \netboot nb8390.com :end Getting the network boot programs (On the server) Compile the 'net-boot' programs that are located in /usr/src/sys/i386/boot/netboot. You should read the comments at the top of the Makefile. Adjust as required. Make a backup of the original in case it gets foobar'd. When the build is done, there should be 2 MS-DOS executables, nb8390.com and nb3c509.com. One of these two programs will be what you need to run on the diskless server. It will load the kernel from the boot server. At this point, put both programs on the MS-DOS boot floppy created earlier. Determine which program to run (On the diskless system) If you know the chipset that your Ethernet adapter uses, this is easy. If you have the NS8390 chipset, or a NS8390 based chipset, use nb8390.com. If you have a 3Com 509 based chipset, use the nb3C509.com boot program. If you are not sure which you have, try using one, if it says No adapter found, try the other. Beyond that, you are pretty much on your own. Booting across the network Boot the diskless system with out any config.sys/autoexec.bat files. try running the boot program for your Ethernet adapter. My Ethernet adapter is running in WD8013 16bit mode so I run nb8390.com C:> cd \netboot C:> nb8390 Boot from Network (Y/N) ? Y BOOTP/TFTP/NFS bootstrap loader ESC for menu Searching for adapter.. WD8013EBT base 0x0300, memory 0x000D8000, addr 00:40:01:43:26:66 Searching for server... At this point, my diskless system is trying to find a machine to act as a boot server. Make note of the addr line above, you will need this number later. Reset the diskless system and modify your config.sys and autoexec.bat files to do these steps automatically for you. Perhaps in a menu. If you had to run nb3c509.com instead of nb8390.com the output is the same as above. If you got No adapter found at the Searching for adapter... message, verify that you did indeed set the compile time defines in the Makefile correctly. Allowing systems to boot across the network (On the server) Make sure the /etc/inetd.conf file has entries for tftp and bootps. Mine are listed below: tftp dgram udp wait nobody /usr/libexec/tftpd tftpd /tftpboot # # Additions by who ever you are bootps dgram udp wait root /usr/libexec/bootpd bootpd /etc/bootptab If you have to change the /etc/inetd.conf file, send a HUP signal to inetd. To do this, get the process ID of inetd with ps -ax | grep inetd | grep -v grep. Once you have it, send it a HUP signal. Do this by kill -HUP <pid>. This will force inetd to re-read its config file. Did you remember to note the addr line from the output of the boot loader on the diskless system? Guess what, here is where you need it. Add an entry to /etc/bootptab (maybe creating the file). It should be laid out identical to this: altair:\ :ht=ether:\ :ha=004001432666:\ :sm=255.255.255.0:\ :hn:\ :ds=199.246.76.1:\ :ip=199.246.76.2:\ :gw=199.246.76.1:\ :vm=rfc1048: The lines are as follows: altair the diskless systems name without the domain name. ht=ether the hardware type of 'ethernet'. ha=004001432666 the hardware address (the number noted above). sm=255.255.255.0 the subnet mask. hn tells server to send client's hostname to the client. ds=199.246.76.1 tells the client who the domain server is. ip=199.246.76.2 tells the client what it's IP address is. gw=199.246.76.1 tells the client what the default gateway is. vm=... just leave it there. Be sure to setup the IP addresses correctly, the addresses above are my own. Create the directory '/tftpboot' on the server it will contain the configuration files for the diskless systems that the server will serve. These files will be named 'cfg.<ip>' where <ip> is the IP address of the diskless system. The config file for 'altair' is /tftpboot/cfg.199.246.76.2. The contents is: rootfs 199.246.76.1:/DiskLess/rootfs/altair hostname altair.kcis.com The line hostname altair.kcis.com simply tells the diskless system what its fully qualified domain name is. The line rootfs 199.246.76.1:/DiskLess/rootfs/altair tells the diskless system where its NFS mountable root filesystem is located. The NFS mounted root filesystem will be mounted read only. The hierarchy for the diskless system can be re-mounted allowing read-write operations if required. I use my spare 386DX-40 as a dedicated X terminal. The hierarchy for 'altair' is: / /bin /etc /tmp /sbin /dev /dev/fd /usr /var /var/run The actual list of files is: -r-xr-xr-x 1 root wheel 779984 Dec 11 23:44 ./kernel -r-xr-xr-x 1 root bin 299008 Dec 12 00:22 ./bin/sh -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 499 Dec 15 15:54 ./etc/rc -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 1411 Dec 11 23:19 ./etc/ttys -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 157 Dec 15 15:42 ./etc/hosts -rw-r--r-- 1 root bin 1569 Dec 15 15:26 ./etc/XF86Config.altair -r-x------ 1 bin bin 151552 Jun 10 1995 ./sbin/init -r-xr-xr-x 1 bin bin 176128 Jun 10 1995 ./sbin/ifconfig -r-xr-xr-x 1 bin bin 110592 Jun 10 1995 ./sbin/mount_nfs -r-xr-xr-x 1 bin bin 135168 Jun 10 1995 ./sbin/reboot -r-xr-xr-x 1 root bin 73728 Dec 13 22:38 ./sbin/mount -r-xr-xr-x 1 root wheel 1992 Jun 10 1995 ./dev/MAKEDEV.local -r-xr-xr-x 1 root wheel 24419 Jun 10 1995 ./dev/MAKEDEV Don't forget to run MAKEDEV all in the dev directory. My /etc/rc for altair is: #!/bin/sh # PATH=/bin:/ export PATH # # configure the localhost /sbin/ifconfig lo0 127.0.0.1 # # configure the ethernet card /sbin/ifconfig ed0 199.246.76.2 netmask 0xffffff00 # # mount the root filesystem via NFS /sbin/mount antares:/DiskLess/rootfs/altair / # # mount the /usr filesystem via NFS /sbin/mount antares:/DiskLess/usr /usr # /usr/X11R6/bin/XF86_SVGA -query antares -xf86config /etc/XF86Config.altair > /dev/null 2>&1 # # Reboot after X exits /sbin/reboot # # We blew up.... exit 1 Any comments and all questions welcome.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/fonts/article.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/fonts/article.sgml index d737fedd50..a15a3ef658 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/fonts/article.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/fonts/article.sgml @@ -1,988 +1,988 @@ - + - %man; ]>
- + Fonts and FreeBSD A Tutorial Dave Bodenstab
imdave@synet.net
Wed Aug 7, 1996 This document contains a description of the various font files that may be used with FreeBSD and the syscons driver, X11, Ghostscript and Groff. Cookbook examples are provided for switching the syscons display to 80x60 mode, and for using type 1 fonts with the above application programs. - + Introduction There are many sources of fonts available, and one might ask how they might be used with FreeBSD. The answer can be found by carefully searching the documentation for the component that one would like to use. This is very time consuming, so this tutorial is an attempt to provide a shortcut for others who might be interested. Basic terminology There are many different font formats and associated font file suffixes. A few that will be addressed here are: .pfa, .pfb Postscript type 1 fonts. The .pfa is the Ascii form and .pfb the Binary form. .afm The font metrics associated with a type 1 font. .pfm The printer font metrics associated with a type 1 font. .ttf A TrueType font .fot An indirect reference to a TrueType font (not an actual font) .fon, .fnt Bitmapped screen fonts The .fot file is used by Windows as sort of a symbolic link to the actual TrueType font (.ttf) file. The .fon font files are also used by Windows. I know of no way to use this font format with FreeBSD. What font formats can I use? Which font file format is useful depends on the application being used. FreeBSD by itself uses no fonts. Application programs and/or drivers may make use of the font files. Here is a small cross reference of application/driver to the font type suffixes: Driver syscons .fnt Application Ghostscript .pfa, .pfb, .ttf X11 .pfa, .pfb Groff .pfa, .afm Povray .ttf The .fnt suffix is used quite frequently. I suspect that whenever someone wanted to create a specialized font file for their application, more often than not they chose this suffix. Therefore, it is likely that files with this suffix are not all the same format; specifically, the .fnt files used by syscons under FreeBSD may not be the same format as a .fnt file one encounters in the MSDOS/Windows environment. I have not made any attempt at using other .fnt files other than those provided with FreeBSD. Setting a virtual console to 80x60 line mode First, an 8x8 font must be loaded. To do this, /etc/rc.conf should contain the line (change the font name to an appropriate one for your locale): font8x8="iso-8x8" # font 8x8 from /usr/share/syscons/fonts/* (or NO). The command to actually switch the mode is &man.vidcontrol.1;: &prompt.user; vidcontrol VGA_80x60 Various screen orientated programs, such as &man.vi.1;, must be able to determine the current screen dimensions. As this is achieved this through ioctl calls to the console driver (such as &man.syscons.4;) they will correctly determine the new screen dimensions. To make this more seamless, one can embed these commands in the startup scripts so it takes place when the system boots. To do this is add this line to /etc/rc.conf allscreens_flags="VGA_80x60" # Set this vidcontrol mode for all virtual screens References: &man.rc.conf.5;, &man.vidcontrol.1;. Using type 1 fonts with X11 X11 can use either the .pfa or the .pfb format fonts. The X11 fonts are located in various subdirectories under /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts. Each font file is cross referenced to its X11 name by the contents of the fonts.dir file in each directory. There is already a directory named Type1. The most straight forward way to add a new font is to put it into this directory. A better way is to keep all new fonts in a separate directory and use a symbolic link to the additional font. This allows one to more easily keep track of ones fonts without confusing them with the fonts that were originally provided. For example: Create a directory to contain the font files &prompt.user; mkdir -p /usr/local/share/fonts/type1 &prompt.user; cd /usr/local/share/fonts/type1 Place the .pfa, .pfb and .afm files here One might want to keep readme files, and other documentation for the fonts here also &prompt.user; cp /cdrom/fonts/atm/showboat/showboat.pfb . &prompt.user; cp /cdrom/fonts/atm/showboat/showboat.afm . Maintain an index to cross reference the fonts &prompt.user; echo showboat - InfoMagic CICA, Dec 1994, /fonts/atm/showboat >>INDEX Now, to use a new font with X11, one must make the font file available and update the font name files. The X11 font names look like: -bitstream-charter-medium-r-normal-xxx-0-0-0-0-p-0-iso8859-1 | | | | | | | | | | | | \ \ | | | | | \ \ \ \ \ \ \ +----+- character set | | | | \ \ \ \ \ \ \ +- average width | | | | \ \ \ \ \ \ +- spacing | | | \ \ \ \ \ \ +- vertical res. | | | \ \ \ \ \ +- horizontal res. | | | \ \ \ \ +- points | | | \ \ \ +- pixels | | | \ \ \ foundry family weight slant width additional style A new name needs to be created for each new font. If you have some information from the documentation that accompanied the font, then it could serve as the basis for creating the name. If there is no information, then you can get some idea by using &man.strings.1; on the font file. For example: &prompt.user; strings showboat.pfb | more %!FontType1-1.0: Showboat 001.001 %%CreationDate: 1/15/91 5:16:03 PM %%VMusage: 1024 45747 % Generated by Fontographer 3.1 % Showboat 1991 by David Rakowski. Alle Rechte Vorbehalten. FontDirectory/Showboat known{/Showboat findfont dup/UniqueID known{dup /UniqueID get 4962377 eq exch/FontType get 1 eq and}{pop false}ifelse {save true}{false}ifelse}{false}ifelse 12 dict begin /FontInfo 9 dict dup begin /version (001.001) readonly def /FullName (Showboat) readonly def /FamilyName (Showboat) readonly def /Weight (Medium) readonly def /ItalicAngle 0 def /isFixedPitch false def /UnderlinePosition -106 def /UnderlineThickness 16 def /Notice (Showboat 1991 by David Rakowski. Alle Rechte Vorbehalten.) readonly def end readonly def /FontName /Showboat def --stdin-- Using this information, a possible name might be: -type1-Showboat-medium-r-normal-decorative-0-0-0-0-p-0-iso8859-1 The components of our name are: Foundry Lets just name all the new fonts type1. Family The name of the font. Weight Normal, bold, medium, semibold, etc. From the &man.strings.1; output above, it appears that this font has a weight of medium. Slant roman, italic, oblique, etc. Since the ItalicAngle is zero, roman will be used. Width Normal, wide, condensed, extended, etc. Until it can be examined, the assumption will be normal. Additional style Usually omitted, but this will indicate that the font contains decorative capital letters. Spacing proportional or monospaced. Proportional is used since isFixedPitch is false. All of these names are arbitrary, but one should strive to be compatible with the existing conventions. A font is referenced by name with possible wild cards by an X11 program, so the name chosen should make some sense. One might begin by simply using …-normal-r-normal-…-p-… as the name, and then use &man.xfontsel.1; to examine it and adjust the name based on the appearance of the font. So, to complete our example: Make the font accessible to X11 &prompt.user; cd /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/Type1 &prompt.user; ln -s /usr/local/share/fonts/type1/showboat.pfb . Edit fonts.dir and fonts.scale, adding the line describing the font and incrementing the number of fonts which is found on the first line. &prompt.user; ex fonts.dir :1p 25 :1c 26 . :$a showboat.pfb -type1-showboat-medium-r-normal-decorative-0-0-0-0-p-0-iso8859-1 . :wq fonts.scale seems to be identical to fonts.dir… &prompt.user; cp fonts.dir fonts.scale Tell X11 that things have changed &prompt.user; xset fp rehash Examine the new font &prompt.user; xfontsel -pattern -type1-* References: &man.xfontsel.1;, &man.xset.1;, The X Windows System in a Nutshell, O'Reilly & Associates. Using type 1 fonts with Ghostscript Ghostscript references a font via its Fontmap file. This must be modified in a similar way to the X11 fonts.dir file. Ghostscript can use either the .pfa or the .pfb format fonts. Using the font from the previous example, here is how to use it with Ghostscript: Put the font in Ghostscript's font directory &prompt.user; cd /usr/local/share/ghostscript/fonts &prompt.user; ln -s /usr/local/share/fonts/type1/showboat.pfb . Edit Fontmap so Ghostscript knows about the font &prompt.user; cd /usr/local/share/ghostscript/4.01 &prompt.user; ex Fontmap :$a /Showboat (showboat.pfb) ; % From CICA /fonts/atm/showboat . :wq Use Ghostscript to examine the font &prompt.user; gs prfont.ps Aladdin Ghostscript 4.01 (1996-7-10) Copyright (C) 1996 Aladdin Enterprises, Menlo Park, CA. All rights reserved. This software comes with NO WARRANTY: see the file PUBLIC for details. Loading Times-Roman font from /usr/local/share/ghostscript/fonts/tir_____.pfb... /1899520 581354 1300084 13826 0 done. GS>Showboat DoFont Loading Showboat font from /usr/local/share/ghostscript/fonts/showboat.pfb... 1939688 565415 1300084 16901 0 done. >>showpage, press <return> to continue<< >>showpage, press <return> to continue<< >>showpage, press <return> to continue<< GS>quit References: fonts.txt in the Ghostscript 4.01 distribution Using type 1 fonts with Groff Now that the new font can be used by both X11 and Ghostscript, how can one use the new font with groff? First of all, since we are dealing with type 1 postscript fonts, the groff device that is applicable is the ps device. A font file must be created for each font that groff can use. A groff font name is just a file in /usr/share/groff_font/devps. With our example, the font file could be /usr/share/groff_font/devps/SHOWBOAT. The file must be created using tools provided by groff. The first tool is afmtodit. This is not normally installed, so it must be retrieved from the source distribution. I found I had to change the first line of the file, so I did: &prompt.user; cp /usr/src/gnu/usr.bin/groff/afmtodit/afmtodit.pl /tmp &prompt.user; ex /tmp/afmtodit.pl :1c #!/usr/bin/perl -P- . :wq This tool will create the groff font file from the metrics file (.afm suffix.) Continuing with our example: Many .afm files are in Mac format… ^M delimited lines We need to convert them to unix style ^J delimited lines &prompt.user; cd /tmp &prompt.user; cat /usr/local/share/fonts/type1/showboat.afm | tr '\015' '\012' >showboat.afm Now create the groff font file &prompt.user; cd /usr/share/groff_font/devps &prompt.user; /tmp/afmtodit.pl -d DESC -e text.enc /tmp/showboat.afm generate/textmap SHOWBOAT The font can now be referenced with the name SHOWBOAT. If ghostscript is used to drive the printers on the system, then nothing more needs to be done. However, if true postscript printers are used, then the font must be down loaded to the printer in order for the font to be used (unless the printer happens to have the showboat font built in or on an accessible font disk.) The final step is to create a down loadable font. The pfbtops tool is used to create the .pfa format of the font, and the download file is modified to reference the new font. The download file must reference the internal name of the font. This can easily be determined from the groff font file as illustrated: Create the .pfa font file &prompt.user; pfbtops /usr/local/share/fonts/type1/showboat.pfb >showboat.pfa Of course, if the .pfa file is already available, just use a symbolic link to reference it. Get the internal font name &prompt.user; fgrep internalname SHOWBOAT internalname Showboat Tell groff that the font must be down loaded &prompt.user; ex download :$a Showboat showboat.pfa . :wq To test the font: &prompt.user; cd /tmp &prompt.user; cat >example.t <<EOF .sp 5 .ps 16 This is an example of the Showboat font: .br .ps 48 .vs (\n(.s+2)p .sp .ft SHOWBOAT ABCDEFGHI .br JKLMNOPQR .br STUVWXYZ .sp .ps 16 .vs (\n(.s+2)p .fp 5 SHOWBOAT .ft R To use it for the first letter of a paragraph, it will look like: .sp 50p \s(48\f5H\s0\fRere is the first sentence of a paragraph that uses the showboat font as its first letter. Additional vertical space must be used to allow room for the larger letter. EOF &prompt.user; groff -Tps example.t >example.ps To use ghostscript/ghostview &prompt.user; ghostview example.ps To print it &prompt.user; lpr -Ppostscript example.ps References: /usr/src/gnu/usr.bin/groff/afmtodit/afmtodit.man, &man.groff.font.5;, &man.groff.char.7;, &man.pfbtops.1;. Converting TrueType fonts to a groff/postscript format for groff This potentially requires a bit of work, simply because it depends on some utilities that are not installed as part of the base system. They are: ttf2pf TrueType to postscript convertsion utilities. This allows conversion of a TrueType font to an ascii font metric (.afm) file. Currently available at http://sunsite.icm.edu.pl/pub/GUST/contrib/BachoTeX98/ttf2pf. Note: These files are postscript programs and must be downloaded to disk by holding down the Shift key when clicking on the link. Otherwise, your browser may try to launch ghostview to view them. The files of interest are: GS_TTF.PS PF2AFM.PS ttf2pf.ps The funny upper/lower case is due to their being intended also for DOS shells. ttf2pf.ps makes use of the others as upper case, so any renaming must be consistent with this. (Actually, GS_TTF.PS and PFS2AFM.PS are supposedly part of the ghostscript distribution, but it's just as easy to use these as an isolated utility. FreeBSD doesn't seem to include the latter.) You also may want to have these installed to /usr/local/share/groff_font/devps(?). afmtodit Creates font files for use with groff from ascii font metrics file. This usually resides in the directory, /usr/src/contrib/groff/afmtodit, and requires some work to get going. If you're paranoid about working in the /usr/src tree, simply copy the contents of the above directory to a work location. In the work area, you'll need to make the utility. Just type: # make -f Makefile.sub afmtodit You may also need to copy /usr/contrib/groff/devps/generate/textmap to /usr/share/groff_font/devps/generate if it doesn't already exist. Once all these utilities are in place, you're ready to commence: Create the .afm file by typing: % gs -dNODISPLAY -q -- ttf2pf.ps TTF_name PS_font_name AFM_name Where, TTF_name is your TrueType font file, PS_font_name is the file name for the .pfa file, AFM_name is the name you wish for the .afm file. If you do not specify output file names for the .pfa or .afm files, then default names will be generated from the TrueType font file name. This also produces a .pfa file, the ascii postscript font metrics file (.pfb is for the binrary form). This won't be needed, but could (I think) be useful for a fontserver. For example, to convert the 30f9 Barcode font using the default file names, use the following command: % gs -dNODISPLAY -- ttf2pf.ps 3of9.ttf Aladdin Ghostscript 5.10 (1997-11-23) Copyright (C) 1997 Aladdin Enterprises, Menlo Park, CA. All rights reserved. This software comes with NO WARRANTY: see the file PUBLIC for details. Converting 3of9.ttf to 3of9.pfa and 3of9.afm. If you want the converted fonts to be stored in A.pfa and B.afm, then use this command: % gs -dNODISPLAY -- ttf2pf.ps 3of9.ttf A B Aladdin Ghostscript 5.10 (1997-11-23) Copyright (C) 1997 Aladdin Enterprises, Menlo Park, CA. All rights reserved. This software comes with NO WARRANTY: see the file PUBLIC for details. Converting 3of9.ttf to A.pfa and B.afm. Create the groff postscript file: Change directories to /usr/share/groff_font/devps so as to make the following command easier to execute. You'll probably need root priviledges for this. (Or, if you're paranoid about working there, make sure you reference the files DESC, text.enc and generate/textmap as being in this directory.) % afmtodit -d DESC -e text.enc file.afm \ generate/textmap PS_font_name Where, file.afm is the AFM_name created by ttf2pf.ps above, and PS_font_name is the font name used from that command, as well as the name that &man.groff.1; will use for references to this font. For example, assuming you used the first tiff2pf.ps command above, then the 3of9 Barcode font can be created using the command: % afmtodit -d DESC -e text.enc 3of9.afm \ generate/textmap 3of9 Ensure that the resulting PS_font_name file (e.g., 3of9 in the example above) is located in the directory /usr/share/groff_font/devps by copying or moving it there. Note that if ttf2pf.ps assigns a font name using the one it finds in the TrueType font file and you want to use a different name, you must edit the .afm file prior to running afmtodit. This name must also match the one used in the Fontmap file if you wish to pipe &man.groff.1; into &man.gs.1;. Can TrueType fonts be used with other programs? The TrueType font format is used by Windows, Windows 95, and Mac's. It is quite popular and there are a great number of fonts available in this format. Unfortunately, there are few applications that I am aware of that can use this format: Ghostscript and Povray come to mind. Ghostscript's support, according to the documentation, is rudimentary and the results are likely to be inferior to type 1 fonts. Povray version 3 also has the ability to use TrueType fonts, but I rather doubt many people will be creating documents as a series of raytraced pages :-). This rather dismal situation may soon change. The FreeType Project is currently developing a useful set of FreeType tools: The freetype module is included with XFree86 4.x. For more information please see the FreeBSD Handbook or the XFree86 4.0.2 Fonts page. The xfsft font server for X11 can serve TrueType fonts in addition to regular fonts. Though currently in beta, it is said to be quite useable. See Juliusz Chroboczek's page for further information. Porting instructions for FreeBSD can be found at Stephen Montgomery's software page. xfstt is another font server for X11, available under ftp://sunsite.unc.edu/pub/Linux/X11/fonts. A program called ttf2bdf can produce BDF files suitable for use in an X environment from TrueType files. Linux binaries are said to be available from ftp://crl.nmsu.edu/CLR/multiling/General/. For people requiring the use of Asian TrueType fonts, the XTT font server may be worth a look. Information about XTT can be found at URL: http://hawk.ise.chuo-u.ac.jp/student/person/tshiozak/study/freebsd-at-random/x-tt/index-en.html. and others … The FreeType Projects page is a good starting point for information on these and other free TrueType projects. Where can additional fonts be obtained? Many fonts are available on the Internet. They are either entirely free, or are share-ware. In addition, there are many inexpensive CDROMs available that contain many fonts. Some Internet locations (as of August 1996) are: ftp://ftp.winsite.com (Formerly CICA) http://www.simtel.net/simcgi-bin/dosfind.cgi ftp://ftp.coast.net/ http://af-pc-plloyd.ecel.uwa.edu.au/fonts/index.html http://www.esselte.com/letraset/index.html http://www.inil.com/users/elfring/esf.htm Additional questions What use are the .pfm files? Can one generate the .afm file from a .pfa or .pfb? How to generate the groff character mapping files for postscript fonts with non-standard character names? Can xditview and devX?? devices be setup to access all the new fonts? It would be good to have examples of using TrueType fonts with povray and ghostscript.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/formatting-media/article.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/formatting-media/article.sgml index 6708d35396..c6854498eb 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/formatting-media/article.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/formatting-media/article.sgml @@ -1,603 +1,603 @@ - %man; ]> - +
- + Formatting Media For Use With FreeBSD 2.2-RELEASE A Tutorial Doug White
dwhite@resnet.uoregon.edu
March 1997 This document describes how to slice, partition, and format hard disk drives and similar media for use with FreeBSD. The examples given have been tested under FreeBSD 2.2-GAMMA and may work for other releases. - + Introduction & Definitions Overview Successfully adding disks to an existing system is the mark of an experienced system administrator. Slicing, partitioning, and adding disks requires a careful dance of proper command and name syntax. One slipped finger and an entire disk could disappear in seconds. This document is written in an attempt to simplify this process and avoid accidents. Thankfully, enhancements to existing tools (notably sysinstall) have greatly improved this process in recent releases of FreeBSD. There are two possible modes of disk formatting: compatibility mode: Arranging a disk so that it has a slice table for use with other operating systems. dangerously dedicated mode: Formatting a disk with no slice table. This makes the process of adding disks easier, however non-FreeBSD operating systems may not accept the disk. For most cases, dedicated mode is the easiest to set up and use in existing systems, as a new disk is usually dedicated entirely to FreeBSD. However, compatibility mode insures optimum interoperability with future installations at a cost of increased complexity. In addition to selecting the mode, two methods of slicing the disk are available. One is using the system installation tool /stand/sysinstall. 2.1.7-RELEASE and later versions of sysinstall contain code to ease setup of disks during normal system operation, mainly allowing access to the Label and Partition editors and a Write feature which will update just the selected disk and slice without affecting other disks. The other method is running the tools manually from a root command line. For dangerously dedicated mode, only three or four commands are involved while sysinstall requires some manipulation. Definitions UNIX disk management over the centuries has invented many new definitions for old words. The following glossary covers the definitions used in this document and (hopefully) for FreeBSD in general. compatibility mode: Arranging a disk so that it has a slice table for use with other operating systems. Oppose dangerously dedicated mode. dangerously dedicated mode: Formatting a disk with no slice table. This makes the process of adding disks easier, however non-FreeBSD operating systems may not accept the disk. Oppose compatibility mode. disk: A circular disc, covered with magnetic or similarly manipulable material, spun by a motor under a head. Data is stored on the disk by changing the pattern of magnetism on the disc, which can be later read. Hard disks, CD-ROMs, Magneto-optical,and Zip/Jaz removables are examples of disks. slice: A division of a disk. Up to four slices are permitted on one disk in the PC standard. Slices are composed of contiguous sectors. Slices are recorded in a slice table used by the system BIOS to locate bootable partitions. The slice table is usually called the Partition Table in DOS parlance. Maintained by the fdisk utility. partition: A division of a slice. Usually used in reference to divisions of the FreeBSD slice of a disk. Each filesystem and swap area on a disk resides in a partition. Maintained using the disklabel utility. sector: Smallest subdivision of a disk. One sector usually represents 512 bytes of data. Warnings & Pitfalls Building disks is not something to take lightly. It is quite possible to destroy the contents of other disks in your system if the proper precautions are not taken. Check your work carefully. It is very simple to destroy the incorrect disk when working with these commands. When in doubt consult the kernel boot output for the proper device. Needless to say, we are not responsible for any damage to any data or hardware that you may experience. You work at your own risk! Zip, Jaz, and Other Removables Removable disks can be formatted in the same way as normal hard disks. It is essential to have the disk drive connected to the system and a disk placed in the drive during startup, so the kernel can determine the drive's geometry. Check the dmesg output and make sure your device and the disk's size is listed. If the kernel reports Can't get the size then the disk was not in the drive. In this case, you will need to restart the machine before attempting to format disks. Formatting Disks in Dedicated Mode Introduction This section details how to make disks that are totally dedicated to FreeBSD. Remember, dedicated mode disks cannot be booted by the PC architecture. Making Dedicated Mode Disks using Sysinstall /stand/sysinstall, the system installation utility, has been expanded in recent versions to make the process of dividing disks properly a less tiring affair. The fdisk and disklabel editors built into sysinstall are GUI tools that remove much of the confusion from slicing disks. For FreeBSD versions 2.1.7 and later, this is perhaps the simplest way to slice disks. Start sysinstall as root by typing &prompt.root; /stand/sysinstall from the command prompt. Select Index. Select Partition. Select the disk to edit with arrow keys and SPACE. If you are using this entire disk for FreeBSD, select A. When asked: Do you want to do this with a true partition entry so as to remain cooperative with any future possible operating systems on the drive(s)? answer No. When asked if you still want to do this, answer Yes. Select Write. When warned about Writing on installed systems, answer Yes. Quitthe FDISK Editor and ESCAPE back to the Index menu. Select Label from the Index menu. Label as desired. For a single partition, enter C to Create a partition, accept the default size, partition type Filesystem, and a mountpoint (which isn't used). Enter W when done and confirm to continue. The filesystem will be newfs'd for you, unless you select otherwise (for news partitions you'll want to do this!). You'll get the error: Error mounting /mnt/dev/wd2s1e on /mnt/blah : No such file or directory Ignore. Exit out by repeatedly pressing ESCAPE. Making Dedicated Mode Disks Using the Command Line Execute the following commands, replacing wd2 with the disk name. &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rwd2 count=2 &prompt.root; disklabel /dev/rwd2 | disklabel -B -R -r wd2 /dev/stdin We only want one partition, so using slice 'c' should be fine: &prompt.root; newfs /dev/rwd2c If you need to edit the disklabel to create multiple partitions (such as swap), use the following: &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rwd2 count=2 &prompt.root; disklabel /dev/r$d > /tmp/label Edit disklabel to add partitions: &prompt.root; vi /tmp/label &prompt.root; disklabel -B -R -r wd2 /tmp/label newfs partitions appropriately Your disk is now ready for use. Making Compatibility Mode Disks Introduction The command line is the easiest way to make dedicated disks, and the worst way to make compatibility disks. The command-line fdisk utility requires higher math skills and an in-depth understanding of the slice table, which is more than most people want to deal with. Use sysinstall for compatibility disks, as described below. Making Compatibility Mode Disks Using Sysinstall Start sysinstall as root by typing &prompt.root; /stand/sysinstall from the command prompt. Select Index. Select Partition. Select the disk to edit with arrow keys and SPACE. If you are using this entire disk for FreeBSD, select A. When asked: Do you want to do this with a true partition entry so as to remain cooperative with any future possible operating systems on the drive(s)? answer yes. Select Write. When asked to install the boot manager, select None with SPACE then hit ENTER for OK. Quit the FDISK Editor. You'll be asked about the boot manager, select None again. Select Label from the Index menu. Label as desired. For a single partition, accept the default size, type filesystem, and a mountpoint (which isn't used). The filesystem will be newfs'd for you, unless you select otherwise (for news partitions you'll want to do this!). You'll get the error: Error mounting /mnt/dev/wd2s1e on /mnt/blah : No such file or directory Ignore. Exit out by repeatedly pressing ESCAPE. Your new disk is now ready for use. Other Disk Operations Adding Swap Space As a system grows, it's need for swap space can also grow. Although adding swap space to existing disks is very difficult, a new disk can be partitioned with additional swap space. To add swap space when adding a disk to a system: When partitioning the disk, edit the disklabel and allocate the amount of swap space to add in partition `b' and the remainder in another partition, such as `a' or `e'. The size is given in 512 byte blocks. When newfsing the drive, do NOT newfs the `c' partition. Instead, newfs the partition where the non-swap space lies. Add an entry to /etc/fstab as follows: /dev/wd0b none swap sw 0 0 Change /dev/wd0b to the device of the newly added space. To make the new space immediately available, use the swapon command. &prompt.root; swapon /dev/sd0b swapon: added /dev/sd0b as swap space Copying the Contents of Disks Submitted By: Renaud Waldura (renaud@softway.com) To move file from your original base disk to the fresh new one, do: &prompt.root; mount /dev/wd2 /mnt &prompt.root; pax -r -w -p e /usr/home /mnt &prompt.root; umount /mnt &prompt.root; rm -rf /usr/home/* &prompt.root; mount /dev/wd2 /usr/home Creating Striped Disks using CCD Commands Submitted By: Stan Brown (stanb@awod.com) The Concatenated Disk Driver, or CCD, allows you to treat several identical disks as a single disk. Striping can result in increased disk performance by distributing reads and writes across the disks. See the &man.ccd.4; and &man.ccdconfig.8; man pages or the CCD Homepage for further details. To create a new CCD, execute the following commands. This describes how to add three disks together; simply add or remove devices as necessary. Remember that the disks to be striped must be identical. Before executing these commands, make sure you add the line pseudo-device ccd 4 to your kernel. &prompt.root; cd /dev ; sh MAKDEV ccd0 &prompt.root; disklabel -r -w sd0 auto &prompt.root; disklabel -r -w sd1 auto &prompt.root; disklabel -r -w sd2 auto &prompt.root; disklabel -e sd0c change type to 4.2BSD &prompt.root; disklabel -e sd1c change type to 4.2BSD &prompt.root; disklabel -e sd2c change type to 4.2BSD &prompt.root; ccdconfig ccd0 32 0 /dev/sd0c /dev/sd1c /dev/sd2c &prompt.root; newfs /dev/rccd0c Now you can mount and use your CCD by referencing device /dev/ccd0c. Credits The author would like to thank the following individuals for their contributions to this project: Darryl Okahata (darrylo@hpnmhjw.sr.hp.com) for his simple dedicated mode setup documentation which I have used repeatedly on freebsd-questions. Jordan Hubbard (jkh@FreeBSD.org) for making sysinstall useful for this type of task. John Fieber (jfieber@indiana.edu) for making information and examples of the DocBook DTD on which this document is based. Greg Lehey (grog@FreeBSD.org) for checking my work and pointing out inaccuracies, as well as miscellaneous support.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/mh/article.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/mh/article.sgml index fef11739c2..27ff6c8651 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/mh/article.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/mh/article.sgml @@ -1,782 +1,782 @@ - + - +
- + An MH Primer Matt Midboe
matt@garply.com
v1.0, 16 January 1996 This document contains an introduction to using MH on FreeBSD - + Introduction MH started back in 1977 at the RAND Corporation, where the initial philosophies behind MH were developed. MH isn't so much a monolithic email program but a philosophy about how best to develop tools for reading email. The MH developers have done a great job adhering to the KISS principle: Keep It Simple Stupid. Rather than have one large program for reading, sending and handling email they have written specialized programs for each part of your email life. One might liken MH to the specialization that one finds in insects and nature. Each tool in MH does one thing, and does it very well. Beyond just the various tools that one uses to handle their email MH has done an excellent job keeping the configuration of each of these tools consistent and uniform. In fact, if you are not quite sure how something is supposed to work or what the arguments for some command are supposed to be then you can generally guess and be right. Each MH command is consistent about how it handles reading the configuration files and how it takes arguments on the command line. One useful thing to remember is that you can always add a to the command to have it display the options for that command. The first thing that you need to do is to make sure that you have installed the MH package on your FreeBSD machine. If you installed from CDROM you should be able to execute the following to load mh: &prompt.root; pkg_add /cdrom/packages/mh-6.8.3.tgz You will notice that it created a /usr/local/lib/mh directory for you as well as adding several binaries to the /usr/local/bin directory. If you would prefer to compile it yourself then you can anonymous ftp it from ftp.ics.uci.edu or louie.udel.edu. This primer is not a full comprehensive explanation of how MH works. This is just intended to get you started on the road to happier, faster mail reading. You should read the man pages for the various commands. Also you might want to read the comp.mail.mh newsgroup. Also you can read the FAQ for MH. The best resource for MH is the O'Reilly and Associates book written by Jerry Peek. Reading Mail This section covers how to use inc, show, scan, next, prev, rmm, rmf, and msgchk. One of the best things about MH is the consistent interface between programs. A few things to keep in mind when using these commands is how to specify message lists. In the case of inc this doesn't really make any sense but with commands like show it is useful to know. A message list can consist of something like 23 20 16 which will act on messages 23, 20 and 16. This is fairly simple but you can do more useful things like 23-30 which will act on all the messages between 23 and 30. You can also specify something like cur:10 which will act on the current message and the next 9 messages. The cur, last, and first messages are special messages that refer to the current, last or first message in the folder. <command>inc</command>, <command>msgchk</command>—read in your new email or check it If you just type in inc and hit return you will be well on your way to getting started with MH. The first time you run inc it will setup your account to use all the MH defaults and ask you about creating a Mail directory. If you have mail waiting to be downloaded you will see something that looks like: 29 01/15 Doug White Re: Another Failed to boot problem<<On Mon, 15 J 30 01/16 "Jordan K. Hubbar Re: FBSD 2.1<<> Do you want a library instead of 31 01/16 Bruce Evans Re: location of bad144 table<<>> >It would appea 32 01/16 "Jordan K. Hubbar Re: video is up<<> Anyway, mrouted won't run, ev 33 01/16 Michael Smith Re: FBSD 2.1<<Nate Williams stands accused of sa This is the same thing you will see from a scan (see ). If you just run inc with no arguments it will look on your computer for email that is supposed to be coming to you. A lot of people like to use POP for grabbing their email. MH can do POP to grab your email. You will need to give inc a few command line arguments. &prompt.user; inc -host mail.pop.org -user username -norpop That tells inc to go to mail.pop.org to download your email, and that your username on their system is username. The option tells inc to use plain POP3 for downloading your email. MH has support for a few different dialects of POP. More than likely you will never ever need to use them though. While you can do more complex things with inc such as audit files and scan format files this will get you going. The msgchk command is used to get information on whether or not you have new email. msgchk takes the same and options that inc takes. <command>show</command>, <command>next</command> and <command>prev</command>—displaying and moving through email show is to show a letter in your current folder. Like inc, show is a fairly straightforward command. If you just type show and hit return then it displays the current message. You can also give specific message numbers to show: &prompt.user; show 32 45 56 This would display message numbers 32, 45 and 56 right after each other. Unless you change the default behavior show basically just does a more on the email message. next is used to move onto the next message and prev will go to the previous message. Both commands have an implied show command so that when you go to the next message it automatically displays it. <command>scan</command>—shows you a scan of your messages scan will display a brief listing of the messages in your current folder. This is an example of what the scan command will give you. 30+ 01/16 "Jordan K. Hubbar Re: FBSD 2.1<<> Do you want a library instead of 31 01/16 Bruce Evans Re: location of bad144 table<<>> >It would appea 32 01/16 "Jordan K. Hubbar Re: video is up<<> Anyway, mrouted won't run, ev 33 01/16 Michael Smith Re: FBSD 2.1<<Nate Williams stands accused of sa Like just about everything in MH this display is very configurable. This is the typical default display. It gives you the message number, the date on the email, the sender, the subject line, and a sentence fragment from the very beginning of the email if it can fit it. The + means that message is the current message, so if you do a show it will display that message. One useful option for scan is the option. This will list your messages with the highest message number first and lowest message number last. Another useful option with scan is to have it read from a file. If you want to scan your incoming mailbox on FreeBSD without having to inc it you can do scan -file /var/mail/username. This can be used with any file that is in the mbox format. <command>rmm</command> and <command>rmf</command>—remove the current message or folder rmm is used to remove a mail message. The default is typically to not actually remove the message but to rename the file to one that is ignored by the MH commands. You will need to through periodically and physically delete the removed messages. The rmf command is used to remove folders. This doesn't just rename the files but actually removes the from the hard drive so you should be careful when you use this command. A typical session of reading with MH The first thing that you will want to do is inc your new mail. So at a shell prompt just type in inc and hit return. &prompt.user; inc Incorporating new mail into inbox... 36+ 01/19 "Stephen L. Lange Request...<<Please remove me as contact for pind 37 01/19 Matt Thomas Re: kern/950: Two PCI bridge chips fail (multipl 38 01/19 "Amancio Hasty Jr Re: FreeBSD and VAT<<>>> Bill Fenner said: > In &prompt.user; This shows you the new email that has been added to your mailbox. So the next thing to do is show the email and move around. &prompt.user; show Received: by sashimi.wwa.com (Smail3.1.29.1 #2) id m0tdMZ2-001W2UC; Fri, 19 Jan 96 13:33 CST Date: Fri, 19 Jan 1996 13:33:31 -0600 (CST) From: "Stephen L. Lange" <stvlange@wwa.com> To: matt@garply.com Subject: Request... Message-Id: <Pine.BSD.3.91.960119133211.824A-100000@sashimi.wwa.com> Mime-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: TEXT/PLAIN; charset=US-ASCII Please remove me as contact for pindat.com &prompt.user; rmm &prompt.user; next Received: from localhost (localhost [127.0.0.1]) by whydos.lkg.dec.com (8.6.11/8 .6.9) with SMTP id RAA24416; Fri, 19 Jan 1996 17:56:48 GMT Message-Id: <199601191756.RAA24416@whydos.lkg.dec.com> X-Authentication-Warning: whydos.lkg.dec.com: Host localhost didn't use HELO pro tocol To: hsu@clinet.fi Cc: hackers@FreeBSD.org Subject: Re: kern/950: Two PCI bridge chips fail (multiple multiport ethernet boards) In-Reply-To: Your message of "Fri, 19 Jan 1996 00:18:36 +0100." <199601182318.AA11772@Sysiphos> X-Mailer: exmh version 1.5omega 10/6/94 Date: Fri, 19 Jan 1996 17:56:40 +0000 From: Matt Thomas <matt@lkg.dec.com> Sender: owner-hackers@FreeBSD.org Precedence: bulk This is due to a typo in pcireg.h (to which I am probably the guilty party). The rmm removed the current message and the next command moved me on to the next message. Now if I wanted to look at ten most recent messages so I could read one of them here is what I would do: &prompt.user; scan last:10 26 01/16 maddy Re: Testing some stuff<<yeah, well, Trinity has 27 01/17 Automatic digest NET-HAPPENINGS Digest - 16 Jan 1996 to 17 Jan 19 28 01/17 Evans A Criswell Re: Hey dude<<>From matt@tempest.garply.com Tue 29 01/16 Karl Heuer need configure/make volunteers<<The FSF is looki 30 01/18 Paul Stephanouk Re: [alt.religion.scientology] Raw Meat (humor)< 31 01/18 Bill Lenherr Re: Linux NIS Solaris<<--- On Thu, 18 Jan 1996 1 34 01/19 John Fieber Re: Stuff for the email section?<<On Fri, 19 Jan 35 01/19 support@foo.garpl [garply.com #1138] parlor<<Hello. This is the Ne 37+ 01/19 Matt Thomas Re: kern/950: Two PCI bridge chips fail (multipl 38 01/19 "Amancio Hasty Jr Re: FreeBSD and VAT<<>>> Bill Fenner said: > In &prompt.user; Then if I wanted to read message number 27 I would do a show 27 and it would be displayed. As you can probably tell from this sample session MH is pretty easy to use and looking through emails and displaying them is fairly intuitive and easy. Folders and Mail Searching Anybody who gets lots of email definitely wants to be able to prioritize, stamp, brief, de-brief, and number their emails in a variety of different ways. MH can do this better than just about anything. One thing that we haven't really talked about is the concept of folders. You have undoubtedly come across the folders concept using other email programs. MH has folders too. MH can even do sub-folders of a folder. One thing you should keep in mind with MH is that when you ran inc for the first time and it asked you if it could create a Mail directory it began storing everything in that directory. If you look at that directory you will find a directory named inbox. The inbox directory houses all of your incoming mail that hasn't been thrown anywhere else. Whenever you create a new folder a new directory is going to be created underneath your MH Mail directory, and messages in that folder are going to be stored in that directory. When new email comes in that new email is thrown into your inbox directory with a file name that is equivalent to the message number. So even if you didn't have any of the MH tools to read your email you could still use standard UNIX commands to munge around in those directories and just more your files. It's this simplicity that really gives you a lot of power with what you can do with your email. Just as you can use message lists like 23 16 42 with most MH commands there is a folder option you can specify with just about every MH command. If you do a scan +freebsd it will scan your freebsd folder, and your current folder will be changed to freebsd. If you do a show +freebsd 23 16 42, show is going to switch to your freebsd folder and display messages 23, 16 and 42. So remember that syntax. You will need to make sure you use it to make commands process different folders. Remember you default folder for mail is inbox so doing a folder +inbox should always get you back to your mail. Of course, in MH's infinite flexibility this can be changed but most places have probably left it as inbox. <command>pick</command>—search email that matches certain criteria pick is one of the more complex commands in the MH system. So you might want to read the pick1 man page for a more thorough understanding. At its simplest level you can do something like &prompt.user; pick -search pci 15 42 55 56 57 This will tell pick to look through every single line in every message in your current folder and tell you which message numbers it found the word pci in. You can then show those messages and read them if you wish or rmm them. You would have to specify something like show 15 42 55-57 to display them though. A slightly more useful thing to do is this: &prompt.user; pick -search pci -seq pick 5 hits &prompt.user; show pick This will show you the same messages you just didn't have to work as hard to do it. The option is really an abbreviation of and pick is just a sequence which contains the message numbers that matched. You can use sequences with just about any MH command. So you could have done an rmm pick and all those messages would be removed instead. You sequence can be named anything. If you run pick again it will overwrite the old sequence if you use the same name. Doing a pick -search can be a bit more time consuming than just searching for message from someone, or to someone. So pick allows you to use the following predefined search criteria: search based upon who the message is to search based on who is in the cc list search for who sent the message search for emails with this subject find emails with a matching dat search for any other component in the header. (i.e. to find all emails with a certain reply-to in the header) This allows you to do things like &prompt.user; pick -to freebsd-hackers@FreeBSD.org -seq hackers to get a list of all the email send to the FreeBSD hackers mailing list. pick also allows you to group these criteria in different ways using the following options: … … … &hellip … … These commands allow you to do things like &prompt.user; pick -to freebsd-hackers -and -cc freebsd-hackers That will grab all the email in your inbox that was sent to freebsd-hackers or cc'd to that list. The brace options allow you to group search criteria together. This is sometimes very necessary as in the following example &prompt.user; pick -lbrace -to freebsd-hackers -and -not -cc freebsd-questions -rbrace -and -subject pci Basically this says pick (to freebsd-hackers and not cc'd on freebsd-questions) and the subject is pci. It should look through your folder and find all messages sent to the freebsd-hackers list that aren't cc'd to the freebsd-questions list that contain something on pci in the subject line. Ordinarily you might have to worry about something called operator precedence. Remember in math how you evaluate from left to right and you do multiplication and division first and addition and subtraction second? MH has the same type of rules for pick. It's fairly complex so you might want to study the man page. This document is just to help you get acquainted with MH. <command>folder</command>, <command>folders</command>, <command>refile</command>—three useful programs for folder maintenance There are three programs which are primarily just for manipulating your folders. The folder program is used to switch between folders, pack them, and list them. At its simplest level you can do a folder +newfolder and you will be switched into newfolder. From there on out all your MH commands like comp, repl, scan, and show will act on that newfolder folder. Sometimes when you are reading and deleting messages you will develop holes in your folders. If you do a scan you might just see messages 34, 35, 36, 43, 55, 56, 57, 80. If you do a folder -pack this will renumber all your messages so that there are no holes. It doesn't actually delete any messages though. So you may need to periodically go through and physically delete rmm'd messages. If you need statistics on your folders you can do a folders or folder -all to list all your folders, how many messages they have, what the current message is in each one and so on. This line of stats it displays for all your folders is the same one you get when you change to a folder with folder +foldername. A folders command looks like this: Folder # of messages ( range ); cur msg (other files) announce has 1 message ( 1- 1). drafts has no messages. f-hackers has 43 messages ( 1- 43). f-questions has 16 messages ( 1- 16). inbox+ has 35 messages ( 1- 38); cur= 37. lists has 8 messages ( 1- 8). netfuture has 1 message ( 1- 1). out has 31 messages ( 1- 31). personal has 6 messages ( 1- 6). todo has 58 messages ( 1- 58); cur= 1. TOTAL= 199 messages in 13 folders. The refile command is what you use to move messages between folders. When you do something like refile 23 +netfuture message number 23 is moved into the netfuture folder. You could also do something like refile 23 +netfuture/latest which would put message number 23 in a subfolder called latest under the netfuture folder. If you want to keep a message in the current folder and link it you can do a refile -link 23 +netfuture which would keep 23 in your current inbox but also list in your netfuture folder. You are probably beginning to realize some of the really powerful things you can do with MH. Sending Mail Email is a two way street for most people so you want to be able to send something back. The way MH handles sending mail can be a bit difficult to follow at first, but it allows for incredible flexibility. The first thing MH does is to copy a components file into your outgoing email. A components file is basically a skeleton email letter with stuff like the To: and Subject: headers already in it. You are then sent into your editor where you fill in the header information and then type the body of your message below the dashed lines in the message. Then to the whatnow program. When you are at the What now? prompt you can tell it to send, list, edit, edit, push, and quit. Most of these commands are self-explanatory. So the message sending process involves copying a component file, editing your email, and then telling the whatnow program what to do with your email. <command>comp</command>, <command>forw</command>, <command>reply</command>—compose, forward or reply to a message to someone The comp program has a few useful command line options. The most important one to know right now is the option. When MH is installed the default editor is usually a program called prompter which comes with MH. It's not a very exciting editor and basically just gets the job done. So when you go to compose a message to someone you might want to use comp -editor /usr/bin/vi/ or comp -editor /usr/local/bin/pico/ instead. Once you have run comp you are in your editor and you see something that looks like this: To: cc: Subject: -------- You need to put the person you are sending the mail to after the To: line. It works the same way for the other headers also, so you would need to put your subject after the Subject: line. Then you would just put the body of your message after the dashed lines. It may seem a bit simplistic since a lot of email programs have special requesters that ask you for this information but there really isn't any point to that. Plus this really gives you excellent flexibility. To:freebsd-rave@FreeBSD.org cc: Subject:And on the 8th day God created the FreeBSD core team -------- Wow this is an amazing operating system. Thanks! You can now save this message and exit your editor. You will see the What now? prompt and you can type in send or s and hit return. Then the FreeBSD core team will receive their just rewards. As I mentioned earlier you can also use other commands, for example quit if you don't want to send the message. The forw command is stunningly similar. The big difference being that the message you are forwarding is automatically included in the outgoing message. When you run forw it will forward your current message. You can always tell it to forward something else by doing something like forw 23 and then message number 23 will be put in your outgoing message instead of the current message. Beyond those small differences forw functions exactly the same as comp. You go through the exact same message sending process. The repl command will reply to whatever your current message is, unless you give it a different message to reply to. repl will do its best to go ahead and fill in some of the email headers already. So you will notice that the To: header already has the address of the recipient in there. Also the Subject: line will already be filled in. You then go about the normal message composition process and you are done. One useful command line option to know here is the option. You can use all, to, cc, me after the option to have repl automatically add the various addresses to the cc list in the message. You have probably noticed that the original message isn't included. This is because most MH setups are configured to do this from the start. <filename>components</filename>, and <filename>replcomps</filename>—components files for <command>comp</command> and <command>repl</command> The components file is usually in /usr/local/lib/mh. You can copy that file into your MH Mail directory and edit to contain what you want it to contain. It is a fairly basic file. You have various email headers at the top, a dashed line and then nothing. The comp command just copies this components file and then edits it. You can add any kind of valid RFC822 header you want. For instance you could have something like this in your components file: To: Fcc: out Subject: X-Mailer: MH 6.8.3 X-Home-Page: http://www.FreeBSD.org/ ------- MH would then copy this components file and throw you into your editor. The components file is fairly simple. If you wanted to have a signature on those messages you would just put your signature in that components file. The replcomps file is a bit more complex. The default replcomps looks like this: %(lit)%(formataddr %<{reply-to}%?{from}%?{sender}%?{return-path}%>)\ %<(nonnull)%(void(width))%(putaddr To: )\n%>\ %(lit)%(formataddr{to})%(formataddr{cc})%(formataddr(me))\ %<(nonnull)%(void(width))%(putaddr cc: )\n%>\ %<{fcc}Fcc: %{fcc}\n%>\ %<{subject}Subject: Re: %{subject}\n%>\ %<{date}In-reply-to: Your message of "\ %<(nodate{date})%{date}%|%(pretty{date})%>."%<{message-id} %{message-id}%>\n%>\ -------- It's in the same basic format as the components file but it contains quite a few extra formatting codes. The %(lit) command makes room for the address. The %(formataddr is a function that returns a proper email address. The next part is %< which means if and the {reply-to} means the reply-to field in the original message. So that might be translated this way: %<if {reply-to} the original message has a reply-to then give that to formataddr, %? else {from} take the from address, %? else {sender} take the sender address, %? else {return-path} take the return-path from the original message, %> endif. As you can tell MH formatting can get rather involved. You can probably decipher what most of the other functions and variables mean. All of the information on writing these format strings is in the MH-Format man page. The really nice thing is that once you have built your customized replcomps file you won't need to touch it again. No other email program really gives you the power and flexibility that MH gives you.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/multi-os/article.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/multi-os/article.sgml index f7ee999f88..63394e6f5f 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/multi-os/article.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/multi-os/article.sgml @@ -1,743 +1,743 @@ - - + +
- + Installing and Using FreeBSD With Other Operating Systems Jay Richmond
jayrich@sysc.com
6 August 1996 This document discusses how to make FreeBSD coexist nicely with other popular operating systems such as Linux, MS-DOS, OS/2, and Windows 95. Special thanks to: Annelise Anderson andrsn@stanford.edu, Randall Hopper rhh@ct.picker.com, and Jordan K. Hubbard jkh@time.cdrom.com - + Overview Most people can't fit these operating systems together comfortably without having a larger hard disk, so special information on large EIDE drives is included. Because there are so many combinations of possible operating systems and hard disk configurations, the section may be of the most use to you. It contains descriptions of specific working computer setups that use multiple operating systems. This document assumes that you have already made room on your hard disk for an additional operating system. Any time you repartition your hard drive, you run the risk of destroying the data on the original partitions. However, if your hard drive is completely occupied by DOS, you might find the FIPS utility (included on the FreeBSD CD-ROM in the \TOOLS directory or via ftp) useful. It lets you repartition your hard disk without destroying the data already on it. There is also a commercial program available called Partition Magic, which lets you size and delete partitions without consequence. Overview of Boot Managers These are just brief descriptions of some of the different boot managers you may encounter. Depending on your computer setup, you may find it useful to use more than one of them on the same system. Boot Easy This is the default boot manager used with FreeBSD. It has the ability to boot most anything, including BSD, OS/2 (HPFS), Windows 95 (FAT and FAT32), and Linux. Partitions are selected with the function keys. OS/2 Boot Manager This will boot FAT, HPFS, FFS (FreeBSD), and EXT2 (Linux). It will also boot FAT32 partitions. Partitions are selected using arrow keys. The OS/2 Boot Manager is the only one to use its own separate partition, unlike the others which use the master boot record (MBR). Therefore, it must be installed below the 1024th cylinder to avoid booting problems. It can boot Linux using LILO when it is part of the boot sector, not the MBR. Go to Linux HOWTOs on the World Wide Web for more information on booting Linux with OS/2's boot manager. OS-BS This is an alternative to Boot Easy. It gives you more control over the booting process, with the ability to set the default partition to boot and the booting timeout. The beta version of this programs allows you to boot by selecting the OS with your arrow keys. It is included on the FreeBSD CD in the \TOOLS directory, and via ftp. LILO, or LInux LOader This is a limited boot manager. It will boot FreeBSD, though some customization work is required in the LILO configuration file. About FAT32 FAT32 is the replacement to the FAT filesystem included in Microsoft's OEM SR2 Beta release, which is expected to be utilitized on computers pre-loaded with Windows 95 towards the end of 1996. It converts the normal FAT file system and allows you to use smaller cluster sizes for larger hard drives. FAT32 also modifies the traditional FAT boot sector and allocation table, making it incompatible with some boot managers. A Typical Installation Let's say I have two large EIDE hard drives, and I want to install FreeBSD, Linux, and Windows 95 on them. Here's how I might do it using these hard disks: /dev/wd0 (first physical hard disk) /dev/wd1 (second hard disk) Both disks have 1416 cylinders. I boot from a MS-DOS or Windows 95 boot disk that contains the FDISK.EXE utility and make a small 50 meg primary partition (35-40 for Windows 95, plus a little breathing room) on the first disk. Also create a larger partition on the second hard disk for my Windows applications and data. I reboot and install Windows 95 (easier said than done) on the C: partition. The next thing I do is install Linux. I'm not sure about all the distributions of Linux, but slackware includes LILO (see ). When I am partitioning out my hard disk with Linux fdisk, I would put all of Linux on the first drive (maybe 300 megs for a nice root partition and some swap space). After I install Linux, and are prompted about installing LILO, make SURE that I install it on the boot sector of my root Linux partition, not in the MBR (master boot record). The remaining hard disk space can go to FreeBSD. I also make sure that my FreeBSD root slice does not go beyond the 1024th cylinder. (The 1024th cylinder is 528 megs into the disk with our hypothetical 720MB disks). I will use the rest of the hard drive (about 270 megs) for the /usr and / slices if I wish. The rest of the second hard disk (size depends on the amount of my Windows application/data partition that I created in step 1 can go to the /usr/src slice and swap space. When viewed with the Windows 95 fdisk utility, my hard drives should now look something like this: --------------------------------------------------------------------- Display Partition Information Current fixed disk drive: 1 Partition Status Type Volume_Label Mbytes System Usage C: 1 A PRI DOS 50 FAT** 7% 2 A Non-DOS (Linux) 300 43% Total disk space is 696 Mbytes (1 Mbyte = 1048576 bytes) Press Esc to continue --------------------------------------------------------------------- Display Partition Information Current fixed disk drive: 2 Partition Status Type Volume_Label Mbytes System Usage D: 1 A PRI DOS 420 FAT** 60% Total disk space is 696 Mbytes (1 Mbyte = 1048576 bytes) Press Esc to continue --------------------------------------------------------------------- ** May say FAT16 or FAT32 if you are using the OEM SR2 update. See ). Install FreeBSD. I make sure to boot with my first hard disk set at NORMAL in the BIOS. If it is not, I'll have the enter my true disk geometry at boot time (to get this, boot Windows 95 and consult Microsoft Diagnostics (MSD.EXE), or check your BIOS) with the parameter hd0=1416,16,63 where 1416 is the number of cylinders on my hard disk, 16 is the number of heads per track, and 63 is the number of sectors per track on the drive. When partitioning out the hard disk, I make sure to install Boot Easy on the first disk. I don't worry about the second disk, nothing is booting off of it. When I reboot, Boot Easy should recognize my three bootable partitions as DOS (Windows 95), Linux, and BSD (FreeBSD). Special Considerations Most operating systems are very picky about where and how they are placed on the hard disk. Windows 95 and DOS need to be on the first primary partitiin on the first hard disk. OS/2 is the exception. It can be installed on the first or second disk in a primary or extended partition. If you are not sure, keep the beginning of the bootable partitions below the 1024th cylinder. If you install Windows 95 on an existing BSD system, it will destroy the MBR, and you will have to reinstall your previous boot manager. Boot Easy can be reinstalled by using the BOOTINST.EXE utility included in the \TOOLS directory on the CD-ROM, and via ftp. You can also re-start the installation process and go to the partition editor. From there, mark the FreeBSD partition as bootable, select Boot Manager, and then type W to (W)rite out the information to the MBR. You can now reboot, and Boot Easy should then recognize Windows 95 as DOS. Please keep in mind that OS/2 can read FAT and HPFS partitions, but not FFS (FreeBSD) or EXT2 (Linux) partitions. Likewise, Windows 95 can only read and write to FAT and FAT32 (see ) partitions. FreeBSD can read most file systems, but currently cannot read HPFS partitions. Linux can read HPFS partitions, but can't write to them. Recent versions of the Linux kernel (2.x) can read and write to Windows 95 VFAT partitions (VFAT is what gives Windows 95 long file names - it's pretty much the same as FAT). Linux can read and write to most file systems. Got that? I hope so. Examples (section needs work, please send your example to jayrich@sysc.com). FreeBSD+Win95: If you installed FreeBSD after Windows 95, you should see DOS on the Boot Easy menu. This is Windows 95. If you installed Windows 95 after FreeBSD, read above. As long as your hard disk does not have 1024 cylinders you should not have a problem booting. If one of your partitions goes beyond the 1024th cylinder however, and you get messages like invalid system disk under DOS (Windows 95) and FreeBSD will not boot, try looking for a setting in your BIOS called > 1024 cylinder support or NORMAL/LBA mode. DOS may need LBA (Logical Block Addressing) in order to boot correctly. If the idea of switching BIOS settings every time you boot up doesn't appeal to you, you can boot FreeBSD through DOS via the FBSDBOOT.EXE utility on the CD (It should find your FreeBSD partition and boot it.) FreeBSD+OS/2+Win95: Nothing new here. OS/2's boot manger can boot all of these operating systems, so that shouldn't be a problem. FreeBSD+Linux: You can also use Boot Easy to boot both operating systems. FreeBSD+Linux+Win95: (see ) Other Sources of Help There are many Linux HOW-TOs that deal with multiple operating systems on the same hard disk. The Linux+DOS+Win95+OS2 mini-HOWTO offers help on configuring the OS/2 boot manager, and the Linux+FreeBSD mini-HOWTO might be interesting as well. The Linux-HOWTO is also helpful. The NT Loader Hacking Guide provides good information on multibooting Windows NT, '95, and DOS with other operating systems. And Hale Landis's "How It Works" document pack contains some good info on all sorts of disk geometry and booting related topics. You can find it at ftp://fission.dt.wdc.com/pub/otherdocs/pc_systems/how_it_works/allhiw.zip. Finally, don't overlook FreeBSD's kernel documentation on the booting procedure, available in the kernel source distribution (it unpacks to file:/usr/src/sys/i386/boot/biosboot/README.386BSD. Technical Details (Contributed by Randall Hopper, rhh@ct.picker.com) This section attempts to give you enough basic information about your hard disks and the disk booting process so that you can troubleshoot most problems you might encounter when getting set up to boot several operating systems. It starts in pretty basic terms, so you may want to skim down in this section until it begins to look unfamiliar and then start reading. Disk Primer Three fundamental terms are used to describe the location of data on your hard disk: Cylinders, Heads, and Sectors. It's not particularly important to know what these terms relate to except to know that, together, they identify where data is physically on your disk. Your disk has a particular number of cylinders, number of heads, and number of sectors per cylinder-head (a cylinder-head also known nown as a track). Collectively this information defines the "physical disk geometry" for your hard disk. There are typically 512 bytes per sector, and 63 sectors per track, with the number of cylinders and heads varying widely from disk to disk. Thus you can figure the number of bytes of data that'll fit on your own disk by calculating: (# of cylinders) × (# heads) × (63 sectors/track) × (512 bytes/sect) For example, on my 1.6 Gig Western Digital AC31600 EIDE hard disk,that's: (3148 cyl) × (16 heads) × (63 sectors/track) × (512 bytes/sect) which is 1,624,670,208 bytes, or around 1.6 Gig. You can find out the physical disk geometry (number of cylinders, heads, and sectors/track counts) for your hard disks using ATAID or other programs off the net. Your hard disk probably came with this information as well. Be careful though: if you're using BIOS LBA (see ), you can't use just any program to get the physical geometry. This is because many programs (e.g. MSD.EXE or FreeBSD fdisk) don't identify the physical disk geometry; they instead report the translated geometry (virtual numbers from using LBA). Stay tuned for what that means. One other useful thing about these terms. Given 3 numbers—a cylinder number, a head number, and a sector-within-track number—you identify a specific absolute sector (a 512 byte block of data) on your disk. Cylinders and Heads are numbered up from 0, and Sectors are numbered up from 1. For those that are interested in more technical details, information on disk geometry, boot sectors, BIOSes, etc. can be found all over the net. Query Lycos, Yahoo, etc. for boot sector or master boot record. Among the useful info you'll find are Hale Landis's How It Works document pack. See the section for a few pointers to this pack. Ok, enough terminology. We're talking about booting here. The Booting Process On the first sector of your disk (Cyl 0, Head 0, Sector 1) lives the Master Boot Record (MBR). It contains a map of your disk. It identifies up to 4 partitions, each of which is a contiguous chunk of that disk. FreeBSD calls partitions slices to avoid confusion with it's own partitions, but we won't do that here. Each partition can contain its own operating system. Each partition entry in the MBR has a Partition ID, a Start Cylinder/Head/Sector, and an End Cylinder/Head/Sector. The Partition ID tells what type of partition it is (what OS) and the Start/End tells where it is. lists a smattering of some common Partition IDs. Partition IDs ID (hex) Description 01 Primary DOS12 (12-bit FAT) 04 Primary DOS16 (16-bit FAT) 05 Extended DOS 06 Primary big DOS (> 32MB) 0A OS/2 83 Linux (EXT2FS) A5 FreeBSD, NetBSD, 386BSD (UFS)
Note that not all partitions are bootable (e.g. Extended DOS). Some are—some aren't. What makes a partition bootable is the configuration of the Partition Boot Sector that exists at the beginning of each partition. When you configure your favorite boot manager, it looks up the entries in the MBR partition tables of all your hard disks and lets you name the entries in that list. Then when you boot, the boot manager is invoked by special code in the Master Boot Sector of the first probed hard disk on your system. It looks at the MBR partition table entry corresponding to the partition choice you made, uses the Start Cylinder/Head/Sector information for that partition, loads up the Partition Boot Sector for that partition, and gives it control. That Boot Sector for the partition itself contains enough information to start loading the operating system on that partition. One thing we just brushed past that's important to know. All of your hard disks have MBRs. However, the one that's important is the one on the disk that's first probed by the BIOS. If you have only IDE hard disks, its the first IDE disk (e.g. primary disk on first controller). Similarly for SCSI only systems. If you have both IDE and SCSI hard disks though, the IDE disk is typically probed first by the BIOS, so the first IDE disk is the first probed disk. The boot manager you will install will be hooked into the MBR on this first probed hard disk that we've just described. Booting Limitations and Warnings Now the interesting stuff that you need to watch out for. The dreaded 1024 cylinder limit and how BIOS LBA helps The first part of the booting process is all done through the BIOS, (if that's a new term to you, the BIOS is a software chip on your system motherboard which provides startup code for your computer). As such, this first part of the process is subject to the limitations of the BIOS interface. The BIOS interface used to read the hard disk during this period (INT 13H, Subfunction 2) allocates 10 bits to the Cylinder Number, 8 bits to the Head Number, and 6 bits to the Sector Number. This restricts users of this interface (i.e. boot managers hooked into your disk's MBR as well as OS loaders hooked into the Boot Sectors) to the following limits: 1024 cylinders, max 256 heads, max 64 sectors/track, max (actually 63, 0 isn't available) Now big hard disks have lots of cylinders but not a lot of heads, so invariably with big hard disks the number of cylinders is greater than 1024. Given this and the BIOS interface as is, you can't boot off just anywhere on your hard disk. The boot code (the boot manager and the OS loader hooked into all bootable partitions' Boot Sectors) has to reside below cylinder 1024. In fact, if your hard disk is typical and has 16 heads, this equates to: 1024 cyl/disk × 16 heads/disk × 63 sect/(cyl-head) × 512 bytes/sector which is around the often-mentioned 528MB limit. This is where BIOS LBA (Logical Block Addressing) comes in. BIOS LBA gives the user of the BIOS API calls access to physical cylinders above 1024 though the BIOS interfaces by redefining a cylinder. That is, it remaps your cylinders and heads, making it appear through the BIOS as though the disk has fewer cylinders and more heads than it actually does. In other words, it takes advantage of the fact that hard disks have relatively few heads and lots of cylinders by shifting the balance between number of cylinders and number of heads so that both numbers lie below the above-mentioned limits (1024 cylinders, 256 heads). With BIOS LBA, the hard disk size limitation is virtually removed (well, pushed up to 8 Gigabytes anyway). If you have an LBA BIOS, you can put FreeBSD or any OS anywhere you want and not hit the 1024 cylinder limit. To use my 1.6 Gig Western Digital as an example again, it's physical geometry is: (3148 cyl, 16 heads, 63 sectors/track, 512 bytes/sector) However, my BIOS LBA remaps this to: (787 cyl, 64 heads, 63 sectors/track, 512 bytes/sector) giving the same effective size disk, but with cylinder and head counts within the BIOS API's range (Incidentally, I have both Linux and FreeBSD existing on one of my hard disks above the 1024th physical cylinder, and both operating systems boot fine, thanks to BIOS LBA). Boot Managers and Disk Allocation Another gotcha to watch out when installing boot managers is allocating space for your boot manager. It's best to be aware of this issue up front to save yourself from having to reinstall one or more of your OSs. If you followed the discussion in about the Master Boot Sector (where the MBR is), Partition Boot Sectors, and the booting process, you may have been wondering just exactly where on your hard disk that nifty boot manager is going to live. Well, some boot managers are small enough to fit entirely within the Master Boot Sector (Cylinder 0, Head 0, Sector 0) along with the partition table. Others need a bit more room and actually extend a few sectors past the Master Boot Sector in the Cylinder 0 Head 0 track, since that's typically free…typically. That's the catch. Some operating systems (FreeBSD included) let you start their partitions right after the Master Boot Sector at Cylinder 0, Head 0, Sector 2 if you want. In fact, if you give FreeBSD's sysinstall a disk with an empty chunk up front or the whole disk empty, that's where it'll start the FreeBSD partition by default (at least it did when I fell into this trap). Then when you go to install your boot manager, if it's one that occupies a few extra sectors after the MBR, it'll overwrite the front of the first partition's data. In the case of FreeBSD, this overwrites the disk label, and renders your FreeBSD partition unbootable. The easy way to avoid this problem (and leave yourself the flexibility to try different boot managers later) is just to always leave the first full track on your disk unallocated when you partition your disk. That is, leave the space from Cylinder 0, Head 0, Sector 2 through Cylinder 0, Head 0, Sector 63 unallocated, and start your first partition at Cylinder 0, Head 1, Sector 1. For what it's worth, when you create a DOS partition at the front of your disk, DOS leaves this space open by default (this is why some boot managers assume it's free). So creating a DOS partition up at the front of your disk avoids this problem altogether. I like to do this myself, creating 1 Meg DOS partition up front, because it also avoids my primary DOS drive letters shifting later when I repartition. For reference, the following boot managers use the Master Boot Sector to store their code and data: OS-BS 1.35 Boot Easy LILO These boot managers use a few additional sectors after the Master Boot Sector: OS-BS 2.0 Beta 8 (sectors 2-5) OS/2's boot manager What if your machine won't boot? At some point when installing boot managers, you might leave the MBR in a state such that your machine won't boot. This is unlikely, but possible when re-FDISKing underneath an already-installed boot manager. If you have a bootable DOS partition on your disk, you can boot off a DOS floppy, and run: A:\> FDISK /MBR to put the original, simple DOS boot code back into the system. You can then boot DOS (and DOS only) off the hard drive. Alternatively, just re-run your boot manager installation program off a bootable floppy.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/new-users/article.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/new-users/article.sgml index 78b47e6677..92a862ed06 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/new-users/article.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/new-users/article.sgml @@ -1,1052 +1,1052 @@ - + - +
- + For People New to Both FreeBSD and Unix Annelise Anderson
andrsn@andrsn.stanford.edu
 August 15, 1997 Congratulations on installing FreeBSD! This introduction is for people new to both FreeBSD and Un*x—so it starts with basics. It assumes you're using version 2.0.5 or later of FreeBSD as distributed by BSDi or FreeBSD.org, your system (for now) has a single user (you)—and you're probably pretty good with DOS/Windows or OS/2. - + Logging in and Getting Out - Log in (when you see login:) as a user you created during + Log in (when you see login:) as a user you created during installation or as root. (Your FreeBSD installation will already have an account for root; root can go anywhere and do anything, including deleting essential files, so be careful!) The symbols &prompt.user; and &prompt.root; in the following stand for the prompt (yours may be different), with &prompt.user; indicating an ordinary user and &prompt.root; indicating root. - To log out (and get a new login: prompt) type + To log out (and get a new login: prompt) type &prompt.root; exit as often as necessary. Yes, press enter after commands, and remember that Unix is case-sensitive—exit, not EXIT. To shut down the machine type &prompt.root; /sbin/shutdown -h now Or to reboot type &prompt.root; /sbin/shutdown -r now or &prompt.root; /sbin/reboot You can also reboot with CtrlAltDelete. Give it a little time to do its work. This is equivalent to /sbin/reboot in recent releases of FreeBSD and is much, much better than hitting the reset button. You don't want to have to reinstall this thing, do you? Adding A User with Root Privileges If you didn't create any users when you installed the system and are thus logged in as root, you should probably create a user now with &prompt.root; adduser The first time you use adduser, it might ask for some defaults to save. You might want to make the default shell csh instead of sh, if it suggests sh as the default. Otherwise just press enter to accept each default. These defaults are saved in /etc/adduser.conf, an editable file. Suppose you create a user jack with full name Jack Benimble. Give jack a password if security (even kids around who might pound on the keyboard) is an issue. When it asks you if you want to invite jack into other groups, type wheel Login group is ``jack''. Invite jack into other groups: wheel This will make it possible to log in as jack and use the su command to become root. Then you won't get scolded any more for logging in as root. You can quit adduser any time by typing CtrlC, and at the end you'll have a chance to approve your new user or simply type n for no. You might want to create a second new user (jill?) so that when you edit jack's login files, you'll have a hot spare in case something goes wrong. Once you've done this, use exit to get back to a login prompt and log in as jack. In general, it's a good idea to do as much work as possible as an ordinary user who doesn't have the power—and risk—of root. If you already created a user and you want the user to be able to su to root, you can log in as root and edit the file /etc/group, adding jack to the first line (the group wheel). But first you need to practice vi, the text editor--or use the simpler text editor, ee, installed on recent version of FreeBSD. To delete a user, use the rmuser command. Looking Around Logged in as an ordinary user, look around and try out some commands that will access the sources of help and information within FreeBSD. Here are some commands and what they do: id Tells you who you are! pwd Shows you where you are—the current working directory. ls Lists the files in the current directory. ls Lists the files in the current directory with a * after executables, a / after directories, and an @ after symbolic links. ls Lists the files in long format—size, date, permissions. ls Lists hidden dot files with the others. If you're root, the dot files show up without the switch. cd Changes directories. cd .. backs up one level; note the space after cd. cd /usr/local goes there. cd ~ goes to the home directory of the person logged in—e.g., /usr/home/jack. Try cd /cdrom, and then ls, to find out if your CDROM is mounted and working. view filename Lets you look at a file (named filename) without changing it. Try view /etc/fstab. :q to quit. cat filename Displays filename on screen. If it's too long and you can see only the end of it, press ScrollLock and use the up-arrow to move backward; you can use ScrollLock with man pages too. Press ScrollLock again to quit scrolling. You might want to try cat on some of the dot files in your home directory—cat .cshrc, cat .login, cat .profile. You'll notice aliases in .cshrc for some of the ls commands (they're very convenient). You can create other aliases by editing .cshrc. You can make these aliases available to all users on the system by putting them in the system-wide csh configuration file, /etc/csh.cshrc. Getting Help and Information Here are some useful sources of help. Text stands for something of your choice that you type in—usually a command or filename. apropos text Everything containing string text in the whatis database. man text The man page for text. The major source of documentation for Un*x systems. man ls will tell you all the ways to use the ls command. Press Enter to move through text, Ctrlb to go back a page, Ctrlf to go forward, q or Ctrlc to quit. which text Tells you where in the user's path the command text is found. locate text All the paths where the string text is found. whatis text Tells you what the command text does and its man page. Typing whatis * will tell you about all the binaries in the current directory. whereis text Finds the file text, giving its full path. You might want to try using whatis on some common useful commands like cat, more, grep, mv, find, tar, chmod, chown, date, and script. more lets you read a page at a time as it does in DOS, e.g., ls -l | more or more filename. The * works as a wildcard—e.g., ls w* will show you files beginning with w. Are some of these not working very well? Both locate and whatis depend on a database that's rebuilt weekly. If your machine isn't going to be left on over the weekend (and running FreeBSD), you might want to run the commands for daily, weekly, and monthly maintenance now and then. Run them as root and give each one time to finish before you start the next one, for now. &prompt.root; periodic daily output omitted &prompt.root; periodic weekly output omitted &prompt.root; periodic monthly output omitted If you get tired of waiting, press AltF2 to get another virtual console, and log in again. After all, it's a multi-user, multi-tasking system. Nevertheless these commands will probably flash messages on your screen while they're running; you can type clear at the prompt to clear the screen. Once they've run, you might want to look at /var/mail/root and /var/log/messages. Running such commands is part of system administration—and as a single user of a Unix system, you're your own system administrator. Virtually everything you need to be root to do is system administration. Such responsibilities aren't covered very well even in those big fat books on Unix, which seem to devote a lot of space to pulling down menus in windows managers. You might want to get one of the two leading books on systems administration, either Evi Nemeth et.al.'s UNIX System Administration Handbook (Prentice-Hall, 1995, ISBN 0-13-15051-7)—the second edition with the red cover; or Æleen Frisch's Essential System Administration (O'Reilly & Associates, 1993, ISBN 0-937175-80-3). I used Nemeth. Editing Text To configure your system, you need to edit text files. Most of them will be in the /etc directory; and you'll need to su to root to be able to change them. You can use the easy ee, but in the long run the text editor vi is worth learning. There's an excellent tutorial on vi in /usr/src/contrib/nvi/docs/tutorial if you have that installed; otherwise you can get it by ftp to ftp.cdrom.com in the directory FreeBSD/FreeBSD-current/src/contrib/nvi/docs/tutorial. Before you edit a file, you should probably back it up. Suppose you want to edit /etc/rc.conf. You could just use cd /etc to get to the /etc directory and do: &prompt.root; cp rc.conf rc.conf.orig This would copy rc.conf to rc.conf.orig, and you could later copy rc.conf.orig to rc.conf to recover the original. But even better would be moving (renaming) and then copying back: &prompt.root; mv rc.conf rc.conf.orig &prompt.root; cp rc.conf.orig rc.conf because the mv command preserves the original date and owner of the file. You can now edit rc.conf. If you want the original back, you'd then mv rc.conf rc.conf.myedit (assuming you want to preserve your edited version) and then &prompt.root; mv rc.conf.orig rc.conf to put things back the way they were. To edit a file, type &prompt.root; vi filename Move through the text with the arrow keys. Esc (the escape key) puts vi in command mode. Here are some commands: x delete letter the cursor is on dd delete the entire line (even if it wraps on the screen) i insert text at the cursor a insert text after the cursor Once you type i or a, you can enter text. Esc puts you back in command mode where you can type :w to write your changes to disk and continue editing :wq to write and quit :q! to quit without saving changes /text to move the cursor to text; /Enter (the enter key) to find the next instance of text. G to go to the end of the file nG to go to line n in the file, where n is a number CtrlL to redraw the screen Ctrlb and Ctrlf go back and forward a screen, as they do with more and view. Practice with vi in your home directory by creating a new file with vi filename and adding and deleting text, saving the file, and calling it up again. vi delivers some surprises because it's really quite complex, and sometimes you'll inadvertently issue a command that will do something you don't expect. (Some people actually like vi—it's more powerful than DOS EDIT—find out about the :r command.) Use Esc one or more times to be sure you're in command mode and proceed from there when it gives you trouble, save often with :w, and use :q! to get out and start over (from your last :w) when you need to. Now you can cd to /etc, su to root, use vi to edit the file /etc/group, and add a user to wheel so the user has root privileges. Just add a comma and the user's login name to the end of the first line in the file, press Esc, and use :wq to write the file to disk and quit. Instantly effective. (You didn't put a space after the comma, did you?) Printing Files from DOS At this point you probably don't have the printer working, so here's a way to create a file from a man page, move it to a floppy, and then print it from DOS. Suppose you want to read carefully about changing permissions on files (pretty important). You can use the command man chmod to read about it. The command &prompt.user; man chmod | col -b > chmod.txt will remove formatting codes and send the man page to the chmod.txt file instead of showing it on your screen. Now put a dos-formatted diskette in your floppy drive a, su to root, and type &prompt.root; /sbin/mount -t msdos /dev/fd0 /mnt to mount the floppy drive on /mnt. Now (you no longer need to be root, and you can type exit to get back to being user jack) you can go to the directory where you created chmod.txt and copy the file to the floppy with: &prompt.user; cp chmod.txt /mnt and use ls /mnt to get a directory listing of /mnt, which should show the file chmod.txt. You might especially want to make a file from /sbin/dmesg by typing &prompt.user; /sbin/dmesg > dmesg.txt and copying dmesg.txt to the floppy. /sbin/dmesg is the boot log record, and it's useful to understand it because it shows what FreeBSD found when it booted up. If you ask questions on freebsd-questions@FreeBSD.org or on a USENET group—like FreeBSD isn't finding my tape drive, what do I do?—people will want to know what dmesg has to say. You can now dismount the floppy drive (as root) to get the disk out with &prompt.root; /sbin/umount /mnt and reboot to go to DOS. Copy these files to a DOS directory, call them up with DOS EDIT, Windows Notepad or Wordpad, or a word processor, make a minor change so the file has to be saved, and print as you normally would from DOS or Windows. Hope it works! man pages come out best if printed with the dos print command. (Copying files from FreeBSD to a mounted dos partition is in some cases still a little risky.) Getting the printer printing from FreeBSD involves creating an appropriate entry in /etc/printcap and creating a matching spool directory in /var/spool/output. If your printer is on lpt0 (what dos calls LPT1), you may only need to go to /var/spool/output and (as root) create the directory lpd by typing: mkdir lpd, if it doesn't already exist. Then the printer should respond if it's turned on when the system is booted, and lp or lpr should send a file to the printer. Whether or not the file actually prints depends on configuring it, which is covered in the FreeBSD handbook. Other Useful Commands df shows file space and mounted systems. ps aux shows processes running. ps ax is a narrower form. rm filename remove filename. rm -R dir removes a directory dir and all subdirectories—careful! ls -R lists files in the current directory and all subdirectories; I used a variant, ls -AFR > where.txt, to get a list of all the files in / and (separately) /usr before I found better ways to find files. passwd to change user's password (or root's password) man hier man page on the Unix file system Use find to locate filename in /usr or any of its subdirectories with &prompt.user; find /usr -name "filename" You can use * as a wildcard in "filename" (which should be in quotes). If you tell find to search in / instead of /usr it will look for the file(s) on all mounted file systems, including the CDROM and the dos partition. An excellent book that explains Unix commands and utilities is Abrahams & Larson, Unix for the Impatient (2nd ed., Addison-Wesley, 1996). There's also a lot of Unix information on the Internet. Try the Unix Reference Desk. Next Steps You should now have the tools you need to get around and edit files, so you can get everything up and running. There is a great deal of information in the FreeBSD handbook (which is probably on your hard drive) and FreeBSD's web site. A wide variety of packages and ports are on the CDROM as well as the web site. The handbook tells you more about how to use them (get the package if it exists, with pkg_add /cdrom/packages/All/packagename, where packagename is the filename of the package). The cdrom has lists of the packages and ports with brief descriptions in cdrom/packages/index, cdrom/packages/index.txt, and cdrom/ports/index, with fuller descriptions in /cdrom/ports/*/*/pkg/DESCR, where the *s represent subdirectories of kinds of programs and program names respectively. If you find the handbook too sophisticated (what with lndir and all) on installing ports from the cdrom, here's what usually works: Find the port you want, say kermit. There will be a directory for it on the cdrom. Copy the subdirectory to /usr/local (a good place for software you add that should be available to all users) with: &prompt.root; cp -R /cdrom/ports/comm/kermit /usr/local This should result in a /usr/local/kermit subdirectory that has all the files that the kermit subdirectory on the CDROM has. Next, create the directory /usr/ports/distfiles if it doesn't already exist using mkdir. Now check check /cdrom/ports/distfiles for a file with a name that indicates it's the port you want. Copy that file to /usr/ports/distfiles; in recent versions you can skip this step, as FreeBSD will do it for you. In the case of kermit, there is no distfile. Then cd to the subdirectory of /usr/local/kermit that has the file Makefile. Type &prompt.root; make all install During this process the port will ftp to get any compressed files it needs that it didn't find on the cdrom or in /usr/ports/distfiles. If you don't have your network running yet and there was no file for the port in /cdrom/ports/distfiles, you will have to get the distfile using another machine and copy it to /usr/ports/distfiles from a floppy or your dos partition. Read Makefile (with cat or more or view) to find out where to go (the master distribution site) to get the file and what its name is. Its name will be truncated when downloaded to DOS, and after you get it into /usr/ports/distfiles you'll have to rename it (with the mv command) to its original name so it can be found. (Use binary file transfers!) Then go back to /usr/local/kermit, find the directory with Makefile, and type make all install. The other thing that happens when installing ports or packages is that some other program is needed. If the installation stops with a message can't find unzip or whatever, you might need to install the package or port for unzip before you continue. Once it's installed type rehash to make FreeBSD reread the files in the path so it knows what's there. (If you get a lot of path not found messages when you use whereis or which, you might want to make additions to the list of directories in the path statement in .cshrc in your home directory. The path statement in Unix does the same kind of work it does in DOS, except the current directory is not (by default) in the path for security reasons; if the command you want is in the directory you're in, you need to type ./ before the command to make it work; no space after the slash.) You might want to get the most recent version of Netscape from their ftp site. (Netscape requires the X Window System.) There's now a FreeBSD version, so look around carefully. Just use gunzip filename and tar xvf filename on it, move the binary to /usr/local/bin or some other place binaries are kept, rehash, and then put the following lines in .cshrc in each user's home directory or (easier) in /etc/csh.cshrc, the system-wide csh start-up file: setenv XKEYSYMDB /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/XKeysymDB setenv XNLSPATH /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/nls This assumes that the file XKeysymDB and the directory nls are in /usr/X11R6/lib/X11; if they're not, find them and put them there. If you originally got Netscape as a port using the CDROM (or ftp), don't replace /usr/local/bin/netscape with the new netscape binary; this is just a shell script that sets up the environment variables for you. Instead rename the new binary to netscape.bin and replace the old binary, which is /usr/local/netscape/netscape. Your Working Environment Your shell is the most important part of your working environment. In DOS, the usual shell is command.com. The shell is what interprets the commands you type on the command line, and thus communicates with the rest of the operating system. You can also write shell scripts, which are like DOS batch files: a series of commands to be run without your intervention. Two shells come installed with FreeBSD: csh and sh. csh is good for command-line work, but scripts should be written with sh (or bash). You can find out what shell you have by typing echo $SHELL. The csh shell is okay, but tcsh does everything csh does and more. It It allows you to recall commands with the arrow keys and edit them. It has tab-key completion of filenames (csh uses the escape key), and it lets you switch to the directory you were last in with cd -. It's also much easier to alter your prompt with tcsh. It makes life a lot easier. Here are the three steps for installing a new shell: Install the shell as a port or a package, just as you would any other port or package. Use rehash and which tcsh (assuming you're installing tcsh) to make sure it got installed. As root, edit /etc/shells, adding a line in the file for the new shell, in this case /usr/local/bin/tcsh, and save the file. (Some ports may do this for you.) Use the chsh command to change your shell to tcsh permanently, or type tcsh at the prompt to change your shell without logging in again. It can be dangerous to change root's shell to something other than sh or csh on early versions of FreeBSD and many other versions of Unix; you may not have a working shell when the system puts you into single user mode. The solution is to use su -m to become root, which will give you the tcsh as root, because the shell is part of the environment. You can make this permanent by adding it to your .tcshrc file as an alias with alias su su -m. When tcsh starts up, it will read the /etc/csh.cshrc and /etc/csh.login files, as does csh. It will also read the .login file in your home directory and the .cshrc file as well, unless you provide a .tcshrc file. This you can do by simply copying .cshrc to .tcshrc. Now that you've installed tcsh, you can adjust your prompt. You can find the details in the manual page for tcsh, but here is a line to put in your .tcshrc that will tell you how many commands you have typed, what time it is, and what directory you are in. It also produces a > if you're an ordinary user and a # if you're root, but tsch will do that in any case: set prompt = "%h %t %~ %# " This should go in the same place as the existing set prompt line if there is one, or under "if($?prompt) then" if not. Comment out the old line; you can always switch back to it if you prefer it. Don't forget the spaces and quotes. You can get the .tcshrc reread by typing source .tcshrc. You can get a listing of other environmental variables that have been set by typing env at the prompt. The result will show you your default editor, pager, and terminal type, among possibly many others. A useful command if you log in from a remote location and can't run a program because the terminal isn't capable is setenv TERM vt100. Other As root, you can dismount the CDROM with /sbin/umount /cdrom, take it out of the drive, insert another one, and mount it with /sbin/mount_cd9660 /dev/cd0a /cdrom assuming cd0a is the device name for your CDROM drive. The most recent versions of FreeBSD let you mount the cdrom with just /sbin/mount /cdrom. Using the live file system—the second of FreeBSD's CDROM disks—is useful if you've got limited space. What is on the live file system varies from release to release. You might try playing games from the cdrom. This involves using lndir, which gets installed with the X Window System, to tell the program(s) where to find the necessary files, because they're in the /cdrom file system instead of in /usr and its subdirectories, which is where they're expected to be. Read man lndir. Comments Welcome If you use this guide I'd be interested in knowing where it was unclear and what was left out that you think should be included, and if it was helpful. My thanks to Eugene W. Stark, professor of computer science at SUNY-Stony Brook, and John Fieber for helpful comments. Annelise Anderson, andrsn@andrsn.stanford.edu
diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/programming-tools/article.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/programming-tools/article.sgml index e0c0a9c99d..eabcea2da8 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/programming-tools/article.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/programming-tools/article.sgml @@ -1,2256 +1,2256 @@ - + - +
- + A User's Guide to FreeBSD Programming Tools James Raynard
jraynard@FreeBSD.org
August 17, 1997 1997 James Raynard This document is an introduction to using some of the programming tools supplied with FreeBSD, although much of it will be applicable to many other versions of Unix. It does not attempt to describe coding in any detail. Most of the document assumes little or no previous programming knowledge, although it is hoped that most programmers will find something of value in it - + Introduction<anchor id=foo> FreeBSD offers an excellent development environment. Compilers for C, C++, and Fortran and an assembler come with the basic system, not to mention a Perl interpreter and classic Unix tools such as sed and awk. If that is not enough, there are many more compilers and interpreters in the Ports collection. FreeBSD is very compatible with standards such as POSIX and ANSI C, as well with its own BSD heritage, so it is possible to write applications that will compile and run with little or no modification on a wide range of platforms. However, all this power can be rather overwhelming at first if you've never written programs on a Unix platform before. This document aims to help you get up and running, without getting too deeply into more advanced topics. The intention is that this document should give you enough of the basics to be able to make some sense of the documentation. Most of the document requires little or no knowledge of programming, although it does assume a basic competence with using Unix and a willingness to learn! Introduction to Programming A program is a set of instructions that tell the computer to do various things; sometimes the instruction it has to perform depends on what happened when it performed a previous instruction. This section gives an overview of the two main ways in which you can give these instructions, or commands as they are usually called. One way uses an interpreter, the other a compiler. As human languages are too difficult for a computer to understand in an unambiguous way, commands are usually written in one or other languages specially designed for the purpose. Interpreters With an interpreter, the language comes as an environment, where you type in commands at a prompt and the environment executes them for you. For more complicated programs, you can type the commands into a file and get the interpreter to load the file and execute the commands in it. If anything goes wrong, many interpreters will drop you into a debugger to help you track down the problem. The advantage of this is that you can see the results of your commands immediately, and mistakes can be corrected readily. The biggest disadvantage comes when you want to share your programs with someone. They must have the same interpreter, or you must have some way of giving it to them, and they need to understand how to use it. Also users may not appreciate being thrown into a debugger if they press the wrong key! From a performance point of view, interpreters can use up a lot of memory, and generally do not generate code as efficiently as compilers. In my opinion, interpreted languages are the best way to start if you have not done any programming before. This kind of environment is typically found with languages like Lisp, Smalltalk, Perl and Basic. It could also be argued that the Unix shell (sh, csh) is itself an interpreter, and many people do in fact write shell scripts to help with various housekeeping tasks on their machine. Indeed, part of the original Unix philosophy was to provide lots of small utility programs that could be linked together in shell scripts to perform useful tasks. Interpreters available with FreeBSD Here is a list of interpreters that are available as FreeBSD packages, with a brief discussion of some of the more popular interpreted languages. To get one of these packages, all you need to do is to click on the hotlink for the package, then run &prompt.root; pkg_add package name as root. Obviously, you will need to have a fully functional FreeBSD 2.1.0 or later system for the package to work! BASIC Short for Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code. Developed in the 1950s for teaching University students to program and provided with every self-respecting personal computer in the 1980s, BASIC has been the first programming language for many programmers. It's also the foundation for Visual Basic. The Bywater Basic Interpreter and the Phil Cockroft's Basic Interpreter (formerly Rabbit Basic) are available as FreeBSD FreeBSD packages Lisp A language that was developed in the late 1950s as an alternative to the number-crunching languages that were popular at the time. Instead of being based on numbers, Lisp is based on lists; in fact the name is short for List Processing. Very popular in AI (Artificial Intelligence) circles. Lisp is an extremely powerful and sophisticated language, but can be rather large and unwieldy. FreeBSD has GNU Common Lisp available as a package. Perl Very popular with system administrators for writing scripts; also often used on World Wide Web servers for writing CGI scripts. The latest version (version 5) comes with FreeBSD. Scheme A dialect of Lisp that is rather more compact and cleaner than Common Lisp. Popular in Universities as it is simple enough to teach to undergraduates as a first language, while it has a high enough level of abstraction to be used in research work. FreeBSD has packages of the Elk Scheme Interpreter, the MIT Scheme Interpreter and the SCM Scheme Interpreter. Icon The Icon Programming Language. Logo Brian Harvey's LOGO Interpreter. Python The Python Object-Oriented Programming Language Compilers Compilers are rather different. First of all, you write your code in a file (or files) using an editor. You then run the compiler and see if it accepts your program. If it did not compile, grit your teeth and go back to the editor; if it did compile and gave you a program, you can run it either at a shell command prompt or in a debugger to see if it works properly. If you run it in the shell, you may get a core dump. Obviously, this is not quite as direct as using an interpreter. However it allows you to do a lot of things which are very difficult or even impossible with an interpreter, such as writing code which interacts closely with the operating system—or even writing your own operating system! It's also useful if you need to write very efficient code, as the compiler can take its time and optimise the code, which would not be acceptable in an interpreter. And distributing a program written for a compiler is usually more straightforward than one written for an interpreter—you can just give them a copy of the executable, assuming they have the same operating system as you. Compiled languages include Pascal, C and C++. C and C++ are rather unforgiving languages, and best suited to more experienced programmers; Pascal, on the other hand, was designed as an educational language, and is quite a good language to start with. Unfortunately, FreeBSD doesn't have any Pascal support, except for a Pascal-to-C converter in the ports. As the edit-compile-run-debug cycle is rather tedious when using separate programs, many commercial compiler makers have produced Integrated Development Environments (IDEs for short). FreeBSD does not have an IDE as such; however it is possible to use Emacs for this purpose. This is discussed in . Compiling with <command>cc</command> This section deals only with the GNU compiler for C and C++, since that comes with the base FreeBSD system. It can be invoked by either cc or gcc. The details of producing a program with an interpreter vary considerably between interpreters, and are usually well covered in the documentation and on-line help for the interpreter. Once you've written your masterpiece, the next step is to convert it into something that will (hopefully!) run on FreeBSD. This usually involves several steps, each of which is done by a separate program. Pre-process your source code to remove comments and do other tricks like expanding macros in C. Check the syntax of your code to see if you have obeyed the rules of the language. If you have not, it will complain! Convert the source code into assembly language—this is very close to machine code, but still understandable by humans. Allegedly. To be strictly accurate, cc converts the source code into its own, machine-independent p-code instead of assembly language at this stage. Convert the assembly language into machine code—yep, we are talking bits and bytes, ones and zeros here. Check that you have used things like functions and global variables in a consistent way. For example, if you have called a non-existent function, it will complain. If you are trying to produce an executable from several source code files, work out how to fit them all together. Work out how to produce something that the system's run-time loader will be able to load into memory and run. Finally, write the executable on the file system. The word compiling is often used to refer to just steps 1 to 4—the others are referred to as linking. Sometimes step 1 is referred to as pre-processing and steps 3-4 as assembling. Fortunately, almost all this detail is hidden from you, as cc is a front end that manages calling all these programs with the right arguments for you; simply typing &prompt.user; cc foobar.c will cause foobar.c to be compiled by all the steps above. If you have more than one file to compile, just do something like &prompt.user; cc foo.c bar.c Note that the syntax checking is just that—checking the syntax. It will not check for any logical mistakes you may have made, like putting the program into an infinite loop, or using a bubble sort when you meant to use a binary sort. In case you didn't know, a binary sort is an efficient way of sorting things into order and a bubble sort isn't. There are lots and lots of options for cc, which are all in the man page. Here are a few of the most important ones, with examples of how to use them. The output name of the file. If you do not use this option, cc will produce an executable called a.out. The reasons for this are buried in the mists of history. &prompt.user; cc foobar.c executable is a.out &prompt.user; cc -o foobar foobar.c executable is foobar Just compile the file, do not link it. Useful for toy programs where you just want to check the syntax, or if you are using a Makefile. &prompt.user; cc -c foobar.c This will produce an object file (not an executable) called foobar.o. This can be linked together with other object files into an executable. Create a debug version of the executable. This makes the compiler put information into the executable about which line of which source file corresponds to which function call. A debugger can use this information to show the source code as you step through the program, which is very useful; the disadvantage is that all this extra information makes the program much bigger. Normally, you compile with while you are developing a program and then compile a release version without when you're satisfied it works properly. &prompt.user; cc -g foobar.c This will produce a debug version of the program. Note, we didn't use the flag to specify the executable name, so we will get an executable called a.out. Producing a debug version called foobar is left as an exercise for the reader! Create an optimised version of the executable. The compiler performs various clever tricks to try and produce an executable that runs faster than normal. You can add a number after the to specify a higher level of optimisation, but this often exposes bugs in the compiler's optimiser. For instance, the version of cc that comes with the 2.1.0 release of FreeBSD is known to produce bad code with the option in some circumstances. Optimisation is usually only turned on when compiling a release version. &prompt.user; cc -O -o foobar foobar.c This will produce an optimised version of foobar. The following three flags will force cc to check that your code complies to the relevant international standard, often referred to as the ANSI standard, though strictly speaking it is an ISO standard. Enable all the warnings which the authors of cc believe are worthwhile. Despite the name, it will not enable all the warnings cc is capable of. Turn off most, but not all, of the non-ANSI C features provided by cc. Despite the name, it does not guarantee strictly that your code will comply to the standard. Turn off all cc's non-ANSI C features. Without these flags, cc will allow you to use some of its non-standard extensions to the standard. Some of these are very useful, but will not work with other compilers—in fact, one of the main aims of the standard is to allow people to write code that will work with any compiler on any system. This is known as portable code. Generally, you should try to make your code as portable as possible, as otherwise you may have to completely re-write the program later to get it to work somewhere else—and who knows what you may be using in a few years time? &prompt.user; cc -Wall -ansi -pedantic -o foobar foobar.c This will produce an executable foobar after checking foobar.c for standard compliance. Specify a function library to be used during when linking. The most common example of this is when compiling a program that uses some of the mathematical functions in C. Unlike most other platforms, these are in a separate library from the standard C one and you have to tell the compiler to add it. The rule is that if the library is called libsomething.a, you give cc the argument . For example, the math library is libm.a, so you give cc the argument . A common gotcha with the math library is that it has to be the last library on the command line. &prompt.user; cc -o foobar foobar.c -lm This will link the math library functions into foobar. If you are compiling C++ code, you need to add , or if you are using FreeBSD 2.2 or later, to the command line argument to link the C++ library functions. Alternatively, you can run c++ instead of cc, which does this for you. c++ can also be invoked as g++ on FreeBSD. &prompt.user; cc -o foobar foobar.cc -lg++ For FreeBSD 2.1.6 and earlier &prompt.user; cc -o foobar foobar.cc -lstdc++ For FreeBSD 2.2 and later &prompt.user; c++ -o foobar foobar.cc Each of these will both produce an executable foobar from the C++ source file foobar.cc. Note that, on Unix systems, C++ source files traditionally end in .C, .cxx or .cc, rather than the MS-DOS style .cpp (which was already used for something else). gcc used to rely on this to work out what kind of compiler to use on the source file; however, this restriction no longer applies, so you may now call your C++ files .cpp with impunity! Common <command>cc</command> Queries and Problems I am trying to write a program which uses the sin() function and I get an error like this. What does it mean? /var/tmp/cc0143941.o: Undefined symbol `_sin' referenced from text segment When using mathematical functions like sin(), you have to tell cc to link in the math library, like so: &prompt.user; cc -o foobar foobar.c -lm All right, I wrote this simple program to practice using . All it does is raise 2.1 to the power of 6. #include <stdio.h> int main() { float f; f = pow(2.1, 6); printf("2.1 ^ 6 = %f\n", f); return 0; } and I compiled it as: &prompt.user; cc temp.c -lm like you said I should, but I get this when I run it: &prompt.user; ./a.out 2.1 ^ 6 = 1023.000000 This is not the right answer! What is going on? When the compiler sees you call a function, it checks if it has already seen a prototype for it. If it has not, it assumes the function returns an int, which is definitely not what you want here. So how do I fix this? The prototypes for the mathematical functions are in math.h. If you include this file, the compiler will be able to find the prototype and it will stop doing strange things to your calculation! #include <math.h> #include <stdio.h> int main() { ... After recompiling it as you did before, run it: &prompt.user; ./a.out 2.1 ^ 6 = 85.766121 If you are using any of the mathematical functions, always include math.h and remember to link in the math library. I compiled a file called foobar.c and I cannot find an executable called foobar. Where's it gone? Remember, cc will call the executable a.out unless you tell it differently. Use the option: &prompt.user; cc -o foobar foobar.c OK, I have an executable called foobar, I can see it when I run ls, but when I type in foobar at the command prompt it tells me there is no such file. Why can it not find it? Unlike MS-DOS, Unix does not look in the current directory when it is trying to find out which executable you want it to run, unless you tell it to. Either type ./foobar, which means run the file called foobar in the current - directory, or change your PATH environment + directory, or change your PATH environment variable so that it looks something like bin:/usr/bin:/usr/local/bin:. The dot at the end means look in the current directory if it is not in any of the others. I called my executable test, but nothing happens when I run it. What is going on? Most Unix systems have a program called test in /usr/bin and the shell is picking that one up before it gets to checking the current directory. Either type: &prompt.user; ./test or choose a better name for your program! I compiled my program and it seemed to run all right at first, then there was an error and it said something about core dumped. What does that mean? The name core dump dates back to the very early days of Unix, when the machines used core memory for storing data. Basically, if the program failed under certain conditions, the system would write the contents of core memory to disk in a file called core, which the programmer could then pore over to find out what went wrong. Fascinating stuff, but what I am supposed to do now? Use gdb to analyse the core (see ). When my program dumped core, it said something about a segmentation fault. What's that? This basically means that your program tried to perform some sort of illegal operation on memory; Unix is designed to protect the operating system and other programs from rogue programs. Common causes for this are: Trying to write to a NULL pointer, eg char *foo = NULL; strcpy(foo, "bang!"); Using a pointer that hasn't been initialised, eg char *foo; strcpy(foo, "bang!"); The pointer will have some random value that, with luck, will point into an area of memory that isn't available to your program and the kernel will kill your program before it can do any damage. If you're unlucky, it'll point somewhere inside your own program and corrupt one of your data structures, causing the program to fail mysteriously. Trying to access past the end of an array, eg int bar[20]; bar[27] = 6; Trying to store something in read-only memory, eg char *foo = "My string"; strcpy(foo, "bang!"); Unix compilers often put string literals like "My string" into read-only areas of memory. Doing naughty things with malloc() and free(), eg char bar[80]; free(bar); or char *foo = malloc(27); free(foo); free(foo); Making one of these mistakes will not always lead to an error, but they are always bad practice. Some systems and compilers are more tolerant than others, which is why programs that ran well on one system can crash when you try them on an another. Sometimes when I get a core dump it says bus error. It says in my Unix book that this means a hardware problem, but the computer still seems to be working. Is this true? No, fortunately not (unless of course you really do have a hardware problem…). This is usually another way of saying that you accessed memory in a way you shouldn't have. This dumping core business sounds as though it could be quite useful, if I can make it happen when I want to. Can I do this, or do I have to wait until there's an error? Yes, just go to another console or xterm, do &prompt.user; ps to find out the process ID of your program, and do &prompt.user; kill -ABRT pid where pid is the process ID you looked up. This is useful if your program has got stuck in an infinite loop, for instance. If your program happens to trap SIGABRT, there are several other signals which have a similar effect. Make What is <command>make</command>? When you're working on a simple program with only one or two source files, typing in &prompt.user; cc file1.c file2.c is not too bad, but it quickly becomes very tedious when there are several files—and it can take a while to compile, too. One way to get around this is to use object files and only recompile the source file if the source code has changed. So we could have something like: &prompt.user; cc file1.o file2.o … file37.c &hellip if we'd changed file37.c, but not any of the others, since the last time we compiled. This may speed up the compilation quite a bit, but doesn't solve the typing problem. Or we could write a shell script to solve the typing problem, but it would have to re-compile everything, making it very inefficient on a large project. What happens if we have hundreds of source files lying about? What if we're working in a team with other people who forget to tell us when they've changed one of their source files that we use? Perhaps we could put the two solutions together and write something like a shell script that would contain some kind of magic rule saying when a source file needs compiling. Now all we need now is a program that can understand these rules, as it's a bit too complicated for the shell. This program is called make. It reads in a file, called a makefile, that tells it how different files depend on each other, and works out which files need to be re-compiled and which ones don't. For example, a rule could say something like if fromboz.o is older than fromboz.c, that means someone must have changed fromboz.c, so it needs to be re-compiled. The makefile also has rules telling make how to re-compile the source file, making it a much more powerful tool. Makefiles are typically kept in the same directory as the source they apply to, and can be called makefile, Makefile or MAKEFILE. Most programmers use the name Makefile, as this puts it near the top of a directory listing, where it can easily be seen. They don't use the MAKEFILE form as block capitals are often used for documentation files like README. Example of using <command>make</command> Here's a very simple make file: foo: foo.c cc -o foo foo.c It consists of two lines, a dependency line and a creation line. The dependency line here consists of the name of the program (known as the target), followed by a colon, then whitespace, then the name of the source file. When make reads this line, it looks to see if foo exists; if it exists, it compares the time foo was last modified to the time foo.c was last modified. If foo does not exist, or is older than foo.c, it then looks at the creation line to find out what to do. In other words, this is the rule for working out when foo.c needs to be re-compiled. The creation line starts with a tab (press the tab key) and then the command you would type to create foo if you were doing it at a command prompt. If foo is out of date, or does not exist, make then executes this command to create it. In other words, this is the rule which tells make how to re-compile foo.c. So, when you type make, it will make sure that foo is up to date with respect to your latest changes to foo.c. This principle can be extended to Makefiles with hundreds of targets—in fact, on FreeBSD, it is possible to compile the entire operating system just by typing make world in the appropriate directory! Another useful property of makefiles is that the targets don't have to be programs. For instance, we could have a make file that looks like this: foo: foo.c cc -o foo foo.c install: cp foo /home/me We can tell make which target we want to make by typing: &prompt.user; make target make will then only look at that target and ignore any others. For example, if we type make foo with the makefile above, make will ignore the install target. If we just type make on its own, make will always look at the first target and then stop without looking at any others. So if we typed make here, it will just go to the foo target, re-compile foo if necessary, and then stop without going on to the install target. Notice that the install target doesn't actually depend on anything! This means that the command on the following line is always executed when we try to make that target by typing make install. In this case, it will copy foo into the user's home directory. This is often used by application makefiles, so that the application can be installed in the correct directory when it has been correctly compiled. This is a slightly confusing subject to try and explain. If you don't quite understand how make works, the best thing to do is to write a simple program like hello world and a make file like the one above and experiment. Then progress to using more than one source file, or having the source file include a header file. The touch command is very useful here—it changes the date on a file without you having to edit it. FreeBSD Makefiles Makefiles can be rather complicated to write. Fortunately, BSD-based systems like FreeBSD come with some very powerful ones as part of the system. One very good example of this is the FreeBSD ports system. Here's the essential part of a typical ports Makefile: MASTER_SITES= ftp://freefall.cdrom.com/pub/FreeBSD/LOCAL_PORTS/ DISTFILES= scheme-microcode+dist-7.3-freebsd.tgz .include <bsd.port.mk> Now, if we go to the directory for this port and type make, the following happens: A check is made to see if the source code for this port is already on the system. If it isn't, an FTP connection to the URL in MASTER_SITES is set up to download the source. The checksum for the source is calculated and compared it with one for a known, good, copy of the source. This is to make sure that the source was not corrupted while in transit. Any changes required to make the source work on FreeBSD are applied—this is known as patching. Any special configuration needed for the source is done. (Many Unix program distributions try to work out which version of Unix they are being compiled on and which optional Unix features are present—this is where they are given the information in the FreeBSD ports scenario). The source code for the program is compiled. In effect, we change to the directory where the source was unpacked and do make—the program's own make file has the necessary information to build the program. We now have a compiled version of the program. If we wish, we can test it now; when we feel confident about the program, we can type make install. This will cause the program and any supporting files it needs to be copied into the correct location; an entry is also made into a package database, so that the port can easily be uninstalled later if we change our mind about it. Now I think you'll agree that's rather impressive for a four line script! The secret lies in the last line, which tells make to look in the system makefile called bsd.port.mk. It's easy to overlook this line, but this is where all the clever stuff comes from—someone has written a makefile that tells make to do all the things above (plus a couple of other things I didn't mention, including handling any errors that may occur) and anyone can get access to that just by putting a single line in their own make file! If you want to have a look at these system makefiles, they're in /usr/share/mk, but it's probably best to wait until you've had a bit of practice with makefiles, as they are very complicated (and if you do look at them, make sure you have a flask of strong coffee handy!) More advanced uses of <command>make</command> Make is a very powerful tool, and can do much more than the simple example above shows. Unfortunately, there are several different versions of make, and they all differ considerably. The best way to learn what they can do is probably to read the documentation—hopefully this introduction will have given you a base from which you can do this. The version of make that comes with FreeBSD is the Berkeley make; there is a tutorial for it in /usr/share/doc/psd/12.make. To view it, do &prompt.user; zmore paper.ascii.gz in that directory. Many applications in the ports use GNU make, which has a very good set of info pages. If you have installed any of these ports, GNU make will automatically have been installed as gmake. It's also available as a port and package in its own right. To view the info pages for GNU make, you will have to edit the dir file in the /usr/local/info directory to add an entry for it. This involves adding a line like * Make: (make). The GNU Make utility. to the file. Once you have done this, you can type info and then select make from the menu (or in Emacs, do C-h i). Debugging The Debugger The debugger that comes with FreeBSD is called gdb (GNU debugger). You start it up by typing &prompt.user; gdb progname although most people prefer to run it inside Emacs. You can do this by: M-x gdb RET progname RET Using a debugger allows you to run the program under more controlled circumstances. Typically, you can step through the program a line at a time, inspect the value of variables, change them, tell the debugger to run up to a certain point and then stop, and so on. You can even attach to a program that's already running, or load a core file to investigate why the program crashed. It's even possible to debug the kernel, though that's a little trickier than the user applications we'll be discussing in this section. gdb has quite good on-line help, as well as a set of info pages, so this section will concentrate on a few of the basic commands. Finally, if you find its text-based command-prompt style off-putting, there's a graphical front-end for it xxgdb in the ports collection. This section is intended to be an introduction to using gdb and does not cover specialised topics such as debugging the kernel. Running a program in the debugger You'll need to have compiled the program with the option to get the most out of using gdb. It will work without, but you'll only see the name of the function you're in, instead of the source code. If you see a line like: … (no debugging symbols found) … when gdb starts up, you'll know that the program wasn't compiled with the option. At the gdb prompt, type break main. This will tell the debugger to skip over the preliminary set-up code in the program and start at the beginning of your code. Now type run to start the program—it will start at the beginning of the set-up code and then get stopped by the debugger when it calls main(). (If you've ever wondered where main() gets called from, now you know!). You can now step through the program, a line at a time, by pressing n. If you get to a function call, you can step into it by pressing s. Once you're in a function call, you can return from stepping into a function call by pressing f. You can also use up and down to take a quick look at the caller. Here's a simple example of how to spot a mistake in a program with gdb. This is our program (with a deliberate mistake): #include <stdio.h> int bazz(int anint); main() { int i; printf("This is my program\n"); bazz(i); return 0; } int bazz(int anint) { printf("You gave me %d\n", anint); return anint; } This program sets i to be 5 and passes it to a function bazz() which prints out the number we gave it. When we compile and run the program we get &prompt.user; cc -g -o temp temp.c &prompt.user; ./temp This is my program anint = 4231 That wasn't what we expected! Time to see what's going on! &prompt.user; gdb temp GDB is free software and you are welcome to distribute copies of it under certain conditions; type "show copying" to see the conditions. There is absolutely no warranty for GDB; type "show warranty" for details. GDB 4.13 (i386-unknown-freebsd), Copyright 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc. (gdb) break main Skip the set-up code Breakpoint 1 at 0x160f: file temp.c, line 9. gdb puts breakpoint at main() (gdb) run Run as far as main() Starting program: /home/james/tmp/temp Program starts running Breakpoint 1, main () at temp.c:9 gdb stops at main() (gdb) n Go to next line This is my program Program prints out (gdb) s step into bazz() bazz (anint=4231) at temp.c:17 gdb displays stack frame (gdb) Hang on a minute! How did anint get to be 4231? Didn't we set it to be 5 in main()? Let's move up to main() and have a look. (gdb) up Move up call stack #1 0x1625 in main () at temp.c:11 gdb displays stack frame (gdb) p i Show us the value of i $1 = 4231 gdb displays 4231 Oh dear! Looking at the code, we forgot to initialise i. We meant to put … main() { int i; i = 5; printf("This is my program\n"); &hellip but we left the i=5; line out. As we didn't initialise i, it had whatever number happened to be in that area of memory when the program ran, which in this case happened to be 4231. gdb displays the stack frame every time we go into or out of a function, even if we're using up and down to move around the call stack. This shows the name of the function and the values of its arguments, which helps us keep track of where we are and what's going on. (The stack is a storage area where the program stores information about the arguments passed to functions and where to go when it returns from a function call). Examining a core file A core file is basically a file which contains the complete state of the process when it crashed. In the good old days, programmers had to print out hex listings of core files and sweat over machine code manuals, but now life is a bit easier. Incidentally, under FreeBSD and other 4.4BSD systems, a core file is called progname.core instead of just core, to make it clearer which program a core file belongs to. To examine a core file, start up gdb in the usual way. Instead of typing break or run, type (gdb) core progname.core If you're not in the same directory as the core file, you'll have to do dir /path/to/core/file first. You should see something like this: &prompt.user; gdb a.out GDB is free software and you are welcome to distribute copies of it under certain conditions; type "show copying" to see the conditions. There is absolutely no warranty for GDB; type "show warranty" for details. GDB 4.13 (i386-unknown-freebsd), Copyright 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc. (gdb) core a.out.core Core was generated by `a.out'. Program terminated with signal 11, Segmentation fault. Cannot access memory at address 0x7020796d. #0 0x164a in bazz (anint=0x5) at temp.c:17 (gdb) In this case, the program was called a.out, so the core file is called a.out.core. We can see that the program crashed due to trying to access an area in memory that was not available to it in a function called bazz. Sometimes it's useful to be able to see how a function was called, as the problem could have occurred a long way up the call stack in a complex program. The bt command causes gdb to print out a back-trace of the call stack: (gdb) bt #0 0x164a in bazz (anint=0x5) at temp.c:17 #1 0xefbfd888 in end () #2 0x162c in main () at temp.c:11 (gdb) The end() function is called when a program crashes; in this case, the bazz() function was called from main(). Attaching to a running program One of the neatest features about gdb is that it can attach to a program that's already running. Of course, that assumes you have sufficient permissions to do so. A common problem is when you are stepping through a program that forks, and you want to trace the child, but the debugger will only let you trace the parent. What you do is start up another gdb, use ps to find the process ID for the child, and do (gdb) attach pid in gdb, and then debug as usual. That's all very well, you're probably thinking, but by the time I've done that, the child process will be over the hill and far away. Fear not, gentle reader, here's how to do it (courtesy of the gdb info pages): &hellip if ((pid = fork()) < 0) /* _Always_ check this */ error(); else if (pid == 0) { /* child */ int PauseMode = 1; while (PauseMode) sleep(10); /* Wait until someone attaches to us */ &hellip } else { /* parent */ &hellip Now all you have to do is attach to the child, set PauseMode to 0, and wait for the sleep() call to return! Using Emacs as a Development Environment Emacs Unfortunately, Unix systems don't come with the kind of everything-you-ever-wanted-and-lots-more-you-didn't-in-one-gigantic-package integrated development environments that other systems have. At least, not unless you pay out very large sums of money. However, it is possible to set up your own environment. It may not be as pretty, and it may not be quite as integrated, but you can set it up the way you want it. And it's free. And you have the source to it. The key to it all is Emacs. Now there are some people who loathe it, but many who love it. If you're one of the former, I'm afraid this section will hold little of interest to you. Also, you'll need a fair amount of memory to run it—I'd recommend 8MB in text mode and 16MB in X as the bare minimum to get reasonable performance. Emacs is basically a highly customisable editor—indeed, it has been customised to the point where it's more like an operating system than an editor! Many developers and sysadmins do in fact spend practically all their time working inside Emacs, leaving it only to log out. It's impossible even to summarise everything Emacs can do here, but here are some of the features of interest to developers: Very powerful editor, allowing search-and-replace on both strings and regular expressions (patterns), jumping to start/end of block expression, etc, etc. Pull-down menus and online help. Language-dependent syntax highlighting and indentation. Completely customisable. You can compile and debug programs within Emacs. On a compilation error, you can jump to the offending line of source code. Friendly-ish front-end to the info program used for reading GNU hypertext documentation, including the documentation on Emacs itself. Friendly front-end to gdb, allowing you to look at the source code as you step through your program. You can read Usenet news and mail while your program is compiling. And doubtless many more that I've overlooked. Emacs can be installed on FreeBSD using the Emacs port. Once it's installed, start it up and do C-h t to read an Emacs tutorial—that means hold down the control key, press h, let go of the control key, and then press t. (Alternatively, you can you use the mouse to select Emacs Tutorial from the Help menu). Although Emacs does have menus, it's well worth learning the key bindings, as it's much quicker when you're editing something to press a couple of keys than to try and find the mouse and then click on the right place. And, when you're talking to seasoned Emacs users, you'll find they often casually throw around expressions like M-x replace-s RET foo RET bar RET so it's useful to know what they mean. And in any case, Emacs has far too many useful functions for them to all fit on the menu bars. Fortunately, it's quite easy to pick up the key-bindings, as they're displayed next to the menu item. My advice is to use the menu item for, say, opening a file until you understand how it works and feel confident with it, then try doing C-x C-f. When you're happy with that, move on to another menu command. If you can't remember what a particular combination of keys does, select Describe Key from the Help menu and type it in—Emacs will tell you what it does. You can also use the Command Apropos menu item to find out all the commands which contain a particular word in them, with the key binding next to it. By the way, the expression above means hold down the Meta key, press x, release the Meta key, type replace-s (short for replace-string—another feature of Emacs is that you can abbreviate commands), press the return key, type foo (the string you want replaced), press the return key, type bar (the string you want to replace foo with) and press return again. Emacs will then do the search-and-replace operation you've just requested. If you're wondering what on earth the Meta key is, it's a special key that many Unix workstations have. Unfortunately, PC's don't have one, so it's usually the alt key (or if you're unlucky, the escape key). Oh, and to get out of Emacs, do C-x C-c (that means hold down the control key, press x, press c and release the control key). If you have any unsaved files open, Emacs will ask you if you want to save them. (Ignore the bit in the documentation where it says C-z is the usual way to leave Emacs—that leaves Emacs hanging around in the background, and is only really useful if you're on a system which doesn't have virtual terminals). Configuring Emacs Emacs does many wonderful things; some of them are built in, some of them need to be configured. Instead of using a proprietary macro language for configuration, Emacs uses a version of Lisp specially adapted for editors, known as Emacs Lisp. This can be quite useful if you want to go on and learn something like Common Lisp, as it's considerably smaller than Common Lisp (although still quite big!). The best way to learn Emacs Lisp is to download the Emacs Tutorial However, there's no need to actually know any Lisp to get started with configuring Emacs, as I've included a sample .emacs file, which should be enough to get you started. Just copy it into your home directory and restart Emacs if it's already running; it will read the commands from the file and (hopefully) give you a useful basic setup. A sample <filename>.emacs</filename> file Unfortunately, there's far too much here to explain it in detail; however there are one or two points worth mentioning. Everything beginning with a ; is a comment and is ignored by Emacs. In the first line, the -*- Emacs-Lisp -*- is so that we can edit the .emacs file itself within Emacs and get all the fancy features for editing Emacs Lisp. Emacs usually tries to guess this based on the filename, and may not get it right for .emacs. The tab key is bound to an indentation function in some modes, so when you press the tab key, it will indent the current line of code. If you want to put a tab character in whatever you're writing, hold the control key down while you're pressing the tab key. This file supports syntax highlighting for C, C++, Perl, Lisp and Scheme, by guessing the language from the filename. Emacs already has a pre-defined function called next-error. In a compilation output window, this allows you to move from one compilation error to the next by doing M-n; we define a complementary function, previous-error, that allows you to go to a previous error by doing M-p. The nicest feature of all is that C-c C-c will open up the source file in which the error occurred and jump to the appropriate line. We enable Emacs's ability to act as a server, so that if you're doing something outside Emacs and you want to edit a file, you can just type in &prompt.user; emacsclient filename and then you can edit the file in your Emacs! - Many Emacs users set their EDITOR environment to + Many Emacs users set their EDITOR environment to emacsclient so this happens every time they need to edit a file. A sample <filename>.emacs</filename> file ;; -*-Emacs-Lisp-*- ;; This file is designed to be re-evaled; use the variable first-time ;; to avoid any problems with this. (defvar first-time t "Flag signifying this is the first time that .emacs has been evaled") ;; Meta (global-set-key "\M- " 'set-mark-command) (global-set-key "\M-\C-h" 'backward-kill-word) (global-set-key "\M-\C-r" 'query-replace) (global-set-key "\M-r" 'replace-string) (global-set-key "\M-g" 'goto-line) (global-set-key "\M-h" 'help-command) ;; Function keys (global-set-key [f1] 'manual-entry) (global-set-key [f2] 'info) (global-set-key [f3] 'repeat-complex-command) (global-set-key [f4] 'advertised-undo) (global-set-key [f5] 'eval-current-buffer) (global-set-key [f6] 'buffer-menu) (global-set-key [f7] 'other-window) (global-set-key [f8] 'find-file) (global-set-key [f9] 'save-buffer) (global-set-key [f10] 'next-error) (global-set-key [f11] 'compile) (global-set-key [f12] 'grep) (global-set-key [C-f1] 'compile) (global-set-key [C-f2] 'grep) (global-set-key [C-f3] 'next-error) (global-set-key [C-f4] 'previous-error) (global-set-key [C-f5] 'display-faces) (global-set-key [C-f8] 'dired) (global-set-key [C-f10] 'kill-compilation) ;; Keypad bindings (global-set-key [up] "\C-p") (global-set-key [down] "\C-n") (global-set-key [left] "\C-b") (global-set-key [right] "\C-f") (global-set-key [home] "\C-a") (global-set-key [end] "\C-e") (global-set-key [prior] "\M-v") (global-set-key [next] "\C-v") (global-set-key [C-up] "\M-\C-b") (global-set-key [C-down] "\M-\C-f") (global-set-key [C-left] "\M-b") (global-set-key [C-right] "\M-f") (global-set-key [C-home] "\M-<") (global-set-key [C-end] "\M->") (global-set-key [C-prior] "\M-<") (global-set-key [C-next] "\M->") ;; Mouse (global-set-key [mouse-3] 'imenu) ;; Misc (global-set-key [C-tab] "\C-q\t") ; Control tab quotes a tab. (setq backup-by-copying-when-mismatch t) ;; Treat 'y' or <CR> as yes, 'n' as no. (fset 'yes-or-no-p 'y-or-n-p) (define-key query-replace-map [return] 'act) (define-key query-replace-map [?\C-m] 'act) ;; Load packages (require 'desktop) (require 'tar-mode) ;; Pretty diff mode (autoload 'ediff-buffers "ediff" "Intelligent Emacs interface to diff" t) (autoload 'ediff-files "ediff" "Intelligent Emacs interface to diff" t) (autoload 'ediff-files-remote "ediff" "Intelligent Emacs interface to diff") (if first-time (setq auto-mode-alist (append '(("\\.cpp$" . c++-mode) ("\\.hpp$" . c++-mode) ("\\.lsp$" . lisp-mode) ("\\.scm$" . scheme-mode) ("\\.pl$" . perl-mode) ) auto-mode-alist))) ;; Auto font lock mode (defvar font-lock-auto-mode-list (list 'c-mode 'c++-mode 'c++-c-mode 'emacs-lisp-mode 'lisp-mode 'perl-mode 'scheme-mode) "List of modes to always start in font-lock-mode") (defvar font-lock-mode-keyword-alist '((c++-c-mode . c-font-lock-keywords) (perl-mode . perl-font-lock-keywords)) "Associations between modes and keywords") (defun font-lock-auto-mode-select () "Automatically select font-lock-mode if the current major mode is in font-lock-auto-mode-list" (if (memq major-mode font-lock-auto-mode-list) (progn (font-lock-mode t)) ) ) (global-set-key [M-f1] 'font-lock-fontify-buffer) ;; New dabbrev stuff ;(require 'new-dabbrev) (setq dabbrev-always-check-other-buffers t) (setq dabbrev-abbrev-char-regexp "\\sw\\|\\s_") (add-hook 'emacs-lisp-mode-hook '(lambda () (set (make-local-variable 'dabbrev-case-fold-search) nil) (set (make-local-variable 'dabbrev-case-replace) nil))) (add-hook 'c-mode-hook '(lambda () (set (make-local-variable 'dabbrev-case-fold-search) nil) (set (make-local-variable 'dabbrev-case-replace) nil))) (add-hook 'text-mode-hook '(lambda () (set (make-local-variable 'dabbrev-case-fold-search) t) (set (make-local-variable 'dabbrev-case-replace) t))) ;; C++ and C mode... (defun my-c++-mode-hook () (setq tab-width 4) (define-key c++-mode-map "\C-m" 'reindent-then-newline-and-indent) (define-key c++-mode-map "\C-ce" 'c-comment-edit) (setq c++-auto-hungry-initial-state 'none) (setq c++-delete-function 'backward-delete-char) (setq c++-tab-always-indent t) (setq c-indent-level 4) (setq c-continued-statement-offset 4) (setq c++-empty-arglist-indent 4)) (defun my-c-mode-hook () (setq tab-width 4) (define-key c-mode-map "\C-m" 'reindent-then-newline-and-indent) (define-key c-mode-map "\C-ce" 'c-comment-edit) (setq c-auto-hungry-initial-state 'none) (setq c-delete-function 'backward-delete-char) (setq c-tab-always-indent t) ;; BSD-ish indentation style (setq c-indent-level 4) (setq c-continued-statement-offset 4) (setq c-brace-offset -4) (setq c-argdecl-indent 0) (setq c-label-offset -4)) ;; Perl mode (defun my-perl-mode-hook () (setq tab-width 4) (define-key c++-mode-map "\C-m" 'reindent-then-newline-and-indent) (setq perl-indent-level 4) (setq perl-continued-statement-offset 4)) ;; Scheme mode... (defun my-scheme-mode-hook () (define-key scheme-mode-map "\C-m" 'reindent-then-newline-and-indent)) ;; Emacs-Lisp mode... (defun my-lisp-mode-hook () (define-key lisp-mode-map "\C-m" 'reindent-then-newline-and-indent) (define-key lisp-mode-map "\C-i" 'lisp-indent-line) (define-key lisp-mode-map "\C-j" 'eval-print-last-sexp)) ;; Add all of the hooks... (add-hook 'c++-mode-hook 'my-c++-mode-hook) (add-hook 'c-mode-hook 'my-c-mode-hook) (add-hook 'scheme-mode-hook 'my-scheme-mode-hook) (add-hook 'emacs-lisp-mode-hook 'my-lisp-mode-hook) (add-hook 'lisp-mode-hook 'my-lisp-mode-hook) (add-hook 'perl-mode-hook 'my-perl-mode-hook) ;; Complement to next-error (defun previous-error (n) "Visit previous compilation error message and corresponding source code." (interactive "p") (next-error (- n))) ;; Misc... (transient-mark-mode 1) (setq mark-even-if-inactive t) (setq visible-bell nil) (setq next-line-add-newlines nil) (setq compile-command "make") (setq suggest-key-bindings nil) (put 'eval-expression 'disabled nil) (put 'narrow-to-region 'disabled nil) (put 'set-goal-column 'disabled nil) ;; Elisp archive searching (autoload 'format-lisp-code-directory "lispdir" nil t) (autoload 'lisp-dir-apropos "lispdir" nil t) (autoload 'lisp-dir-retrieve "lispdir" nil t) (autoload 'lisp-dir-verify "lispdir" nil t) ;; Font lock mode (defun my-make-face (face colour &optional bold) "Create a face from a colour and optionally make it bold" (make-face face) (copy-face 'default face) (set-face-foreground face colour) (if bold (make-face-bold face)) ) (if (eq window-system 'x) (progn (my-make-face 'blue "blue") (my-make-face 'red "red") (my-make-face 'green "dark green") (setq font-lock-comment-face 'blue) (setq font-lock-string-face 'bold) (setq font-lock-type-face 'bold) (setq font-lock-keyword-face 'bold) (setq font-lock-function-name-face 'red) (setq font-lock-doc-string-face 'green) (add-hook 'find-file-hooks 'font-lock-auto-mode-select) (setq baud-rate 1000000) (global-set-key "\C-cmm" 'menu-bar-mode) (global-set-key "\C-cms" 'scroll-bar-mode) (global-set-key [backspace] 'backward-delete-char) ; (global-set-key [delete] 'delete-char) (standard-display-european t) (load-library "iso-transl"))) ;; X11 or PC using direct screen writes (if window-system (progn ;; (global-set-key [M-f1] 'hilit-repaint-command) ;; (global-set-key [M-f2] [?\C-u M-f1]) (setq hilit-mode-enable-list '(not text-mode c-mode c++-mode emacs-lisp-mode lisp-mode scheme-mode) hilit-auto-highlight nil hilit-auto-rehighlight 'visible hilit-inhibit-hooks nil hilit-inhibit-rebinding t) (require 'hilit19) (require 'paren)) (setq baud-rate 2400) ; For slow serial connections ) ;; TTY type terminal (if (and (not window-system) (not (equal system-type 'ms-dos))) (progn (if first-time (progn (keyboard-translate ?\C-h ?\C-?) (keyboard-translate ?\C-? ?\C-h))))) ;; Under UNIX (if (not (equal system-type 'ms-dos)) (progn (if first-time (server-start)))) ;; Add any face changes here (add-hook 'term-setup-hook 'my-term-setup-hook) (defun my-term-setup-hook () (if (eq window-system 'pc) (progn ;; (set-face-background 'default "red") ))) ;; Restore the "desktop" - do this as late as possible (if first-time (progn (desktop-load-default) (desktop-read))) ;; Indicate that this file has been read at least once (setq first-time nil) ;; No need to debug anything now (setq debug-on-error nil) ;; All done (message "All done, %s%s" (user-login-name) ".") Extending the Range of Languages Emacs Understands Now, this is all very well if you only want to program in the languages already catered for in the .emacs file (C, C++, Perl, Lisp and Scheme), but what happens if a new language called whizbang comes out, full of exciting features? The first thing to do is find out if whizbang comes with any files that tell Emacs about the language. These usually end in .el, short for Emacs Lisp. For example, if whizbang is a FreeBSD port, we can locate these files by doing &prompt.user; find /usr/ports/lang/whizbang -name "*.el" -print and install them by copying them into the Emacs site Lisp directory. On FreeBSD 2.1.0-RELEASE, this is /usr/local/share/emacs/site-lisp. So for example, if the output from the find command was /usr/ports/lang/whizbang/work/misc/whizbang.el we would do &prompt.root; cp /usr/ports/lang/whizbang/work/misc/whizbang.el /usr/local/share/emacs/site-lisp Next, we need to decide what extension whizbang source files have. Let's say for the sake of argument that they all end in .wiz. We need to add an entry to our .emacs file to make sure Emacs will be able to use the information in whizbang.el. Find the auto-mode-alist entry in .emacs and add a line for whizbang, such as: … ("\\.lsp$" . lisp-mode) ("\\.wiz$" . whizbang-mode) ("\\.scm$" . scheme-mode) … This means that Emacs will automatically go into whizbang-mode when you edit a file ending in .wiz. Just below this, you'll find the font-lock-auto-mode-list entry. Add whizbang-mode to it like so: ;; Auto font lock mode (defvar font-lock-auto-mode-list (list 'c-mode 'c++-mode 'c++-c-mode 'emacs-lisp-mode 'whizbang-mode 'lisp-mode 'perl-mode 'scheme-mode) "List of modes to always start in font-lock-mode") This means that Emacs will always enable font-lock-mode (ie syntax highlighting) when editing a .wiz file. And that's all that's needed. If there's anything else you want done automatically when you open up a .wiz file, you can add a whizbang-mode hook (see my-scheme-mode-hook for a simple example that adds auto-indent). Further Reading Brian Harvey and Matthew Wright Simply Scheme MIT 1994. ISBN 0-262-08226-8 Randall Schwartz Learning Perl O'Reilly 1993 ISBN 1-56592-042-2 Patrick Henry Winston and Berthold Klaus Paul Horn Lisp (3rd Edition) Addison-Wesley 1989 ISBN 0-201-08319-1 Brian W. Kernighan and Rob Pike The Unix Programming Environment Prentice-Hall 1984 ISBN 0-13-937681-X Brian W. Kernighan and Dennis M. Ritchie The C Programming Language (2nd Edition) Prentice-Hall 1988 ISBN 0-13-110362-8 Bjarne Stroustrup The C++ Programming Language Addison-Wesley 1991 ISBN 0-201-53992-6 W. Richard Stevens Advanced Programming in the Unix Environment Addison-Wesley 1992 ISBN 0-201-56317-7 W. Richard Stevens Unix Network Programming Prentice-Hall 1990 ISBN 0-13-949876-1
diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/zip-drive/article.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/zip-drive/article.sgml index 3a2fe2db78..4e1aeeacaa 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/zip-drive/article.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/articles/zip-drive/article.sgml @@ -1,267 +1,267 @@ - %man; ]>
- + ZIP Drives Jason Bacon
acadix@execpc.com
 - + ZIP Drive Basics ZIP disks are high capacity, removable, magnetic disks, which can be read or written by ZIP drives from iomega corporation. ZIP disks are similar to floppy disks, except that they are much faster, and have a much greater capacity. While floppy disks typically hold 1.44 megabytes, ZIP disks are available in two sizes, namely 100 megabytes and 250 megabytes. ZIP drives should not be confused with the super-floppy, a 120 megabyte floppy drive which also handles traditional 1.44 megabyte floppies. IOMEGA also sells a higher capacity, higher performance drive called the JAZZ drive. JAZZ drives come in 1 gigabyte and 2 gigabyte sizes. ZIP drives are available as internal or external units, using one of three interfaces: The SCSI (Small Computer Standard Interface) interface is the fastest, most sophisticated, most expandable, and most expensive interface. The SCSI interface is used by all types of computers from PC's to RISC workstations to minicomputers, to connect all types of peripherals such as disk drives, tape drives, scanners, and so on. SCSI ZIP drives may be internal or external, assuming your host adapter has an external connector. If you are using an external SCSI device, it is important never to connect or disconnect it from the SCSI bus while the computer is running. Doing so may cause file-system damage on the disks that remain connected. If you want maximum performance and easy setup, the SCSI interface is the best choice. This will probably require adding a SCSI host adapter, since most PC's (except for high-performance servers) don't have built-in SCSI support. Each SCSI host adapter can support either 7 or 15 SCSI devices, depending on the model. Each SCSI device has it's own controller, and these controllers are fairly intelligent and well standardized, (the second `S' in SCSI is for Standard) so from the operating system's point of view, all SCSI disk drives look about the same, as do all SCSI tape drives, etc. To support SCSI devices, the operating system need only have a driver for the particular host adapter, and a generic driver for each type of device, i.e. a SCSI disk driver, SCSI tape driver, and so on. There are some SCSI devices that can be better utilized with specialized drivers (e.g. DAT tape drives), but they tend to work OK with the generic driver, too. It's just that the generic drivers may not support some of the special features. Using a SCSI zip drive is simply a matter of determining which device file in the /dev directory represents the ZIP drive. This can be determined by looking at the boot messages while FreeBSD is booting (or in /var/log/messages after booting), where you'll see a line something like this: da1: <IOMEGA ZIP 100 D.13> Removable Direct Access SCSI-2 Device This means that the ZIP drive is represented by the file /dev/da1. The IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) interface is a low-cost disk drive interface used by many desktop PC's. Most IDE devices are strictly internal. Performance of IDE ZIP drives is comparable to SCSI ZIP drives. (The IDE interface is not as fast as SCSI, but ZIP drives performance is limited mainly by the mechanics of the drive, not by the bus interface.) The drawback of the IDE interface is the limitations it imposes. Most IDE adapters can only support 2 devices, and IDE interfaces are not typically designed for the long term. For example, the original IDE interface would not support hard disks with more than 1024 cylinders, which forced a lot of people to upgrade their hardware prematurely. If you have plans to expand your PC by adding another disk, a tape drive, or scanner, you may want to invest in a SCSI host adapter and a SCSI ZIP drive to avoid problems in the future. IDE devices in FreeBSD are prefixed with a w. For example, an IDE hard disk might be /dev/wd0, an IDE (ATAPI) cdrom might be /dev/wcd1, and so on. The parallel port interface is popular for portable external devices such as external ZIP drives and scanners, because virtually every computer has a standard parallel port (usually used for printers). This makes things easy for people to transfer data between multiple computers by toting around their ZIP drive. Performance will generally be slower than a SCSI or IDE ZIP drive, since it is limited by the speed of the parallel port. Parallel port speed varies considerably between various computers, and can often be configured in the system BIOS. Some machines will also require BIOS configuration to operate the parallel port in bidirectional mode. (Parallel ports were originally designed only for output to printers) Parallel ZIP: The <devicename>vpo</devicename> Driver To use a parallel-port ZIP drive under FreeBSD, the vpo driver must be configured into the kernel. Parallel port ZIP drives also have a built-in SCSI controller. The vpo driver allows the FreeBSD kernel to communicate with the ZIP drive's SCSI controller through the parallel port. Since the vpo driver is not a standard part of the kernel (as of FreeBSD 3.2), you will need to rebuild the kernel to enable this device. The process of building a kernel is outlined in detail in another section. The following steps outline the process in brief for the purpose of enabling the vpo driver: Run /stand/sysinstall, and install the kernel source code on your system. &prompt.root; cd /sys/i386/conf &prompt.root; cp GENERIC MYKERNEL Edit MYKERNEL, change the ident line to MYKERNEL, and uncomment the line describing the vpo driver. If you have a second parallel port, you may need to copy the section for ppc0 to create a ppc1 device. The second parallel port usually uses IRQ 5 and address 378. Only the IRQ is required in the config file. If you're root hard disk is a SCSI disk, you might run into a problem with probing order, which will cause the system to attempt to use the ZIP drive as the root device. This will cause a boot failure, unless you happen to have a FreeBSD root file-system on your ZIP disk! In this case, you will need to wire down the root disk, i.e. force the kernel to bind a specific device to /dev/da0, the root SCSI disk. It will then assign the ZIP disk to the next available SCSI disk, e.g. /dev/da1. To wire down your SCSI hard drive as da0, change the line device da0 to disk da0 at scbus0 target 0 unit 0 You may need to change the target above to match the SCSI ID of your disk drive. You should also wire down the scbus0 entry to your controller. For example, if you have an Adaptec 15xx controller, you would change controller scbus0 to controller scbus0 at aha0 Lastly, as long as you're editing the kernel config, you can take the opportunity to remove all the unnecessary drivers. This should be done with a great deal of caution, and only if you feel confident about making kernel modifications. Removing unnecessary drivers will reduce the kernel size, leaving more memory available for your applications. To determine which drivers are not needed, go to the end of the file /var/log/messages, and look for lines reading "not found". Then, comment out these devices in your config file. You can also change other options to reduce the size and increase the speed of your kernel. Read the section on rebuilding your kernel for more complete information. Now it's time to compile the kernel: &prompt.root; /usr/sbin/config MYKERNEL &prompt.root; cd ../../compile/MYKERNEL &prompt.root; make clean depend && make all install After the kernel is rebuilt, you'll need to reboot. Make sure the ZIP drive is connected to the parallel port before the boot begins. You should see the ZIP drive show up in the boot messages as device vpo0 or vpo1, depending on which parallel port the drive is attached to. It should also show which device file the ZIP drive has been bound to. This will be /dev/da0 if you have no other SCSI disks in the system, or /dev/da1 if you have a SCSI hard disk wired down as the root device. Mounting ZIP disks To access the ZIP disk, you simply mount it like any other disk device. The file-system is represented as slice 4 on the device, so for SCSI or parallel ZIP disks, you would use: &prompt.root; mount_msdos /dev/da1s4 /mnt For IDE ZIP drives, use: &prompt.root; mount_msdos /dev/wd1s4 /mnt It will also be helpful to update /etc/fstab to make mounting easier. Add a line like the following, edited to suit your system: /dev/da1s4 /zip msdos rw,noauto 0 0 and create the directory /zip. Then, you can mount simply by typing &prompt.root; mount /zip and unmount by typing &prompt.root; umount /zip For more information on the format of /etc/fstab, see &man.fstab.5;. You can also create a FreeBSD file-system on the ZIP disk using &man.newfs.8;. However, the disk will only be usable on a FreeBSD system, or perhaps a few other Unix clones that recognize FreeBSD file-systems. (Definitely not DOS or Windows.)