diff --git a/documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc b/documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc index 23c7183a04..ea69f1e767 100644 --- a/documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc +++ b/documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc @@ -1,1884 +1,1864 @@ --- title: Chapter 3. FreeBSD Basics part: Part I. Getting Started prev: books/handbook/bsdinstall next: books/handbook/ports description: Basic commands and functionality of the FreeBSD operating system tags: ["basics", "virtual consoles", "users", "management", "permissions", "directory structure", "disk organization", "mounting", "processes", "daemons", "shell", "editor", "manual pages", "devices"] showBookMenu: true weight: 5 path: "/books/handbook/" aliases: ["/en/books/handbook/consoles/","/en/books/handbook/users-synopsis/","/en/books/handbook/permissions/","/en/books/handbook/dirstructure/","/en/books/handbook/disk-organization/","/en/books/handbook/mount-unmount/","/en/books/handbook/basics-processes/","/en/books/handbook/shells/","/en/books/handbook/editors/","/en/books/handbook/basics-devices/","/en/books/handbook/basics-more-information/"] --- [[basics]] = FreeBSD Basics :doctype: book :toc: macro :toclevels: 1 :icons: font :sectnums: :sectnumlevels: 6 :sectnumoffset: 3 :partnums: :source-highlighter: rouge :experimental: :images-path: books/handbook/basics/ ifdef::env-beastie[] ifdef::backend-html5[] :imagesdir: ../../../../images/{images-path} endif::[] ifndef::book[] include::shared/authors.adoc[] include::shared/mirrors.adoc[] include::shared/releases.adoc[] include::shared/attributes/attributes-{{% lang %}}.adoc[] include::shared/{{% lang %}}/teams.adoc[] include::shared/{{% lang %}}/mailing-lists.adoc[] include::shared/{{% lang %}}/urls.adoc[] toc::[] endif::[] ifdef::backend-pdf,backend-epub3[] include::../../../../../shared/asciidoctor.adoc[] endif::[] endif::[] ifndef::env-beastie[] toc::[] include::../../../../../shared/asciidoctor.adoc[] endif::[] [[basics-synopsis]] == Synopsis This chapter covers the basic commands and functionality of the FreeBSD operating system. Much of this material is relevant for any UNIX(R)-like operating system. New FreeBSD users are encouraged to read through this chapter carefully. After reading this chapter, you will know: * How to use and configure virtual consoles. * How to create and manage users and groups on FreeBSD. * How UNIX(R) file permissions and FreeBSD file flags work. * The default FreeBSD file system layout. * The FreeBSD disk organization. * How to mount and unmount file systems. * What processes, daemons, and signals are. * What a shell is, and how to change the default login environment. * How to use basic text editors. * What devices and device nodes are. * How to read manual pages for more information. [[consoles]] == Virtual Consoles and Terminals Unless FreeBSD has been configured to automatically start a graphical environment during startup, the system will boot into a command line login prompt, as seen in this example: [source,shell] .... FreeBSD/amd64 (pc3.example.org) (ttyv0) login: .... The first line contains some information about the system. The `amd64` indicates that the system in this example is running a 64-bit version of FreeBSD. -The hostname is `pc3.example.org`, and [.filename]#ttyv0# indicates that this is the "system console". +The hostname is `pc3.example.org`, and `ttyv0` indicates that this is the "system console". The second line is the login prompt. Since FreeBSD is a multiuser system, it needs some way to distinguish between different users. This is accomplished by requiring every user to log into the system before gaining access to the programs on the system. -Every user has a unique name "username" and a personal "password". +Every user has a unique "username" and a personal "password". To log into the system console, type the username that was configured during system installation, as described in crossref:bsdinstall[bsdinstall-addusers,Add Users], and press kbd:[Enter]. Then enter the password associated with the username and press kbd:[Enter]. The password is _not echoed_ for security reasons. Once the correct password is input, the message of the day (MOTD) will be displayed followed by a command prompt. Depending upon the shell that was selected when the user was created, this prompt will be a `+#+`, `$`, or `%` character. The prompt indicates that the user is now logged into the FreeBSD system console and ready to try the available commands. [[consoles-virtual]] === Virtual Consoles While the system console can be used to interact with the system, a user working from the command line at the keyboard of a FreeBSD system will typically instead log into a virtual console. This is because system messages are configured by default to display on the system console. These messages will appear over the command or file that the user is working on, making it difficult to concentrate on the work at hand. By default, FreeBSD is configured to provide several virtual consoles for inputting commands. Each virtual console has its own login prompt and shell and it is easy to switch between virtual consoles. This essentially provides the command line equivalent of having several windows open at the same time in a graphical environment. The key combinations kbd:[Alt+F1] through kbd:[Alt+F8] have been reserved by FreeBSD for switching between virtual consoles. -Use kbd:[Alt+F1] to switch to the system console ([.filename]#ttyv0#), kbd:[Alt+F2] to access the first virtual console ([.filename]#ttyv1#), kbd:[Alt+F3] to access the second virtual console ([.filename]#ttyv2#), and so on. +Use kbd:[Alt+F1] to switch to the system console (`ttyv0`), kbd:[Alt+F2] to access the first virtual console (`ttyv1`), kbd:[Alt+F3] to access the second virtual console (`ttyv2`), and so on. When using Xorg as a graphical console, the combination becomes kbd:[Ctrl+Alt+F1] to return to a text-based virtual console. When switching from one console to the next, FreeBSD manages the screen output. The result is an illusion of having multiple virtual screens and keyboards that can be used to type commands for FreeBSD to run. The programs that are launched in one virtual console do not stop running when the user switches to a different virtual console. Refer to man:kbdcontrol[1], man:vidcontrol[1], man:atkbd[4], man:syscons[4], and man:vt[4] for a more technical description of the FreeBSD console and its keyboard drivers. -In FreeBSD, the number of available virtual consoles is configured in this section of [.filename]#/etc/ttys#: +In FreeBSD, the number of available virtual consoles is configured in this section of `/etc/ttys`: [.programlisting] .... # name getty type status comments # ttyv0 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" xterm on secure # Virtual terminals ttyv1 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" xterm on secure ttyv2 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" xterm on secure ttyv3 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" xterm on secure ttyv4 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" xterm on secure ttyv5 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" xterm on secure ttyv6 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" xterm on secure ttyv7 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" xterm on secure ttyv8 "/usr/X11R6/bin/xdm -nodaemon" xterm off secure .... To disable a virtual console, put a comment symbol (`+#+`) at the beginning of the line representing that virtual console. -For example, to reduce the number of available virtual consoles from eight to four, put a `+#+` in front of the last four lines representing virtual consoles [.filename]#ttyv5# through [.filename]#ttyv8#. -_Do not_ comment out the line for the system console [.filename]#ttyv0#. -Note that the last virtual console ([.filename]#ttyv8#) is used to access the graphical environment if Xorg has been installed and configured as described in crossref:x11[x11,The X Window System]. +For example, to reduce the number of available virtual consoles from eight to four, put a `+#+` in front of the last four lines representing virtual consoles `ttyv5` through `ttyv8`. +_Do not_ comment out the line for the system console `ttyv0`. +Note that the last virtual console (`ttyv8`) is used to access the graphical environment if Xorg has been installed and configured as described in crossref:x11[x11,The X Window System]. For a detailed description of every column in this file and the available options for the virtual consoles, refer to man:ttys[5]. [[consoles-singleuser]] === Single User Mode The FreeBSD boot menu provides an option labelled as "Boot Single User". If this option is selected, the system will boot into a special mode known as "single user mode". This mode is typically used to repair a system that will not boot or to reset the `root` password when it is not known. While in single user mode, networking and other virtual consoles are not available. However, full `root` access to the system is available, and by default, the `root` password is not needed. For these reasons, physical access to the keyboard is needed to boot into this mode and determining who has physical access to the keyboard is something to consider when securing a FreeBSD system. -The settings which control single user mode are found in this section of [.filename]#/etc/ttys#: +The settings which control single user mode are found in this section of `/etc/ttys`: [.programlisting] .... # name getty type status comments # # If console is marked "insecure", then init will ask for the root password # when going to single-user mode. console none unknown off secure .... By default, the status is set to `secure`. This assumes that who has physical access to the keyboard is either not important or it is controlled by a physical security policy. If this setting is changed to `insecure`, the assumption is that the environment itself is insecure because anyone can access the keyboard. When this line is changed to `insecure`, FreeBSD will prompt for the `root` password when a user selects to boot into single user mode. [NOTE] ==== _Be careful when changing this setting to `insecure`!_ If the `root` password is forgotten, booting into single user mode is still possible, but may be difficult for someone who is not familiar with the FreeBSD booting process. ==== [[consoles-vidcontrol]] === Changing Console Video Modes The FreeBSD console default video mode may be adjusted to 1024x768, 1280x1024, or any other size supported by the graphics chip and monitor. To use a different video mode load the `VESA` module: [source,shell] .... # kldload vesa .... To determine which video modes are supported by the hardware, use man:vidcontrol[1]. To get a list of supported video modes issue the following: [source,shell] .... # vidcontrol -i mode .... The output of this command lists the video modes that are supported by the hardware. To select a new video mode, specify the mode using man:vidcontrol[1] as the `root` user: [source,shell] .... # vidcontrol MODE_279 .... -If the new video mode is acceptable, it can be permanently set on boot by adding it to [.filename]#/etc/rc.conf#: +If the new video mode is acceptable, it can be permanently set on boot by adding it to `/etc/rc.conf`: [.programlisting] .... allscreens_flags="MODE_279" .... [[users-synopsis]] == Users and Basic Account Management FreeBSD allows multiple users to use the computer at the same time. While only one user can sit in front of the screen and use the keyboard at any one time, any number of users can log in to the system through the network. To use the system, each user should have their own user account. This chapter describes: * The different types of user accounts on a FreeBSD system. * How to add, remove, and modify user accounts. * How to set limits to control the resources that users and groups are allowed to access. * How to create groups and add users as members of a group. [[users-introduction]] === Account Types Since all access to the FreeBSD system is achieved using accounts and all processes are run by users, user and account management is important. There are three main types of accounts: system accounts, user accounts, and the superuser account. [[users-system]] ==== System Accounts System accounts are used to run services such as DNS, mail, and web servers. The reason for this is security; if all services ran as the superuser, they could act without restriction. Examples of system accounts are `daemon`, `operator`, `bind`, `news`, and `www`. -[WARNING] -==== - -Care must be taken when using the operator group, as unintended superuser-like access privileges may be granted, including but not limited to shutdown, reboot, and access to all items in [.filename]#/dev# in the group. -==== - `nobody` is the generic unprivileged system account. However, the more services that use `nobody`, the more files and processes that user will become associated with, and hence the more privileged that user becomes. [[users-user]] ==== User Accounts User accounts are assigned to real people and are used to log in and use the system. Every person accessing the system should have a unique user account. This allows the administrator to find out who is doing what and prevents users from clobbering the settings of other users. Each user can set up their own environment to accommodate their use of the system, by configuring their default shell, editor, key bindings, and language settings. Every user account on a FreeBSD system has certain information associated with it: User name:: The user name is typed at the `login:` prompt. Each user must have a unique user name. There are a number of rules for creating valid user names which are documented in man:passwd[5]. It is recommended to use user names that consist of eight or fewer, all lower case characters in order to maintain backwards compatibility with applications. Password:: Each account has an associated password. User ID (UID):: The User ID (UID) is a number used to uniquely identify the user to the FreeBSD system. Commands that allow a user name to be specified will first convert it to the UID. It is recommended to use a UID less than 65535, since higher values may cause compatibility issues with some software. Group ID (GID):: The Group ID (GID) is a number used to uniquely identify the primary group that the user belongs to. Groups are a mechanism for controlling access to resources based on a user's GID rather than their UID. This can significantly reduce the size of some configuration files and allows users to be members of more than one group. It is recommended to use a GID of 65535 or lower as higher GIDs may break some software. Login class:: Login classes are an extension to the group mechanism that provide additional flexibility when tailoring the system to different users. Login classes are discussed further in crossref:security[users-limiting,Configuring Login Classes]. Password change time:: By default, passwords do not expire. However, password expiration can be enabled on a per-user basis, forcing some or all users to change their passwords after a certain amount of time has elapsed. Account expiration time:: By default, FreeBSD does not expire accounts. When creating accounts that need a limited lifespan, such as student accounts in a school, specify the account expiry date using man:pw[8]. After the expiry time has elapsed, the account cannot be used to log in to the system, although the account's directories and files will remain. User's full name:: The user name uniquely identifies the account to FreeBSD, but does not necessarily reflect the user's real name. Similar to a comment, this information can contain spaces, uppercase characters, and be more than 8 characters long. Home directory:: The home directory is the full path to a directory on the system. This is the user's starting directory when the user logs in. -A common convention is to put all user home directories under [.filename]#/home/username# or [.filename]#/usr/home/username#. +A common convention is to put all user home directories under `/home/username` or `/usr/home/username`. Each user stores their personal files and subdirectories in their own home directory. User shell:: The shell provides the user's default environment for interacting with the system. There are many different kinds of shells and experienced users will have their own preferences, which can be reflected in their account settings. [[users-superuser]] ==== The Superuser Account The superuser account, usually called `root`, is used to manage the system with no limitations on privileges. For this reason, it should not be used for day-to-day tasks like sending and receiving mail, general exploration of the system, or programming. The superuser, unlike other user accounts, can operate without limits, and misuse of the superuser account may result in spectacular disasters. User accounts are unable to destroy the operating system by mistake, so it is recommended to login as a user account and to only become the superuser when a command requires extra privilege. Always double and triple-check any commands issued as the superuser, since an extra space or missing character can mean irreparable data loss. There are several ways to gain superuser privilege. While one can log in as `root`, this is highly discouraged. Instead, use man:su[1] to become the superuser. If `-` is specified when running this command, the user will also inherit the root user's environment. The user running this command must be in the `wheel` group or else the command will fail. The user must also know the password for the `root` user account. In this example, the user only becomes superuser in order to run `make install` as this step requires superuser privilege. Once the command completes, the user types `exit` to leave the superuser account and return to the privilege of their user account. .Install a Program As the Superuser [example] ==== [source,shell] .... % configure % make % su - Password: # make install # exit % .... ==== The built-in man:su[1] framework works well for single systems or small networks with just one system administrator. An alternative is to install the package:security/sudo[] package or port. This software provides activity logging and allows the administrator to configure which users can run which commands as the superuser. [[users-modifying]] === Managing Accounts FreeBSD provides a variety of different commands to manage user accounts. The most common commands are summarized in <>, followed by some examples of their usage. See the manual page for each utility for more details and usage examples. [[users-modifying-utilities]] .Utilities for Managing User Accounts -[cols="1,1", frame="none", options="header"] +[cols="25h,~"] |=== | Command | Summary |man:adduser[8] |The recommended command-line application for adding new users. |man:rmuser[8] |The recommended command-line application for removing users. |man:chpass[1] |A flexible tool for changing user database information. |man:passwd[1] |The command-line tool to change user passwords. |man:pw[8] |A powerful and flexible tool for modifying all aspects of user accounts. + +|man:bsdconfig[8] +|A system configuration utility with account management support. |=== [[users-adduser]] -==== `adduser` +==== Adding a user The recommended program for adding new users is man:adduser[8]. -When a new user is added, this program automatically updates [.filename]#/etc/passwd# and [.filename]#/etc/group#. -It also creates a home directory for the new user, copies in the default configuration files from [.filename]#/usr/share/skel#, and can optionally mail the new user a welcome message. +When a new user is added, this program automatically updates `/etc/passwd` and `/etc/group`. +It also creates a home directory for the new user, copies in the default configuration files from `/usr/share/skel`, and can optionally mail the new user a welcome message. This utility must be run as the superuser. The man:adduser[8] utility is interactive and walks through the steps for creating a new user account. As seen in <>, either input the required information or press kbd:[Return] to accept the default value shown in square brackets. In this example, the user has been invited into the `wheel` group, allowing them to become the superuser with man:su[1]. When finished, the utility will prompt to either create another user or to exit. [[users-modifying-adduser]] .Adding a User on FreeBSD [example] ==== [source,shell] .... # adduser Username: jru Full name: J. Random User Uid (Leave empty for default): Login group [jru]: Login group is jru. Invite jru into other groups? []: wheel Login class [default]: Shell (sh csh tcsh zsh nologin) [sh]: zsh Home directory [/home/jru]: Home directory permissions (Leave empty for default): Use password-based authentication? [yes]: Use an empty password? (yes/no) [no]: Use a random password? (yes/no) [no]: Enter password: Enter password again: Lock out the account after creation? [no]: Username : jru Password : **** Full Name : J. Random User Uid : 1001 Class : Groups : jru wheel Home : /home/jru Shell : /usr/local/bin/zsh Locked : no OK? (yes/no): yes adduser: INFO: Successfully added (jru) to the user database. Add another user? (yes/no): no Goodbye! -# .... ==== [NOTE] ==== Since the password is not echoed when typed, be careful to not mistype the password when creating the user account. ==== [[users-rmuser]] -==== `rmuser` +==== Removing a user To completely remove a user from the system, run man:rmuser[8] as the superuser. This command performs the following steps: [.procedure] +==== . Removes the user's man:crontab[1] entry, if one exists. . Removes any man:at[1] jobs belonging to the user. -. Kills all processes owned by the user. +. Sends a SIGKILL signal to all processes owned by the user. . Removes the user from the system's local password file. -. Optionally removes the user's home directory, if it is owned by the user. -. Removes the incoming mail files belonging to the user from [.filename]#/var/mail#. -. Removes all files owned by the user from temporary file storage areas such as [.filename]#/tmp#. -. Finally, removes the username from all groups to which it belongs in [.filename]#/etc/group#. If a group becomes empty and the group name is the same as the username, the group is removed. This complements the per-user unique groups created by man:adduser[8]. +. Removes the user's home directory (if it is owned by the user), including handling of symbolic links in the path to the actual home directory. +. Removes the incoming mail files belonging to the user from `/var/mail`. +. Removes all files owned by the user from `/tmp`, `/var/tmp`, and `/var/tmp/vi.recover`. +. Removes the username from all groups to which it belongs in `/etc/group`. (If a group becomes empty and the group name is the same as the username, the group is removed; this complements man:adduser[8]'s per-user unique groups.) +. Removes all message queues, shared memory segments and semaphores owned by the user. +==== man:rmuser[8] cannot be used to remove superuser accounts since that is almost always an indication of massive destruction. By default, an interactive mode is used, as shown in the following example. .`rmuser` Interactive Account Removal [example] ==== [source,shell] .... # rmuser jru Matching password entry: jru:*:1001:1001::0:0:J. Random User:/home/jru:/usr/local/bin/zsh Is this the entry you wish to remove? y Remove user's home directory (/home/jru)? y Removing user (jru): mailspool home passwd. -# .... ==== [[users-chpass]] -==== `chpass` +==== Change user information Any user can use man:chpass[1] to change their default shell and personal information associated with their user account. The superuser can use this utility to change additional account information for any user. When passed no options, aside from an optional username, man:chpass[1] displays an editor containing user information. When the user exits from the editor, the user database is updated with the new information. [NOTE] ==== This utility will prompt for the user's password when exiting the editor, unless the utility is run as the superuser. ==== In <>, the superuser has typed `chpass jru` and is now viewing the fields that can be changed for this user. If `jru` runs this command instead, only the last six fields will be displayed and available for editing. This is shown in <>. [[users-modifying-chpass-su]] .Using `chpass` as Superuser [example] ==== [source,shell] .... #Changing user database information for jru. Login: jru Password: * Uid [#]: 1001 Gid [# or name]: 1001 Change [month day year]: Expire [month day year]: Class: Home directory: /home/jru Shell: /usr/local/bin/zsh Full Name: J. Random User Office Location: Office Phone: Home Phone: Other information: .... ==== [[users-modifying-chpass-ru]] .Using `chpass` as Regular User [example] ==== [source,shell] .... #Changing user database information for jru. Shell: /usr/local/bin/zsh Full Name: J. Random User Office Location: Office Phone: Home Phone: Other information: .... ==== [NOTE] ==== The commands man:chfn[1] and man:chsh[1] are links to man:chpass[1], as are man:ypchpass[1], man:ypchfn[1], and man:ypchsh[1]. Since NIS support is automatic, specifying the `yp` before the command is not necessary. How to configure NIS is covered in crossref:network-servers[network-servers,Network Servers]. ==== [[users-passwd]] -==== `passwd` +==== Change user password Any user can easily change their password using man:passwd[1]. To prevent accidental or unauthorized changes, this command will prompt for the user's original password before a new password can be set: .Changing Your Password [example] ==== [source,shell] .... % passwd Changing local password for jru. Old password: New password: Retype new password: passwd: updating the database... passwd: done .... ==== The superuser can change any user's password by specifying the username when running man:passwd[1]. When this utility is run as the superuser, it will not prompt for the user's current password. This allows the password to be changed when a user cannot remember the original password. .Changing Another User's Password as the Superuser [example] ==== [source,shell] .... # passwd jru Changing local password for jru. New password: Retype new password: passwd: updating the database... passwd: done .... ==== [NOTE] ==== As with man:chpass[1], man:yppasswd[1] is a link to man:passwd[1], so NIS works with either command. ==== [[users-pw]] -==== `pw` +==== Create, remove, modify and display system users and groups The man:pw[8] utility can create, remove, modify, and display users and groups. It functions as a front end to the system user and group files. man:pw[8] has a very powerful set of command line options that make it suitable for use in shell scripts, but new users may find it more complicated than the other commands presented in this section. [[users-groups]] === Managing Groups A group is a list of users. A group is identified by its group name and GID. In FreeBSD, the kernel uses the UID of a process, and the list of groups it belongs to, to determine what the process is allowed to do. Most of the time, the GID of a user or process usually means the first group in the list. -The group name to GID mapping is listed in [.filename]#/etc/group#. +The group name to GID mapping is listed in `/etc/group`. This is a plain text file with four colon-delimited fields. The first field is the group name, the second is the encrypted password, the third the GID, and the fourth the comma-delimited list of members. For a more complete description of the syntax, refer to man:group[5]. -The superuser can modify [.filename]#/etc/group# using a text editor. +The superuser can modify `/etc/group` using a text editor, although editing the group file using man:vigr[8] is preferred because it can catch some common mistakes. Alternatively, man:pw[8] can be used to add and edit groups. For example, to add a group called `teamtwo` and then confirm that it exists: +[WARNING] +==== +Care must be taken when using the operator group, as unintended superuser-like access privileges may be granted, including but not limited to shutdown, reboot, and access to all items in `/dev` in the group. +==== + .Adding a Group Using man:pw[8] [example] ==== [source,shell] .... # pw groupadd teamtwo # pw groupshow teamtwo teamtwo:*:1100: .... ==== In this example, `1100` is the GID of `teamtwo`. Right now, `teamtwo` has no members. This command will add `jru` as a member of `teamtwo`. .Adding User Accounts to a New Group Using man:pw[8] [example] ==== [source,shell] .... # pw groupmod teamtwo -M jru # pw groupshow teamtwo teamtwo:*:1100:jru .... ==== The argument to `-M` is a comma-delimited list of users to be added to a new (empty) group or to replace the members of an existing group. To the user, this group membership is different from (and in addition to) the user's primary group listed in the password file. This means that the user will not show up as a member when using `groupshow` with man:pw[8], but will show up when the information is queried via man:id[1] or a similar tool. -When man:pw[8] is used to add a user to a group, it only manipulates [.filename]#/etc/group# and does not attempt to read additional data from [.filename]#/etc/passwd#. +When man:pw[8] is used to add a user to a group, it only manipulates `/etc/group` and does not attempt to read additional data from `/etc/passwd`. .Adding a New Member to a Group Using man:pw[8] [example] ==== [source,shell] .... # pw groupmod teamtwo -m db # pw groupshow teamtwo teamtwo:*:1100:jru,db .... ==== In this example, the argument to `-m` is a comma-delimited list of users who are to be added to the group. Unlike the previous example, these users are appended to the group and do not replace existing users in the group. .Using man:id[1] to Determine Group Membership [example] ==== [source,shell] .... % id jru uid=1001(jru) gid=1001(jru) groups=1001(jru), 1100(teamtwo) .... ==== In this example, `jru` is a member of the groups `jru` and `teamtwo`. -For more information about this command and the format of [.filename]#/etc/group#, refer to man:pw[8] and man:group[5]. +For more information about this command and the format of `/etc/group`, refer to man:pw[8] and man:group[5]. [[permissions]] == Permissions In FreeBSD, every file and directory has an associated set of permissions and several utilities are available for viewing and modifying these permissions. Understanding how permissions work is necessary to make sure that users are able to access the files that they need and are unable to improperly access the files used by the operating system or owned by other users. This section discusses the traditional UNIX(R) permissions used in FreeBSD. For finer-grained file system access control, refer to crossref:security[fs-acl,Access Control Lists]. In UNIX(R), basic permissions are assigned using three types of access: read, write, and execute. These access types are used to determine file access to the file's owner, group, and others (everyone else). The read, write, and execute permissions can be represented as the letters `r`, `w`, and `x`. They can also be represented as binary numbers as each permission is either on or off (`0`). When represented as a number, the order is always read as `rwx`, where `r` has an on value of `4`, `w` has an on value of `2` and `x` has an on value of `1`. Table 4.1 summarizes the possible numeric and alphabetic possibilities. When reading the "Directory Listing" column, a `-` is used to represent a permission that is set to off. .UNIX(R) Permissions [cols="1,1,1", frame="none", options="header"] |=== | Value | Permission | Directory Listing |0 |No read, no write, no execute |`---` |1 |No read, no write, execute |`--x` |2 |No read, write, no execute |`-w-` |3 |No read, write, execute |`-wx` |4 |Read, no write, no execute |`r--` |5 |Read, no write, execute |`r-x` |6 |Read, write, no execute |`rw-` |7 |Read, write, execute |`rwx` |=== Use the `-l` argument with man:ls[1] to view a long directory listing that includes a column of information about a file's permissions for the owner, group, and everyone else. For example, `ls -l` in an arbitrary directory may show: [source,shell] .... % ls -l total 530 -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 512 Sep 5 12:31 myfile -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 512 Sep 5 12:31 otherfile -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 7680 Sep 5 12:31 email.txt .... -The first (leftmost) character in the first column indicates whether this file is a regular file, a directory, a special character device, a socket, or any other special pseudo-file device. +Focusing on the line for `myfile`, the `(leftmost)` first character indicates whether this file is a regular file, a directory, a special character device, a socket, or any other special pseudo-file device. In this example, the `-` indicates a regular file. The next three characters, `rw-` in this example, give the permissions for the owner of the file. The next three characters, `r--`, give the permissions for the group that the file belongs to. The final three characters, `r--`, give the permissions for the rest of the world. A dash means that the permission is turned off. In this example, the permissions are set so the owner can read and write to the file, the group can read the file, and the rest of the world can only read the file. According to the table above, the permissions for this file would be `644`, where each digit represents the three parts of the file's permission. How does the system control permissions on devices? FreeBSD treats most hardware devices as a file that programs can open, read, and write data to. -These special device files are stored in [.filename]#/dev/#. +These special device files are stored in `/dev/`. Directories are also treated as files. They have read, write, and execute permissions. The executable bit for a directory has a slightly different meaning than that of files. When a directory is marked executable, it means it is possible to change into that directory using man:cd[1]. This also means that it is possible to access the files within that directory, subject to the permissions on the files themselves. In order to perform a directory listing, the read permission must be set on the directory. In order to delete a file that one knows the name of, it is necessary to have write _and_ execute permissions to the directory containing the file. There are more permission bits, but they are primarily used in special circumstances such as setuid binaries and sticky directories. For more information on file permissions and how to set them, refer to man:chmod[1]. === Symbolic Permissions Symbolic permissions use characters instead of octal values to assign permissions to files or directories. Symbolic permissions use the syntax of (who) (action) (permissions), where the following values are available: [.informaltable] [cols="1,1,1", frame="none", options="header"] |=== | Option | Letter | Represents |(who) |u |User |(who) |g |Group owner |(who) |o |Other |(who) |a |All ("world") |(action) |+ |Adding permissions |(action) |- |Removing permissions |(action) |= |Explicitly set permissions |(permissions) |r |Read |(permissions) |w |Write |(permissions) |x |Execute |(permissions) |t |Sticky bit |(permissions) |s |Set UID or GID |=== These values are used with man:chmod[1], but with letters instead of numbers. -For example, the following command would block other users from accessing _FILE_: +For example, the following command would block both members of the group associated with _FILE_ and all other users from accessing _FILE_: [source,shell] .... % chmod go= FILE .... A comma separated list can be provided when more than one set of changes to a file must be made. For example, the following command removes the group and "world" write permission on _FILE_, and adds the execute permissions for everyone: [source,shell] .... % chmod go-w,a+x FILE .... === FreeBSD File Flags In addition to file permissions, FreeBSD supports the use of "file flags". These flags add an additional level of security and control over files, but not directories. With file flags, even `root` can be prevented from removing or altering files. File flags are modified using man:chflags[1]. -For example, to enable the system undeletable flag on the file [.filename]#file1#, issue the following command: +For example, to enable the system undeletable flag on the file `file1`, issue the following command: [source,shell] .... # chflags sunlink file1 .... To disable the system undeletable flag, put a "no" in front of the `sunlink`: [source,shell] .... # chflags nosunlink file1 .... To view the flags of a file, use `-lo` with man:ls[1]: [source,shell] .... # ls -lo file1 .... [.programlisting] .... -rw-r--r-- 1 trhodes trhodes sunlnk 0 Mar 1 05:54 file1 .... Several file flags may only be added or removed by the `root` user. In other cases, the file owner may set its file flags. Refer to man:chflags[1] and man:chflags[2] for more information. -=== The `setuid`, `setgid`, and `sticky` Permissions +=== The setuid, setgid, and sticky Permissions Other than the permissions already discussed, there are three other specific settings that all administrators should know about. They are the `setuid`, `setgid`, and `sticky` permissions. These settings are important for some UNIX(R) operations as they provide functionality not normally granted to normal users. To understand them, the difference between the real user ID and effective user ID must be noted. The real user ID is the UID who owns or starts the process. The effective UID is the user ID the process runs as. As an example, man:passwd[1] runs with the real user ID when a user changes their password. However, in order to update the password database, the command runs as the effective ID of the `root` user. This allows users to change their passwords without seeing a `Permission Denied` error. -The setuid permission may be set by prefixing a permission set with the number four (4) as shown in the following example: +The setuid permission may be added symbolically by adding the `s` permission for the user as in the following example: + +[source,shell] +.... +# chmod u+s suidexample.sh +.... + +The setuid permission may also be set by prefixing a permission set with the number four (4) as shown in the following example: [source,shell] .... # chmod 4755 suidexample.sh .... -The permissions on [.filename]#suidexample.sh# now look like the following: +The permissions on `suidexample.sh` now look like the following: [.programlisting] .... -rwsr-xr-x 1 trhodes trhodes 63 Aug 29 06:36 suidexample.sh .... Note that a `s` is now part of the permission set designated for the file owner, replacing the executable bit. This allows utilities which need elevated permissions, such as man:passwd[1]. [NOTE] ==== The `nosuid` man:mount[8] option will cause such binaries to silently fail without alerting the user. That option is not completely reliable as a `nosuid` wrapper may be able to circumvent it. ==== To view this in real time, open two terminals. On one, type `passwd` as a normal user. While it waits for a new password, check the process table and look at the user information for man:passwd[1]: In terminal A: [source,shell] .... Changing local password for trhodes Old Password: .... In terminal B: [source,shell] .... # ps aux | grep passwd .... [source,shell] .... trhodes 5232 0.0 0.2 3420 1608 0 R+ 2:10AM 0:00.00 grep passwd root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 I+ 2:09AM 0:00.01 passwd .... Although man:passwd[1] is run as a normal user, it is using the effective UID of `root`. The `setgid` permission performs the same function as the `setuid` permission; except that it alters the group settings. When an application or utility executes with this setting, it will be granted the permissions based on the group that owns the file, not the user who started the process. -To set the `setgid` permission on a file, provide man:chmod[1] with a leading two (2): +To set the `setgid` permission on a file symbolically, add the `s` permission for the group with man:chmod[1]: + +[source,shell] +.... +# chmod g+s sgidexample.sh +.... + +Alternatively, provide man:chmod[1] with a leading two (2): [source,shell] .... # chmod 2755 sgidexample.sh .... In the following listing, notice that the `s` is now in the field designated for the group permission settings: [source,shell] .... -rwxr-sr-x 1 trhodes trhodes 44 Aug 31 01:49 sgidexample.sh .... [NOTE] ==== In these examples, even though the shell script in question is an executable file, it will not run with a different EUID or effective user ID. This is because shell scripts may not access the man:setuid[2] system calls. ==== The `setuid` and `setgid` permission bits may lower system security, by allowing for elevated permissions. The third special permission, the `sticky bit`, can strengthen the security of a system. When the `sticky bit` is set on a directory, it allows file deletion only by the file owner. -This is useful to prevent file deletion in public directories, such as [.filename]#/tmp#, by users who do not own the file. -To utilize this permission, prefix the permission set with a one (1): +This is useful to prevent file deletion in public directories, such as `/tmp`, by users who do not own the file. +To utilize this permission, add the `t` mode to the file: + +[source,shell] +.... +# chmod +t /tmp +.... + +Alternatively, prefix the permission set with a one (1): [source,shell] .... # chmod 1777 /tmp .... The `sticky bit` permission will display as a `t` at the very end of the permission set: [source,shell] .... # ls -al / | grep tmp .... [source,shell] .... drwxrwxrwt 10 root wheel 512 Aug 31 01:49 tmp .... [[dirstructure]] == Directory Structure The FreeBSD directory hierarchy is fundamental to obtaining an overall understanding of the system. The most important directory is root or, "/". This directory is the first one mounted at boot time and it contains the base system necessary to prepare the operating system for multi-user operation. The root directory also contains mount points for other file systems that are mounted during the transition to multi-user operation. A mount point is a directory where additional file systems can be grafted onto a parent file system (usually the root file system). This is further described in <>. -Standard mount points include [.filename]#/usr/#, [.filename]#/var/#, [.filename]#/tmp/#, [.filename]#/mnt/#, and [.filename]#/cdrom/#. -These directories are usually referenced to entries in [.filename]#/etc/fstab#. +Standard mount points include `/usr/`, `/var/`, `/tmp/`, `/mnt/`, and `/cdrom/`. +These directories are usually referenced to entries in `/etc/fstab`. This file is a table of various file systems and mount points and is read by the system. -Most of the file systems in [.filename]#/etc/fstab# are mounted automatically at boot time from the script man:rc[8] unless their entry includes `noauto`. +Most of the file systems in `/etc/fstab` are mounted automatically at boot time from the script man:rc[8] unless their entry includes `noauto`. Details can be found in <>. A complete description of the file system hierarchy is available in man:hier[7]. The following table provides a brief overview of the most common directories. -[.informaltable] -[cols="1,1", frame="none", options="header"] +[cols="25h,~"] |=== | Directory | Description -|[.filename]#/# +|`/` |Root directory of the file system. -|[.filename]#/bin/# +|`/bin/` |User utilities fundamental to both single-user and multi-user environments. -|[.filename]#/boot/# +|`/boot/` |Programs and configuration files used during operating system bootstrap. -|[.filename]#/boot/defaults/# +|`/boot/defaults/` |Default boot configuration files. Refer to man:loader.conf[5] for details. -|[.filename]#/dev/# -|Device nodes. Refer to man:intro[4] for details. +|`/dev/` +|Device special files managed by man:devfs[5] -|[.filename]#/etc/# +|`/etc/` |System configuration files and scripts. -|[.filename]#/etc/defaults/# +|`/etc/defaults/` |Default system configuration files. Refer to man:rc[8] for details. -|[.filename]#/etc/mail/# -|Configuration files for mail transport agents such as man:sendmail[8]. - -|[.filename]#/etc/periodic/# +|`/etc/periodic/` |Scripts that run daily, weekly, and monthly, via man:cron[8]. Refer to man:periodic[8] for details. -|[.filename]#/etc/ppp/# -|man:ppp[8] configuration files. +|`/lib/` +|Critical system libraries needed for binaries in `/bin` and `/sbin` -|[.filename]#/mnt/# +|`/libexec/` +|Critical system files + +|`/media/` +|Contains subdirectories to be used as mount points for removable media such as CDs, USB drives, and floppy disks + +|`/mnt/` |Empty directory commonly used by system administrators as a temporary mount point. -|[.filename]#/proc/# +|`/net/` +|Automounted NFS shares; see man:auto_master[5] + +|`/proc/` |Process file system. Refer to man:procfs[5], man:mount_procfs[8] for details. -|[.filename]#/rescue/# +|`/rescue/` |Statically linked programs for emergency recovery as described in man:rescue[8]. -|[.filename]#/root/# +|`/root/` |Home directory for the `root` account. -|[.filename]#/sbin/# +|`/sbin/` |System programs and administration utilities fundamental to both single-user and multi-user environments. -|[.filename]#/tmp/# -|Temporary files which are usually _not_ preserved across a system reboot. A memory-based file system is often mounted at [.filename]#/tmp#. This can be automated using the tmpmfs-related variables of man:rc.conf[5] or with an entry in [.filename]#/etc/fstab#; refer to man:mdmfs[8] for details. +|`/tmp/` +|Temporary files which are usually _not_ preserved across a system reboot. A memory-based file system is often mounted at `/tmp`. This can be automated using the tmpmfs-related variables of man:rc.conf[5] or with an entry in `/etc/fstab`; refer to man:mdmfs[8] for details. -|[.filename]#/usr/# +|`/usr/` |The majority of user utilities and applications. -|[.filename]#/usr/bin/# +|`/usr/bin/` |Common utilities, programming tools, and applications. -|[.filename]#/usr/include/# +|`/usr/include/` |Standard C include files. -|[.filename]#/usr/lib/# +|`/usr/lib/` |Archive libraries. -|[.filename]#/usr/libdata/# +|`/usr/libdata/` |Miscellaneous utility data files. -|[.filename]#/usr/libexec/# +|`/usr/libexec/` |System daemons and system utilities executed by other programs. -|[.filename]#/usr/local/# -|Local executables and libraries. Also used as the default destination for the FreeBSD ports framework. Within [.filename]#/usr/local#, the general layout sketched out by man:hier[7] for [.filename]#/usr# should be used. Exceptions are the man directory, which is directly under [.filename]#/usr/local# rather than under [.filename]#/usr/local/share#, and the ports documentation is in [.filename]#share/doc/port#. - -|[.filename]#/usr/obj/# -|Architecture-specific target tree produced by building the [.filename]#/usr/src# tree. +|`/usr/local/` +|Local executables and libraries. Also used as the default destination for the FreeBSD ports framework. Within `/usr/local`, the general layout sketched out by man:hier[7] for `/usr` should be used. Exceptions are the man directory, which is directly under `/usr/local` rather than under `/usr/local/share`, and the ports documentation is in `share/doc/port`. -|[.filename]#/usr/ports/# +|`/usr/ports/` |The FreeBSD Ports Collection (optional). -|[.filename]#/usr/sbin/# +|`/usr/sbin/` |System daemons and system utilities executed by users. -|[.filename]#/usr/share/# +|`/usr/share/` |Architecture-independent files. -|[.filename]#/usr/src/# +|`/usr/src/` |BSD and/or local source files. -|[.filename]#/var/# -|Multi-purpose log, temporary, transient, and spool files. A memory-based file system is sometimes mounted at [.filename]#/var#. This can be automated using the varmfs-related variables in man:rc.conf[5] or with an entry in [.filename]#/etc/fstab#; refer to man:mdmfs[8] for details. +|`/var/` +|Multi-purpose log, temporary, transient, and spool files. -|[.filename]#/var/log/# +|`/var/log/` |Miscellaneous system log files. -|[.filename]#/var/mail/# -|User mailbox files. +|`/var/tmp/` +|Temporary files which are usually preserved across a system reboot. -|[.filename]#/var/spool/# -|Miscellaneous printer and mail system spooling directories. - -|[.filename]#/var/tmp/# -|Temporary files which are usually preserved across a system reboot, unless [.filename]#/var# is a memory-based file system. - -|[.filename]#/var/yp/# -|NIS maps. |=== [[disk-organization]] == Disk Organization The smallest unit of organization that FreeBSD uses to find files is the filename. -Filenames are case-sensitive, which means that [.filename]#readme.txt# and [.filename]#README.TXT# are two separate files. +Filenames are case-sensitive, which means that `readme.txt` and `README.TXT` are two separate files. FreeBSD does not use the extension of a file to determine whether the file is a program, document, or some other form of data. Files are stored in directories. A directory may contain no files, or it may contain many hundreds of files. A directory can also contain other directories, allowing a hierarchy of directories within one another in order to organize data. Files and directories are referenced by giving the file or directory name, followed by a forward slash, `/`, followed by any other directory names that are necessary. -For example, if the directory [.filename]#foo# contains a directory [.filename]#bar# which contains the file [.filename]#readme.txt#, the full name, or _path_, to the file is [.filename]#foo/bar/readme.txt#. +For example, if the directory `foo` contains a directory `bar` which contains the file `readme.txt`, the full name, or _path_, to the file is `foo/bar/readme.txt`. Note that this is different from Windows(R) which uses `\` to separate file and directory names. FreeBSD does not use drive letters, or other drive names in the path. -For example, one would not type [.filename]#c:\foo\bar\readme.txt# on FreeBSD. +For example, one would not type `c:\foo\bar\readme.txt` on FreeBSD. Directories and files are stored in a file system. Each file system contains exactly one directory at the very top level, called the _root directory_ for that file system. This root directory can contain other directories. One file system is designated the _root file system_ or `/`. Every other file system is _mounted_ under the root file system. No matter how many disks are on the FreeBSD system, every directory appears to be part of the same disk. Consider three file systems, called `A`, `B`, and `C`. Each file system has one root directory, which contains two other directories, called `A1`, `A2` (and likewise `B1`, `B2` and `C1`, `C2`). Call `A` the root file system. If man:ls[1] is used to view the contents of this directory, it will show two subdirectories, `A1` and `A2`. The directory tree looks like this: -image::example-dir1.png[] +image::example-dir1.png[Directory tree with the root directory and two subdirectories, A1 and A2] A file system must be mounted on to a directory in another file system. When mounting file system `B` on to the directory `A1`, the root directory of `B` replaces `A1`, and the directories in `B` appear accordingly: -image::example-dir2.png[] +image::example-dir2.png[Directory tree with the root directory and two subdirectories, A1 and A2. And more subdirectories, B1 and B2 hanging from A1] -Any files that are in the `B1` or `B2` directories can be reached with the path [.filename]#/A1/B1# or [.filename]#/A1/B2# as necessary. -Any files that were in [.filename]#/A1# have been temporarily hidden. +Any files that are in the `B1` or `B2` directories can be reached with the path `/A1/B1` or `/A1/B2` as necessary. +Any files that were in `/A1` have been temporarily hidden. They will reappear if `B` is _unmounted_ from `A`. If `B` had been mounted on `A2` then the diagram would look like this: -image::example-dir3.png[] +image::example-dir3.png[Directory tree with the root directory and two subdirectories, A1 and A2. And more subdirectories, B1 and B2 hanging from A2] -and the paths would be [.filename]#/A2/B1# and [.filename]#/A2/B2# respectively. +and the paths would be `/A2/B1` and `/A2/B2` respectively. File systems can be mounted on top of one another. Continuing the last example, the `C` file system could be mounted on top of the `B1` directory in the `B` file system, leading to this arrangement: -image::example-dir4.png[] +image::example-dir4.png[A complex directory tree. With different subdirectories hanging from root.] Or `C` could be mounted directly on to the `A` file system, under the `A1` directory: -image::example-dir5.png[] +image::example-dir5.png[A complex directory tree. With different subdirectories hanging from root.] It is entirely possible to have one large root file system, and not need to create any others. There are some drawbacks to this approach, and one advantage. .Benefits of Multiple File Systems -* Different file systems can have different _mount options_. For example, the root file system can be mounted read-only, making it impossible for users to inadvertently delete or edit a critical file. Separating user-writable file systems, such as [.filename]#/home#, from other file systems allows them to be mounted _nosuid_. This option prevents the _suid_/_guid_ bits on executables stored on the file system from taking effect, possibly improving security. +* Different file systems can have different _mount options_. For example, the root file system can be mounted read-only, making it impossible for users to inadvertently delete or edit a critical file. Separating user-writable file systems, such as `/home`, from other file systems allows them to be mounted _nosuid_. This option prevents the _suid_/_guid_ bits on executables stored on the file system from taking effect, possibly improving security. * FreeBSD automatically optimizes the layout of files on a file system, depending on how the file system is being used. So a file system that contains many small files that are written frequently will have a different optimization to one that contains fewer, larger files. By having one big file system this optimization breaks down. * FreeBSD's file systems are robust if power is lost. However, a power loss at a critical point could still damage the structure of the file system. By splitting data over multiple file systems it is more likely that the system will still come up, making it easier to restore from backup as necessary. .Benefit of a Single File System * File systems are a fixed size. If you create a file system when you install FreeBSD and give it a specific size, you may later discover that you need to make the partition bigger. This is not easily accomplished without backing up, recreating the file system with the new size, and then restoring the backed up data. + [IMPORTANT] ==== FreeBSD features the man:growfs[8] command, which makes it possible to increase the size of file system on the fly, removing this limitation. +A file system can only be expanded into free space in the partition in which it resides. +If there is space after the partition, the partition can be expanded with man:gpart[8]. +If the partition is the last one on a virtual disk, and the disk is expanded, the partition can then be expanded. ==== File systems are contained in partitions. This does not have the same meaning as the common usage of the term partition (for example, MS-DOS(R) partition), because of FreeBSD's UNIX(R) heritage. Each partition is identified by a letter from `a` through to `h`. Each partition can contain only one file system, which means that file systems are often described by either their typical mount point in the file system hierarchy, or the letter of the partition they are contained in. FreeBSD also uses disk space for _swap space_ to provide _virtual memory_. This allows your computer to behave as though it has much more memory than it actually does. When FreeBSD runs out of memory, it moves some of the data that is not currently being used to the swap space, and moves it back in (moving something else out) when it needs it. Some partitions have certain conventions associated with them. -[.informaltable] -[cols="1,1", frame="none", options="header"] +[cols="25h,~"] |=== | Partition | Convention |`a` |Normally contains the root file system. |`b` |Normally contains swap space. |`c` |Normally the same size as the enclosing slice. This allows utilities that need to work on the entire slice, such as a bad block scanner, to work on the `c` partition. A file system would not normally be created on this partition. |`d` |Partition `d` used to have a special meaning associated with it, although that is now gone and `d` may work as any normal partition. |=== Disks in FreeBSD are divided into slices, referred to in Windows(R) as partitions, which are numbered from 1 to 4. These are then divided into partitions, which contain file systems, and are labeled using letters. Slice numbers follow the device name, prefixed with an `s`, starting at 1. So "da0__s1__" is the first slice on the first SCSI drive. There can only be four physical slices on a disk, but there can be logical slices inside physical slices of the appropriate type. These extended slices are numbered starting at 5, so "ada0__s5__" is the first extended slice on the first SATA disk. These devices are used by file systems that expect to occupy a slice. Slices, "dangerously dedicated" physical drives, and other drives contain _partitions_, which are represented as letters from `a` to `h`. This letter is appended to the device name, so "da0__a__" is the `a` partition on the first `da` drive, which is "dangerously dedicated". "ada1s3__e__" is the fifth partition in the third slice of the second SATA disk drive. Finally, each disk on the system is identified. A disk name starts with a code that indicates the type of disk, and then a number, indicating which disk it is. Unlike slices, disk numbering starts at 0. Common codes are listed in <>. When referring to a partition, include the disk name, `s`, the slice number, and then the partition letter. Examples are shown in <>. <> shows a conceptual model of a disk layout. When installing FreeBSD, configure the disk slices, create partitions within the slice to be used for FreeBSD, create a file system or swap space in each partition, and decide where each file system will be mounted. [[disks-naming]] .Disk Device Names [cols="1,1", frame="none", options="header"] |=== | Drive Type | Drive Device Name |SATA and IDE hard drives |`ada` |SCSI hard drives and USB storage devices |`da` |NVMe storage |`nvd` or `nda` |SATA and IDE CD-ROM drives |`cd` |SCSICD-ROM drives |`cd` |Floppy drives |`fd` |SCSI tape drives |`sa` |RAID drives |Examples include `aacd` for Adaptec(R) AdvancedRAID, `mlxd` and `mlyd` for Mylex(R), `amrd` for AMI MegaRAID(R), `idad` for Compaq Smart RAID, `twed` for 3ware(R) RAID. |=== [example] ==== [[basics-disk-slice-part]] .Sample Disk, Slice, and Partition Names [.informaltable] [cols="1,1", frame="none", options="header"] |=== | Name | Meaning |`ada0s1a` |The first partition (`a`) on the first slice (`s1`) on the first SATA disk (`ada0`). |`da1s2e` |The fifth partition (`e`) on the second slice (`s2`) on the second SCSI disk (`da1`). |=== ==== [[basics-concept-disk-model]] .Conceptual Model of a Disk [example] ==== This diagram shows FreeBSD's view of the first SATA disk attached to the system. Assume that the disk is 250 GB in size, and contains an 80 GB slice and a 170 GB slice (MS-DOS(R) partitions). -The first slice contains a Windows(R) NTFS file system, [.filename]#C:#, and the second slice contains a FreeBSD installation. +The first slice contains a Windows(R) NTFS file system, `C:`, and the second slice contains a FreeBSD installation. This example FreeBSD installation has four data partitions and a swap partition. The four partitions each hold a file system. -Partition `a` is used for the root file system, `d` for [.filename]#/var/#, `e` for [.filename]#/tmp/#, and `f` for [.filename]#/usr/#. +Partition `a` is used for the root file system, `d` for `/var/`, `e` for `/tmp/`, and `f` for `/usr/`. Partition letter `c` refers to the entire slice, and so is not used for ordinary partitions. -image::disk-layout.png[] +image::disk-layout.png[Layout of a shared drive between Windows and FreeBSD] ==== [[mount-unmount]] == Mounting and Unmounting File Systems -The file system is best visualized as a tree, rooted, as it were, at [.filename]#/#. [.filename]#/dev#, [.filename]#/usr#, and the other directories in the root directory are branches, which may have their own branches, such as [.filename]#/usr/local#, and so on. +The file system is best visualized as a tree, rooted, as it were, at `/`. `/dev`, `/usr`, and the other directories in the root directory are branches, which may have their own branches, such as `/usr/local`, and so on. There are various reasons to house some of these directories on separate file systems. -[.filename]#/var# contains the directories [.filename]#log/#, [.filename]#spool/#, and various types of temporary files, and as such, may get filled up. -Filling up the root file system is not a good idea, so splitting [.filename]#/var# from [.filename]#/# is often favorable. +`/var` contains the directories `log/`, `spool/`, and various types of temporary files, and as such, may get filled up. +Filling up the root file system is not a good idea, so splitting `/var` from `/` is often favorable. Another common reason to contain certain directory trees on other file systems is if they are to be housed on separate physical disks, or are separate virtual disks, such as Network File System mounts, described in crossref:network-servers[network-nfs,“Network File System (NFS)”], or CDROM drives. [[disks-fstab]] -=== The [.filename]#fstab# File +=== The fstab File -During the boot process (crossref:boot[boot,The FreeBSD Booting Process]), file systems listed in [.filename]#/etc/fstab# are automatically mounted except for the entries containing `noauto`. +During the boot process (crossref:boot[boot,The FreeBSD Booting Process]), file systems listed in `/etc/fstab` are automatically mounted except for the entries containing `noauto`. This file contains entries in the following format: [.programlisting] .... device /mount-point fstype options dumpfreq passno .... `device`:: An existing device name as explained in <>. `mount-point`:: An existing directory on which to mount the file system. `fstype`:: The file system type to pass to man:mount[8]. The default FreeBSD file system is `ufs`. `options`:: Either `rw` for read-write file systems, or `ro` for read-only file systems, followed by any other options that may be needed. A common option is `noauto` for file systems not normally mounted during the boot sequence. Other options are listed in man:mount[8]. `dumpfreq`:: Used by man:dump[8] to determine which file systems require dumping. If the field is missing, a value of zero is assumed. `passno`:: -Determines the order in which file systems should be checked. +Determines the order in which UFS file systems should be checked by man:fsck[8] after a reboot. File systems that should be skipped should have their `passno` set to zero. The root file system needs to be checked before everything else and should have its `passno` set to one. The other file systems should be set to values greater than one. If more than one file system has the same `passno`, man:fsck[8] will attempt to check file systems in parallel if possible. -Refer to man:fstab[5] for more information on the format of [.filename]#/etc/fstab# and its options. +Refer to man:fstab[5] for more information on the format of `/etc/fstab` and its options. [[disks-mount]] === Using man:mount[8] File systems are mounted using man:mount[8]. The most basic syntax is as follows: [example] ==== [source,shell] .... # mount device mountpoint .... ==== This command provides many options which are described in man:mount[8], The most commonly used options include: .Mount Options `-a`:: -Mount all the file systems listed in [.filename]#/etc/fstab#, except those marked as "noauto", excluded by the `-t` flag, or those that are already mounted. +Mount all the file systems listed in `/etc/fstab`, except those marked as "noauto", excluded by the `-t` flag, or those that are already mounted. `-d`:: Do everything except for the actual mount system call. This option is useful in conjunction with the `-v` flag to determine what man:mount[8] is actually trying to do. `-f`:: Force the mount of an unclean file system (dangerous), or the revocation of write access when downgrading a file system's mount status from read-write to read-only. `-r`:: Mount the file system read-only. This is identical to using `-o ro`. ``-t _fstype_``:: Mount the specified file system type or mount only file systems of the given type, if `-a` is included. "ufs" is the default file system type. `-u`:: Update mount options on the file system. `-v`:: Be verbose. `-w`:: Mount the file system read-write. The following options can be passed to `-o` as a comma-separated list: nosuid:: Do not interpret setuid or setgid flags on the file system. This is also a useful security option. [[disks-umount]] === Using man:umount[8] To unmount a file system use man:umount[8]. This command takes one parameter which can be a mountpoint, device name, `-a` or `-A`. All forms take `-f` to force unmounting, and `-v` for verbosity. Be warned that `-f` is not generally a good idea as it might crash the computer or damage data on the file system. To unmount all mounted file systems, or just the file system types listed after `-t`, use `-a` or `-A`. Note that `-A` does not attempt to unmount the root file system. [[basics-processes]] == Processes and Daemons FreeBSD is a multi-tasking operating system. Each program running at any one time is called a _process_. Every running command starts at least one new process and there are a number of system processes that are run by FreeBSD. Each process is uniquely identified by a number called a _process ID_ (PID). Similar to files, each process has one owner and group, and the owner and group permissions are used to determine which files and devices the process can open. Most processes also have a parent process that started them. For example, the shell is a process, and any command started in the shell is a process which has the shell as its parent process. The exception is a special process called man:init[8] which is always the first process to start at boot time and which always has a PID of `1`. Some programs are not designed to be run with continuous user input and disconnect from the terminal at the first opportunity. For example, a web server responds to web requests, rather than user input. Mail servers are another example of this type of application. These types of programs are known as _daemons_. The term daemon comes from Greek mythology and represents an entity that is neither good nor evil, and which invisibly performs useful tasks. This is why the BSD mascot is the cheerful-looking daemon with sneakers and a pitchfork. There is a convention to name programs that normally run as daemons with a trailing "d". For example, BIND is the Berkeley Internet Name Domain, but the actual program that executes is `named`. The Apache web server program is `httpd` and the line printer spooling daemon is `lpd`. This is only a naming convention. For example, the main mail daemon for the Sendmail application is `sendmail`, and not `maild`. === Viewing Processes To see the processes running on the system, use man:ps[1] or man:top[1]. To display a static list of the currently running processes, their PIDs, how much memory they are using, and the command they were started with, use man:ps[1]. To display all the running processes and update the display every few seconds in order to interactively see what the computer is doing, use man:top[1]. By default, man:ps[1] only shows the commands that are running and owned by the user. For example: [source,shell] .... % ps PID TT STAT TIME COMMAND 8203 0 Ss 0:00.59 /bin/csh 8895 0 R+ 0:00.00 ps .... The output from man:ps[1] is organized into a number of columns. The `PID` column displays the process ID. PIDs are assigned starting at 1, go up to 99999, then wrap around back to the beginning. However, a PID is not reassigned if it is already in use. The `TT` column shows the tty the program is running on and `STAT` shows the program's state. `TIME` is the amount of time the program has been running on the CPU. This is usually not the elapsed time since the program was started, as most programs spend a lot of time waiting for things to happen before they need to spend time on the CPU. Finally, `COMMAND` is the command that was used to start the program. A number of different options are available to change the information that is displayed. One of the most useful sets is `auxww`, where `a` displays information about all the running processes of all users, `u` displays the username and memory usage of the process' owner, `x` displays information about daemon processes, and `ww` causes man:ps[1] to display the full command line for each process, rather than truncating it once it gets too long to fit on the screen. The output from man:top[1] is similar: [source,shell] .... % top last pid: 9609; load averages: 0.56, 0.45, 0.36 up 0+00:20:03 10:21:46 107 processes: 2 running, 104 sleeping, 1 zombie CPU: 6.2% user, 0.1% nice, 8.2% system, 0.4% interrupt, 85.1% idle Mem: 541M Active, 450M Inact, 1333M Wired, 4064K Cache, 1498M Free ARC: 992M Total, 377M MFU, 589M MRU, 250K Anon, 5280K Header, 21M Other Swap: 2048M Total, 2048M Free PID USERNAME THR PRI NICE SIZE RES STATE C TIME WCPU COMMAND 557 root 1 -21 r31 136M 42296K select 0 2:20 9.96% Xorg 8198 dru 2 52 0 449M 82736K select 3 0:08 5.96% kdeinit4 8311 dru 27 30 0 1150M 187M uwait 1 1:37 0.98% firefox 431 root 1 20 0 14268K 1728K select 0 0:06 0.98% moused 9551 dru 1 21 0 16600K 2660K CPU3 3 0:01 0.98% top 2357 dru 4 37 0 718M 141M select 0 0:21 0.00% kdeinit4 8705 dru 4 35 0 480M 98M select 2 0:20 0.00% kdeinit4 8076 dru 6 20 0 552M 113M uwait 0 0:12 0.00% soffice.bin 2623 root 1 30 10 12088K 1636K select 3 0:09 0.00% powerd 2338 dru 1 20 0 440M 84532K select 1 0:06 0.00% kwin 1427 dru 5 22 0 605M 86412K select 1 0:05 0.00% kdeinit4 .... The output is split into two sections. The header (the first five or six lines) shows the PID of the last process to run, the system load averages (which are a measure of how busy the system is), the system uptime (time since the last reboot) and the current time. The other figures in the header relate to how many processes are running, how much memory and swap space has been used, and how much time the system is spending in different CPU states. If the ZFS file system module has been loaded, an `ARC` line indicates how much data was read from the memory cache instead of from disk. Below the header is a series of columns containing similar information to the output from man:ps[1], such as the PID, username, amount of CPU time, and the command that started the process. By default, man:top[1] also displays the amount of memory space taken by the process. This is split into two columns: one for total size and one for resident size. Total size is how much memory the application has needed and the resident size is how much it is actually using now. man:top[1] automatically updates the display every two seconds. A different interval can be specified with `-s`. [[basics-daemons]] === Killing Processes One way to communicate with any running process or daemon is to send a _signal_ using man:kill[1]. There are a number of different signals; some have a specific meaning while others are described in the application's documentation. A user can only send a signal to a process they own and sending a signal to someone else's process will result in a permission denied error. The exception is the `root` user, who can send signals to anyone's processes. The operating system can also send a signal to a process. If an application is badly written and tries to access memory that it is not supposed to, FreeBSD will send the process the "Segmentation Violation" signal (`SIGSEGV`). If an application has been written to use the man:alarm[3] system call to be alerted after a period of time has elapsed, it will be sent the "Alarm" signal (`SIGALRM`). Two signals can be used to stop a process: `SIGTERM` and `SIGKILL`. `SIGTERM` is the polite way to kill a process as the process can read the signal, close any log files it may have open, and attempt to finish what it is doing before shutting down. In some cases, a process may ignore `SIGTERM` if it is in the middle of some task that cannot be interrupted. `SIGKILL` cannot be ignored by a process. Sending a `SIGKILL` to a process will usually stop that process there and then. footnote:[There are a few tasks that cannot be interrupted. For example, if the process is trying to read from a file that is on another computer on the network, and the other computer is unavailable, the process is said to be uninterruptible. Eventually the process will time out, typically after two minutes. As soon as this time out occurs the process will be killed.]. Other commonly used signals are `SIGHUP`, `SIGUSR1`, and `SIGUSR2`. Since these are general purpose signals, different applications will respond differently. For example, after changing a web server's configuration file, the web server needs to be told to re-read its configuration. Restarting `httpd` would result in a brief outage period on the web server. Instead, send the daemon the `SIGHUP` signal. Be aware that different daemons will have different behavior, so refer to the documentation for the daemon to determine if `SIGHUP` will achieve the desired results. -[.procedure] -**** -.Procedure: Sending a Signal to a Process - -This example shows how to send a signal to man:inetd[8]. -The man:inetd[8] configuration file is [.filename]#/etc/inetd.conf#, and man:inetd[8] will re-read this configuration file when it is sent a `SIGHUP`. - -. Find the PID of the process to send the signal to using man:pgrep[1]. In this example, the PID for man:inetd[8] is 198: -+ -[source,shell] -.... -% pgrep -l inetd -198 inetd -.... -+ -. Use man:kill[1] to send the signal. As man:inetd[8] is owned by `root`, use man:su[1] to become `root` first. -+ -[source,shell] -.... -% su -Password: -# /bin/kill -s HUP 198 -.... - -Like most UNIX(R) commands, man:kill[1] will not print any output if it is successful. -If a signal is sent to a process not owned by that user, the message `kill: _PID_: Operation not permitted` will be displayed. -Mistyping the PID will either send the signal to the wrong process, which could have negative results, or will send the signal to a PID that is not currently in use, resulting in the error `kill: _PID_: No such process`. - -[NOTE] -==== -*Why Use `/bin/kill`?:* + - -Many shells provide `kill` as a built in command, meaning that the shell will send the signal directly, rather than running [.filename]#/bin/kill#. -Be aware that different shells have a different syntax for specifying the name of the signal to send. -Rather than try to learn all of them, it can be simpler to specify `/bin/kill`. -==== -**** - -When sending other signals, substitute `TERM` or `KILL` with the name of the signal. - [IMPORTANT] ==== Killing a random process on the system is a bad idea. In particular, man:init[8], PID 1, is special. Running `/bin/kill -s KILL 1` is a quick, and unrecommended, way to shutdown the system. _Always_ double check the arguments to man:kill[1] _before_ pressing kbd:[Return]. ==== [[shells]] == Shells A _shell_ provides a command line interface for interacting with the operating system. A shell receives commands from the input channel and executes them. Many shells provide built in functions to help with everyday tasks such as file management, file globbing, command line editing, command macros, and environment variables. FreeBSD comes with several shells, including the Bourne shell (man:sh[1]) and the extended C shell (man:tcsh[1]). Other shells are available from the FreeBSD Ports Collection, such as `zsh` and `bash`. The shell that is used is really a matter of taste. A C programmer might feel more comfortable with a C-like shell such as man:tcsh[1]. A Linux(R) user might prefer `bash`. Each shell has unique properties that may or may not work with a user's preferred working environment, which is why there is a choice of which shell to use. One common shell feature is filename completion. After a user types the first few letters of a command or filename and presses kbd:[Tab], the shell completes the rest of the command or filename. -Consider two files called [.filename]#foobar# and [.filename]#football#. -To delete [.filename]#foobar#, the user might type `rm foo` and press kbd:[Tab] to complete the filename. +Consider two files called `foobar` and `football`. +To delete `foobar`, the user might type `rm foo` and press kbd:[Tab] to complete the filename. But the shell only shows `rm foo`. -It was unable to complete the filename because both [.filename]#foobar# and [.filename]#football# start with `foo`. +It was unable to complete the filename because both `foobar` and `football` start with `foo`. Some shells sound a beep or show all the choices if more than one name matches. The user must then type more characters to identify the desired filename. Typing a `t` and pressing kbd:[Tab] again is enough to let the shell determine which filename is desired and fill in the rest. Another feature of the shell is the use of environment variables. Environment variables are a variable/key pair stored in the shell's environment. This environment can be read by any program invoked by the shell, and thus contains a lot of program configuration. <> provides a list of common environment variables and their meanings. Note that the names of environment variables are always in uppercase. [[shell-env-vars]] .Common Environment Variables -[cols="1,1", frame="none", options="header"] +[cols="25h,~"] |=== | Variable | Description |`USER` |Current logged in user's name. |`PATH` |Colon-separated list of directories to search for binaries. |`DISPLAY` |Network name of the Xorg display to connect to, if available. |`SHELL` |The current shell. |`TERM` |The name of the user's type of terminal. Used to determine the capabilities of the terminal. |`TERMCAP` |Database entry of the terminal escape codes to perform various terminal functions. |`OSTYPE` |Type of operating system. |`MACHTYPE` |The system's CPU architecture. |`EDITOR` |The user's preferred text editor. |`PAGER` |The user's preferred utility for viewing text one page at a time. |`MANPATH` |Colon-separated list of directories to search for manual pages. |=== How to set an environment variable differs between shells. In man:tcsh[1] and man:csh[1], use `setenv` to set environment variables. In man:sh[1] and `bash`, use `export` to set the current environment variables. -This example sets the default `EDITOR` to [.filename]#/usr/local/bin/emacs# for the man:tcsh[1] shell: +This example sets the default `EDITOR` to `/usr/local/bin/emacs` for the man:tcsh[1] shell: [source,shell] .... % setenv EDITOR /usr/local/bin/emacs .... The equivalent command for `bash` would be: [source,shell] .... % export EDITOR="/usr/local/bin/emacs" .... To expand an environment variable in order to see its current setting, type a `$` character in front of its name on the command line. For example, `echo $TERM` displays the current `$TERM` setting. Shells treat special characters, known as meta-characters, as special representations of data. The most common meta-character is `\*`, which represents any number of characters in a filename. Meta-characters can be used to perform filename globbing. For example, `echo *` is equivalent to `ls` because the shell takes all the files that match `*` and `echo` lists them on the command line. To prevent the shell from interpreting a special character, escape it from the shell by starting it with a backslash (`\`). For example, `echo $TERM` prints the terminal setting whereas `echo \$TERM` literally prints the string `$TERM`. [[changing-shells]] === Changing the Shell The easiest way to permanently change the default shell is to use `chsh`. Running this command will open the editor that is configured in the `EDITOR` environment variable, which by default is set to man:vi[1]. Change the `Shell:` line to the full path of the new shell. Alternately, use `chsh -s` which will set the specified shell without opening an editor. For example, to change the shell to `bash`: [source,shell] .... % chsh -s /usr/local/bin/bash .... [NOTE] ==== -The new shell _must_ be present in [.filename]#/etc/shells#. +The new shell _must_ be present in `/etc/shells`. If the shell was installed from the FreeBSD Ports Collection as described in crossref:ports[ports,Installing Applications: Packages and Ports], it should be automatically added to this file. If it is missing, add it using this command, replacing the path with the path of the shell: [source,shell] .... # echo /usr/local/bin/bash >> /etc/shells .... Then, rerun man:chsh[1]. ==== === Advanced Shell Techniques The UNIX(R) shell is not just a command interpreter, it acts as a powerful tool which allows users to execute commands, redirect their output, redirect their input and chain commands together to improve the final command output. When this functionality is mixed with built in commands, the user is provided with an environment that can maximize efficiency. Shell redirection is the action of sending the output or the input of a command into another command or into a file. To capture the output of the man:ls[1] command, for example, into a file, redirect the output: [source,shell] .... % ls > directory_listing.txt .... -The directory contents will now be listed in [.filename]#directory_listing.txt#. +The directory contents will now be listed in `directory_listing.txt`. Some commands can be used to read input, such as man:sort[1]. To sort this listing, redirect the input: [source,shell] .... % sort < directory_listing.txt .... The input will be sorted and placed on the screen. To redirect that input into another file, one could redirect the output of man:sort[1] by mixing the direction: [source,shell] .... % sort < directory_listing.txt > sorted.txt .... In all of the previous examples, the commands are performing redirection using file descriptors. Every UNIX(R) system has file descriptors, which include standard input (stdin), standard output (stdout), and standard error (stderr). Each one has a purpose, where input could be a keyboard or a mouse, something that provides input. Output could be a screen or paper in a printer. And error would be anything that is used for diagnostic or error messages. All three are considered I/O based file descriptors and sometimes considered streams. Through the use of these descriptors, the shell allows output and input to be passed around through various commands and redirected to or from a file. Another method of redirection is the pipe operator. The UNIX(R) pipe operator, "|" allows the output of one command to be directly passed or directed to another program. Basically, a pipe allows the standard output of a command to be passed as standard input to another command, for example: [source,shell] .... % cat directory_listing.txt | sort | less .... -In that example, the contents of [.filename]#directory_listing.txt# will be sorted and the output passed to man:less[1]. +In that example, the contents of `directory_listing.txt` will be sorted and the output passed to man:less[1]. This allows the user to scroll through the output at their own pace and prevent it from scrolling off the screen. [[editors]] == Text Editors Most FreeBSD configuration is done by editing text files, so it is a good idea to become familiar with a text editor. FreeBSD comes with a few as part of the base system, and many more are available in the Ports Collection. A simple editor to learn is man:ee[1], which stands for easy editor. To start this editor, type `ee _filename_` where _filename_ is the name of the file to be edited. Once inside the editor, all of the commands for manipulating the editor's functions are listed at the top of the display. The caret (`^`) represents kbd:[Ctrl], so `^e` expands to kbd:[Ctrl+e]. To leave man:ee[1], press kbd:[Esc], then choose the "leave editor" option from the main menu. The editor will prompt to save any changes if the file has been modified. FreeBSD also comes with more powerful text editors, such as man:vi[1], as part of the base system. Other editors, like package:editors/emacs[] and package:editors/vim[], are part of the FreeBSD Ports Collection. These editors offer more functionality at the expense of being more complicated to learn. Learning a more powerful editor such as vim or Emacs can save more time in the long run. Many applications which modify files or require typed input will automatically open a text editor. To change the default editor, set the `EDITOR` environment variable as described in <>. [[basics-devices]] == Devices and Device Nodes A device is a term used mostly for hardware-related activities in a system, including disks, printers, graphics cards, and keyboards. When FreeBSD boots, the majority of the boot messages refer to devices being detected. -A copy of the boot messages are saved to [.filename]#/var/run/dmesg.boot#. +A copy of the boot messages is saved to `/var/run/dmesg.boot`. Each device has a device name and number. -For example, [.filename]#ada0# is the first SATA hard drive, while [.filename]#kbd0# represents the keyboard. +For example, `ada0` is the first SATA hard drive, while `kbd0` represents the keyboard. -Most devices in FreeBSD must be accessed through special files called device nodes, which are located in [.filename]#/dev#. +Most devices in FreeBSD must be accessed through special files called device nodes, which are located in `/dev`. [[basics-more-information]] == Manual Pages The most comprehensive documentation on FreeBSD is in the form of manual pages. Nearly every program on the system comes with a short reference manual explaining the basic operation and available arguments. These manuals can be viewed using `man`: [source,shell] .... % man command .... where _command_ is the name of the command to learn about. For example, to learn more about man:ls[1], type: [source,shell] .... % man ls .... Manual pages are divided into sections which represent the type of topic. In FreeBSD, the following sections are available: . User commands. . System calls and error numbers. . Functions in the C libraries. . Device drivers. . File formats. . Games and other diversions. . Miscellaneous information. . System maintenance and operation commands. . System kernel interfaces. In some cases, the same topic may appear in more than one section of the online manual. For example, there is a `chmod` user command and a `chmod()` system call. To tell man:man[1] which section to display, specify the section number: [source,shell] .... % man 1 chmod .... This will display the manual page for the user command man:chmod[1]. References to a particular section of the online manual are traditionally placed in parenthesis in written documentation, so man:chmod[1] refers to the user command and man:chmod[2] refers to the system call. If the name of the manual page is unknown, use `man -k` to search for keywords in the manual page descriptions: [source,shell] .... % man -k mail .... This command displays a list of commands that have the keyword "mail" in their descriptions. This is equivalent to using man:apropos[1]. -To read the descriptions for all of the commands in [.filename]#/usr/sbin#, type: +To read the descriptions for all of the commands in `/usr/sbin`, type: [source,shell] .... % cd /usr/sbin % man -f * | more .... or [source,shell] .... % cd /usr/sbin % whatis * |more .... [[basics-info]] === GNU Info Files FreeBSD includes several applications and utilities produced by the Free Software Foundation (FSF). In addition to manual pages, these programs may include hypertext documents called `info` files. These can be viewed using man:info[1] or, if package:editors/emacs[] is installed, the info mode of emacs. To use man:info[1], type: [source,shell] .... % info .... For a brief introduction, type `h`. For a quick command reference, type `?`. diff --git a/documentation/content/en/books/handbook/ports/_index.adoc b/documentation/content/en/books/handbook/ports/_index.adoc index b7c29721c5..f7f351013c 100644 --- a/documentation/content/en/books/handbook/ports/_index.adoc +++ b/documentation/content/en/books/handbook/ports/_index.adoc @@ -1,1297 +1,1350 @@ --- title: "Chapter 4. Installing Applications: Packages and Ports" part: Part I. Getting Started prev: books/handbook/basics next: books/handbook/x11 description: "FreeBSD provides two complementary technologies for installing third-party software: the FreeBSD Ports Collection, for installing from source, and packages, for installing from pre-built binaries" tags: ["ports", "collection", "pkg", "poudriere", "management"] showBookMenu: true weight: 6 path: "/books/handbook/" aliases: ["/en/books/handbook/ports-overview/","/en/books/handbook/ports-finding-applications/","/en/books/handbook/pkgng-intro/","/en/books/handbook/ports-using/","/en/books/handbook/ports-poudriere/","/en/books/handbook/ports-nextsteps/","/en/books/handbook/ports-broken/"] --- [[ports]] = Installing Applications: Packages and Ports :doctype: book :toc: macro :toclevels: 1 :icons: font :sectnums: :sectnumlevels: 6 :sectnumoffset: 4 :partnums: :source-highlighter: rouge :experimental: :images-path: books/handbook/ports/ ifdef::env-beastie[] ifdef::backend-html5[] :imagesdir: ../../../../images/{images-path} endif::[] ifndef::book[] include::shared/authors.adoc[] include::shared/mirrors.adoc[] include::shared/releases.adoc[] include::shared/attributes/attributes-{{% lang %}}.adoc[] include::shared/{{% lang %}}/teams.adoc[] include::shared/{{% lang %}}/mailing-lists.adoc[] include::shared/{{% lang %}}/urls.adoc[] toc::[] endif::[] ifdef::backend-pdf,backend-epub3[] include::../../../../../shared/asciidoctor.adoc[] endif::[] endif::[] ifndef::env-beastie[] toc::[] include::../../../../../shared/asciidoctor.adoc[] endif::[] [[ports-synopsis]] == Synopsis FreeBSD is bundled with a rich collection of system tools as part of the base system. In addition, FreeBSD provides two complementary technologies for installing third-party software: the FreeBSD Ports Collection, for installing from source, and packages, for installing from pre-built binaries. Either method may be used to install software from local media or from the network. After reading this chapter, you will know: * The difference between binary packages and ports. * How to find third-party software that has been ported to FreeBSD. * How to manage binary packages using pkg. * How to build third-party software from source using the Ports Collection. * How to find the files installed with the application for post-installation configuration. * What to do if a software installation fails. [[ports-overview]] == Overview of Software Installation -The typical steps for installing third-party software on a UNIX(R) system include: - -[.procedure] -. Find and download the software, which might be distributed in source code format or as a binary. -. Unpack the software from its distribution format. This is typically a tarball compressed with a program such as man:compress[1], man:gzip[1], man:bzip2[1] or man:xz[1]. -. Locate the documentation in [.filename]#INSTALL#, [.filename]#README# or some file in a [.filename]#doc/# subdirectory and read up on how to install the software. -. If the software was distributed in source format, compile it. This may involve editing a [.filename]#Makefile# or running a `configure` script. -. Test and install the software. - A FreeBSD _port_ is a collection of files designed to automate the process of compiling an application from source code. The files that comprise a port contain all the necessary information to automatically download, extract, patch, compile, and install the application. If the software has not already been adapted and tested on FreeBSD, the source code might need editing in order for it to install and run properly. However, over link:https://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/[{numports}] third-party applications have already been ported to FreeBSD. When feasible, these applications are made available for download as pre-compiled _packages_. Packages can be manipulated with the FreeBSD package management commands. Both packages and ports understand dependencies. If a package or port is used to install an application and a dependent library is not already installed, the library will automatically be installed first. A FreeBSD package contains pre-compiled copies of all the commands for an application, as well as any configuration files and documentation. A package can be manipulated with the man:pkg[8] commands, such as `pkg install`. While the two technologies are similar, packages and ports each have their own strengths. Select the technology that meets your requirements for installing a particular application. .Package Benefits * A compressed package tarball is typically smaller than the compressed tarball containing the source code for the application. -* Packages do not require compilation time. For large applications, such as Mozilla, KDE, or GNOME, this can be important on a slow system. +* Packages do not require compilation time. For large applications, such as Firefox, KDE Plasma, or GNOME, this can be important on a slow system. * Packages do not require any understanding of the process involved in compiling software on FreeBSD. .Port Benefits * Packages are normally compiled with conservative options because they have to run on the maximum number of systems. By compiling from the port, one can change the compilation options. -* Some applications have compile-time options relating to which features are installed. For example, Apache can be configured with a wide variety of different built-in options. +* Some applications have compile-time options relating to which features are installed. For example, NGINX(R) can be configured with a wide variety of different built-in options. + -In some cases, multiple packages will exist for the same application to specify certain settings. For example, Ghostscript is available as a [.filename]#ghostscript# package and a [.filename]#ghostscript-nox11# package, depending on whether or not Xorg is installed. Creating multiple packages rapidly becomes impossible if an application has more than one or two different compile-time options. +In some cases, multiple packages will exist for the same application to specify certain settings. For example, NGINX(R) is available as a `nginx` package and a `nginx-lite` package, depending on whether or not Xorg is installed. Creating multiple packages rapidly becomes impossible if an application has more than one or two different compile-time options. * The licensing conditions of some software forbid binary distribution. Such software must be distributed as source code which must be compiled by the end-user. * Some people do not trust binary distributions or prefer to read through source code in order to look for potential problems. * Source code is needed in order to apply custom patches. To keep track of updated ports, subscribe to the {freebsd-ports} and the {freebsd-ports-bugs}. [WARNING] ==== - Before installing any application, check https://vuxml.freebsd.org/[] for security issues related to the application or type `pkg audit -F` to check all installed applications for known vulnerabilities. ==== The remainder of this chapter explains how to use packages and ports to install and manage third-party software on FreeBSD. [[ports-finding-applications]] == Finding Software FreeBSD's list of available applications is growing all the time. There are a number of ways to find software to install: -* The FreeBSD web site maintains an up-to-date searchable list of all the available applications, at link:https://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/[https://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/]. The ports can be searched by application name or by software category. -* Dan Langille maintains http://www.FreshPorts.org/[FreshPorts.org] which provides a comprehensive search utility and also tracks changes to the applications in the Ports Collection. Registered users can create a customized watch list in order to receive an automated email when their watched ports are updated. -* If finding a particular application becomes challenging, try searching a site like http://www.sourceforge.net/[SourceForge.net] or http://www.github.com/[GitHub.com] then check back at the link:https://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/[FreeBSD site] to see if the application has been ported. -* To search the binary package repository for an application: -+ -[source,shell] -.... -# pkg search subversion -git-subversion-1.9.2 -java-subversion-1.8.8_2 -p5-subversion-1.8.8_2 -py27-hgsubversion-1.6 -py27-subversion-1.8.8_2 -ruby-subversion-1.8.8_2 -subversion-1.8.8_2 -subversion-book-4515 -subversion-static-1.8.8_2 -subversion16-1.6.23_4 -subversion17-1.7.16_2 -.... -+ -Package names include the version number and, in the case of ports based on python, the version number of the version of python the package was built with. -Some ports also have multiple versions available. -In the case of Subversion, there are different versions available, as well as different compile options. -In this case, the statically linked version of Subversion. -When indicating which package to install, it is best to specify the application by the port origin, which is the path in the ports tree. -Repeat the `pkg search` with `-o` to list the origin of each package: -+ -[source,shell] -.... -# pkg search -o subversion -devel/git-subversion -java/java-subversion -devel/p5-subversion -devel/py-hgsubversion -devel/py-subversion -devel/ruby-subversion -devel/subversion16 -devel/subversion17 -devel/subversion -devel/subversion-book -devel/subversion-static -.... -+ -Searching by shell globs, regular expressions, exact match, by description, or any other field in the repository database is also supported by `pkg search`. -After installing package:ports-mgmt/pkg[] or package:ports-mgmt/pkg-devel[], see man:pkg-search[8] for more details. -* If the Ports Collection is already installed, there are several methods to query the local version of the ports tree. To find out which category a port is in, type `whereis _file_`, where _file_ is the program to be installed: -+ -[source,shell] -.... -# whereis lsof -lsof: /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof -.... -+ -Alternately, an man:echo[1] statement can be used: -+ -[source,shell] -.... -# echo /usr/ports/*/*lsof* -/usr/ports/sysutils/lsof -.... -+ -Note that this will also return any matched files downloaded into the [.filename]#/usr/ports/distfiles# directory. -* Another way to find software is by using the Ports Collection's built-in search mechanism. To use the search feature, cd to [.filename]#/usr/ports# then run `make search name=program-name` where _program-name_ is the name of the software. For example, to search for `lsof`: -+ -[source,shell] -.... -# cd /usr/ports -# make search name=lsof -Port: lsof-4.88.d,8 -Path: /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof -Info: Lists information about open files (similar to fstat(1)) -Maint: ler@lerctr.org -Index: sysutils -B-deps: -R-deps: -.... -+ -[TIP] -==== -The built-in search mechanism uses a file of index information. -If a message indicates that the [.filename]#INDEX# is required, run `make fetchindex` to download the current index file. -With the [.filename]#INDEX# present, `make search` will be able to perform the requested search. -==== -+ -The "Path:" line indicates where to find the port. -+ -To receive less information, use the `quicksearch` feature: -+ -[source,shell] -.... -# cd /usr/ports -# make quicksearch name=lsof -Port: lsof-4.88.d,8 -Path: /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof -Info: Lists information about open files (similar to fstat(1)) -.... -+ -For more in-depth searching, use `make search key=_string_` or `make quicksearch key=_string_`, where _string_ is some text to search for. -The text can be in comments, descriptions, or dependencies in order to find ports which relate to a particular subject when the name of the program is unknown. -+ -When using `search` or `quicksearch`, the search string is case-insensitive. -Searching for "LSOF" will yield the same results as searching for "lsof". +* The FreeBSD web site maintains an up-to-date searchable list of all the available applications, at link:https://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/[Ports Portal]. The ports can be searched by application name or by software category. +* Dan Langille maintains https://www.freshports.org/[FreshPorts] which provides a comprehensive search utility and also tracks changes to the applications in the Ports Collection. Registered users can create a customized watch list in order to receive an automated email when their watched ports are updated. +* If finding a particular application becomes challenging, try searching a site like https://sourceforge.net/[SourceForge] or https://github.com/[GitHub] then check back at the link:https://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/[Ports Portal] to see if the application has been ported. +* Search the binary package repository for an application using the man:pkg[8] command [[pkgng-intro]] == Using pkg for Binary Package Management -pkg is the next generation replacement for the traditional FreeBSD package management tools, offering many features that make dealing with binary packages faster and easier. +man:pkg[8] provides an interface for manipulating packages: registering, adding, removing and upgrading packages. -For sites wishing to only use prebuilt binary packages from the FreeBSD mirrors, managing packages with pkg can be sufficient. +For sites wishing to only use prebuilt binary packages from the FreeBSD mirrors, managing packages with man:pkg[8] can be sufficient. -However, for those sites building from source or using their own repositories, a separate <> will be needed. +However, for those sites building from source a separate <> will be needed. -Since pkg only works with binary packages, it is not a replacement for such tools. -Those tools can be used to install software from both binary packages and the Ports Collection, while pkg installs only binary packages. +Since man:pkg[8] only works with binary packages, it is not a replacement for such tools. +Those tools can be used to install software from both binary packages and the Ports Collection, while man:pkg[8] installs only binary packages. [[pkgng-initial-setup]] === Getting Started with pkg -FreeBSD includes a bootstrap utility which can be used to download and install pkg and its manual pages. -This utility is designed to work with versions of FreeBSD starting with 10._X_. +All supported versions of FreeBSD now contain `/usr/sbin/pkg` a.k.a man:pkg[7]. +This is a small placeholder that has just the minimum functionality required to install the real man:pkg[8]. [NOTE] ==== -Not all FreeBSD versions and architectures support this bootstrap process. -The current list is at https://pkg.freebsd.org/[]. -For other cases, pkg must instead be installed from the Ports Collection or as a binary package. +An Internet working connection is required for the bootstrap process to succeed. ==== -To bootstrap the system, run: - -[source,shell] -.... -# /usr/sbin/pkg -.... - -You must have a working Internet connection for the bootstrap process to succeed. - -Otherwise, to install the port, run: +Run man:pkg[8] command line: [source,shell] .... -# cd /usr/ports/ports-mgmt/pkg -# make -# make install clean +# pkg .... -When upgrading an existing system that originally used the older pkg_* tools, -the database must be converted to the new format, so that the new tools are aware of the already installed packages. -Once pkg has been installed, the package database must be converted from the traditional format to the new format by running this command: - -[source,shell] -.... -# pkg2ng -.... - -[NOTE] -==== -This step is not required for new installations that do not yet have any third-party software installed. -==== - -[IMPORTANT] -==== -This step is not reversible. -Once the package database has been converted to the pkg format, the traditional `pkg_*` tools should no longer be used. -==== - -[NOTE] -==== -The package database conversion may emit errors as the contents are converted to the new version. -Generally, these errors can be safely ignored. -However, a list of software that was not successfully converted is shown after `pkg2ng` finishes. -These applications must be manually reinstalled. -==== - -To ensure that the Ports Collection registers new software with pkg instead of the traditional packages database, -FreeBSD versions earlier than 10._X_ require this line in [.filename]#/etc/make.conf#: +The output should be similar to the following: [.programlisting] .... -WITH_PKGNG= yes +The package management tool is not yet installed on your system. +Do you want to fetch and install it not? [y/N] .... -By default, pkg uses the binary packages from the FreeBSD package mirrors (the _repository_). -For information about building a custom package repository, see <>. +man:pkg[7] will intercept the command, and if you confirm that is your intention, download the man:pkg[8] tarball, install man:pkg[8] from it, bootstrap the local package database and then proceed to run the command you originally requested. -Additional pkg configuration options are described in man:pkg.conf[5]. +More recent versions of man:pkg[7] understand `pkg -N` as a test to see if man:pkg[8] is installed without triggering the installation, and conversely, pkg bootstrap[-f] to install man:pkg[8] (or force it to be reinstalled) without performing any other actions. Usage information for pkg is available in the man:pkg[8] manual page or by running `pkg` without additional arguments. +Additional pkg configuration options are described in man:pkg.conf[5]. Each pkg command argument is documented in a command-specific manual page. -To read the manual page for `pkg install`, for example, run either of these commands: -[source,shell] -.... -# pkg help install -.... +To read the manual page for `pkg install`, for example, run this command: [source,shell] .... -# man pkg-install +# pkg help install .... -The rest of this section demonstrates common binary package management tasks which can be performed using pkg. +The rest of this section demonstrates common binary package management tasks which can be performed using man:pkg[8]. Each demonstrated command provides many switches to customize its use. Refer to a command's help or man page for details and more examples. [[quarterly-latest-branch]] === Quarterly and Latest Ports Branches The `Quarterly` branch provides users with a more predictable and stable experience for port and package installation and upgrades. This is done essentially by only allowing non-feature updates. Quarterly branches aim to receive security fixes (that may be version updates, or backports of commits), bug fixes and ports compliance or framework changes. The Quarterly branch is cut from HEAD at the beginning of every (yearly) quarter in January, April, July, and October. Branches are named according to the year (YYYY) and quarter (Q1-4) they are created in. -For example, the quarterly branch created in January 2016, is named 2016Q1. +For example, the quarterly branch created in January 2023, is named 2023Q1. And the `Latest` branch provides the latest versions of the packages to the users. To switch from quarterly to latest run the following commands: [source,shell] .... # mkdir -p /usr/local/etc/pkg/repos # cp /etc/pkg/FreeBSD.conf /usr/local/etc/pkg/repos/FreeBSD.conf .... -Edit the file [.filename]#/usr/local/etc/pkg/repos/FreeBSD.conf# and change the string _quarterly_ to _latest_ in the `url:` line. +Edit the file `/usr/local/etc/pkg/repos/FreeBSD.conf` and change the string _quarterly_ to _latest_ in the `url:` line. The result should be similar to the following: [.programlisting] .... FreeBSD: { url: "pkg+http://pkg.FreeBSD.org/${ABI}/latest", mirror_type: "srv", signature_type: "fingerprints", fingerprints: "/usr/share/keys/pkg", enabled: yes } .... And finally run this command to update from the new (latest) repository metadata. [source,shell] .... # pkg update -f .... -[[pkgng-pkg-info]] -=== Obtaining Information About Installed Packages +[[pkg-configuration]] +=== Configure pkg -Information about the packages installed on a system can be viewed by running `pkg info` which, when run without any switches, -will list the package version for either all installed packages or the specified package. +man:pkg.conf[5] is the system-wide configuration file used by the man:pkg[8] tools. +The default location of this file is `/usr/local/etc/pkg.conf`. -For example, to see which version of pkg is installed, run: +[NOTE] +==== +FreeBSD does not need to have a `pkg.conf` file. +Many installations will work well with no `pkg.conf` at all or with an empty `pkg.conf` (other than comment lines). +==== -[source,shell] -.... -# pkg info pkg -pkg-1.1.4_1 -.... +Lines in the file beginning with a "#" are comments and are ignored. + +The file is in UCL format. +For more information on the syntax of man:libucl[3], please visit the link:https://github.com/vstakhov/libucl[official UCL website]. + +The following types of options are recognized - boolean, string and list options. + +A boolean option is marked as enabled if one of the following values is specified in the configuration file - YES, TRUE and ON. -[[pkgng-installing-deinstalling]] -=== Installing and Removing Packages +[[pkg-search]] +=== Searching Packages -To install a binary package use the following command, where _packagename_ is the name of the package to install: +To search a package man:pkg-search[8] can be used: [source,shell] .... -# pkg install packagename +# pkg search nginx .... +The output should be similar to the following: + +[.programlisting] +.... +modsecurity3-nginx-1.0.3 Instruction detection and prevention engine / nginx Wrapper +nginx-1.22.1_2,3 Robust and small WWW server +nginx-devel-1.23.2_4 Robust and small WWW server +nginx-full-1.22.1_1,3 Robust and small WWW server (full package) +nginx-lite-1.22.1,3 Robust and small WWW server (lite package) +nginx-naxsi-1.22.1,3 Robust and small WWW server (plus NAXSI) +nginx-prometheus-exporter-0.10.0_7 Prometheus exporter for NGINX and NGINX Plus stats +nginx-ultimate-bad-bot-blocker-4.2020.03.2005_1 Nginx bad bot and other things blocker +nginx-vts-exporter-0.10.7_7 Server that scraps NGINX vts stats and export them via HTTP +p5-Nginx-ReadBody-0.07_1 Nginx embeded perl module to read and evaluate a request body +p5-Nginx-Simple-0.07_1 Perl 5 module for easy to use interface for Nginx Perl Module +p5-Test-Nginx-0.30 Testing modules for Nginx C module development +py39-certbot-nginx-2.0.0 NGINX plugin for Certbot +rubygem-passenger-nginx-6.0.15 Modules for running Ruby on Rails and Rack applications +.... + +[[pkg-installing-fetching]] +=== Installing and Fetching Packages + +To install a binary package man:pkg-install[8] can be used. This command uses repository data to determine which version of the software to install and if it has any uninstalled dependencies. For example, to install curl: [source,shell] .... # pkg install curl -Updating repository catalogue -/usr/local/tmp/All/curl-7.31.0_1.txz 100% of 1181 kB 1380 kBps 00m01s +.... -/usr/local/tmp/All/ca_root_nss-3.15.1_1.txz 100% of 288 kB 1700 kBps 00m00s +The output should be similar to the following: -Updating repository catalogue -The following 2 packages will be installed: +[.programlisting] +.... +Updating FreeBSD repository catalogue... +FreeBSD repository is up to date. +All repositories are up to date. +The following 9 package(s) will be affected (of 0 checked): - Installing ca_root_nss: 3.15.1_1 - Installing curl: 7.31.0_1 +New packages to be INSTALLED: + ca_root_nss: 3.83 + curl: 7.86.0 + gettext-runtime: 0.21 + indexinfo: 0.3.1 + libidn2: 2.3.3 + libnghttp2: 1.48.0 + libpsl: 0.21.1_4 + libssh2: 1.10.0.3 + libunistring: 1.0 -The installation will require 3 MB more space +Number of packages to be installed: 9 -0 B to be downloaded +The process will require 11 MiB more space. +3 MiB to be downloaded -Proceed with installing packages [y/N]: y -Checking integrity... done -[1/2] Installing ca_root_nss-3.15.1_1... done -[2/2] Installing curl-7.31.0_1... done -Cleaning up cache files...Done +Proceed with this action? [y/N] .... The new package and any additional packages that were installed as dependencies can be seen in the installed packages list: [source,shell] .... # pkg info -ca_root_nss-3.15.1_1 The root certificate bundle from the Mozilla Project -curl-7.31.0_1 Non-interactive tool to get files from FTP, GOPHER, HTTP(S) servers -pkg-1.1.4_6 New generation package manager .... -Packages that are no longer needed can be removed with `pkg delete`. -For example: +The output should be similar to the following: + +[.programlisting] +.... +ca_root_nss-3.83 Root certificate bundle from the Mozilla Project +curl-7.86.0 Command line tool and library for transferring data with URLs +gettext-runtime-0.21.1 GNU gettext runtime libraries and programs +indexinfo-0.3.1 Utility to regenerate the GNU info page index +libidn2-2.3.3 Implementation of IDNA2008 internationalized domain names +libnghttp2-1.48.0 HTTP/2.0 C Library +libpsl-0.21.1_6 C library to handle the Public Suffix List +libssh2-1.10.0.3 Library implementing the SSH2 protocol +libunistring-1.0 Unicode string library +pkg-1.18.4 Package manager +.... + +To fetch a package and install it later or in another place use man:pkg-fetch[8]. +For example, to download `nginx-lite`: [source,shell] .... -# pkg delete curl -The following packages will be deleted: +# pkg fetch -d -o /usr/home/user/packages/ nginx-lite +.... + +* `-d`: used to fetch all the dependencies +* `-o`: used to specify the download directory + +The output should be similar to the following: + +[.programlisting] +.... +Updating FreeBSD repository catalogue... +FreeBSD repository is up to date. +All repositories are up to date. +The following packages will be fetched: + +New packages to be FETCHED: + nginx-lite: 1.22.1,3 (342 KiB: 22.20% of the 2 MiB to download) + pcre: 8.45_3 (1 MiB: 77.80% of the 2 MiB to download) + +Number of packages to be fetched: 2 + +The process will require 2 MiB more space. +2 MiB to be downloaded. + +Proceed with fetching packages? [y/N]: +.... + +To install the downloaded packages man:pkg-install[8] can be used as follows: + +[source,shell] +.... +# cd /usr/home/user/packages/ +.... + +[source,shell] +.... +# pkg install nginx-lite-1.22.1,3.pkg +.... + +[[pkgng-pkg-info]] +=== Obtaining Information About Installed Packages + +Information about the packages installed on a system can be viewed by running man:pkg-info[8] which, when run without any switches, will list the package version for either all installed packages or the specified package. + +For example, to see which version of pkg is installed, run: - curl-7.31.0_1 +[source,shell] +.... +# pkg info pkg +.... -The deletion will free 3 MB +The output should be similar to the following: -Proceed with deleting packages [y/N]: y -[1/1] Deleting curl-7.31.0_1... done +[.programlisting] +.... +pkg-1.19.0 +Name : pkg +Version : 1.19.0 +Installed on : Sat Dec 17 11:05:28 2022 CET +Origin : ports-mgmt/pkg +Architecture : FreeBSD:13:amd64 +Prefix : /usr/local +Categories : ports-mgmt +Licenses : BSD2CLAUSE +Maintainer : pkg@FreeBSD.org +WWW : https://github.com/freebsd/pkg +Comment : Package manager +Options : + DOCS : on +Shared Libs provided: + libpkg.so.4 +Annotations : + FreeBSD_version: 1301000 + repo_type : binary + repository : FreeBSD +Flat size : 33.2MiB +Description : +Package management tool + +WWW: https://github.com/freebsd/pkg .... [[pkgng-upgrading]] === Upgrading Installed Packages -Installed packages can be upgraded to their latest versions by running: +Installed packages can be upgraded to their latest versions using man:pkg-upgrade[8]: [source,shell] .... # pkg upgrade .... This command will compare the installed versions with those available in the repository catalogue and upgrade them from the repository. [[pkgng-auditing]] === Auditing Installed Packages Software vulnerabilities are regularly discovered in third-party applications. To address this, pkg includes a built-in auditing mechanism. -To determine if there are any known vulnerabilities for the software installed on the system, run: +To determine if there are any known vulnerabilities for the software installed on the system, use man:pkg-audit[8]: [source,shell] .... # pkg audit -F .... +The output should be similar to the following: + +[.programlisting] +.... +Fetching vuln.xml.xz: 100% 976 KiB 499.5kB/s 00:02 +chromium-108.0.5359.98 is vulnerable: + chromium -- multiple vulnerabilities + CVE: CVE-2022-4440 + CVE: CVE-2022-4439 + CVE: CVE-2022-4438 + CVE: CVE-2022-4437 + CVE: CVE-2022-4436 + WWW: https://vuxml.FreeBSD.org/freebsd/83eb9374-7b97-11ed-be8f-3065ec8fd3ec.html +.... + +[[pkg-delete]] +=== Removing Packages + +Packages that are no longer needed can be removed with man:pkg-delete[8]. + +For example: + +[source,shell] +.... +# pkg delete curl +.... + +The output should be similar to the following: + +[.programlisting] +.... +Checking integrity... done (0 conflicting) +Deinstallation has been requested for the following 1 packages (of 0 packages in the universe): + +Installed packages to be REMOVED: + curl :7.86.0 + +Number of packages to be removed: 1 + +The operation will free 4 MiB. + +Proceed with deinstallation packages? [y/N]: y +[1/1] Deinstalling curl-7.86.0... +[1/1] Deleting files for curl-7.86.0: 100% +.... + [[pkgng-autoremove]] === Automatically Removing Unused Packages Removing a package may leave behind dependencies which are no longer required. -Unneeded packages that were installed as dependencies (leaf packages) can be automatically detected and removed using: +Unneeded packages that were installed as dependencies (leaf packages) can be automatically detected and removed using man:pkg-autoremove[8]: [source,shell] .... # pkg autoremove -Packages to be autoremoved: - ca_root_nss-3.15.1_1 +.... + +The output should be similar to the following: + +[.programlisting] +.... +Checking integrity... done (0 conflicting) +Deinstallation has been requested for the following 1 packages: -The autoremoval will free 723 kB +Installed packages to be REMOVED: + ca_root_nss-3.83 -Proceed with autoremoval of packages [y/N]: y -Deinstalling ca_root_nss-3.15.1_1... done +Number of packages to be removed: 1 + +The operation will free 723 KiB. + +Proceed with deinstalling packages? [y/N]: .... Packages installed as dependencies are called _automatic_ packages. Non-automatic packages, i.e the packages that were explicity installed not as a dependency to another package, can be listed using: [source,shell] .... # pkg prime-list +.... + +The output should be similar to the following: + +[.programlisting] +.... nginx openvpn sudo .... -`pkg prime-list` is an alias command declared in [.filename]#/usr/local/etc/pkg.conf#. +`pkg prime-list` is an alias command declared in `/usr/local/etc/pkg.conf`. There are many others that can be used to query the package database of the system. For instance, command `pkg prime-origins` can be used to get the origin port directory of the list mentioned above: [source,shell] .... # pkg prime-origins +.... + +The output should be similar to the following: + +[.programlisting] +.... www/nginx security/openvpn security/sudo .... This list can be used to rebuild all packages installed on a system using build tools such as package:ports-mgmt/poudriere[] or package:ports-mgmt/synth[]. Marking an installed package as automatic can be done using: [source,shell] .... # pkg set -A 1 devel/cmake .... Once a package is a leaf package and is marked as automatic, it gets selected by `pkg autoremove`. Marking an installed package as _not_ automatic can be done using: [source,shell] .... # pkg set -A 0 devel/cmake .... [[pkgng-backup]] === Restoring the Package Database Unlike the traditional package management system, pkg includes its own package database backup mechanism. This functionality is enabled by default. [TIP] ==== To disable the periodic script from backing up the package database, set `daily_backup_pkgdb_enable="NO"` in man:periodic.conf[5]. ==== To restore the contents of a previous package database backup, run the following command replacing _/path/to/pkg.sql_ with the location of the backup: [source,shell] .... # pkg backup -r /path/to/pkg.sql .... [NOTE] ==== If restoring a backup taken by the periodic script, it must be decompressed prior to being restored. ==== To run a manual backup of the pkg database, run the following command, replacing _/path/to/pkg.sql_ with a suitable file name and location: [source,shell] .... # pkg backup -d /path/to/pkg.sql .... [[pkgng-clean]] === Removing Stale Packages By default, pkg stores binary packages in a cache directory defined by `PKG_CACHEDIR` in man:pkg.conf[5]. Only copies of the latest installed packages are kept. Older versions of pkg kept all previous packages. To remove these outdated binary packages, run: [source,shell] .... # pkg clean .... The entire cache may be cleared by running: [source,shell] .... # pkg clean -a .... +[[pkg-locking-unlocking]] +=== Locking and Unlocking Packages + +man:pkg-lock[8] is used to lock packages against reinstallation, modification or deletion. +man:pkg-unlock[8] unlocks the named packages. +Either variant only has an effect on currently installed packages. +Consequently it is impossible to block installation of a new package by using this mechanism, unless such an installation implies updating a locked package. + +For example, to lock `nginx-lite`: + +[source,shell] +.... +# pkg lock nginx-lite +.... + +And to unlock `nginx-lite`: + +[source,shell] +.... +# pkg unlock nginx-lite +.... + [[pkgng-set]] === Modifying Package Metadata Software within the FreeBSD Ports Collection can undergo major version number changes. To address this, pkg has a built-in command to update package origins. This can be useful, for example, if package:lang/php5[] is renamed to package:lang/php53[] so that package:lang/php5[] can now represent version `5.4`. To change the package origin for the above example, run: [source,shell] .... # pkg set -o lang/php5:lang/php53 .... As another example, to update package:lang/ruby18[] to package:lang/ruby19[], run: [source,shell] .... # pkg set -o lang/ruby18:lang/ruby19 .... -As a final example, to change the origin of the [.filename]#libglut# shared libraries from package:graphics/libglut[] to package:graphics/freeglut[], run: +As a final example, to change the origin of the `libglut` shared libraries from package:graphics/libglut[] to package:graphics/freeglut[], run: [source,shell] .... # pkg set -o graphics/libglut:graphics/freeglut .... [NOTE] ==== When changing package origins, it is important to reinstall packages that are dependent on the package with the modified origin. To force a reinstallation of dependent packages, run: [source,shell] .... # pkg install -Rf graphics/freeglut .... - ==== + + [[ports-using]] == Using the Ports Collection -The Ports Collection is a set of [.filename]##Makefile##s, patches, and description files. +The Ports Collection is a set of `Makefiles`, patches, and description files. Each set of these files is used to compile and install an individual application on FreeBSD, and is called a _port_. -By default, the Ports Collection itself is stored as a subdirectory of [.filename]#/usr/ports#. +By default, the Ports Collection itself is stored as a subdirectory of `/usr/ports`. [WARNING] ==== Before installing and using the Ports Collection, please be aware that it is generally ill-advised to use the Ports Collection in conjunction with the binary packages provided via pkg to install software. pkg, by default, tracks quarterly branch-releases of the ports tree and not HEAD. Dependencies could be different for a port in HEAD compared to its counterpart in a quarterly branch release and this could result in conflicts between dependencies installed by pkg and those from the Ports Collection. If the Ports Collection and pkg must be used in conjunction, then be sure that your Ports Collection and pkg are on the same branch release of the ports tree. ==== The Ports Collection contains directories for software categories. Inside each category are subdirectories for individual applications. Each application subdirectory contains a set of files that tells FreeBSD how to compile and install that program, called a _ports skeleton_. Each port skeleton includes these files and directories: -* [.filename]#Makefile#: contains statements that specify how the application should be compiled and where its components should be installed. -* [.filename]#distinfo#: contains the names and checksums of the files that must be downloaded to build the port. -* [.filename]#files/#: this directory contains any patches needed for the program to compile and install on FreeBSD. This directory may also contain other files used to build the port. -* [.filename]#pkg-descr#: provides a more detailed description of the program. -* [.filename]#pkg-plist#: a list of all the files that will be installed by the port. It also tells the ports system which files to remove upon deinstallation. +* *Makefile*: contains statements that specify how the application should be compiled and where its components should be installed. +* *distinfo*: contains the names and checksums of the files that must be downloaded to build the port. +* *files/*: this directory contains any patches needed for the program to compile and install on FreeBSD. This directory may also contain other files used to build the port. +* *pkg-descr*: provides a more detailed description of the program. +* *pkg-plist*: a list of all the files that will be installed by the port. It also tells the ports system which files to remove upon deinstallation. -Some ports include [.filename]#pkg-message# or other files to handle special situations. +Some ports include `pkg-message` or other files to handle special situations. For more details on these files, and on ports in general, refer to the extref:{porters-handbook}[FreeBSD Porter's Handbook]. -The port does not include the actual source code, also known as a [.filename]#distfile#. -The extract portion of building a port will automatically save the downloaded source to [.filename]#/usr/ports/distfiles#. +The port does not include the actual source code, also known as a `distfile`. +The extract portion of building a port will automatically save the downloaded source to `/usr/ports/distfiles`. [[ports-using-installation-methods]] === Installing the Ports Collection Before an application can be compiled using a port, the Ports Collection must first be installed. If it was not installed during the installation of FreeBSD, use one of the following methods to install it: [[ports-using-git-method]] [.procedure] **** *Procedure: Git Method* If more control over the ports tree is needed or if local changes need to be maintained, or if running FreeBSD-CURRENT, Git can be used to obtain the Ports Collection. Refer to extref:{committers-guide}[the Git Primer, git-primer] for a detailed description of Git. . Git must be installed before it can be used to check out the ports tree. If a copy of the ports tree is already present, install Git like this: + [source,shell] .... # cd /usr/ports/devel/git # make install clean .... + If the ports tree is not available, or pkg is being used to manage packages, Git can be installed as a package: + [source,shell] .... # pkg install git .... + . Check out a copy of the HEAD branch of the ports tree: + [source,shell] .... # git clone https://git.FreeBSD.org/ports.git /usr/ports .... + . Or, check out a copy of a quarterly branch: + [source,shell] .... # git clone https://git.FreeBSD.org/ports.git -b 2020Q3 /usr/ports .... + -. As needed, update [.filename]#/usr/ports# after the initial Git checkout: +. As needed, update `/usr/ports` after the initial Git checkout: + [source,shell] .... # git -C /usr/ports pull .... + -. As needed, switch [.filename]#/usr/ports# to a different quarterly branch: +. As needed, switch `/usr/ports` to a different quarterly branch: + [source,shell] .... # git -C /usr/ports switch 2020Q4 .... **** === Installing Ports This section provides basic instructions on using the Ports Collection to install or remove software. The detailed description of available `make` targets and environment variables is available in man:ports[7]. [WARNING] ==== Before compiling any port, be sure to update the Ports Collection as described in the previous section. Since the installation of any third-party software can introduce security vulnerabilities, it is recommended to first check https://vuxml.freebsd.org/[] for known security issues related to the port. -Alternately, run `pkg audit -F` before installing a new port. +Alternatively, run `pkg audit -F` before installing a new port. This command can be configured to automatically perform a security audit and an update of the vulnerability database during the daily security system check. For more information, refer to man:pkg-audit[8] and man:periodic[8]. ==== Using the Ports Collection assumes a working Internet connection. It also requires superuser privilege. To compile and install the port, change to the directory of the port to be installed, then type `make install` at the prompt. Messages will indicate the progress: [source,shell] .... # cd /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof # make install >> lsof_4.88D.freebsd.tar.gz doesn't seem to exist in /usr/ports/distfiles/. >> Attempting to fetch from ftp://lsof.itap.purdue.edu/pub/tools/unix/lsof/. ===> Extracting for lsof-4.88 ... [extraction output snipped] ... >> Checksum OK for lsof_4.88D.freebsd.tar.gz. ===> Patching for lsof-4.88.d,8 ===> Applying FreeBSD patches for lsof-4.88.d,8 ===> Configuring for lsof-4.88.d,8 ... [configure output snipped] ... ===> Building for lsof-4.88.d,8 ... [compilation output snipped] ... ===> Installing for lsof-4.88.d,8 ... [installation output snipped] ... ===> Generating temporary packing list ===> Compressing manual pages for lsof-4.88.d,8 ===> Registering installation for lsof-4.88.d,8 ===> SECURITY NOTE: This port has installed the following binaries which execute with increased privileges. /usr/local/sbin/lsof # .... Since `lsof` is a program that runs with increased privileges, a security warning is displayed as it is installed. Once the installation is complete, the prompt will be returned. Some shells keep a cache of the commands that are available in the directories listed in the `PATH` environment variable, to speed up lookup operations for the executable file of these commands. Users of the `tcsh` shell should type `rehash` so that a newly installed command can be used without specifying its full path. Use `hash -r` instead for the `sh` shell. Refer to the documentation for the shell for more information. During installation, a working subdirectory is created which contains all the temporary files used during compilation. Removing this directory saves disk space and minimizes the chance of problems later when upgrading to the newer version of the port: [source,shell] .... # make clean ===> Cleaning for lsof-88.d,8 # .... [NOTE] ==== To save this extra step, instead use `make install clean` when compiling the port. ==== ==== Customizing Ports Installation Some ports provide build options which can be used to enable or disable application components, provide security options, or allow for other customizations. Examples include package:www/firefox[], package:security/gpgme[], and package:mail/sylpheed-claws[]. If the port depends upon other ports which have configurable options, it may pause several times for user interaction as the default behavior is to prompt the user to select options from a menu. To avoid this and do all of the configuration in one batch, run `make config-recursive` within the port skeleton. Then, run `make install [clean]` to compile and install the port. [TIP] ==== When using `config-recursive`, the list of ports to configure are gathered by the `all-depends-list` target. It is recommended to run `make config-recursive` until all dependent ports options have been defined, and ports options screens no longer appear, to be certain that all dependency options have been configured. ==== There are several ways to revisit a port's build options menu in order to add, remove, or change these options after a port has been built. One method is to `cd` into the directory containing the port and type `make config`. Another option is to use `make showconfig`. Another option is to execute `make rmconfig` which will remove all selected options and allow you to start over. All of these options, and others, are explained in great detail in man:ports[7]. The ports system uses man:fetch[1] to download the source files, which supports various environment variables. The `FTP_PASSIVE_MODE`, `FTP_PROXY`, and `FTP_PASSWORD` variables may need to be set if the FreeBSD system is behind a firewall or FTP/HTTP proxy. See man:fetch[3] for the complete list of supported variables. -For users who cannot be connected to the Internet all the time, `make fetch` can be run within [.filename]#/usr/ports#, -to fetch all distfiles, or within a category, such as [.filename]#/usr/ports/net#, or within the specific port skeleton. +For users who cannot be connected to the Internet all the time, `make fetch` can be run within `/usr/ports`, +to fetch all distfiles, or within a category, such as `/usr/ports/net`, or within the specific port skeleton. Note that if a port has any dependencies, running this command in a category or ports skeleton will _not_ fetch the distfiles of ports from another category. Instead, use `make fetch-recursive` to also fetch the distfiles for all the dependencies of a port. -In rare cases, such as when an organization has a local distfiles repository, the `MASTER_SITES` variable can be used to override the download locations specified in the [.filename]#Makefile#. +In rare cases, such as when an organization has a local distfiles repository, the `MASTER_SITES` variable can be used to override the download locations specified in the `Makefile`. When using, specify the alternate location: [source,shell] .... # cd /usr/ports/directory # make MASTER_SITE_OVERRIDE= \ ftp://ftp.organization.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/distfiles/ fetch .... The `WRKDIRPREFIX` and `PREFIX` variables can override the default working and target directories. For example: [source,shell] .... # make WRKDIRPREFIX=/usr/home/example/ports install .... -will compile the port in [.filename]#/usr/home/example/ports# and install everything under [.filename]#/usr/local#. +will compile the port in `/usr/home/example/ports` and install everything under `/usr/local`. [source,shell] .... # make PREFIX=/usr/home/example/local install .... -will compile the port in [.filename]#/usr/ports# and install it in [.filename]#/usr/home/example/local#. And: +will compile the port in `/usr/ports` and install it in `/usr/home/example/local`. And: [source,shell] .... # make WRKDIRPREFIX=../ports PREFIX=../local install .... will combine the two. These can also be set as environmental variables. Refer to the manual page for your shell for instructions on how to set an environmental variable. [[ports-removing]] === Removing Installed Ports Installed ports can be uninstalled using `pkg delete`. Examples for using this command can be found in the man:pkg-delete[8] manual page. -Alternately, `make deinstall` can be run in the port's directory: +Alternately, `make deinstall` can be run in the port\'s directory: [source,shell] .... # cd /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof # make deinstall ===> Deinstalling for sysutils/lsof ===> Deinstalling Deinstallation has been requested for the following 1 packages: lsof-4.88.d,8 The deinstallation will free 229 kB [1/1] Deleting lsof-4.88.d,8... done .... It is recommended to read the messages as the port is uninstalled. If the port has any applications that depend upon it, this information will be displayed but the uninstallation will proceed. In such cases, it may be better to reinstall the application in order to prevent broken dependencies. [[ports-upgrading]] === Upgrading Ports Over time, newer versions of software become available in the Ports Collection. This section describes how to determine which software can be upgraded and how to perform the upgrade. To determine if newer versions of installed ports are available, ensure that the latest version of the ports tree is installed, -using the updating command described in <>. -On FreeBSD 10 and later, or if the system has been converted to pkg, the following command will list the installed ports which are out of date: +using the updating command described in <>. +The following command will list the installed ports which are out of date: [source,shell] .... # pkg version -l "<" .... -For FreeBSD 9._X_ and lower, the following command will list the installed ports that are out of date: - -[source,shell] -.... -# pkg_version -l "<" -.... - [IMPORTANT] ==== -Before attempting an upgrade, read [.filename]#/usr/ports/UPDATING# from the top of the file to the date closest to the last time ports were upgraded or the system was installed. +Before attempting an upgrade, read `/usr/ports/UPDATING` from the top of the file to the date closest to the last time ports were upgraded or the system was installed. This file describes various issues and additional steps users may encounter and need to perform when updating a port, including such things as file format changes, changes in locations of configuration files, or any incompatibilities with previous versions. Make note of any instructions which match any of the ports that need upgrading and follow these instructions when performing the upgrade. ==== [[ports-upgrading-tools]] ==== Tools to Upgrade and Manage Ports The Ports Collection contains several utilities to perform the actual upgrade. Each has its strengths and weaknesses. Historically, most installations used either Portmaster or Portupgrade. Synth is a newer alternative. [NOTE] ==== The choice of which tool is best for a particular system is up to the system administrator. It is recommended practice to back up your data before using any of these tools. ==== [[portmaster]] ==== Upgrading Ports Using Portmaster package:ports-mgmt/portmaster[] is a very small utility for upgrading installed ports. It is designed to use the tools installed with the FreeBSD base system without depending on other ports or databases. To install this utility as a port: [source,shell] .... # cd /usr/ports/ports-mgmt/portmaster # make install clean .... Portmaster defines four categories of ports: * Root port: has no dependencies and is not a dependency of any other ports. * Trunk port: has no dependencies, but other ports depend upon it. * Branch port: has dependencies and other ports depend upon it. * Leaf port: has dependencies but no other ports depend upon it. To list these categories and search for updates: [source,shell] .... # portmaster -L ===>>> Root ports (No dependencies, not depended on) ===>>> ispell-3.2.06_18 ===>>> screen-4.0.3 ===>>> New version available: screen-4.0.3_1 ===>>> tcpflow-0.21_1 ===>>> 7 root ports ... ===>>> Branch ports (Have dependencies, are depended on) ===>>> apache22-2.2.3 ===>>> New version available: apache22-2.2.8 ... ===>>> Leaf ports (Have dependencies, not depended on) ===>>> automake-1.9.6_2 ===>>> bash-3.1.17 ===>>> New version available: bash-3.2.33 ... ===>>> 32 leaf ports ===>>> 137 total installed ports ===>>> 83 have new versions available .... This command is used to upgrade all outdated ports: [source,shell] .... # portmaster -a .... [NOTE] ==== By default, Portmaster makes a backup package before deleting the existing port. If the installation of the new version is successful, Portmaster deletes the backup. Using `-b` instructs Portmaster not to automatically delete the backup. Adding `-i` starts Portmaster in interactive mode, prompting for confirmation before upgrading each port. Many other options are available. Read through the manual page for man:portmaster[8] for details regarding their usage. ==== If errors are encountered during the upgrade process, add `-f` to upgrade and rebuild all ports: [source,shell] .... # portmaster -af .... Portmaster can also be used to install new ports on the system, upgrading all dependencies before building and installing the new port. To use this function, specify the location of the port in the Ports Collection: [source,shell] .... # portmaster shells/bash .... -More information about package:ports-mgmt/portmaster[] may be found in its [.filename]#pkg-descr#. +More information about package:ports-mgmt/portmaster[] may be found in its `pkg-descr`. [[portupgrade]] ==== Upgrading Ports Using Portupgrade package:ports-mgmt/portupgrade[] is another utility that can be used to upgrade ports. It installs a suite of applications which can be used to manage ports. However, it is dependent upon Ruby. To install the port: [source,shell] .... # cd /usr/ports/ports-mgmt/portupgrade # make install clean .... Before performing an upgrade using this utility, it is recommended to scan the list of installed ports using `pkgdb -F` and to fix all the inconsistencies it reports. To upgrade all the outdated ports installed on the system, use `portupgrade -a`. Alternately, include `-i` to be asked for confirmation of every individual upgrade: [source,shell] .... # portupgrade -ai .... To upgrade only a specified application instead of all available ports, use `portupgrade _pkgname_`. It is very important to include `-R` to first upgrade all the ports required by the given application: [source,shell] .... # portupgrade -R firefox .... If `-P` is included, Portupgrade searches for available packages in the local directories listed in `PKG_PATH`. If none are available locally, it then fetches packages from a remote site. If packages can not be found locally or fetched remotely, Portupgrade will use ports. To avoid using ports entirely, specify `-PP`. This last set of options tells Portupgrade to abort if no packages are available: [source,shell] .... # portupgrade -PP gnome3 .... To just fetch the port distfiles, or packages, if `-P` is specified, without building or installing anything, use `-F`. For further information on all of the available switches, refer to the manual page for `portupgrade`. -More information about package:ports-mgmt/portupgrade[] may be found in its [.filename]#pkg-descr#. +More information about package:ports-mgmt/portupgrade[] may be found in its `pkg-descr`. [[ports-disk-space]] === Ports and Disk Space Using the Ports Collection will use up disk space over time. -After building and installing a port, running `make clean` within the ports skeleton will clean up the temporary [.filename]#work# directory. +After building and installing a port, running `make clean` within the ports skeleton will clean up the temporary `work` directory. If Portmaster is used to install a port, it will automatically remove this directory unless `-K` is specified. -If Portupgrade is installed, this command will remove all [.filename]#work# directories found within the local copy of the Ports Collection: +If Portupgrade is installed, this command will remove all `work` directories found within the local copy of the Ports Collection: [source,shell] .... # portsclean -C .... -In addition, outdated source distribution files accumulate in [.filename]#/usr/ports/distfiles# over time. +In addition, outdated source distribution files accumulate in `/usr/ports/distfiles` over time. To use Portupgrade to delete all the distfiles that are no longer referenced by any ports: [source,shell] .... # portsclean -D .... Portupgrade can remove all distfiles not referenced by any port currently installed on the system: [source,shell] .... # portsclean -DD .... If Portmaster is installed, use: [source,shell] .... # portmaster --clean-distfiles .... By default, this command is interactive and prompts the user to confirm if a distfile should be deleted. In addition to these commands, package:ports-mgmt/pkg_cutleaves[] automates the task of removing installed ports that are no longer needed. [[ports-poudriere]] == Building Packages with Poudriere Poudriere is a `BSD`-licensed utility for creating and testing FreeBSD packages. It uses FreeBSD jails to set up isolated compilation environments. These jails can be used to build packages for versions of FreeBSD that are different from the system on which it is installed, and also to build packages for i386 if the host is an amd64 system. Once the packages are built, they are in a layout identical to the official mirrors. These packages are usable by man:pkg[8] and other package management tools. Poudriere is installed using the package:ports-mgmt/poudriere[] package or port. -The installation includes a sample configuration file [.filename]#/usr/local/etc/poudriere.conf.sample#. -Copy this file to [.filename]#/usr/local/etc/poudriere.conf#. +The installation includes a sample configuration file `/usr/local/etc/poudriere.conf.sample`. +Copy this file to `/usr/local/etc/poudriere.conf`. Edit the copied file to suit the local configuration. While `ZFS` is not required on the system running poudriere, it is beneficial. -When `ZFS` is used, `ZPOOL` must be specified in [.filename]#/usr/local/etc/poudriere.conf# and `FREEBSD_HOST` should be set to a nearby mirror. +When `ZFS` is used, `ZPOOL` must be specified in `/usr/local/etc/poudriere.conf` and `FREEBSD_HOST` should be set to a nearby mirror. Defining `CCACHE_DIR` enables the use of package:devel/ccache[] to cache compilation and reduce build times for frequently-compiled code. -It may be convenient to put poudriere datasets in an isolated tree mounted at [.filename]#/poudriere#. +It may be convenient to put poudriere datasets in an isolated tree mounted at `/poudriere`. Defaults for the other configuration values are adequate. The number of processor cores detected is used to define how many builds will run in parallel. Supply enough virtual memory, either with `RAM` or swap space. If virtual memory runs out, the compilation jails will stop and be torn down, resulting in weird error messages. [[poudriere-initialization]] === Initialize Jails and Port Trees After configuration, initialize poudriere so that it installs a jail with the required FreeBSD tree and a ports tree. Specify a name for the jail using `-j` and the FreeBSD version with `-v`. On systems running FreeBSD/amd64, the architecture can be set with `-a` to either `i386` or `amd64`. The default is the architecture shown by `uname`. [source,shell] .... # poudriere jail -c -j 13amd64 -v 13.1-RELEASE [00:00:00] Creating 13amd64 fs at /poudriere/jails/13amd64... done [00:00:00] Using pre-distributed MANIFEST for FreeBSD 13.1-RELEASE amd64 [00:00:00] Fetching base for FreeBSD 13.1-RELEASE amd64 /poudriere/jails/13amd64/fromftp/base.txz 125 MB 4110 kBps 31s [00:00:33] Extracting base... done [00:00:54] Fetching src for FreeBSD 13.1-RELEASE amd64 /poudriere/jails/13amd64/fromftp/src.txz 154 MB 4178 kBps 38s [00:01:33] Extracting src... done [00:02:31] Fetching lib32 for FreeBSD 13.1-RELEASE amd64 /poudriere/jails/13amd64/fromftp/lib32.txz 24 MB 3969 kBps 06s [00:02:38] Extracting lib32... done [00:02:42] Cleaning up... done [00:02:42] Recording filesystem state for clean... done [00:02:42] Upgrading using ftp /etc/resolv.conf -> /poudriere/jails/13amd64/etc/resolv.conf Looking up update.FreeBSD.org mirrors... 3 mirrors found. Fetching public key from update4.freebsd.org... done. Fetching metadata signature for 13.1-RELEASE from update4.freebsd.org... done. Fetching metadata index... done. Fetching 2 metadata files... done. Inspecting system... done. Preparing to download files... done. Fetching 124 patches.....10....20....30....40....50....60....70....80....90....100....110....120.. done. Applying patches... done. Fetching 6 files... done. The following files will be added as part of updating to 13.1-RELEASE-p1: /usr/src/contrib/unbound/.github /usr/src/contrib/unbound/.github/FUNDING.yml /usr/src/contrib/unbound/contrib/drop2rpz /usr/src/contrib/unbound/contrib/unbound_portable.service.in /usr/src/contrib/unbound/services/rpz.c /usr/src/contrib/unbound/services/rpz.h /usr/src/lib/libc/tests/gen/spawnp_enoexec.sh The following files will be updated as part of updating to 13.1-RELEASE-p1: […] Installing updates...Scanning //usr/share/certs/blacklisted for certificates... Scanning //usr/share/certs/trusted for certificates... done. 13.1-RELEASE-p1 [00:04:06] Recording filesystem state for clean... done [00:04:07] Jail 13amd64 13.1-RELEASE-p1 amd64 is ready to be used .... [source,shell] .... # poudriere ports -c -p local -m git+https [00:00:00] Creating local fs at /poudriere/ports/local... done [00:00:00] Checking out the ports tree... done .... On a single computer, poudriere can build ports with multiple configurations, in multiple jails, and from different port trees. Custom configurations for these combinations are called _sets_. See the CUSTOMIZATION section of man:poudriere[8] for details after package:ports-mgmt/poudriere[] or package:ports-mgmt/poudriere-devel[] is installed. -The basic configuration shown here puts a single jail-, port-, and set-specific [.filename]#make.conf# in [.filename]#/usr/local/etc/poudriere.d#. -The filename in this example is created by combining the jail name, port name, and set name: [.filename]#13amd64-local-workstation-make.conf#. -The system [.filename]#make.conf# and this new file are combined at build time to create the [.filename]#make.conf# used by the build jail. +The basic configuration shown here puts a single jail-, port-, and set-specific `make.conf` in `/usr/local/etc/poudriere.d`. +The filename in this example is created by combining the jail name, port name, and set name: `13amd64-local-workstation-make.conf`. +The system `make.conf` and this new file are combined at build time to create the `make.conf` used by the build jail. -Packages to be built are entered in [.filename]#13amd64-local-workstation-pkglist#: +Packages to be built are entered in `13amd64-local-workstation-pkglist`: [.programlisting] .... editors/emacs devel/git ports-mgmt/pkg ... .... Options and dependencies for the specified ports are configured: [source,shell] .... # poudriere options -j 13amd64 -p local -z workstation -f 13amd64-local-workstation-pkglist .... Finally, packages are built and a package repository is created: [source,shell] .... # poudriere bulk -j 13amd64 -p local -z workstation -f 13amd64-local-workstation-pkglist .... While running, pressing kbd:[Ctrl+t] displays the current state of the build. -Poudriere also builds files in [.filename]#/poudriere/logs/bulk/jailname# that can be used with a web server to display build information. +Poudriere also builds files in `/poudriere/logs/bulk/jailname` that can be used with a web server to display build information. After completion, the new packages are now available for installation from the poudriere repository. For more information on using poudriere, see man:poudriere[8] and the main web site, https://github.com/freebsd/poudriere/wiki[]. === Configuring pkg Clients to Use a Poudriere Repository While it is possible to use both a custom repository along side of the official repository, sometimes it is useful to disable the official repository. This is done by creating a configuration file that overrides and disables the official configuration file. -Create [.filename]#/usr/local/etc/pkg/repos/FreeBSD.conf# that contains the following: +Create `/usr/local/etc/pkg/repos/FreeBSD.conf` that contains the following: [.programlisting] .... FreeBSD: { enabled: no } .... Usually it is easiest to serve a poudriere repository to the client machines via HTTP. -Set up a webserver to serve up the package directory, for instance: [.filename]#/usr/local/poudriere/data/packages/13amd64#, where [.filename]#13amd64# is the name of the build. +Set up a webserver to serve up the package directory, for instance: `/usr/local/poudriere/data/packages/13amd64`, where `13amd64` is the name of the build. If the URL to the package repository is: `http://pkg.example.com/13amd64`, -then the repository configuration file in [.filename]#/usr/local/etc/pkg/repos/custom.conf# would look like: +then the repository configuration file in `/usr/local/etc/pkg/repos/custom.conf` would look like: [.programlisting] .... custom: { url: "http://pkg.example.com/13amd64", enabled: yes, } .... [[ports-nextsteps]] == Post-Installation Considerations Regardless of whether the software was installed from a binary package or port, most third-party applications require some level of configuration after installation. The following commands and locations can be used to help determine what was installed with the application. -* Most applications install at least one default configuration file in [.filename]#/usr/local/etc#. In cases where an application has a large number of configuration files, a subdirectory will be created to hold them. Often, sample configuration files are installed which end with a suffix such as [.filename]#.sample#. The configuration files should be reviewed and possibly edited to meet the system's needs. To edit a sample file, first copy it without the [.filename]#.sample# extension. -* Applications which provide documentation will install it into [.filename]#/usr/local/share/doc# and many applications also install manual pages. This documentation should be consulted before continuing. -* Some applications run services which must be added to [.filename]#/etc/rc.conf# before starting the application. These applications usually install a startup script in [.filename]#/usr/local/etc/rc.d#. See crossref:config[configtuning-starting-services,Starting Services] for more information. +* Most applications install at least one default configuration file in `/usr/local/etc`. In cases where an application has a large number of configuration files, a subdirectory will be created to hold them. Often, sample configuration files are installed which end with a suffix such as `.sample`. The configuration files should be reviewed and possibly edited to meet the system's needs. To edit a sample file, first copy it without the `.sample` extension. +* Applications which provide documentation will install it into `/usr/local/share/doc` and many applications also install manual pages. This documentation should be consulted before continuing. +* Some applications run services which must be added to `/etc/rc.conf` before starting the application. These applications usually install a startup script in `/usr/local/etc/rc.d`. See crossref:config[configtuning-starting-services,Starting Services] for more information. + [NOTE] ==== By design, applications do not run their startup script upon installation, nor do they run their stop script upon deinstallation or upgrade. This decision is left to the individual system administrator. ==== * Users of man:csh[1] should run `rehash` to rebuild the known binary list in the shells `PATH`. * Use `pkg info` to determine which files, man pages, and binaries were installed with the application. [[ports-broken]] == Dealing with Broken Ports When a port does not build or install, try the following: . Search to see if there is a fix pending for the port in the link:https://www.FreeBSD.org/support/[Problem Report database]. If so, implementing the proposed fix may fix the issue. -. Ask the maintainer of the port for help. Type `make maintainer` in the ports skeleton or read the port's [.filename]#Makefile# to find the maintainer's email address. Remember to include the output leading up to the error in the email to the maintainer. +. Ask the maintainer of the port for help. Type `make maintainer` in the ports skeleton or read the port's `Makefile` to find the maintainer's email address. Remember to include the output leading up to the error in the email to the maintainer. + [NOTE] ==== Some ports are not maintained by an individual but instead by a group maintainer represented by a extref:{mailing-list-faq}[mailing list]. Many, but not all, of these addresses look like mailto:freebsd-listname@FreeBSD.org[freebsd-listname@FreeBSD.org]. Please take this into account when sending an email. In particular, ports maintained by mailto:ports@FreeBSD.org[ports@FreeBSD.org] are not maintained by a specific individual. Instead, any fixes and support come from the general community who subscribe to that mailing list. More volunteers are always needed! ==== + If there is no response to the email, use Bugzilla to submit a bug report using the instructions in extref:{problem-reports}[Writing FreeBSD Problem Reports]. . Fix it! The extref:{porters-handbook}[Porter's Handbook] includes detailed information on the ports infrastructure so that you can fix the occasional broken port or even submit your own! . Install the package instead of the port using the instructions in <>.