diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/contributing/article.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/contributing/article.sgml index 2358f3e8d4..a081effc72 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/contributing/article.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/contributing/article.sgml @@ -1,6344 +1,6347 @@ Contributing to FreeBSD Contributed by &a.jkh;. contributing So you want to contribute something to FreeBSD? That is great! We can always use the help, and FreeBSD is one of those systems that relies on the contributions of its user base in order to survive. Your contributions are not only appreciated, they are vital to FreeBSD's continued growth! Contrary to what some people might also have you believe, you do not need to be a hot-shot programmer or a close personal friend of the FreeBSD core team in order to have your contributions accepted. The FreeBSD Project's development is done by a large and growing number of international contributors whose ages and areas of technical expertise vary greatly, and there is always more work to be done than there are people available to do it. Since the FreeBSD project is responsible for an entire operating system environment (and its installation) rather than just a kernel or a few scattered utilities, our TODO list also spans a very wide range of tasks, from documentation, beta testing and presentation to highly specialized types of kernel development. No matter what your skill level, there is almost certainly something you can do to help the project! Commercial entities engaged in FreeBSD-related enterprises are also encouraged to contact us. Need a special extension to make your product work? You will find us receptive to your requests, given that they are not too outlandish. Working on a value-added product? Please let us know! We may be able to work cooperatively on some aspect of it. The free software world is challenging a lot of existing assumptions about how software is developed, sold, and maintained throughout its life cycle, and we urge you to at least give it a second look. What is Needed The following list of tasks and sub-projects represents something of an amalgam of the various core team TODO lists and user requests we have collected over the last couple of months. Where possible, tasks have been ranked by degree of urgency. If you are interested in working on one of the tasks you see here, send mail to the coordinator listed by clicking on their names. If no coordinator has been appointed, maybe you would like to volunteer? High priority tasks - todo list + + FreeBSD Project + todo list + The following tasks are considered to be urgent, usually because they represent something that is badly broken or sorely needed: 3-stage boot issues. Overall coordination: &a.hackers; Do WinNT compatible drive tagging so that the 3rd stage can provide an accurate mapping of BIOS geometries for disks. Filesystem problems. Overall coordination: &a.fs; Clean up and document the nullfs filesystem code. Coordinator: &a.eivind; Fix the union file system. Coordinator: &a.dg; Implement Int13 vm86 disk driver. Coordinator: &a.hackers; New bus architecture. Coordinator: &a.newbus; Port existing ISA drivers to new architecture. Move all interrupt-management code to appropriate parts of the bus drivers. Port PCI subsystem to new architecture. Coordinator: &a.dfr; Figure out the right way to handle removable devices and then use that as a substrate on which PC-Card and CardBus support can be implemented. Resolve the probe/attach priority issue once and for all. Move any remaining buses over to the new architecture. Kernel issues. Overall coordination: &a.hackers; Add more pro-active security infrastructure. Overall coordination: &a.security; Build something like Tripwire(TM) into the kernel, with a remote and local part. There are a number of cryptographic issues to getting this right; contact the coordinator for details. Coordinator: &a.eivind; Make the entire kernel use suser() instead of comparing to 0. It is presently using about half of each. Coordinator: &a.eivind; Split securelevels into different parts, to allow an administrator to throw away those privileges he can throw away. Setting the overall securelevel needs to have the same effect as now, obviously. Coordinator: &a.eivind; Make it possible to upload a list of allowed programs to BPF, and then block BPF from accepting other programs. This would allow BPF to be used e.g. for DHCP, without allowing an attacker to start snooping the local network. Update the security checker script. We should at least grab all the checks from the other BSD derivatives, and add checks that a system with securelevel increased also have reasonable flags on the relevant parts. Coordinator: &a.eivind; Add authorization infrastructure to the kernel, to allow different authorization policies. Part of this could be done by modifying suser(). Coordinator: &a.eivind; Add code to the NFS layer so that you cannot chdir("..") out of an NFS partition. E.g., /usr is a UFS partition with /usr/src NFS exported. Now it is possible to use the NFS filehandle for /usr/src to get access to /usr. Medium priority tasks The following tasks need to be done, but not with any particular urgency: Full KLD based driver support/Configuration Manager. Write a configuration manager (in the 3rd stage boot?) that probes your hardware in a sane manner, keeps only the KLDs required for your hardware, etc. PCMCIA/PCCARD. Coordinators: &a.msmith; and &a.imp; Documentation! Reliable operation of the pcic driver (needs testing). Recognizer and handler for sio.c (mostly done). Recognizer and handler for ed.c (mostly done). Recognizer and handler for ep.c (mostly done). User-mode recognizer and handler (partially done). Advanced Power Management. Coordinators: &a.msmith; and &a.phk; APM sub-driver (mostly done). IDE/ATA disk sub-driver (partially done). syscons/pcvt sub-driver. Integration with the PCMCIA/PCCARD drivers (suspend/resume). Low priority tasks The following tasks are purely cosmetic or represent such an investment of work that it is not likely that anyone will get them done anytime soon: The first N items are from Terry Lambert terry@lambert.org NetWare Server (protected mode ODI driver) loader and sub-services to allow the use of ODI card drivers supplied with network cards. The same thing for NDIS drivers and NetWare SCSI drivers. An "upgrade system" option that works on Linux boxes instead of just previous rev FreeBSD boxes. Symmetric Multiprocessing with kernel preemption (requires kernel preemption). A concerted effort at support for portable computers. This is somewhat handled by changing PCMCIA bridging rules and power management event handling. But there are things like detecting internal v.s.. external display and picking a different screen resolution based on that fact, not spinning down the disk if the machine is in dock, and allowing dock-based cards to disappear without affecting the machines ability to boot (same issue for PCMCIA). Smaller tasks Most of the tasks listed in the previous sections require either a considerable investment of time or an in-depth knowledge of the FreeBSD kernel (or both). However, there are also many useful tasks which are suitable for "weekend hackers", or people without programming skills. If you run FreeBSD-current and have a good Internet connection, there is a machine current.FreeBSD.org which builds a full release once a day — every now and again, try and install the latest release from it and report any failures in the process. Read the freebsd-bugs mailing list. There might be a problem you can comment constructively on or with patches you can test. Or you could even try to fix one of the problems yourself. Read through the FAQ and Handbook periodically. If anything is badly explained, out of date or even just completely wrong, let us know. Even better, send us a fix (SGML is not difficult to learn, but there is no objection to ASCII submissions). Help translate FreeBSD documentation into your native language (if not already available) — just send an email to &a.doc; asking if anyone is working on it. Note that you are not committing yourself to translating every single FreeBSD document by doing this — in fact, the documentation most in need of translation is the installation instructions. Read the freebsd-questions mailing list and &ng.misc occasionally (or even regularly). It can be very satisfying to share your expertise and help people solve their problems; sometimes you may even learn something new yourself! These forums can also be a source of ideas for things to work on. If you know of any bug fixes which have been successfully applied to -current but have not been merged into -stable after a decent interval (normally a couple of weeks), send the committer a polite reminder. Move contributed software to src/contrib in the source tree. Make sure code in src/contrib is up to date. Build the source tree (or just part of it) with extra warnings enabled and clean up the warnings. Fix warnings for ports which do deprecated things like using gets() or including malloc.h. If you have contributed any ports, send your patches back to the original author (this will make your life easier when they bring out the next version) Suggest further tasks for this list! Work through the PR database problem reports database The FreeBSD PR list shows all the current active problem reports and requests for enhancement that have been submitted by FreeBSD users. Look through the open PRs, and see if anything there takes your interest. Some of these might be very simple tasks, that just need an extra pair of eyes to look over them and confirm that the fix in the PR is a good one. Others might be much more complex. Start with the PRs that have not been assigned to anyone else, but if one them is assigned to someone else, but it looks like something you can handle, e-mail the person it is assigned to and ask if you can work on it—they might already have a patch ready to be tested, or further ideas that you can discuss with them. How to Contribute Contributions to the system generally fall into one or more of the following 6 categories: Bug reports and general commentary An idea or suggestion of general technical interest should be mailed to the &a.hackers;. Likewise, people with an interest in such things (and a tolerance for a high volume of mail!) may subscribe to the hackers mailing list by sending mail to &a.majordomo;. See mailing lists for more information about this and other mailing lists. If you find a bug or are submitting a specific change, please report it using the &man.send-pr.1; program or its WEB-based equivalent. Try to fill-in each field of the bug report. Unless they exceed 65KB, include any patches directly in the report. When including patches, do not use cut-and-paste because cut-and-paste turns tabs into spaces and makes them unusable. Consider compressing patches and using &man.uuencode.1; if they exceed 20KB. Upload very large submissions to ftp.FreeBSD.org:/pub/FreeBSD/incoming/. After filing a report, you should receive confirmation along with a tracking number. Keep this tracking number so that you can update us with details about the problem by sending mail to bug-followup@FreeBSD.org. Use the number as the message subject, e.g. "Re: kern/3377". Additional information for any bug report should be submitted this way. If you do not receive confirmation in a timely fashion (3 days to a week, depending on your email connection) or are, for some reason, unable to use the &man.send-pr.1; command, then you may ask someone to file it for you by sending mail to the &a.bugs;. Changes to the documentation documentation submissions Changes to the documentation are overseen by the &a.doc;. Send submissions and changes (even small ones are welcome!) using send-pr as described in Bug Reports and General Commentary. Changes to existing source code FreeBSD-current An addition or change to the existing source code is a somewhat trickier affair and depends a lot on how far out of date you are with the current state of the core FreeBSD development. There is a special on-going release of FreeBSD known as FreeBSD-current which is made available in a variety of ways for the convenience of developers working actively on the system. See Staying current with FreeBSD for more information about getting and using FreeBSD-current. Working from older sources unfortunately means that your changes may sometimes be too obsolete or too divergent for easy re-integration into FreeBSD. Chances of this can be minimized somewhat by subscribing to the &a.announce; and the &a.current; lists, where discussions on the current state of the system take place. Assuming that you can manage to secure fairly up-to-date sources to base your changes on, the next step is to produce a set of diffs to send to the FreeBSD maintainers. This is done with the &man.diff.1; command, with the context diff form being preferred. For example: diff &prompt.user; diff -c oldfile newfile or &prompt.user; diff -c -r olddir newdir would generate such a set of context diffs for the given source file or directory hierarchy. See the man page for &man.diff.1; for more details. Once you have a set of diffs (which you may test with the &man.patch.1; command), you should submit them for inclusion with FreeBSD. Use the &man.send-pr.1; program as described in Bug Reports and General Commentary. Do not just send the diffs to the &a.hackers; or they will get lost! We greatly appreciate your submission (this is a volunteer project!); because we are busy, we may not be able to address it immediately, but it will remain in the pr database until we do. uuencode If you feel it appropriate (e.g. you have added, deleted, or renamed files), bundle your changes into a tar file and run the &man.uuencode.1; program on it. Shar archives are also welcome. If your change is of a potentially sensitive nature, e.g. you are unsure of copyright issues governing its further distribution or you are simply not ready to release it without a tighter review first, then you should send it to &a.core; directly rather than submitting it with &man.send-pr.1;. The core mailing list reaches a much smaller group of people who do much of the day-to-day work on FreeBSD. Note that this group is also very busy and so you should only send mail to them where it is truly necessary. Please refer to &man.intro.9; and &man.style.9; style for some information on coding style. We would appreciate it if you were at least aware of this information before submitting code. New code or major value-added packages In the case of a significant contribution of a large body work, or the addition of an important new feature to FreeBSD, it becomes almost always necessary to either send changes as uuencoded tar files or upload them to a web or FTP site for other people to access. If you do not have access to a web or FTP site, ask on an appropriate FreeBSD mailing list for someone to host the changes for you. When working with large amounts of code, the touchy subject of copyrights also invariably comes up. Acceptable copyrights for code included in FreeBSD are: BSD copyright The BSD copyright. This copyright is most preferred due to its no strings attached nature and general attractiveness to commercial enterprises. Far from discouraging such commercial use, the FreeBSD Project actively encourages such participation by commercial interests who might eventually be inclined to invest something of their own into FreeBSD. - GPL - GNU Public License + GPLGNU General Public License + GNU General Public License The GNU Public License, or GPL. This license is not quite as popular with us due to the amount of extra effort demanded of anyone using the code for commercial purposes, but given the sheer quantity of GPL'd code we currently require (compiler, assembler, text formatter, etc) it would be silly to refuse additional contributions under this license. Code under the GPL also goes into a different part of the tree, that being /sys/gnu or /usr/src/gnu, and is therefore easily identifiable to anyone for whom the GPL presents a problem. Contributions coming under any other type of copyright must be carefully reviewed before their inclusion into FreeBSD will be considered. Contributions for which particularly restrictive commercial copyrights apply are generally rejected, though the authors are always encouraged to make such changes available through their own channels. To place a BSD-style copyright on your work, include the following text at the very beginning of every source code file you wish to protect, replacing the text between the %% with the appropriate information. Copyright (c) %%proper_years_here%% %%your_name_here%%, %%your_state%% %%your_zip%%. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer as the first lines of this file unmodified. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY %%your_name_here%% ``AS IS'' AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL %%your_name_here%% BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. $Id$ For your convenience, a copy of this text can be found in /usr/share/examples/etc/bsd-style-copyright. Money, Hardware or Internet access We are always very happy to accept donations to further the cause of the FreeBSD Project and, in a volunteer effort like ours, a little can go a long way! Donations of hardware are also very important to expanding our list of supported peripherals since we generally lack the funds to buy such items ourselves. <anchor id="donations">Donating funds Empty, pending information from the FreeBSD Foundation. Donating hardware donations Donations of hardware in any of the 3 following categories are also gladly accepted by the FreeBSD Project: General purpose hardware such as disk drives, memory or complete systems should be sent to the FreeBSD, Inc. address listed in the donating funds section. Hardware for which ongoing compliance testing is desired. We are currently trying to put together a testing lab of all components that FreeBSD supports so that proper regression testing can be done with each new release. We are still lacking many important pieces (network cards, motherboards, etc) and if you would like to make such a donation, please contact &a.dg; for information on which items are still required. Hardware currently unsupported by FreeBSD for which you would like to see such support added. Please contact the &a.core; before sending such items as we will need to find a developer willing to take on the task before we can accept delivery of new hardware. Donating Internet access We can always use new mirror sites for FTP, WWW or cvsup. If you would like to be such a mirror, please contact the FreeBSD project administrators hubs@FreeBSD.org for more information. Donors Gallery The FreeBSD Project is indebted to the following donors and would like to publicly thank them here! Contributors to the central server project: The following individuals and businesses made it possible for the FreeBSD Project to build a new central server machine to eventually replace freefall.FreeBSD.org by donating the following items: &a.mbarkah and his employer, Hemisphere Online, donated a Pentium Pro (P6) 200MHz CPU ASA Computers donated a Tyan 1662 motherboard. Joe McGuckin joe@via.net of ViaNet Communications donated a Kingston ethernet controller. Jack O'Neill jack@diamond.xtalwind.net donated an NCR 53C875 SCSI controller card. Ulf Zimmermann ulf@Alameda.net of Alameda Networks donated 128MB of memory, a 4 Gb disk drive and the case. Direct funding: The following individuals and businesses have generously contributed direct funding to the project: Annelise Anderson ANDRSN@HOOVER.STANFORD.EDU &a.dillon Blue Mountain Arts Epilogue Technology Corporation &a.sef Global Technology Associates, Inc Don Scott Wilde Gianmarco Giovannelli gmarco@masternet.it Josef C. Grosch joeg@truenorth.org Robert T. Morris &a.chuckr Kenneth P. Stox ken@stox.sa.enteract.com of Imaginary Landscape, LLC. Dmitry S. Kohmanyuk dk@dog.farm.org Laser5 of Japan (a portion of the profits from sales of their various FreeBSD CDROMs). Fuki Shuppan Publishing Co. donated a portion of their profits from Hajimete no FreeBSD (FreeBSD, Getting started) to the FreeBSD and XFree86 projects. ASCII Corp. donated a portion of their profits from several FreeBSD-related books to the FreeBSD project. Yokogawa Electric Corp has generously donated significant funding to the FreeBSD project. BuffNET Pacific Solutions Siemens AG via Andre Albsmeier andre.albsmeier@mchp.siemens.de Chris Silva ras@interaccess.com Hardware contributors: The following individuals and businesses have generously contributed hardware for testing and device driver development/support: BSDi for providing the Pentium P5-90 and 486/DX2-66 EISA/VL systems that are being used for our development work, to say nothing of the network access and other donations of hardware resources. TRW Financial Systems, Inc. provided 130 PCs, three 68 GB file servers, twelve Ethernets, two routers and an ATM switch for debugging the diskless code. Dermot McDonnell donated the Toshiba XM3401B CDROM drive currently used in freefall. &a.chuck; contributed his floppy tape streamer for experimental work. Larry Altneu larry@ALR.COM, and &a.wilko;, provided Wangtek and Archive QIC-02 tape drives in order to improve the wt driver. Ernst Winter ewinter@lobo.muc.de contributed a 2.88 MB floppy drive to the project. This will hopefully increase the pressure for rewriting the floppy disk driver. Tekram Technologies sent one each of their DC-390, DC-390U and DC-390F FAST and ULTRA SCSI host adapter cards for regression testing of the NCR and AMD drivers with their cards. They are also to be applauded for making driver sources for free operating systems available from their FTP server ftp://ftp.tekram.com/scsi/FreeBSD/. Larry M. Augustin contributed not only a Symbios Sym8751S SCSI card, but also a set of data books, including one about the forthcoming Sym53c895 chip with Ultra-2 and LVD support, and the latest programming manual with information on how to safely use the advanced features of the latest Symbios SCSI chips. Thanks a lot! Christoph Kukulies kuku@FreeBSD.org donated an FX120 12 speed Mitsumi CDROM drive for IDE CDROM driver development. Special contributors: BSDi (formerly Walnut Creek CDROM) has donated almost more than we can say (see the history document for more details). In particular, we would like to thank them for the original hardware used for freefall.FreeBSD.org, our primary development machine, and for thud.FreeBSD.org, a testing and build box. We are also indebted to them for funding various contributors over the years and providing us with unrestricted use of their T1 connection to the Internet. The interface business GmbH, Dresden has been patiently supporting &a.joerg; who has often preferred FreeBSD work over paid work, and used to fall back to their (quite expensive) EUnet Internet connection whenever his private connection became too slow or flaky to work with it... Berkeley Software Design, Inc. has contributed their DOS emulator code to the remaining BSD world, which is used in the doscmd command. Core Team Alumni core team The following people were members of the FreeBSD core team during the periods indicated. We thank them for their past efforts in the service of the FreeBSD project. In rough chronological order: &a.ache (1993 - 2000) &a.jmb (1993 - 2000) &a.bde (1992 - 2000) &a.gibbs (1993 - 2000) &a.rich (1994 - 2000) &a.phk (1992 - 2000) &a.gpalmer (1993 - 2000) &a.sos (1993 - 2000) &a.wollman (1993 - 2000) &a.joerg (1995 - 2000) &a.jdp (1997 - 2000) &a.guido (1995 - 1999) &a.dyson (1993 - 1998) &a.nate (1992 - 1996) &a.rgrimes (1992 - 1995) Andreas Schulz (1992 - 1995) &a.csgr (1993 - 1995) &a.paul (1992 - 1995) &a.smace (1993 - 1994) Andrew Moore (1993 - 1994) Christoph Robitschko (1993 - 1994) J. T. Conklin (1992 - 1993) Development Team Alumni development team The following people were members of the FreeBSD development team during the periods indicated. We thank them for their past efforts in the service of the FreeBSD project. In rough chronological order: &a.tedm (???? - 2000) &a.karl (???? - 2000) &a.gclarkii (1993 - 2000) &a.jraynard (???? - 2000) &a.jgreco (???? - 1999) &a.ats (???? - 1999) Jamil Weatherby (1997 - 1999) meganm (???? - 1998) &a.dyson (???? - 1998) Amancio Hasty (1997 - 1998) Drew Derbyshire (1997 - 1998) Derived Software Contributors This software was originally derived from William F. Jolitz's 386BSD release 0.1, though almost none of the original 386BSD specific code remains. This software has been essentially re-implemented from the 4.4BSD-Lite release provided by the Computer Science Research Group (CSRG) at the University of California, Berkeley and associated academic contributors. There are also portions of NetBSD and OpenBSD that have been integrated into FreeBSD as well, and we would therefore like to thank all the contributors to NetBSD and OpenBSD for their work. Additional FreeBSD Contributors (in alphabetical order by first name): ABURAYA Ryushirou rewsirow@ff.iij4u.or.jp AMAGAI Yoshiji amagai@nue.org Aaron Bornstein aaronb@j51.com Aaron Smith aaron@mutex.org Achim Patzner ap@noses.com Ada T Lim ada@bsd.org Adam Baran badam@mw.mil.pl Adam Glass glass@postgres.berkeley.edu Adam Herzog adam@herzogdesigns.com Adam Kranzel adam@alameda.edu Adam McDougall mcdouga9@egr.msu.edu Adam Strohl troll@digitalspark.net Adoal Xu adoal@iname.com Adrian Colley aecolley@ois.ie Adrian Hall ahall@mirapoint.com Adrian Mariano adrian@cam.cornell.edu Adrian Steinmann ast@marabu.ch Adrian T. Filipi-Martin atf3r@agate.cs.virginia.edu Ajit Thyagarajan unknown Akio Morita amorita@meadow.scphys.kyoto-u.ac.jp Akira SAWADA unknown Akira Watanabe akira@myaw.ei.meisei-u.ac.jp Akito Fujita fujita@zoo.ncl.omron.co.jp Alain Kalker A.C.P.M.Kalker@student.utwente.nl Alan Bawden alan@curry.epilogue.com Alec Wolman wolman@cs.washington.edu Aled Morris aledm@routers.co.uk Aleksandr A Babaylov .@babolo.ru Alex G. Bulushev bag@demos.su Alex D. Chen dhchen@Canvas.dorm7.nccu.edu.tw Alex Le Heux alexlh@funk.org Alex Kapranoff kappa@zombie.antar.bryansk.ru Alex Perel veers@disturbed.net Alex Semenyaka alex@rinet.ru Alex Varju varju@webct.com Alex Zepeda garbanzo@hooked.net Alexander B. Povolotsky tarkhil@mgt.msk.ru Alexander Gelfenbain mail@gelf.com Alexander Leidinger netchild@wurzelausix.CS.Uni-SB.DE Alexandre Peixoto alexandref@tcoip.com.br Alexandre Snarskii snar@paranoia.ru Alistair G. Crooks agc@uts.amdahl.com Allan Bowhill bowhill@bowhill.vservers.com Allan Saddi asaddi@philosophysw.com Allen Campbell allenc@verinet.com Amakawa Shuhei amakawa@hoh.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Amancio Hasty hasty@star-gate.com Amir Farah amir@comtrol.com Amir Shalem amir@boom.org.il Amy Baron amee@beer.org The Anarcat beaupran@iro.umontreal.ca Anatoly A. Orehovsky tolik@mpeks.tomsk.su Anatoly Vorobey mellon@pobox.com Anders Andersson anders@codefactory.se Anders Nordby anders@fix.no Anders Thulin Anders.X.Thulin@telia.se Andras Olah olah@cs.utwente.nl Andre Albsmeier Andre.Albsmeier@mchp.siemens.de Andre Goeree abgoeree@uwnet.nl Andre Oppermann andre@pipeline.ch Andreas Haakh ah@alman.robin.de Andreas Kohout shanee@rabbit.augusta.de Andreas Lohr andreas@marvin.RoBIN.de Andreas Schulz unknown Andreas Wetzel mickey@deadline.snafu.de Andreas Wrede andreas@planix.com Andres Vega Garcia unknown Andrew Atrens atreand@statcan.ca Andrew Boothman andrew@cream.org Andrew Gillham gillham@andrews.edu Andrew Gordon andrew.gordon@net-tel.co.uk Andrew Herbert andrew@werple.apana.org.au Andrew J. Korty ajk@purdue.edu Andrew L. Moore alm@mclink.com Andrew L. Neporada andrew@chg.ru Andrew McRae amcrae@cisco.com Andrew Stevenson andrew@ugh.net.au Andrew Timonin tim@pool1.convey.ru Andrew V. Stesin stesin@elvisti.kiev.ua Andrew Webster awebster@dataradio.com Andrey Novikov andrey@novikov.com Andrey Simonenko simon@comsys.ntu-kpi.kiev.ua Andrey Tchoritch andy@venus.sympad.net Andy Farkas andyf@speednet.com.au Andy Valencia ajv@csd.mot.com Andy Whitcroft andy@sarc.city.ac.uk Angelo Turetta ATuretta@stylo.it Anthony C. Chavez magus@xmission.com Anthony Yee-Hang Chan yeehang@netcom.com Anton N. Bruesov antonz@library.ntu-kpi.kiev.ua Anton Voronin anton@urc.ac.ru Antti Kaipila anttik@iki.fi arci vega@sophia.inria.fr Are Bryne are.bryne@communique.no Ari Suutari ari@suutari.iki.fi Arindum Mukerji rmukerji@execpc.com Arjan de Vet devet@IAEhv.nl Arne Henrik Juul arnej@Lise.Unit.NO Arun Sharma adsharma@sharmas.dhs.org Arnaud S. Launay asl@launay.org Ask Bjoern Hansen ask@valueclick.com Atsushi Furuta furuta@sra.co.jp Atsushi Murai amurai@spec.co.jp Atushi Sakauchi sakauchi@yamame.to Bakul Shah bvs@bitblocks.com Barry Bierbauch pivrnec@vszbr.cz Barry Lustig barry@ictv.com Ben Hutchinson benhutch@xfiles.org.uk Ben Jackson unknown Ben Walter bwalter@itachi.swcp.com Benjamin Lewis bhlewis@gte.net Berend de Boer berend@pobox.com Bernd Rosauer br@schiele-ct.de Bill Kish kish@osf.org Bill Trost trost@cloud.rain.com Blaz Zupan blaz@amis.net Bob Van Valzah Bob@whitebarn.com Bob Wilcox bob@obiwan.uucp Bob Willcox bob@luke.pmr.com Boris Staeblow balu@dva.in-berlin.de Boyd Faulkner faulkner@mpd.tandem.com Boyd R. Faulkner faulkner@asgard.bga.com Brad Chapman chapmanb@arches.uga.edu Brad Hendrickse bradh@uunet.co.za Brad Karp karp@eecs.harvard.edu Bradley Dunn bradley@dunn.org Brad Jones brad@kazrak.com Brandon Fosdick bfoz@glue.umd.edu Brandon Gillespie brandon@roguetrader.com &a.wlloyd Brent J. Nordquist bjn@visi.com Brett Lymn blymn@mulga.awadi.com.AU Brett Taylor brett@peloton.runet.edu Brian Campbell brianc@pobox.com Brian Clapper bmc@willscreek.com Brian Cully shmit@kublai.com Brian Handy handy@lambic.space.lockheed.com Brian Litzinger brian@MediaCity.com Brian McGovern bmcgover@cisco.com Brian Moore ziff@houdini.eecs.umich.edu Brian R. Haug haug@conterra.com Brian Tao taob@risc.org Brion Moss brion@queeg.com Bruce Albrecht bruce@zuhause.mn.org Bruce Gingery bgingery@gtcs.com Bruce J. Keeler loodvrij@gridpoint.com Bruce Murphy packrat@iinet.net.au Bruce Walter walter@fortean.com Carey Jones mcj@acquiesce.org Carl Fongheiser cmf@netins.net Carl Mascott cmascott@world.std.com Casper casper@acc.am Castor Fu castor@geocast.com Chad David davidc@acns.ab.ca Chain Lee chain@110.net Charles Hannum mycroft@ai.mit.edu Charles Henrich henrich@msu.edu Charles Mott cmott@scientech.com Charles Owens owensc@enc.edu Chet Ramey chet@odin.INS.CWRU.Edu Chia-liang Kao clkao@CirX.ORG Chiharu Shibata chi@bd.mbn.or.jp Chip Norkus unknown Chris Csanady cc@tarsier.ca.sandia.gov Chris Dabrowski chris@vader.org Chris Dillon cdillon@wolves.k12.mo.us Chris Shenton cshenton@angst.it.hq.nasa.gov &a.cshumway; Chris Stenton jacs@gnome.co.uk Chris Timmons skynyrd@opus.cts.cwu.edu Chris Torek torek@ee.lbl.gov Christian Gusenbauer cg@fimp01.fim.uni-linz.ac.at Christian Haury Christian.Haury@sagem.fr Christian Weisgerber naddy@mips.inka.de Christoph P. Kukulies kuku@FreeBSD.org Christoph Robitschko chmr@edvz.tu-graz.ac.at Christoph Weber-Fahr wefa@callcenter.systemhaus.net Christopher G. Demetriou cgd@postgres.berkeley.edu Christopher N. Harrell cnh@ivmg.net Christopher Preston rbg@gayteenresource.org Christopher T. Johnson cjohnson@neunacht.netgsi.com Chrisy Luke chrisy@flix.net Chuck Hein chein@cisco.com Cliff Rowley dozprompt@onsea.com Colman Reilly careilly@tcd.ie Conrad Sabatier conrads@home.com Coranth Gryphon gryphon@healer.com Cornelis van der Laan nils@guru.ims.uni-stuttgart.de Cove Schneider cove@brazil.nbn.com Craig Leres leres@ee.lbl.gov Craig Loomis unknown Craig Metz cmetz@inner.net Craig Spannring cts@internetcds.com Craig Struble cstruble@vt.edu Cristian Ferretti cfs@riemann.mat.puc.cl Curt Mayer curt@toad.com Cy Schubert cschuber@uumail.gov.bc.ca Cyrille Lefevre clefevre@citeweb.net Cyrus Rahman cr@jcmax.com Dai Ishijima ishijima@tri.pref.osaka.jp Daisuke Watanabe NU7D-WTNB@asahi-net.or.jp Damian Hamill damian@cablenet.net Dan Cross tenser@spitfire.ecsel.psu.edu Dan Langille dan@freebsddiary.org Dan Lukes dan@obluda.cz Dan Nelson dnelson@emsphone.com Dan Papasian bugg@bugg.strangled.net Dan Piponi wmtop@tanelorn.demon.co.uk Dan Walters hannibal@cyberstation.net Daniel Hagan dhagan@cs.vt.edu Daniel O'Connor doconnor@gsoft.com.au Daniel Poirot poirot@aio.jsc.nasa.gov Daniel Rock rock@cs.uni-sb.de Daniel W. McRobb dwm@caimis.com Danny Egen unknown Danny J. Zerkel dzerkel@phofarm.com Dave Adkins adkin003@tc.umn.edu Dave Andersen angio@aros.net Dave Blizzard dblizzar@sprynet.com Dave Bodenstab imdave@synet.net Dave Burgess burgess@hrd769.brooks.af.mil Dave Chapeskie dchapes@ddm.on.ca Dave Cornejo dave@dogwood.com Dave Edmondson davided@sco.com Dave Glowacki dglo@ssec.wisc.edu Dave Marquardt marquard@austin.ibm.com Dave Tweten tweten@FreeBSD.org David A. Adkins adkin003@tc.umn.edu David A. Bader dbader@eece.unm.edu David Borman dab@bsdi.com David Dawes dawes@XFree86.org David Filo unknown David Holland dholland@eecs.harvard.edu David Holloway daveh@gwythaint.tamis.com David Horwitt dhorwitt@ucsd.edu David Hovemeyer daveho@infocom.com David Jones dej@qpoint.torfree.net David Kelly dkelly@tomcat1.tbe.com David Kulp dkulp@neomorphic.com David L. Nugent davidn@blaze.net.au David Leonard d@scry.dstc.edu.au David Muir Sharnoff muir@idiom.com David S. Miller davem@jenolan.rutgers.edu David Sugar dyfet@gnu.org David Wolfskill dhw@whistle.com Dean Gaudet dgaudet@arctic.org Dean Huxley dean@fsa.ca Denis Fortin unknown Denis Shaposhnikov dsh@vlink.ru Dennis Glatting dennis.glatting@software-munitions.com Denton Gentry denny1@home.com der Mouse mouse@Collatz.McRCIM.McGill.EDU Derek Inksetter derek@saidev.com DI. Christian Gusenbauer cg@scotty.edvz.uni-linz.ac.at Dirk Keunecke dk@panda.rhein-main.de Dirk Nehrling nerle@pdv.de Dishanker Rajakulendren draj@oceanfree.net Dmitry A. Yankofm@astral.ntu-kpi.kiev.ua Dmitry Khrustalev dima@xyzzy.machaon.ru Dmitry Kohmanyuk dk@farm.org Dom Mitchell dom@myrddin.demon.co.uk Domas Mituzas midom@dammit.lt Dominik Brettnacher domi@saargate.de Dominik Rothert dr@domix.de Don Croyle croyle@gelemna.ft-wayne.in.us Donn Miller dmmiller@cvzoom.net Dan Pelleg dpelleg+unison@cs.cmu.edu &a.whiteside; Don Morrison dmorrisn@u.washington.edu Don Yuniskis dgy@rtd.com Donald Maddox dmaddox@conterra.com Douglas Ambrisko ambrisko@whistle.com Douglas Carmichael dcarmich@mcs.com Douglas Crosher dtc@scrooge.ee.swin.oz.au Drew Derbyshire ahd@kew.com Dustin Sallings dustin@spy.net Eckart "Isegrim" Hofmann Isegrim@Wunder-Nett.org Ed Gold vegold01@starbase.spd.louisville.edu Ed Hudson elh@p5.spnet.com Edward Chuang edwardc@firebird.org.tw Edward Wang edward@edcom.com Edwin Groothus edwin@nwm.wan.philips.com Edwin Mons e@ik.nu Ege Rekk aagero@aage.priv.no Eiji-usagi-MATSUmoto usagi@clave.gr.jp Eike Bernhardt eike.bernhardt@gmx.de ELISA Font Project Elmar Bartel bartel@informatik.tu-muenchen.de Eoin Lawless eoin@maths.tcd.ie Eric A. Griff eagriff@global2000.net Eric Blood eblood@cs.unr.edu Eric D. Futch efutch@nyct.net Eric J. Haug ejh@slustl.slu.edu Eric J. Schwertfeger eric@cybernut.com Eric L. Hernes erich@lodgenet.com Eric P. Scott eps@sirius.com Eric Sprinkle eric@ennovatenetworks.com Erich Stefan Boleyn erich@uruk.org Erich Zigler erich@tacni.net Erik H. Bakke erikhb@bgnett.no Erik E. Rantapaa rantapaa@math.umn.edu Erik H. Moe ehm@cris.com Ernst de Haan ernst@heinz.jollem.com Ernst Winter ewinter@lobo.muc.de Espen Skoglund esk@ira.uka.de Eugene M. Kim astralblue@usa.net Eugene Radchenko genie@qsar.chem.msu.su Eugeny Kuzakov CoreDumped@coredumped.null.ru Evan Champion evanc@synapse.net Faried Nawaz fn@Hungry.COM Flemming Jacobsen fj@batmule.dk Fong-Ching Liaw fong@juniper.net Francis M J Hsieh mjshieh@life.nthu.edu.tw Francisco Reyes fjrm@yahoo.com Frank Bartels knarf@camelot.de Frank Chen Hsiung Chan frankch@waru.life.nthu.edu.tw Frank Durda IV uhclem@nemesis.lonestar.org Frank MacLachlan fpm@n2.net Frank Nobis fn@Radio-do.de Frank ten Wolde franky@pinewood.nl Frank van der Linden frank@fwi.uva.nl Frank Volf volf@oasis.IAEhv.nl Fred Cawthorne fcawth@jjarray.umn.edu Fred Gilham gilham@csl.sri.com Fred Templin templin@erg.sri.com Frederick Earl Gray fgray@rice.edu FUJIMOTO Kensaku fujimoto@oscar.elec.waseda.ac.jp FURUSAWA Kazuhisa furusawa@com.cs.osakafu-u.ac.jp &a.stanislav; Gabor Kincses gabor@acm.org Gabor Zahemszky zgabor@CoDe.hu Gareth McCaughan gjm11@dpmms.cam.ac.uk Gary A. Browning gab10@griffcd.amdahl.com Gary Howland gary@hotlava.com Gary J. garyj@rks32.pcs.dec.com Gary Kline kline@thought.org Gaspar Chilingarov nightmar@lemming.acc.am Gea-Suan Lin gsl@tpts4.seed.net.tw Gene Raytsin pal@paladin7.net Geoff Rehmet csgr@alpha.ru.ac.za Georg Wagner georg.wagner@ubs.com Gianlorenzo Masini masini@uniroma3.it Gianmarco Giovannelli gmarco@giovannelli.it Gil Kloepfer Jr. gil@limbic.ssdl.com Gilad Rom rom_glsa@ein-hashofet.co.il Giles Lean giles@nemeton.com.au Ginga Kawaguti ginga@amalthea.phys.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp Giorgos Keramidas keramida@ceid.upatras.gr Glen Foster gfoster@gfoster.com Glenn Johnson gljohns@bellsouth.net Godmar Back gback@facility.cs.utah.edu Goran Hammarback goran@astro.uu.se Gord Matzigkeit gord@enci.ucalgary.ca Gordon Greeff gvg@uunet.co.za Graham Wheeler gram@cdsec.com Greg A. Woods woods@zeus.leitch.com Greg Ansley gja@ansley.com Greg Robinson greg@rosevale.com.au Greg Troxel gdt@ir.bbn.com Greg Ungerer gerg@stallion.oz.au Gregory Bond gnb@itga.com.au Gregory D. Moncreaff moncrg@bt340707.res.ray.com Guy Harris guy@netapp.com Guy Helmer ghelmer@cs.iastate.edu HAMADA Naoki hamada@astec.co.jp Hannu Savolainen hannu@voxware.pp.fi Hans Huebner hans@artcom.de Hans Petter Bieker zerium@webindex.no Hans Zuidam hans@brandinnovators.com Harlan Stenn Harlan.Stenn@pfcs.com Harold Barker hbarker@dsms.com Harry Newton harry_newton@telinco.co.uk Havard Eidnes Havard.Eidnes@runit.sintef.no Heikki Suonsivu hsu@cs.hut.fi Heiko W. Rupp unknown Helmut F. Wirth hfwirth@ping.at Henrik Vestergaard Draboel hvd@terry.ping.dk Herb Peyerl hpeyerl@NetBSD.org Hideaki Ohmon ohmon@tom.sfc.keio.ac.jp Hidekazu Kuroki hidekazu@cs.titech.ac.jp Hideki Yamamoto hyama@acm.org Hideyuki Suzuki hideyuki@sat.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Hirayama Issei iss@mail.wbs.ne.jp Hiroaki Sakai sakai@miya.ee.kagu.sut.ac.jp Hiroharu Tamaru tamaru@ap.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Hironori Ikura hikura@kaisei.org Hiroshi Nishikawa nis@pluto.dti.ne.jp Hiroya Tsubakimoto unknown Holger Lamm holger@eit.uni-kl.de Holger Veit Holger.Veit@gmd.de Holm Tiffe holm@geophysik.tu-freiberg.de HONDA Yasuhiro honda@kashio.info.mie-u.ac.jp Horance Chou horance@freedom.ie.cycu.edu.tw Horihiro Kumagai kuma@jp.FreeBSD.org HOSOBUCHI Noriyuki hoso@buchi.tama.or.jp HOTARU-YA hotaru@tail.net Hr.Ladavac lada@ws2301.gud.siemens.co.at Hubert Feyrer hubertf@NetBSD.ORG Hugh F. Mahon hugh@nsmdserv.cnd.hp.com Hugh Mahon h_mahon@fc.hp.com Hung-Chi Chu hcchu@r350.ee.ntu.edu.tw Ian Holland ianh@tortuga.com.au Ian Struble ian@broken.net Ian Vaudrey i.vaudrey@bigfoot.com Igor Khasilev igor@jabber.paco.odessa.ua Igor Roshchin str@giganda.komkon.org Igor Serikov bt@turtle.pangeatech.com Igor Sviridov siac@ua.net Igor Vinokurov igor@zynaps.ru Ikuo Nakagawa ikuo@isl.intec.co.jp Ilia Chipitsine ilia@jane.cgu.chel.su Ilya V. Komarov mur@lynx.ru IMAI Takeshi take-i@ceres.dti.ne.jp IMAMURA Tomoaki tomoak-i@is.aist-nara.ac.jp Itsuro Saito saito@miv.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp IWASHITA Yoji shuna@pop16.odn.ne.jp J. Bryant jbryant@argus.flash.net J. David Lowe lowe@saturn5.com J. Han hjh@photino.com J. Hawk jhawk@MIT.EDU J.T. Conklin jtc@cygnus.com Jack jack@zeus.xtalwind.net Jacob Bohn Lorensen jacob@jblhome.ping.mk Jagane D Sundar jagane@netcom.com Jake Hamby jehamby@anobject.com James Clark jjc@jclark.com James D. Stewart jds@c4systm.com James da Silva jds@cs.umd.edu James Jegers jimj@miller.cs.uwm.edu James Raynard fhackers@jraynard.demon.co.uk James T. Liu jtliu@phlebas.rockefeller.edu Jamie Heckford jamie@jamiesdomain.co.uk Jan Conard charly@fachschaften.tu-muenchen.de Jan Jungnickel Jan@Jungnickel.com Jan Koum jkb@FreeBSD.org Janick Taillandier Janick.Taillandier@ratp.fr Janusz Kokot janek@gaja.ipan.lublin.pl Jarle Greipsland jarle@idt.unit.no Jason DiCioccio geniusj@ods.org Jason Garman init@risen.org Jason R. Mastaler jason-freebsd@mastaler.com Jason Thorpe thorpej@NetBSD.org Jason Wright jason@OpenBSD.org Jason Young doogie@forbidden-donut.anet-stl.com Javier Martin Rueda jmrueda@diatel.upm.es Jay Fenlason hack@datacube.com Jay Krell jay.krell@cornell.edu Jaye Mathisen mrcpu@cdsnet.net Jeff Bartig jeffb@doit.wisc.edu Jeff Brown jabrown@caida.org Jeff Forys jeff@forys.cranbury.nj.us Jeff Kletsky Jeff@Wagsky.com Jeff Palmer scorpio@drkshdw.org Jeffrey Evans evans@scnc.k12.mi.us Jeffrey Wheat jeff@cetlink.net Jeremy Allison jallison@whistle.com Jeremy Chadwick yoshi@parodius.com Jeremy Chatfield jdc@xinside.com Jeremy Karlson karlj000@unbc.ca Jeremy Prior unknown Jeremy Shaffner jeremy@external.org Jesse McConnell jesse@cylant.com Jesse Rosenstock jmr@ugcs.caltech.edu Jian-Da Li jdli@csie.nctu.edu.tw Jim Babb babb@FreeBSD.org Jim Binkley jrb@cs.pdx.edu Jim Bloom bloom@acm.org Jim Carroll jim@carroll.com Jim Flowers jflowers@ezo.net Jim Leppek jleppek@harris.com Jim Lowe james@cs.uwm.edu Jim Mattson jmattson@sonic.net Jim Mercer jim@komodo.reptiles.org Jim Sloan odinn@atlantabiker.net Jim Wilson wilson@moria.cygnus.com Jimbo Bahooli griffin@blackhole.iceworld.org Jin Guojun jin@george.lbl.gov Joachim Kuebart kuebart@mathematik.uni-ulm.de Joao Carlos Mendes Luis jonny@jonny.eng.br Jochen Pohl jpo.drs@sni.de Joe "Marcus" Clarke marcus@marcuscom.com Joe Abley jabley@automagic.org Joe Jih-Shian Lu jslu@dns.ntu.edu.tw Joe Orthoefer j_orthoefer@tia.net Joe Traister traister@mojozone.org Joel Faedi Joel.Faedi@esial.u-nancy.fr Joel Ray Holveck joelh@gnu.org Joel Sutton jsutton@bbcon.com.au Jordan DeLong fracture@allusion.net Joseph Scott joseph@randomnetworks.com Johan Granlund johan@granlund.nu Johan Karlsson k@numeri.campus.luth.se Johan Larsson johan@moon.campus.luth.se Johann Tonsing jtonsing@mikom.csir.co.za Johannes Helander unknown Johannes Stille unknown John Beckett jbeckett@southern.edu John Beukema jbeukema@hk.super.net John Brezak unknown John Capo jc@irbs.com John F. Woods jfw@jfwhome.funhouse.com John Goerzen jgoerzen@alexanderwohl.complete.org John Heidemann johnh@isi.edu John Hood cgull@owl.org John Kohl unknown John Lind john@starfire.mn.org John Mackin john@physiol.su.oz.au John Merryweather Cooper jmcoopr@webmail.bmi.net John P johnp@lodgenet.com John Perry perry@vishnu.alias.net John Preisler john@vapornet.com John Reynolds jjreynold@home.com John Rochester jr@cs.mun.ca John Sadler john_sadler@alum.mit.edu John Saunders john@pacer.nlc.net.au John Wehle john@feith.com John Woods jfw@eddie.mit.edu Johny Mattsson lonewolf@flame.org Jon Morgan morgan@terminus.trailblazer.com Jonathan Belson jon@witchspace.com Jonathan H N Chin jc254@newton.cam.ac.uk Jonathan Hanna jh@pc-21490.bc.rogers.wave.ca Jonathan Pennington john@coastalgeology.org Jorge Goncalves j@bug.fe.up.pt Jorge M. Goncalves ee96199@tom.fe.up.pt Jos Backus jbackus@plex.nl Jose Marques jose@nobody.org Josef Grosch jgrosch@superior.mooseriver.com Joseph Stein joes@wstein.com Josh Gilliam josh@quick.net Josh Tiefenbach josh@ican.net Juergen Lock nox@jelal.hb.north.de Juha Inkari inkari@cc.hut.fi Jukka A. Ukkonen jau@iki.fi Julian Assange proff@suburbia.net Julian Coleman j.d.coleman@ncl.ac.uk &a.jhs Julian Jenkins kaveman@magna.com.au Junichi Satoh junichi@jp.FreeBSD.org Junji SAKAI sakai@jp.FreeBSD.org Junya WATANABE junya-w@remus.dti.ne.jp Justas justas@mbank.lv Justin Stanford jus@security.za.net K.Higashino a00303@cc.hc.keio.ac.jp Kai Vorma vode@snakemail.hut.fi Kaleb S. Keithley kaleb@ics.com Kaneda Hiloshi vanitas@ma3.seikyou.ne.jp Kang-ming Liu gugod@gugod.org Kapil Chowksey kchowksey@hss.hns.com Karl Denninger karl@mcs.com Karl Dietz Karl.Dietz@triplan.com Karl Lehenbauer karl@NeoSoft.com KATO Tsuguru tkato@prontomail.ne.jp Kawanobe Koh kawanobe@st.rim.or.jp Kees Jan Koster kjk1@ukc.ac.uk Keith Bostic bostic@bostic.com Keith E. Walker kew@icehouse.net Keith Moore unknown Keith Sklower unknown Ken Hornstein unknown Ken Key key@cs.utk.edu Ken Mayer kmayer@freegate.com Kenji Saito marukun@mx2.nisiq.net Kenji Tomita tommyk@da2.so-net.or.jp Kenneth Furge kenneth.furge@us.endress.com Kenneth Monville desmo@bandwidth.org Kenneth R. Westerback krw@tcn.net Kenneth Stailey kstailey@gnu.ai.mit.edu Kent Talarico kent@shipwreck.tsoft.net Kent Vander Velden graphix@iastate.edu Kentaro Inagaki JBD01226@niftyserve.ne.jp Kevin Bracey kbracey@art.acorn.co.uk Kevin Day toasty@dragondata.com Kevin Lahey kml@nas.nasa.gov Kevin Meltzer perlguy@perlguy.com Kevin Street street@iname.com Kevin Van Maren vanmaren@fast.cs.utah.edu Killer killer@prosalg.no Kim Scarborough sluggo@unknown.nu Kiril Mitev kiril@ideaglobal.com Kiroh HARADA kiroh@kh.rim.or.jp Klaus Herrmann klaus.herrmann@gmx.net Klaus Klein kleink@layla.inka.de Klaus-J. Wolf Yanestra@t-online.de Koichi Sato copan@ppp.fastnet.or.jp Konrad Heuer kheuer@gwdu60.gwdg.de Konstantin Chuguev Konstantin.Chuguev@dante.org.uk Kostya Lukin lukin@okbmei.msk.su Kouichi Hirabayashi kh@mogami-wire.co.jp Kris Dow kris@vilnya.demon.co.uk KUNISHIMA Takeo kunishi@c.oka-pu.ac.jp Kurt D. Zeilenga Kurt@Boolean.NET Kurt Olsen kurto@tiny.mcs.usu.edu L. Jonas Olsson ljo@ljo-slip.DIALIN.CWRU.Edu Larry Altneu larry@ALR.COM Lars Bernhardsson lab@fnurt.net Lars Köller Lars.Koeller@Uni-Bielefeld.DE Laurence Lopez lopez@mv.mv.com Lee Cremeans lcremean@tidalwave.net Leo Kim leo@florida.sarang.net Leo Serebryakov lev@serebryakov.spb.ru Liang Tai-hwa avatar@www.mmlab.cse.yzu.edu.tw Lon Willett lon%softt.uucp@math.utah.edu Louis A. Mamakos louie@TransSys.COM Louis Mamakos loiue@TransSys.com Lowell Gilbert lowell@world.std.com Lucas James Lucas.James@ldjpc.apana.org.au Lyndon Nerenberg lyndon@orthanc.ab.ca M. L. Dodson bdodson@scms.utmb.EDU M.C. Wong unknown Magnus Enbom dot@tinto.campus.luth.se Mahesh Neelakanta mahesh@gcomm.com Makoto MATSUSHITA matusita@jp.FreeBSD.org Makoto WATANABE watanabe@zlab.phys.nagoya-u.ac.jp Makoto YAMAKURA makoto@pinpott.spnet.ne.jp Malte Lance malte.lance@gmx.net MANTANI Nobutaka nobutaka@nobutaka.com Manu Iyengar iyengar@grunthos.pscwa.psca.com Marc Frajola marc@dev.com Marc Ramirez mrami@mramirez.sy.yale.edu Marc Slemko marcs@znep.com Marc van Kempen wmbfmk@urc.tue.nl Marc van Woerkom van.woerkom@netcologne.de Marcin Cieslak saper@system.pl Mark Andrews unknown Mark Cammidge mark@gmtunx.ee.uct.ac.za Mark Diekhans markd@grizzly.com Mark Huizer xaa@stack.nl Mark J. Taylor mtaylor@cybernet.com Mark Knight markk@knigma.org Mark Krentel krentel@rice.edu Mark Mayo markm@vmunix.com Mark Thompson thompson@tgsoft.com Mark Tinguely tinguely@plains.nodak.edu Mark Treacy unknown Mark Valentine mark@thuvia.org Markus Holmberg saska@acc.umu.se Martin Birgmeier unknown Martin Blapp blapp@attic.ch Martin Hinner mhi@linux.gyarab.cz Martin Ibert mib@ppe.bb-data.de Martin Kammerhofer dada@sbox.tu-graz.ac.at Martin Minkus diskiller@cnbinc.com Martin Renters martin@tdc.on.ca Martti Kuparinen martti.kuparinen@ericsson.com Masachika ISHIZUKA ishizuka@isis.min.ntt.jp Masahiro Sekiguchi seki@sysrap.cs.fujitsu.co.jp Masahiro TAKEMURA mastake@msel.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Masanobu Saitoh msaitoh@spa.is.uec.ac.jp Masanori Kanaoka kana@saijo.mke.mei.co.jp Masanori Kiriake seiken@ARGV.AC Masatoshi TAMURA tamrin@shinzan.kuee.kyoto-u.ac.jp Mats Lofkvist mal@algonet.se Matt Bartley mbartley@lear35.cytex.com Matt Heckaman matt@LUCIDA.QC.CA Matt Thomas matt@3am-software.com Matt White mwhite+@CMU.EDU Matthew C. Mead mmead@Glock.COM Matthew Cashdollar mattc@rfcnet.com Matthew Emmerton root@gabby.gsicomp.on.ca Matthew Flatt mflatt@cs.rice.edu Matthew Fuller fullermd@futuresouth.com Matthew Stein matt@bdd.net Matthew West mwest@uct.ac.za Matthias Pfaller leo@dachau.marco.de Matthias Scheler tron@netbsd.org Mattias Gronlund Mattias.Gronlund@sa.erisoft.se Mattias Pantzare pantzer@ludd.luth.se Maurice Castro maurice@planet.serc.rmit.edu.au Max Euston meuston@jmrodgers.com Max Khon fjoe@husky.iclub.nsu.ru Maxim Bolotin max@rsu.ru Maxim Konovalov maxim@macomnet.ru Maxime Henrion mhenrion@cybercable.fr Micha Class michael_class@hpbbse.bbn.hp.com Michael Alyn Miller malyn@strangeGizmo.com Michael Lucas mwlucas@blackhelicopters.org Michael Lyngbøl michael@lyngbol.dk Michael Butler imb@scgt.oz.au Michael Butschky butsch@computi.erols.com Michael Clay mclay@weareb.org Michael Galassi nerd@percival.rain.com Michael Hancock michaelh@cet.co.jp Michael Hohmuth hohmuth@inf.tu-dresden.de Michael Perlman canuck@caam.rice.edu Michael Petry petry@netwolf.NetMasters.com Michael Reifenberger root@totum.plaut.de Michael Sardo jaeger16@yahoo.com Michael Searle searle@longacre.demon.co.uk Michael Urban murban@tznet.com Michael Vasilenko acid@stu.cn.ua Michal Listos mcl@Amnesiac.123.org Michio Karl Jinbo karl@marcer.nagaokaut.ac.jp Miguel Angel Sagreras msagre@cactus.fi.uba.ar Mihoko Tanaka m_tonaka@pa.yokogawa.co.jp Mika Nystrom mika@cs.caltech.edu Mikael Hybsch micke@dynas.se Mikael Karpberg karpen@ocean.campus.luth.se Mike Bristow mike@urgle.com Mike Del repenting@hotmail.com Mike Durian durian@plutotech.com Mike Durkin mdurkin@tsoft.sf-bay.org Mike E. Matsnev mike@azog.cs.msu.su Mike Evans mevans@candle.com Mike Futerko mike@LITech.lviv.ua Mike Grupenhoff kashmir@umiacs.umd.edu Mike Harding mvh@ix.netcom.com Mike Hibler mike@marker.cs.utah.edu Mike Karels unknown Mike McGaughey mmcg@cs.monash.edu.au Mike Meyer mwm@mired.org Mike Mitchell mitchell@ref.tfs.com Mike Murphy mrm@alpharel.com Mike Peck mike@binghamton.edu Mike Sherwood mike@fate.com Mike Spengler mks@msc.edu Mikhail A. Sokolov mishania@demos.su Ming-I Hseh PA@FreeBSD.ee.Ntu.edu.TW Mitsuru Yoshida mitsuru@riken.go.jp Monte Mitzelfelt monte@gonefishing.org Morgan Davis root@io.cts.com MOROHOSHI Akihiko moro@race.u-tokyo.ac.jp Mostyn Lewis mostyn@mrl.com Motomichi Matsuzaki mzaki@e-mail.ne.jp Motoyuki Kasahara m-kasahr@sra.co.jp N.G.Smith ngs@sesame.hensa.ac.uk Nadav Eiron nadav@barcode.co.il NAGAO Tadaaki nagao@cs.titech.ac.jp NAKAJI Hiroyuki nakaji@tutrp.tut.ac.jp NAKAMURA Kazushi nkazushi@highway.or.jp NAKAMURA Motonori motonori@econ.kyoto-u.ac.jp NAKATA, Maho chat95@mbox.kyoto-inet.or.jp Nanbor Wang nw1@cs.wustl.edu Naofumi Honda honda@Kururu.math.sci.hokudai.ac.jp Naoki Hamada nao@tom-yam.or.jp Narvi narvi@haldjas.folklore.ee Nathan Dorfman nathan@rtfm.net Neal Fachan kneel@ishiboo.com Niall Smart rotel@indigo.ie Nicholas Esborn nick@netdot.net Nick Barnes Nick.Barnes@pobox.com Nick Handel nhandel@NeoSoft.com Nick Hilliard nick@foobar.org Nick Johnson freebsd@spatula.net Nick Williams njw@cs.city.ac.uk Nickolay N. Dudorov nnd@itfs.nsk.su NIIMI Satoshi sa2c@and.or.jp Niklas Hallqvist niklas@filippa.appli.se Nils M. Holm nmh@t3x.org Nisha Talagala nisha@cs.berkeley.edu No Name adrian@virginia.edu No Name alex@elvisti.kiev.ua No Name anto@netscape.net No Name bobson@egg.ics.nitch.ac.jp No Name bovynf@awe.be No Name burg@is.ge.com No Name chris@gnome.co.uk No Name colsen@usa.net No Name coredump@nervosa.com No Name dannyman@arh0300.urh.uiuc.edu No Name davids@SECNET.COM No Name derek@free.org No Name devet@adv.IAEhv.nl No Name djv@bedford.net No Name dvv@sprint.net No Name enami@ba2.so-net.or.jp No Name flash@eru.tubank.msk.su No Name flash@hway.ru No Name fn@pain.csrv.uidaho.edu No Name frf@xocolatl.com No Name gclarkii@netport.neosoft.com No Name gordon@sheaky.lonestar.org No Name graaf@iae.nl No Name greg@greg.rim.or.jp No Name grossman@cygnus.com No Name gusw@fub46.zedat.fu-berlin.de No Name hfir@math.rochester.edu No Name hnokubi@yyy.or.jp No Name iaint@css.tuu.utas.edu.au No Name invis@visi.com No Name ishisone@sra.co.jp No Name iverson@lionheart.com No Name jpt@magic.net No Name junker@jazz.snu.ac.kr No Name k-sugyou@ccs.mt.nec.co.jp No Name kenji@reseau.toyonaka.osaka.jp No Name kfurge@worldnet.att.net No Name lh@aus.org No Name lhecking@nmrc.ucc.ie No Name mrgreen@mame.mu.oz.au No Name nakagawa@jp.FreeBSD.org No Name ohki@gssm.otsuka.tsukuba.ac.jp No Name owaki@st.rim.or.jp No Name pechter@shell.monmouth.com No Name pete@pelican.pelican.com No Name pritc003@maroon.tc.umn.edu No Name risner@stdio.com No Name roman@rpd.univ.kiev.ua No Name root@ns2.redline.ru No Name root@uglabgw.ug.cs.sunysb.edu No Name stephen.ma@jtec.com.au No Name sumii@is.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp No Name takas-su@is.aist-nara.ac.jp No Name tamone@eig.unige.ch No Name tjevans@raleigh.ibm.com No Name tony-o@iij.ad.jp amurai@spec.co.jp No Name torii@tcd.hitachi.co.jp No Name uenami@imasy.or.jp No Name uhlar@netlab.sk No Name vode@hut.fi No Name wlloyd@mpd.ca No Name wlr@furball.wellsfargo.com No Name wmbfmk@urc.tue.nl No Name yamagata@nwgpc.kek.jp No Name ziggy@ryan.org No Name ZW6T-KND@j.asahi-net.or.jp Nobuhiro Yasutomi nobu@psrc.isac.co.jp Nobuyuki Koganemaru kogane@koganemaru.co.jp NOKUBI Hirotaka h-nokubi@yyy.or.jp Norio Suzuki nosuzuki@e-mail.ne.jp Noritaka Ishizumi graphite@jp.FreeBSD.org Noriyuki Soda soda@sra.co.jp Oddbjorn Steffenson oddbjorn@tricknology.org Oh Junseon hollywar@mail.holywar.net Olaf Wagner wagner@luthien.in-berlin.de Oleg Semyonov os@altavista.net Oleg Sharoiko os@rsu.ru Oleg V. Volkov rover@lglobus.ru Olexander Kunytsa kunia@wolf.istc.kiev.ua Oliver Breuninger ob@seicom.NET Oliver Friedrichs oliver@secnet.com Oliver Fromme oliver.fromme@heim3.tu-clausthal.de Oliver Helmling oliver.helmling@stud.uni-bayreuth.de Oliver Laumann net@informatik.uni-bremen.de Oliver Lehmann Kai_Allard_Liao@gmx.de Oliver Oberdorf oly@world.std.com Olof Johansson offe@ludd.luth.se Osokin Sergey aka oZZ ozz@FreeBSD.org.ru Pace Willisson pace@blitz.com Paco Rosich rosich@modico.eleinf.uv.es Palle Girgensohn girgen@partitur.se Parag Patel parag@cgt.com Pascal Pederiva pascal@zuo.dec.com Pasvorn Boonmark boonmark@juniper.net Patrick Alken cosine@ellipse.mcs.drexel.edu Patrick Bihan-Faou patrick@mindstep.com Patrick Hausen unknown Patrick Li pat@databits.net Patrick Seal patseal@hyperhost.net Paul Antonov apg@demos.su Paul F. Werkowski unknown Paul Fox pgf@foxharp.boston.ma.us Paul Koch koch@thehub.com.au Paul Kranenburg pk@NetBSD.org Paul M. Lambert plambert@plambert.net Paul Mackerras paulus@cs.anu.edu.au Paul Popelka paulp@uts.amdahl.com Paul S. LaFollette, Jr. unknown Paul Sandys myj@nyct.net Paul T. Root proot@horton.iaces.com Paul Vixie paul@vix.com Paulo Menezes paulo@isr.uc.pt Paulo Menezes pm@dee.uc.pt Pedro A M Vazquez vazquez@IQM.Unicamp.BR Pedro Giffuni giffunip@asme.org Per Wigren wigren@home.se Pete Bentley pete@demon.net Pete Fritchman petef@databits.net Peter Childs pjchilds@imforei.apana.org.au Peter Cornelius pc@inr.fzk.de Peter Haight peterh@prognet.com Peter Jeremy peter.jeremy@alcatel.com.au Peter M. Chen pmchen@eecs.umich.edu Peter Much peter@citylink.dinoex.sub.org Peter Olsson unknown Peter Philipp pjp@bsd-daemon.net Peter Stubbs PETERS@staidan.qld.edu.au Peter van Heusden pvh@egenetics.com Phil Maker pjm@cs.ntu.edu.au Phil Sutherland philsuth@mycroft.dialix.oz.au Phil Taylor phil@zipmail.co.uk Philip Musumeci philip@rmit.edu.au Philippe Lefebvre nemesis@balistik.net Pierre Y. Dampure pierre.dampure@k2c.co.uk Pius Fischer pius@ienet.com Pomegranate daver@flag.blackened.net Powerdog Industries kevin.ruddy@powerdog.com Priit Järv priit@cc.ttu.ee R Joseph Wright rjoseph@mammalia.org R. Kym Horsell Ralf Friedl friedl@informatik.uni-kl.de Randal S. Masutani randal@comtest.com Randall Hopper rhh@ct.picker.com Randall W. Dean rwd@osf.org Randy Bush rbush@bainbridge.verio.net Rasmus Kaj kaj@Raditex.se Reinier Bezuidenhout rbezuide@mikom.csir.co.za Remy Card Remy.Card@masi.ibp.fr Ricardas Cepas rch@richard.eu.org Riccardo Veraldi veraldi@cs.unibo.it Rich Wood rich@FreeBSD.org.uk Richard Henderson richard@atheist.tamu.edu Richard Hwang rhwang@bigpanda.com Richard Kiss richard@homemail.com Richard J Kuhns rjk@watson.grauel.com Richard M. Neswold rneswold@enteract.com Richard Seaman, Jr. dick@tar.com Richard Stallman rms@gnu.ai.mit.edu Richard Straka straka@user1.inficad.com Richard Tobin richard@cogsci.ed.ac.uk Richard Wackerbarth rkw@Dataplex.NET Richard Winkel rich@math.missouri.edu Richard Wiwatowski rjwiwat@adelaide.on.net Rick Macklem rick@snowhite.cis.uoguelph.ca Rick Macklin unknown Rob Austein sra@epilogue.com Rob Mallory rmallory@qualcomm.com Rob Snow rsnow@txdirect.net Robert Crowe bob@speakez.com Robert D. Thrush rd@phoenix.aii.com Robert Eckardt roberte@MEP.Ruhr-Uni-Bochum.de Robert P Ricci ricci@cs.utah.edu Robert Sanders rsanders@mindspring.com Robert Sexton robert@kudra.com Robert Shady rls@id.net Robert Swindells swindellsr@genrad.co.uk Robert Withrow witr@rwwa.com Robert Yoder unknown Robin Carey robin@mailgate.dtc.rankxerox.co.uk Rod Taylor rod@idiotswitch.org Roger Hardiman roger@cs.strath.ac.uk Roland Jesse jesse@cs.uni-magdeburg.de Roman Shterenzon roman@xpert.com Ron Bickers rbickers@intercenter.net Ron Lenk rlenk@widget.xmission.com Ronald Kuehn kuehn@rz.tu-clausthal.de Rudolf Cejka cejkar@dcse.fee.vutbr.cz Ruslan Belkin rus@home2.UA.net Ruslan Shevchenko rssh@cam.grad.kiev.ua Russell L. Carter rcarter@pinyon.org Russell Vincent rv@groa.uct.ac.za Ryan Younce ryany@pobox.com Ryuichiro IMURA imura@af.airnet.ne.jp Sakai Hiroaki sakai@miya.ee.kagu.sut.ac.jp Sakari Jalovaara sja@tekla.fi Sam Hartman hartmans@mit.edu Samuel Lam skl@ScalableNetwork.com Samuel Tardieu sam@inf.enst.fr Samuele Zannoli zannoli@cs.unibo.it Sander Janssen janssen@rendo.dekooi.nl Sander Vesik sander@haldjas.folklore.ee Sandro Sigala ssigala@globalnet.it SANETO Takanori sanewo@strg.sony.co.jp SASAKI Shunsuke ele@pop17.odn.ne.jp Sascha Blank blank@fox.uni-trier.de Sascha Wildner swildner@channelz.GUN.de Satoh Junichi junichi@astec.co.jp SAWADA Mizuki miz@qb3.so-net.ne.jp Scot Elliott scot@poptart.org Scot W. Hetzel hetzels@westbend.net Scott A. Kenney saken@rmta.ml.org Scott A. Moberly smoberly@xavier.dyndns.org Scott Blachowicz scott.blachowicz@seaslug.org Scott Burris scott@pita.cns.ucla.edu Scott Hazen Mueller scott@zorch.sf-bay.org Scott Michel scottm@cs.ucla.edu Scott Mitchel scott@uk.FreeBSD.org Scott Reynolds scott@clmqt.marquette.mi.us Sebastian Strollo seb@erix.ericsson.se Serge V. Vakulenko vak@zebub.msk.su Sergei Chechetkin csl@whale.sunbay.crimea.ua Sergei S. Laskavy laskavy@pc759.cs.msu.su Sergey Gershtein sg@mplik.ru Sergey Kosyakov ks@itp.ac.ru Sergey N. Vorokov serg@tmn.ru Sergey Potapov sp@alkor.ru Sergey Samoyloff gonza@techline.ru Sergey Shkonda serg@bcs.zp.ua Sergey Skvortsov skv@protey.ru Sergey V.Dorokhov svd@kbtelecom.nalnet.ru Sergio Lenzi lenzi@bsi.com.br Shaun Courtney shaun@emma.eng.uct.ac.za Shawn M. Carey smcarey@mailbox.syr.edu Shigio Yamaguchi shigio@tamacom.com Shinya Esu esu@yk.rim.or.jp Shinya FUJIE fujie@tk.elec.waseda.ac.jp Shuichi Tanaka stanaka@bb.mbn.or.jp Simon simon@masi.ibp.fr Simon Burge simonb@telstra.com.au Simon Dick simond@irrelevant.org Simon J Gerraty sjg@melb.bull.oz.au Simon Marlow simonm@dcs.gla.ac.uk Simon Shapiro shimon@simon-shapiro.org Sin'ichiro MIYATANI siu@phaseone.co.jp Slaven Rezic eserte@cs.tu-berlin.de Soochon Radee slr@mitre.org Soren Dayton csdayton@midway.uchicago.edu Soren Dossing sauber@netcom.com Soren S. Jorvang soren@wheel.dk Stefan Bethke stb@hanse.de Stefan Eggers seggers@semyam.dinoco.de Stefan Moeding s.moeding@ndh.net Stefan Petri unknown Stefan `Sec` Zehl sec@42.org Steinar Haug sthaug@nethelp.no Stephane E. Potvin sepotvin@videotron.ca Stephane Legrand stephane@lituus.fr Stephen Clawson sclawson@marker.cs.utah.edu Stephen F. Combs combssf@salem.ge.com Stephen Farrell stephen@farrell.org Stephen Hocking sysseh@devetir.qld.gov.au Stephen J. Roznowski sjr@home.net Stephen McKay syssgm@devetir.qld.gov.au Stephen Melvin melvin@zytek.com Steve Bauer sbauer@rock.sdsmt.edu Steve Coltrin spcoltri@unm.edu Steve Deering unknown Steve Gerakines steve2@genesis.tiac.net Steve Gericke steveg@comtrol.com Steve Piette steve@simon.chi.il.US Steve Schwarz schwarz@alpharel.com Steven Enderle panic@subphase.de Steven G. Kargl kargl@troutmask.apl.washington.edu Steven H. Samorodin samorodi@NUXI.com Steven McCanne mccanne@cs.berkeley.edu Steven Plite splite@purdue.edu Steven Wallace unknown Stijn Hoop stijn@win.tue.nl Stuart Henderson stuart@internationalschool.co.uk Sue Blake sue@welearn.com.au Sugimoto Sadahiro ixtl@komaba.utmc.or.jp SUGIMURA Takashi sugimura@jp.FreeBSD.org Sugiura Shiro ssugiura@duo.co.jp Sujal Patel smpatel@wam.umd.edu Sungman Cho smcho@tsp.korea.ac.kr Sune Stjerneby stjerneby@usa.net SURANYI Peter suranyip@jks.is.tsukuba.ac.jp Suzuki Yoshiaki zensyo@ann.tama.kawasaki.jp Svein Skogen tds@nsn.no Sybolt de Boer bolt@xs4all.nl Tadashi Kumano kumano@strl.nhk.or.jp Taguchi Takeshi taguchi@tohoku.iij.ad.jp TAKAHASHI Kaoru kaoru@kaisei.org Takahiro Yugawa yugawa@orleans.rim.or.jp Takashi Mega mega@minz.org Takashi Uozu j1594016@ed.kagu.sut.ac.jp Takayuki Ariga a00821@cc.hc.keio.ac.jp Takeru NAIKI naiki@bfd.es.hokudai.ac.jp Takeshi Amaike amaike@iri.co.jp Takeshi MUTOH mutoh@info.nara-k.ac.jp Takeshi Ohashi ohashi@mickey.ai.kyutech.ac.jp Takeshi WATANABE watanabe@crayon.earth.s.kobe-u.ac.jp Takuya SHIOZAKI tshiozak@makino.ise.chuo-u.ac.jp Tatoku Ogaito tacha@tera.fukui-med.ac.jp Tatsuya Kudoh cdr@cosmonet.org Ted Buswell tbuswell@mediaone.net Ted Faber faber@isi.edu Ted Lemon mellon@isc.org Terry Lambert terry@lambert.org Terry Lee terry@uivlsi.csl.uiuc.edu Tetsuya Furukawa tetsuya@secom-sis.co.jp Theo de Raadt deraadt@OpenBSD.org Thomas thomas@mathematik.uni-Bremen.de Thomas D. Dean tomdean@ix.netcom.com Thomas David Rivers rivers@dignus.com Thomas G. McWilliams tgm@netcom.com Thomas Graichen graichen@omega.physik.fu-berlin.de Thomas König Thomas.Koenig@ciw.uni-karlsruhe.de Thomas Ptacek unknown Thomas Quinot thomas@cuivre.fr.eu.org Thomas A. Stephens tas@stephens.org Thomas Stromberg tstrombe@rtci.com Thomas Valentino Crimi tcrimi+@andrew.cmu.edu Thomas Wintergerst thomas@lemur.nord.de Þórður Ívarsson totii@est.is Thierry Thomas tthomas@mail.dotcom.fr Timothy Jensen toast@blackened.com Tim Kientzle kientzle@netcom.com Tim Singletary tsingle@sunland.gsfc.nasa.gov Tim Wilkinson tim@sarc.city.ac.uk Timo J. Rinne tri@iki.fi Tobias Reifenberger treif@mayn.de Todd Miller millert@openbsd.org Tom root@majestix.cmr.no Tom tom@sdf.com Tom Gray - DCA dcasba@rain.org Tom Jobbins tom@tom.tj Tom Pusateri pusateri@juniper.net Tom Rush tarush@mindspring.com Tom Samplonius tom@misery.sdf.com Tomohiko Kurahashi kura@melchior.q.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Tony Kimball alk@Think.COM Tony Li tli@jnx.com Tony Lynn wing@cc.nsysu.edu.tw Tony Maher tonym@angis.org.au Torbjorn Granlund tege@matematik.su.se Toshihiko SHIMOKAWA toshi@tea.forus.or.jp Toshihiro Kanda candy@kgc.co.jp Toshiomi Moriki Toshiomi.Moriki@ma1.seikyou.ne.jp Trefor S. trefor@flevel.co.uk Trenton Schulz twschulz@cord.edu Trevor Blackwell tlb@viaweb.com Udo Schweigert ust@cert.siemens.de Ugo Paternostro paterno@dsi.unifi.it Ulf Kieber kieber@sax.de Ulli Linzen ulli@perceval.camelot.de URATA Shuichiro s-urata@nmit.tmg.nec.co.jp Uwe Arndt arndt@mailhost.uni-koblenz.de Vadim Belman vab@lflat.vas.mobilix.dk Vadim Chekan vadim@gc.lviv.ua Vadim Kolontsov vadim@tversu.ac.ru Vadim Mikhailov mvp@braz.ru Valentin Nechayev netch@lucky.net &a.logo; Van Jacobson van@ee.lbl.gov Vasily V. Grechishnikov bazilio@ns1.ied-vorstu.ac.ru Vasim Valejev vasim@uddias.diaspro.com Vernon J. Schryver vjs@mica.denver.sgi.com Veselin Slavov vess@btc.net Vic Abell abe@cc.purdue.edu Ville Eerola ve@sci.fi Vince Valenti vince@blue-box.net Vincent Poy vince@venus.gaianet.net Vincenzo Capuano VCAPUANO@vmprofs.esoc.esa.de Virgil Champlin champlin@pa.dec.com Vladimir A. Jakovenko vovik@ntu-kpi.kiev.ua Vladimir Kushnir kushn@mail.kar.net Vsevolod Lobko seva@alex-ua.com W. Gerald Hicks wghicks@bellsouth.net W. Richard Stevens rstevens@noao.edu Walt Howard howard@ee.utah.edu Walt M. Shandruk walt@erudition.net Warren Toomey wkt@csadfa.cs.adfa.oz.au Wayne Scott wscott@ichips.intel.com Werner Griessl werner@btp1da.phy.uni-bayreuth.de Wes Santee wsantee@wsantee.oz.net Wietse Venema wietse@wzv.win.tue.nl Wiljo Heinen wiljo@freeside.ki.open.de Willem Jan Withagen wjw@surf.IAE.nl William Jolitz withheld William Liao william@tale.net Wojtek Pilorz wpilorz@celebris.bdk.lublin.pl Wolfgang Helbig helbig@ba-stuttgart.de Wolfgang Solfrank ws@tools.de Wolfgang Stanglmeier wolf@FreeBSD.org Wu Ching-hong woju@FreeBSD.ee.Ntu.edu.TW Yarema yds@ingress.com Yaroslav Terletsky ts@polynet.lviv.ua Yasuhiro Fukama yasuf@big.or.jp Yasuhito FUTATSUKI futatuki@fureai.or.jp Yen-Ming Lee leeym@bsd.ce.ntu.edu.tw Yen-Shuo Su yssu@CCCA.NCTU.edu.tw Yin-Jieh Chen yinjieh@Crazyman.Dorm13.NCTU.edu.tw Yixin Jin yjin@rain.cs.ucla.edu Yoichi Asai yatt@msc.biglobe.ne.jp Yoichi Nakayama yoichi@eken.phys.nagoya-u.ac.jp Yoshiaki Uchikawa yoshiaki@kt.rim.or.jp Yoshihiko SARUMRU mistral@imasy.or.jp Yoshihisa NAKAGAWA y-nakaga@ccs.mt.nec.co.jp Yoshikazu Goto gotoh@ae.anritsu.co.jp Yoshimasa Ohnishi ohnishi@isc.kyutech.ac.jp Yoshishige Arai ryo2@on.rim.or.jp Yuichi MATSUTAKA matutaka@osa.att.ne.jp Yujiro MIYATA miyata@bioele.nuee.nagoya-u.ac.jp Yu-Shun Wang yushunwa@isi.edu Yusuke Nawano azuki@azkey.org Yuu Yashiki s974123@cc.matsuyama-u.ac.jp Yuuki SAWADA mami@whale.cc.muroran-it.ac.jp Yuuichi Narahara aconitum@po.teleway.ne.jp Yuval Yarom yval@cs.huji.ac.il Yves Fonk yves@cpcoup5.tn.tudelft.nl Yves Fonk yves@dutncp8.tn.tudelft.nl Zach Heilig zach@gaffaneys.com Zach Zurflu zach@pabst.bendnet.com Zahemszhky Gabor zgabor@code.hu Zhong Ming-Xun zmx@mail.CDPA.nsysu.edu.tw 386BSD Patch Kit Patch Contributors (in alphabetical order by first name): Adam Glass glass@postgres.berkeley.edu Adrian Hall ahall@mirapoint.com Andrey A. Chernov ache@astral.msk.su Andrew Herbert andrew@werple.apana.org.au Andrew Moore alm@netcom.com Andy Valencia ajv@csd.mot.com jtk@netcom.com Arne Henrik Juul arnej@Lise.Unit.NO Bakul Shah bvs@bitblocks.com Barry Lustig barry@ictv.com Bob Wilcox bob@obiwan.uucp Branko Lankester Brett Lymn blymn@mulga.awadi.com.AU Charles Hannum mycroft@ai.mit.edu Chris G. Demetriou cgd@postgres.berkeley.edu Chris Torek torek@ee.lbl.gov Christoph Robitschko chmr@edvz.tu-graz.ac.at Daniel Poirot poirot@aio.jsc.nasa.gov Dave Burgess burgess@hrd769.brooks.af.mil Dave Rivers rivers@ponds.uucp David Dawes dawes@physics.su.OZ.AU David Greenman dg@Root.COM Eric J. Haug ejh@slustl.slu.edu Felix Gaehtgens felix@escape.vsse.in-berlin.de Frank Maclachlan fpm@crash.cts.com Gary A. Browning gab10@griffcd.amdahl.com Gary Howland gary@hotlava.com Geoff Rehmet csgr@alpha.ru.ac.za Goran Hammarback goran@astro.uu.se Guido van Rooij guido@gvr.org Guy Antony Halse guy@rucus.ru.ac.za Guy Harris guy@auspex.com Havard Eidnes Havard.Eidnes@runit.sintef.no Herb Peyerl hpeyerl@novatel.cuc.ab.ca Holger Veit Holger.Veit@gmd.de Ishii Masahiro, R. Kym Horsell J.T. Conklin jtc@cygnus.com Jagane D Sundar jagane@netcom.com James Clark jjc@jclark.com James Jegers jimj@miller.cs.uwm.edu James W. Dolter James da Silva jds@cs.umd.edu et al Jay Fenlason hack@datacube.com Jim Wilson wilson@moria.cygnus.com Jörg Lohse lohse@tech7.informatik.uni-hamburg.de Jörg Wunsch joerg_wunsch@uriah.heep.sax.de John Dyson John Woods jfw@eddie.mit.edu Jordan K. Hubbard jkh@whisker.hubbard.ie Julian Elischer julian@dialix.oz.au Julian Stacey jhs@FreeBSD.org Karl Dietz Karl.Dietz@triplan.com Karl Lehenbauer karl@NeoSoft.com karl@one.neosoft.com Keith Bostic bostic@toe.CS.Berkeley.EDU Ken Hughes Kent Talarico kent@shipwreck.tsoft.net Kevin Lahey kml%rokkaku.UUCP@mathcs.emory.edu kml@mosquito.cis.ufl.edu Konstantinos Konstantinidis kkonstan@duth.gr Marc Frajola marc@dev.com Mark Tinguely tinguely@plains.nodak.edu tinguely@hookie.cs.ndsu.NoDak.edu Martin Renters martin@tdc.on.ca Michael Clay mclay@weareb.org Michael Galassi nerd@percival.rain.com Mike Durkin mdurkin@tsoft.sf-bay.org Naoki Hamada nao@tom-yam.or.jp Nate Williams nate@bsd.coe.montana.edu Nick Handel nhandel@NeoSoft.com nick@madhouse.neosoft.com Pace Willisson pace@blitz.com Paul Kranenburg pk@cs.few.eur.nl Paul Mackerras paulus@cs.anu.edu.au Paul Popelka paulp@uts.amdahl.com Peter da Silva peter@NeoSoft.com Phil Sutherland philsuth@mycroft.dialix.oz.au Poul-Henning Kamp phk@FreeBSD.org Ralf Friedl friedl@informatik.uni-kl.de Rick Macklem root@snowhite.cis.uoguelph.ca Robert D. Thrush rd@phoenix.aii.com Rodney W. Grimes rgrimes@cdrom.com Sascha Wildner swildner@channelz.GUN.de Scott Burris scott@pita.cns.ucla.edu Scott Reynolds scott@clmqt.marquette.mi.us Sean Eric Fagan sef@kithrup.com Simon J Gerraty sjg@melb.bull.oz.au sjg@zen.void.oz.au Stephen McKay syssgm@devetir.qld.gov.au Terry Lambert terry@icarus.weber.edu Terry Lee terry@uivlsi.csl.uiuc.edu Tor Egge Tor.Egge@idi.ntnu.no Warren Toomey wkt@csadfa.cs.adfa.oz.au Wiljo Heinen wiljo@freeside.ki.open.de William Jolitz withheld Wolfgang Solfrank ws@tools.de Wolfgang Stanglmeier wolf@dentaro.GUN.de Yuval Yarom yval@cs.huji.ac.il diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/advanced-networking/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/advanced-networking/chapter.sgml index d81b41323e..563c2d7f2e 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/advanced-networking/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/advanced-networking/chapter.sgml @@ -1,3972 +1,3975 @@ Advanced Networking Synopsis The following chapter will cover some of the more frequently used network services on Unix systems. This, of course, will pertain to configuring said services on your FreeBSD system. Coranth Gryphon Contributed Gateways and Routes - route routing gateway subnet For one machine to be able to find another, there must be a mechanism in place to describe how to get from one to the other. This is called Routing. A route is a defined pair of addresses: a destination and a gateway. The pair indicates that if you are trying to get to this destination, send along through this gateway. There are three types of destinations: individual hosts, subnets, and default. The default route is used if none of the other routes apply. We will talk a little bit more about default routes later on. There are also three types of gateways: individual hosts, interfaces (also called links), and Ethernet hardware addresses. An example To illustrate different aspects of routing, we will use the following example which is the output of the command netstat -r: Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use Netif Expire default outside-gw UGSc 37 418 ppp0 localhost localhost UH 0 181 lo0 test0 0:e0:b5:36:cf:4f UHLW 5 63288 ed0 77 10.20.30.255 link#1 UHLW 1 2421 foobar.com link#1 UC 0 0 host1 0:e0:a8:37:8:1e UHLW 3 4601 lo0 host2 0:e0:a8:37:8:1e UHLW 0 5 lo0 => host2.foobar.com link#1 UC 0 0 224 link#1 UC 0 0 default route The first two lines specify the default route (which we will cover in the next section) and the localhost route. loopback device The interface (Netif column) that it specifies to use for localhost is lo0, also known as the loopback device. This says to keep all traffic for this destination internal, rather than sending it out over the LAN, since it will only end up back where it started anyway. Ethernet MAC address The next thing that stands out are the 0:e0:... addresses. These are Ethernet hardware addresses. FreeBSD will automatically identify any hosts (test0 in the example) on the local Ethernet and add a route for that host, directly to it over the Ethernet interface, ed0. There is also a timeout (Expire column) associated with this type of route, which is used if we fail to hear from the host in a specific amount of time. In this case the route will be automatically deleted. These hosts are identified using a mechanism known as RIP (Routing Information Protocol), which figures out routes to local hosts based upon a shortest path determination. subnet FreeBSD will also add subnet routes for the local subnet (10.20.30.255 is the broadcast address for the subnet 10.20.30, and foobar.com is the domain name associated with that subnet). The designation link#1 refers to the first Ethernet card in the machine. You will notice no additional interface is specified for those. Both of these groups (local network hosts and local subnets) have their routes automatically configured by a daemon called routed. If this is not run, then only routes which are statically defined (ie. entered explicitly) will exist. The host1 line refers to our host, which it knows by Ethernet address. Since we are the sending host, FreeBSD knows to use the loopback interface (lo0) rather than sending it out over the Ethernet interface. The two host2 lines are an example of what happens when we use an &man.ifconfig.8; alias (see the section of Ethernet for reasons why we would do this). The => symbol after the lo0 interface says that not only are we using the loopback (since this is address also refers to the local host), but specifically it is an alias. Such routes only show up on the host that supports the alias; all other hosts on the local network will simply have a link#1 line for such. The final line (destination subnet 224) deals with MultiCasting, which will be covered in a another section. The other column that we should talk about are the Flags. Each route has different attributes that are described in the column. Below is a short table of some of these flags and their meanings: U Up: The route is active. H Host: The route destination is a single host. G Gateway: Send anything for this destination on to this remote system, which will figure out from there where to send it. S Static: This route was configured manually, not automatically generated by the system. C Clone: Generates a new route based upon this route for machines we connect to. This type of route is normally used for local networks. W WasCloned: Indicated a route that was auto-configured based upon a local area network (Clone) route. L Link: Route involves references to Ethernet hardware. Default routes default route When the local system needs to make a connection to remote host, it checks the routing table to determine if a known path exists. If the remote host falls into a subnet that we know how to reach (Cloned routes), then the system checks to see if it can connect along that interface. If all known paths fail, the system has one last option: the default route. This route is a special type of gateway route (usually the only one present in the system), and is always marked with a c in the flags field. For hosts on a local area network, this gateway is set to whatever machine has a direct connection to the outside world (whether via PPP link, or your hardware device attached to a dedicated data line). If you are configuring the default route for a machine which itself is functioning as the gateway to the outside world, then the default route will be the gateway machine at your Internet Service Provider's (ISP) site. Let us look at an example of default routes. This is a common configuration: [Local2] <--ether--> [Local1] <--PPP--> [ISP-Serv] <--ether--> [T1-GW] The hosts Local1 and Local2 are at your site, with the formed being your PPP connection to your ISP's Terminal Server. Your ISP has a local network at their site, which has, among other things, the server where you connect and a hardware device (T1-GW) attached to the ISP's Internet feed. The default routes for each of your machines will be: host default gateway interface Local2 Local1 Ethernet Local1 T1-GW PPP A common question is Why (or how) would we set the T1-GW to be the default gateway for Local1, rather than the ISP server it is connected to?. Remember, since the PPP interface is using an address on the ISP's local network for your side of the connection, routes for any other machines on the ISP's local network will be automatically generated. Hence, you will already know how to reach the T1-GW machine, so there is no need for the intermediate step of sending traffic to the ISP server. As a final note, it is common to use the address ...1 as the gateway address for your local network. So (using the same example), if your local class-C address space was 10.20.30 and your ISP was using 10.9.9 then the default routes would be: Local2 (10.20.30.2) --> Local1 (10.20.30.1) Local1 (10.20.30.1, 10.9.9.30) --> T1-GW (10.9.9.1) Dual homed hosts dual homed hosts There is one other type of configuration that we should cover, and that is a host that sits on two different networks. Technically, any machine functioning as a gateway (in the example above, using a PPP connection) counts as a dual-homed host. But the term is really only used to refer to a machine that sits on two local-area networks. In one case, the machine as two Ethernet cards, each having an address on the separate subnets. Alternately, the machine may only have one Ethernet card, and be using &man.ifconfig.8; aliasing. The former is used if two physically separate Ethernet networks are in use, the latter if there is one physical network segment, but two logically separate subnets. Either way, routing tables are set up so that each subnet knows that this machine is the defined gateway (inbound route) to the other subnet. This configuration, with the machine acting as a Bridge between the two subnets, is often used when we need to implement packet filtering or firewall security in either or both directions. Routing propagation routing propogation We have already talked about how we define our routes to the outside world, but not about how the outside world finds us. We already know that routing tables can be set up so that all traffic for a particular address space (in our examples, a class-C subnet) can be sent to a particular host on that network, which will forward the packets inbound. When you get an address space assigned to your site, your service provider will set up their routing tables so that all traffic for your subnet will be sent down your PPP link to your site. But how do sites across the country know to send to your ISP? There is a system (much like the distributed DNS information) that keeps track of all assigned address-spaces, and defines their point of connection to the Internet Backbone. The Backbone are the main trunk lines that carry Internet traffic across the country, and around the world. Each backbone machine has a copy of a master set of tables, which direct traffic for a particular network to a specific backbone carrier, and from there down the chain of service providers until it reaches your network. It is the task of your service provider to advertise to the backbone sites that they are the point of connection (and thus the path inward) for your site. This is known as route propagation. Troubleshooting traceroute Sometimes, there is a problem with routing propagation, and some sites are unable to connect to you. Perhaps the most useful command for trying to figure out where a routing is breaking down is the &man.traceroute.8; command. It is equally useful if you cannot seem to make a connection to a remote machine (i.e. &man.ping.8; fails). The &man.traceroute.8; command is run with the name of the remote host you are trying to connect to. It will show the gateway hosts along the path of the attempt, eventually either reaching the target host, or terminating because of a lack of connection. For more information, see the manual page for &man.traceroute.8;. Steve Peterson Written Bridging Introduction IP subnet bridge It is sometimes useful to divide one physical network (i.e., an Ethernet segment) into two separate network segments, without having to create IP subnets and use a router to connect the segments together. A device that connects two networks together in this fashion is called a bridge. and a FreeBSD system with two network interface cards can act as a bridge. The bridge works by learning the MAC layer addresses (i.e., Ethernet addresses) of the devices on each of its network interfaces. It forwards traffic between two networks only when its source and destination are on different networks. In many respects, a bridge is like an Ethernet switch with very few ports. Situations where bridging is appropriate There are two common situations in which a bridge is used today. High traffic on a segment Situation one is where your physical network segment is overloaded with traffic, but you don't want for whatever reason to subnet the network and interconnect the subnets with a router. Let's consider an example of a newspaper where the Editorial and Production departments are on the same subnetwork. The Editorial users all use server A for file service, and the Production users are on server B. An Ethernet is used to connect all users together, and high loads on the network are slowing things down. If the Editorial users could be segregated on one network segment and the Production users on another, the two network segments could be connected with a bridge. Only the network traffic destined for interfaces on the "other" side of the bridge would be sent to the other network, reducing congestion on each network segment. Filtering/traffic shaping firewall firewall IP Masquerading The second common situation is where firewall functionality is needed without IP Masquerading (NAT). An example is a small company that is connected via DSL or ISDN to their ISP. They have a 13 address global IP allocation for their ISP and have 10 PCs on their network. In this situation, using a router-based firewall is difficult because of subnetting issues. router DSL ISDN A bridge-based firewall can be configured and dropped into the path just downstream of their DSL/ISDN router without any IP numbering issues. Configuring a bridge Network interface card selection A bridge requires at least two network cards to function. Unfortunately, not all network interface cards as of FreeBSD 4.0 support bridging. Read &man.bridge.4; for details on the cards that are supported. Install and test the two network cards before continuing. Kernel configuration changes kernel configuration kernel configuration options BRIDGE To enable kernel support for bridging, add the options BRIDGE statement to your kernel configuration file, and rebuild your kernel. Firewall support firewall If you are planning to use the bridge as a firewall, you will need to add the IPFIREWALL option as well. Read for general information on configuring the bridge as a firewall. If you need to allow non-IP packets (such as ARP) to flow through the bridge, there is an undocumented firewall option that must be set. This option is IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT. Note that this changes the default rule for the firewall to accept any packet. Make sure you know how this changes the meaning of your ruleset before you set it. Traffic shaping support If you want to use the bridge as a traffic shaper, you will need to add the DUMMYNET option to your kernel configuration. Read &man.dummynet.4; for further information. Enabling the bridge Add the line net.link.ether.bridge=1 to /etc/sysctl.conf to enable the bridge at runtime. If you want the bridged packets to be filtered by &man.ipfw.8;, you should also add net.link.ether.bridge_ipfw=1 as well. Performance My bridge/firewall is a Pentium 90 with one 3Com 3C900B and one 3C905B. The protected side of the network runs at 10mbps half duplex and the connection between the bridge and my router (a Cisco 675) runs at 100mbps full duplex. With no filtering enabled, I've found that the bridge adds about 0.4 milliseconds of latency to pings from the protected 10mbps network to the Cisco 675. Other information If you want to be able to telnet into the bridge from the network, it is OK to assign one of the network cards an IP address. The consensus is that assigning both cards an address is a bad idea. If you have multiple bridges on your network, there cannot be more than one path between any two workstations. Technically, this means that there is no support for spanning tree link management. Bill Swingle Written NFS NFS Among the many different file systems that FreeBSD supports is a very unique type, the Network File System or NFS. NFS allows you to share directories and files on one machine with one or more other machines via the network they are attached to. Using NFS, users and programs can access files on remote systems as if they were local files. NFS has several benefits: Local workstations don't need as much disk space because commonly used data can be stored on a single machine and still remain accessible to everyone on the network. There is no need for users to have unique home directories on every machine on your network. Once they have an established directory that is available via NFS it can be accessed from anywhere. Storage devices such as floppies and CDROM drives can be used by other machines on the network eliminating the need for extra hardware. How It Works NFS is composed of two sides – a client side and a server side. Think of it as a want/have relationship. The client wants the data that the server side has. The server shares its data with the client. In order for this system to function properly a few processes have to be configured and running properly. The server has to be running the following daemons: NFS server portmap mountd nfsd nfsd - The NFS Daemon which services requests from NFS clients. mountd - The NFS Mount Daemon which actually carries out requests that &man.nfsd.8; passes on to it. portmap - The portmapper daemon which allows NFS clients to find out which port the NFS server is using. The client side only needs to run a single daemon: NFS client nfsiod nfsiod - The NFS async I/O Daemon which services requests from its NFS server. Configuring NFS NFS configuration Luckily for us, on a FreeBSD system this setup is a snap. The processes that need to be running can all be run at boot time with a few modifications to your /etc/rc.conf file. On the NFS server make sure you have: portmap_enable="YES" nfs_server_enable="YES" nfs_server_flags="-u -t -n 4" mountd_flags="-r" mountd is automatically run whenever the NFS server is enabled. The and flags to nfsd tell it to serve UDP and TCP clients. The flag tells nfsd to start 4 copies of itself. On the client, make sure you have: nfs_client_enable="YES" nfs_client_flags="-n 4" Like nfsd, the tells nfsiod to start 4 copies of itself. The last configuration step requires that you create a file called /etc/exports. The exports file specifies which file systems on your server will be shared (a.k.a., exported) and with what clients they will be shared. Each line in the file specifies a file system to be shared. There are a handful of options that can be used in this file but only a few will be mentioned here. You can find out about the rest in the &man.exports.5; man page. Here are a few example /etc/exports entries: NFS exporting filesystems The following line exports /cdrom to three silly machines that have the same domain name as the server (hence the lack of a domain name for each) or have entries in your /etc/hosts file. The flag makes the shared file system read-only. With this flag, the remote system will not be able to make any changes to the shared file system. /cdrom -ro moe larry curly The following line exports /home to three hosts by IP address. This is a useful setup if you have a private network but do not have DNS running. The flag allows all the directories below the specified file system to be exported as well. /home -alldirs 10.0.0.2 10.0.0.3 10.0.0.4 The following line exports /a to two machines that have different domain names than the server. The flag allows the root user on the remote system to write to the shared file system as root. Without the -maproot=0 flag even if someone has root access on the remote system they won't be able to modify files on the shared file system. /a -maproot=0 host.domain.com box.example.com In order for a client to share an exported file system it must have permission to do so. Make sure your client is listed in your /etc/exports file. It's important to remember that you must restart mountd whenever you modify /etc/exports so that your changes take effect. This can be accomplished by sending the hangup signal to the mountd process : &prompt.root; kill -HUP `cat /var/run/mountd.pid` Now that you have made all these changes you can just reboot and let FreeBSD start everything for you at boot time or you can run the following commands as root: On the NFS server: &prompt.root; portmap &prompt.root; nfsd -u -t -n 4 &prompt.root; mountd -r On the NFS client: &prompt.root; nfsiod -n 4 Now you should be ready to actually mount a remote file system. This can be done one of two ways. In these examples the server's name will be server and the client's name will be client. If you just want to temporarily mount a remote file system or just want to test out your config you can run a command like this as root on the client: NFS mounting filesystems &prompt.root; mount server:/home /mnt This will mount /home on the server on /mnt on the client. If everything is setup correctly you should be able to go into /mnt on the client and see all the files that are on the server. If you want to permanently (each time you reboot) mount a remote file system you need to add it to your /etc/fstab file. Here is an example line: server:/home /mnt nfs rw 0 0 Read the &man.fstab.5; man page for more options. Practical Uses There are many very cool uses for NFS. Some of the more common ones are listed below. NFS uses Have several machines on a network and share a CDROM or floppy drive among them. This is cheaper and often more convenient. With so many machines on a network, it gets old having your personal files strewn all over the place. You can have a central NFS server that houses all user home directories and shares them with the rest of the machines on the LAN, so no matter where you log in you will have the same home directory. When you get to reinstalling FreeBSD on one of your machines, NFS is the way to go! Just pop your distribution CDROM into your file server and away you go! Have a common /usr/ports/distfiles directory that all your machines share. That way, when you go to install a port that you've already installed on a different machine, you do not have to download the source all over again! John Lind Contributed Problems integrating with other systems Certain Ethernet adapters for ISA PC systems have limitations which can lead to serious network problems, particularly with NFS. This difficulty is not specific to FreeBSD, but FreeBSD systems are affected by it. The problem nearly always occurs when (FreeBSD) PC systems are networked with high-performance workstations, such as those made by Silicon Graphics, Inc., and Sun Microsystems, Inc. The NFS mount will work fine, and some operations may succeed, but suddenly the server will seem to become unresponsive to the client, even though requests to and from other systems continue to be processed. This happens to the client system, whether the client is the FreeBSD system or the workstation. On many systems, there is no way to shut down the client gracefully once this problem has manifested itself. The only solution is often to reset the client, because the NFS situation cannot be resolved. Though the correct solution is to get a higher performance and capacity Ethernet adapter for the FreeBSD system, there is a simple workaround that will allow satisfactory operation. If the FreeBSD system is the server, include the option on the mount from the client. If the FreeBSD system is the client, then mount the NFS file system with the option . These options may be specified using the fourth field of the fstab entry on the client for automatic mounts, or by using the parameter of the mount command for manual mounts. It should be noted that there is a different problem, sometimes mistaken for this one, when the NFS servers and clients are on different networks. If that is the case, make certain that your routers are routing the necessary UDP information, or you will not get anywhere, no matter what else you are doing. In the following examples, fastws is the host (interface) name of a high-performance workstation, and freebox is the host (interface) name of a FreeBSD system with a lower-performance Ethernet adapter. Also, /sharedfs will be the exported NFS filesystem (see man exports), and /project will be the mount point on the client for the exported file system. In all cases, note that additional options, such as or and may be desirable in your application. Examples for the FreeBSD system (freebox) as the client: in /etc/fstab on freebox: fastws:/sharedfs /project nfs rw,-r=1024 0 0 As a manual mount command on freebox: &prompt.root; mount -t nfs -o -r=1024 fastws:/sharedfs /project Examples for the FreeBSD system as the server: in /etc/fstab on fastws: freebox:/sharedfs /project nfs rw,-w=1024 0 0 As a manual mount command on fastws: &prompt.root; mount -t nfs -o -w=1024 freebox:/sharedfs /project Nearly any 16-bit Ethernet adapter will allow operation without the above restrictions on the read or write size. For anyone who cares, here is what happens when the failure occurs, which also explains why it is unrecoverable. NFS typically works with a block size of 8k (though it may do fragments of smaller sizes). Since the maximum Ethernet packet is around 1500 bytes, the NFS block gets split into multiple Ethernet packets, even though it is still a single unit to the upper-level code, and must be received, assembled, and acknowledged as a unit. The high-performance workstations can pump out the packets which comprise the NFS unit one right after the other, just as close together as the standard allows. On the smaller, lower capacity cards, the later packets overrun the earlier packets of the same unit before they can be transferred to the host and the unit as a whole cannot be reconstructed or acknowledged. As a result, the workstation will time out and try again, but it will try again with the entire 8K unit, and the process will be repeated, ad infinitum. By keeping the unit size below the Ethernet packet size limitation, we ensure that any complete Ethernet packet received can be acknowledged individually, avoiding the deadlock situation. Overruns may still occur when a high-performance workstations is slamming data out to a PC system, but with the better cards, such overruns are not guaranteed on NFS units. When an overrun occurs, the units affected will be retransmitted, and there will be a fair chance that they will be received, assembled, and acknowledged. Martin Renters Contributed Diskless Operation diskless workstation netboot.com/netboot.rom allow you to boot your FreeBSD machine over the network and run FreeBSD without having a disk on your client. Under 2.0 it is now possible to have local swap. Swapping over NFS is also still supported. Supported Ethernet cards include: Western Digital/SMC 8003, 8013, 8216 and compatibles; NE1000/NE2000 and compatibles (requires recompile) Setup Instructions Find a machine that will be your server. This machine will require enough disk space to hold the FreeBSD 2.0 binaries and have bootp, tftp and NFS services available. Tested machines: HP-UX HP9000/8xx running HP-UX 9.04 or later (pre 9.04 doesn't work) Solaris Sun/Solaris 2.3. (you may need to get bootp) Set up a bootp server to provide the client with IP address, gateway, netmask. diskless:\ :ht=ether:\ :ha=0000c01f848a:\ :sm=255.255.255.0:\ :hn:\ :ds=192.1.2.3:\ :ip=192.1.2.4:\ :gw=192.1.2.5:\ :vm=rfc1048: + TFTP + bootp - TFTP - bootp Set up a TFTP server (on same machine as bootp server) to provide booting information to client. The name of this file is cfg.X.X.X.X (or /tftpboot/cfg.X.X.X.X, it will try both) where X.X.X.X is the IP address of the client. The contents of this file can be any valid netboot commands. Under 2.0, netboot has the following commands: help print help list ip print/set client's IP address server print/set bootp/tftp server address netmask print/set netmask hostname name print/set hostname kernel print/set kernel name rootfs print/set root filesystem swapfs print/set swap filesystem swapsize set diskless swapsize in KBytes diskboot boot from disk autoboot continue boot process trans | turn transceiver on|off flags set boot flags A typical completely diskless config file might contain: rootfs 192.1.2.3:/rootfs/myclient swapfs 192.1.2.3:/swapfs swapsize 20000 hostname myclient.mydomain A config file for a machine with local swap might contain: rootfs 192.1.2.3:/rootfs/myclient hostname myclient.mydomain Ensure that your NFS server has exported the root (and swap if applicable) filesystems to your client, and that the client has root access to these filesystems A typical /etc/exports file on FreeBSD might look like: /rootfs/myclient -maproot=0:0 myclient.mydomain /swapfs -maproot=0:0 myclient.mydomain And on HP-UX: /rootfs/myclient -root=myclient.mydomain /swapfs -root=myclient.mydomain + + NFS + swapping over + - - NFS - swapping over - If you are swapping over NFS (completely diskless configuration) create a swap file for your client using dd. If your swapfs command has the arguments /swapfs and the size 20000 as in the example above, the swapfile for myclient will be called /swapfs/swap.X.X.X.X where X.X.X.X is the client's IP address, e.g.: &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/swapfs/swap.192.1.2.4 bs=1k count=20000 Also, the client's swap space might contain sensitive information once swapping starts, so make sure to restrict read and write access to this file to prevent unauthorized access: &prompt.root; chmod 0600 /swapfs/swap.192.1.2.4 Unpack the root filesystem in the directory the client will use for its root filesystem (/rootfs/myclient in the example above). On HP-UX systems: The server should be running HP-UX 9.04 or later for HP9000/800 series machines. Prior versions do not allow the creation of device files over NFS. When extracting /dev in /rootfs/myclient, beware that some systems (HPUX) will not create device files that FreeBSD is happy with. You may have to go to single user mode on the first bootup (press control-c during the bootup phase), cd /dev and do a sh ./MAKEDEV all from the client to fix this. Run netboot.com on the client or make an EPROM from the netboot.rom file Using Shared <filename>/</filename> and <filename>/usr</filename> filesystems Although this is not an officially sanctioned or supported way of doing this, some people report that it works quite well. If anyone has any suggestions on how to do this cleanly, please tell &a.doc;. Compiling netboot for specific setups Netboot can be compiled to support NE1000/2000 cards by changing the configuration in /sys/i386/boot/netboot/Makefile. See the comments at the top of this file. ISDN A good resource for information on ISDN technology and hardware is Dan Kegel's ISDN Page. A quick simple road map to ISDN follows: If you live in Europe you might want to investigate the ISDN card section. If you are planning to use ISDN primarily to connect to the Internet with an Internet Provider on a dial-up non-dedicated basis, you might look into Terminal Adapters. This will give you the most flexibility, with the fewest problems, if you change providers. If you are connecting two LANs together, or connecting to the Internet with a dedicated ISDN connection, you might consider the stand alone router/bridge option. Cost is a significant factor in determining what solution you will choose. The following options are listed from least expensive to most expensive. Hellmuth Michaelis Contributed ISDN Cards ISDN cards This section is really only relevant to ISDN users in countries where the DSS1/Q.931 ISDN standard is supported. Some growing number of PC ISDN cards are supported under FreeBSD 2.2.X and up by the isdn4bsd driver package. It is still under development but the reports show that it is successfully used all over Europe. isdn4bsd The latest isdn4bsd version is available from ftp://isdn4bsd@ftp.consol.de/pub/, the main isdn4bsd FTP site (you have to log in as user isdn4bsd , give your mail address as the password and change to the pub directory. Anonymous FTP as user ftp or anonymous will not give the desired result). Isdn4bsd allows you to connect to other ISDN routers using either IP over raw HDLC or by using synchronous PPP. A telephone answering machine application is also available. Many ISDN PC cards are supported, mostly the ones with a Siemens ISDN chipset (ISAC/HSCX), support for other chipsets (from Motorola, Cologne Chip Designs) is currently under development. For an up-to-date list of supported cards, please have a look at the README file. In case you are interested in adding support for a different ISDN protocol, a currently unsupported ISDN PC card or otherwise enhancing isdn4bsd, please get in touch with hm@kts.org. A majordomo maintained mailing list is available. To join the list, send mail to &a.majordomo; and specify: subscribe freebsd-isdn in the body of your message. ISDN Terminal Adapters Terminal adapters(TA), are to ISDN what modems are to regular phone lines. modem Most TA's use the standard hayes modem AT command set, and can be used as a drop in replacement for a modem. A TA will operate basically the same as a modem except connection and throughput speeds will be much faster than your old modem. You will need to configure PPP exactly the same as for a modem setup. Make sure you set your serial speed as high as possible. PPP The main advantage of using a TA to connect to an Internet Provider is that you can do Dynamic PPP. As IP address space becomes more and more scarce, most providers are not willing to provide you with a static IP anymore. Most stand-alone routers are not able to accommodate dynamic IP allocation. TA's completely rely on the PPP daemon that you are running for their features and stability of connection. This allows you to upgrade easily from using a modem to ISDN on a FreeBSD machine, if you already have PPP setup. However, at the same time any problems you experienced with the PPP program and are going to persist. If you want maximum stability, use the kernel PPP option, not the user-land iijPPP. The following TA's are know to work with FreeBSD. Motorola BitSurfer and Bitsurfer Pro Adtran Most other TA's will probably work as well, TA vendors try to make sure their product can accept most of the standard modem AT command set. The real problem with external TA's is like modems you need a good serial card in your computer. You should read the FreeBSD Serial Hardware tutorial for a detailed understanding of serial devices, and the differences between asynchronous and synchronous serial ports. A TA running off a standard PC serial port (asynchronous) limits you to 115.2Kbs, even though you have a 128Kbs connection. To fully utilize the 128Kbs that ISDN is capable of, you must move the TA to a synchronous serial card. Do not be fooled into buying an internal TA and thinking you have avoided the synchronous/asynchronous issue. Internal TA's simply have a standard PC serial port chip built into them. All this will do, is save you having to buy another serial cable, and find another empty electrical socket. A synchronous card with a TA is at least as fast as a stand-alone router, and with a simple 386 FreeBSD box driving it, probably more flexible. The choice of sync/TA v.s. stand-alone router is largely a religious issue. There has been some discussion of this in the mailing lists. I suggest you search the archives for the complete discussion. Stand-alone ISDN Bridges/Routers ISDN stand-alone bridges/routers ISDN bridges or routers are not at all specific to FreeBSD or any other operating system. For a more complete description of routing and bridging technology, please refer to a Networking reference book. In the context of this page, the terms router and bridge will be used interchangeably. As the cost of low end ISDN routers/bridges comes down, it will likely become a more and more popular choice. An ISDN router is a small box that plugs directly into your local Ethernet network(or card), and manages its own connection to the other bridge/router. It has all the software to do PPP and other protocols built in. A router will allow you much faster throughput that a standard TA, since it will be using a full synchronous ISDN connection. The main problem with ISDN routers and bridges is that interoperability between manufacturers can still be a problem. If you are planning to connect to an Internet provider, you should discuss your needs with them. If you are planning to connect two LAN segments together, ie: home LAN to the office LAN, this is the simplest lowest maintenance solution. Since you are buying the equipment for both sides of the connection you can be assured that the link will work. For example to connect a home computer or branch office network to a head office network the following setup could be used. Branch office or Home network 10 base 2 Network uses a bus based topology with 10 base 2 Ethernet ("thinnet"). Connect router to network cable with AUI/10BT transceiver, if necessary. ---Sun workstation | ---FreeBSD box | ---Windows 95 (Do not admit to owning it) | Stand-alone router | ISDN BRI line 10 Base 2 Ethernet If your home/branch office is only one computer you can use a twisted pair crossover cable to connect to the stand-alone router directly. Head office or other LAN 10 base T Network uses a star topology with 10 base T Ethernet ("Twisted Pair"). -------Novell Server | H | | ---Sun | | | U ---FreeBSD | | | ---Windows 95 | B | |___---Stand-alone router | ISDN BRI line ISDN Network Diagram One large advantage of most routers/bridges is that they allow you to have 2 separate independent PPP connections to 2 separate sites at the same time. This is not supported on most TA's, except for specific(expensive) models that have two serial ports. Do not confuse this with channel bonding, MPP etc. This can be very useful feature, for example if you have an dedicated ISDN connection at your office and would like to tap into it, but don't want to get another ISDN line at work. A router at the office location can manage a dedicated B channel connection (64Kbs) to the Internet, as well as a use the other B channel for a separate data connection. The second B channel can be used for dial-in, dial-out or dynamically bond(MPP etc.) with the first B channel for more bandwidth. IPX/SPX An Ethernet bridge will also allow you to transmit more than just IP traffic, you can also send IPX/SPX or whatever other protocols you use. Bill Swingle Written Eric Ogren Enahanced Udo Erdelhoff Enhanced NIS/YP What is it? NIS Solaris HP-UX AIX Linux NetBSD OpenBSD NIS, which stands for Network Information Services, was developed by Sun Microsystems to centralize administration of Unix (originally SunOS) systems. It has now essentially become an industry standard; all major Unix systems (Solaris, HP-UX, AIX, Linux, NetBSD, OpenBSD, FreeBSD, etc) support NIS. yellow pagesNIS NIS was formerly known as Yellow Pages (or yp), but due to copyright violations, Sun was forced to change the name. NIS domains It is a RPC-based client/server system that allows a group of machines within an NIS domain to share a common set of configuration files. This permits a system administrator to set up NIS client systems with only minimal configuration data and add, remove or modify configuration data from a single location. Windows NT It is similar to Windows NT's domain system; although the internal implementation of the two aren't at all similar, the basic functionality can be compared. Terms/processes you should know There are several terms and several important user processes that you will come across when attempting to implement NIS on FreeBSD, whether you are trying to create an NIS server or act an NIS client: The NIS domainname. An NIS master server and all of its clients (including its slave servers) have a NIS domainname. Similar to an NT domain name, the NIS domainname does not have anything to do with DNS. portmap portmap. portmap must be running in order to enable RPC (Remote Procedure Call, a network protocol used by NIS). If portmap is not running, it will be impossible to run an NIS server, or to act as an NIS client. ypbind. ypbind “binds” an NIS client to its NIS server. It will take the NIS domainname from the system, and using RPC, connect to the server. ypbind is the core of client-server communication in an NIS environment; if ypbind dies on a client machine, it will not be able to access the NIS server. ypserv. ypserv, which should only be running on NIS servers, is the NIS server process itself. If &man.ypserv.8; dies, then the server will no longer be able to respond to NIS requests (hopefully, there is a slave server to take over for it). There are some implementations of NIS (but not the FreeBSD one), that don't try to reconnect to another server if the server it used before dies. Often, the only thing that helps in this case is to restart the server process (or even the whole server) or the ypbind process on the client. rpc.yppasswdd. rpc.yppasswdd, another process that should only be running on NIS master servers, is a daemon that will allow NIS clients to change their NIS passwords. If this daemon is not running, users will have to login to the NIS master server and change their passwords there. How does it work? There are three types of hosts in an NIS environment; master servers, slave servers, and clients. Servers act as a central repository for host configuration information. Master servers hold the authoritative copy of this information, while slave servers mirror this information for redundancy. Clients rely on the servers to provide this information to them. Information in many files can be shared in this manner. The master.passwd, group, and hosts files are commonly shared via NIS. Whenever a process on a client needs information that would normally be found in these files locally, it makes a query to the server it is bound to, to get this information. Machine types NIS master server A NIS master server. This server, analogous to a Windows NT primary domain controller, maintains the files used by all of the NIS clients. The passwd, group, and other various files used by the NIS clients live on the master server. It is possible for one machine to be an NIS master server for more than one NIS domain. However, this will not be covered in this introduction, which assumes a relatively small-scale NIS environment. NIS slave server NIS slave servers. Similar to NT's backup domain controllers, NIS slave servers maintain copies of the NIS master's data files. NIS slave servers provide the redundancy, which is needed in important environments. They also help to balance the load of the master server: NIS Clients always attach to the NIS server whose response they get first, and this includes slave-server-replies. NIS client NIS clients. NIS clients, like most NT workstations, authenticate against the NIS server (or the NT domain controller in the NT Workstation case) to log on. Using NIS/YP This section will deal with setting up a sample NIS environment. This section assumes that you are running FreeBSD 3.3 or later. The instructions given here will probably work for any version of FreeBSD greater than 3.0, but there are no guarantees that this is true. Planning Let's assume that you are the administrator of a small university lab. This lab, which consists of 15 FreeBSD machines, currently has no centralized point of administration; each machine has its own /etc/passwd and /etc/master.passwd. These files are kept in sync with each other only through manual intervention; currently, when you add a user to the lab, you must run adduser on all 15 machines. Clearly, this has to change, so you have decided to convert the lab to use NIS, using two of the machines as servers. Therefore, the configuration of the lab now looks something like: Machine name IP address Machine role ellington 10.0.0.2 NIS master coltrane 10.0.0.3 NIS slave basie 10.0.0.4 Faculty workstation bird 10.0.0.5 Client machine cli[1-11] 10.0.0.[6-17] Other client machines If you are setting up a NIS scheme for the first time, it is a good idea to think through how you want to go about it. No matter what the size of your network, there are a few decisions that need to be made. Choosing a NIS Domain Name NIS domainname This might not be the domainname that you are used to. It is more accurately called the NIS domainname. When a client broadcasts its requests for info, it includes the name of the NIS domain that it is part of. This is how multiple servers on one network can tell which server should answer which request. Think of the NIS domainname as the name for a group of hosts that are related in some way. Some organizations choose to use their Internet domainname for their NIS domainname. This is not recommended as it can cause confusion when trying to debug network problems. The NIS domainname should be unique within your network and it is helpful if it describes the group of machines it represents. For example, the Art department at Acme Inc. might be in the "acme-art" NIS domain. For this example, assume you have chosen the name test-domain. SunOS However, some operating systems (notably SunOS) use their NIS domain name as their Internet domain name. If one or more machines on your network have this restriction, you must use the Internet domain name as your NIS domain name. Physical Server Requirements There are several things to keep in mind when choosing a machine to use as a NIS server. One of the unfortunate things about NIS is the level of dependency the clients have on the server. If a client cannot contact the server for its NIS domain, very often the machine becomes unusable. The lack of user and group information causes most systems to temporarily freeze up. With this in mind you should make sure to choose a machine that won't be prone to being rebooted regularly, or one that might be used for development. The NIS server should ideally be a stand alone machine whose sole purpose in life is to be an NIS server. If you have a network that is not very heavily used, it is acceptable to put the NIS server on a machine running other services, just keep in mind that if the NIS server becomes unavailable, it will affect all of your NIS clients adversely. NIS Servers The canonical copies of all NIS information are stored on a single machine called the NIS master server. The databases used to store the information are called NIS maps. In FreeBSD, these maps are stored in /var/yp/[domainname] where [domainname] is the name of the NIS domain being served. A single NIS server can support several domains at once, therefore it is possible to have several such directories, one for each supported domain. Each domain will have its own independent set of maps. NIS master and slave servers handle all NIS requests with the ypserv daemon. Ypserv is responsible for receiving incoming requests from NIS clients, translating the requested domain and map name to a path to the corresponding database file and transmitting data from the database back to the client. Setting up a NIS master server NIS server configuration Setting up a master NIS server can be relatively straight forward, depending on your needs. FreeBSD comes with support for NIS out-of-the-box. All you need is to add the following lines to /etc/rc.conf, and FreeBSD will do the rest for you. nisdomainname="test-domain" This line will set the NIS domainname to test-domain upon network setup (e.g. after reboot). nis_server_enable="YES" This will tell FreeBSD to start up the NIS server processes when the networking is next brought up. nis_yppasswdd_enable="YES" This will enable the rpc.yppasswdd daemon, which, as mentioned above, will allow users to change their NIS password from a client machine. Now, all you have to do is to run the command /etc/netstart as superuser. It will setup everything for you, using the values you defined in /etc/rc.conf. Initializing the NIS maps - NIS maps + + NIS + maps + The NIS maps are database files, that are kept in the /var/yp directory. They are generated from configuration files in the /etc directory of the NIS master, with one exception: the /etc/master.passwd file. This is for a good reason; you don't want to propagate passwords to your root and other administrative accounts to all the servers in the NIS domain. Therefore, before we initialize the NIS maps, you should: &prompt.root; cp /etc/master.passwd /var/yp/master.passwd &prompt.root; cd /var/yp &prompt.root; vi master.passwd You should remove all entries regarding system accounts (bin, tty, kmem, games, etc), as well as any accounts that you don't want to be propagated to the NIS clients (for example root and any other UID 0 (superuser) accounts). Make sure the /var/yp/master.passwd is neither group nor world readable (mode 600)! Use the chmod command, if appropriate. Tru64 Unix When you have finished, it's time to initialize the NIS maps! FreeBSD includes a script named ypinit to do this for you (see its man page for more information). Note that this script is available on most Unix OSs, but not on all. On Digital Unix/Compaq Tru64 Unix it is called ypsetup. Because we are generating maps for an NIS master, we are going to pass the option to ypinit. To generate the NIS maps, assuming you already performed the steps above, run: ellington&prompt.root; ypinit -m test-domain Server Type: MASTER Domain: test-domain Creating an YP server will require that you answer a few questions. Questions will all be asked at the beginning of the procedure. Do you want this procedure to quit on non-fatal errors? [y/n: n] n Ok, please remember to go back and redo manually whatever fails. If you don't, something might not work. At this point, we have to construct a list of this domains YP servers. rod.darktech.org is already known as master server. Please continue to add any slave servers, one per line. When you are done with the list, type a <control D>. master server : ellington next host to add: coltrane next host to add: ^D The current list of NIS servers looks like this: ellington coltrane Is this correct? [y/n: y] y [..output from map generation..] NIS Map update completed. ellington has been setup as an YP master server without any errors. ypinit should have created /var/yp/Makefile from /var/yp/Makefile.dist. When created, this file assumes that you are operating in a single server NIS environment with only FreeBSD machines. Since test-domain has a slave server as well, you must edit /var/yp/Makefile: ellington&prompt.root; vi /var/yp/Makefile You should comment out the line that says `NOPUSH = "True"' (if it is not commented out already). Setting up a NIS slave server NIS configuring a slave server Setting up an NIS slave server is even more simple than setting up the master. Log on to the slave server and edit the file /etc/rc.conf as you did before. The only difference is that we now must use the option when running ypinit. The option requires the name of the NIS master be passed to it as well, so our command line looks like: coltrane&prompt.root; ypinit -s ellington test-domain Server Type: SLAVE Domain: test-domain Master: ellington Creating an YP server will require that you answer a few questions. Questions will all be asked at the beginning of the procedure. Do you want this procedure to quit on non-fatal errors? [y/n: n] n Ok, please remember to go back and redo manually whatever fails. If you don't, something might not work. There will be no further questions. The remainder of the procedure should take a few minutes, to copy the databases from ellington. Transferring netgroup... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring netgroup.byuser... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring netgroup.byhost... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring master.passwd.byuid... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring passwd.byuid... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring passwd.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring group.bygid... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring group.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring services.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring rpc.bynumber... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring rpc.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring protocols.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring master.passwd.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring networks.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring networks.byaddr... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring netid.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring hosts.byaddr... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring protocols.bynumber... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring ypservers... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring hosts.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred coltrane has been setup as an YP slave server without any errors. Don't forget to update map ypservers on ellington. You should now have a directory called /var/yp/test-domain. Copies of the NIS master server's maps should be in this directory. You will need to make sure that these stay updated. The following /etc/crontab entries on your slave servers should do the job: 20 * * * * root /usr/libexec/ypxfr passwd.byname 21 * * * * root /usr/libexec/ypxfr passwd.byuid These two lines force the slave to sync its maps with the maps on the master server. Although this is not mandatory, because the master server tries to make sure any changes to its NIS maps are communicated to its slaves, the password information is so vital to systems that depend on the server, that it is a good idea to force the updates. This is more important on busy networks where map updates might not always complete. Now, run the command /etc/netstart on the slave server as well, which again starts the NIS server. NIS Clients An NIS client establishes what is called a binding to a particular NIS server using the ypbind daemon. ypbind checks the system's default domain (as set by the domainname command), and begins broadcasting RPC requests on the local network. These requests specify the name of the domain for which ypbind is attempting to establish a binding. If a server that has been configured to serve the requested domain receives one of the broadcasts, it will respond to ypbind, which will record the server's address. If there are several servers available (a master and several slaves, for example), ypbind will use the address of the first one to respond. From that point on, the client system will direct all of its NIS requests to that server. Ypbind will occasionally ping the server to make sure it is still up and running. If it fails to receive a reply to one of its pings within a reasonable amount of time, ypbind will mark the domain as unbound and begin broadcasting again in the hopes of locating another server. Setting up an NIS client NIS client configuration Setting up a FreeBSD machine to be a NIS client is fairly straightforward. Edit the file /etc/rc.conf and add the following lines in order to set the NIS domainname and start ypbind upon network startup: nisdomainname="test-domain" nis_client_enable="YES" To import all possible password entries from the NIS server, add this line to your /etc/master.passwd file, using vipw: +::::::::: This line will afford anyone with a valid account in the NIS server's password maps an account. There are many ways to configure your NIS client by changing this line. See the netgroups part below for more information. For more detailed reading see O'Reilly's book on Managing NFS and NIS. To import all possible group entries from the NIS server, add this line to your /etc/group file: +:*:: After completing these steps, you should be able to run ypcat passwd and see the NIS server's passwd map. NIS Security In general, any remote user can issue an RPC to &man.ypserv.8; and retrieve the contents of your NIS maps, provided the remote user knows your domainname. To prevent such unauthorized transactions, &man.ypserv.8; supports a feature called securenets which can be used to restrict access to a given set of hosts. At startup, &man.ypserv.8; will attempt to load the securenets information from a file called /var/yp/securenets. This path varies depending on the path specified with the option. This file contains entries that consist of a network specification and a network mask separated by white space. Lines starting with # are considered to be comments. A sample securenets file might look like this: # allow connections from local host -- mandatory 127.0.0.1 255.255.255.255 # allow connections from any host # on the 192.168.128.0 network 192.168.128.0 255.255.255.0 # allow connections from any host # between 10.0.0.0 to 10.0.15.255 # this includes the machines in the testlab 10.0.0.0 255.255.240.0 If &man.ypserv.8; receives a request from an address that matches one of these rules, it will process the request normally. If the address fails to match a rule, the request will be ignored and a warning message will be logged. If the /var/yp/securenets file does not exist, ypserv will allow connections from any host. The ypserv program also has support for Wietse Venema's tcpwrapper package. This allows the administrator to use the tcpwrapper configuration files for access control instead of /var/yp/securenets. While both of these access control mechanisms provide some security, they, like the privileged port test, are vulnerable to IP spoofing attacks. All NIS-related traffic should be blocked at your firewall. Servers using /var/yp/securenets may fail to serve legitimate NIS clients with archaic TCP/IP implementations. Some of these implementations set all host bits to zero when doing broadcasts and/or fail to observe the subnet mask when calculating the broadcast address. While some of these problems can be fixed by changing the client configuration, other problems may force the retirement of the client systems in question or the abandonment of /var/yp/securenets. Using /var/yp/securenets on a server with such an archaic implementation of TCP/IP is a really bad idea and will lead to loss of NIS functionality for large parts of your network. tcpwrapper The use of the tcpwrapper package increases the latency of your NIS server. The additional delay may be long enough to cause timeouts in client programs, especially in busy networks or with slow NIS servers. If one or more of your client systems suffers from these symptoms, you should convert the client systems in question into NIS slave servers and force them to bind to themselves. Barring some users from logging on In our lab, there is a machine basie that is supposed to be a faculty only workstation. We don't want to take this machine out of the NIS domain, yet the passwd file on the master NIS server contains accounts for both faculty and students. What can we do? There is a way to bar specific users from logging on to a machine, even if they are present in the NIS database. To do this, all you must do is add -username to the end of the /etc/master.passwd file on the client machine, where username is the username of the user you wish to bar from logging in. This should preferably be done using vipw, since vipw will sanity check your changes to /etc/master.passwd, as well as automatically rebuild the password database when you finish editing. For example, if we wanted to bar user bill from logging on to basie we would: basie&prompt.root; vipw [add -bill to the end, exit] vipw: rebuilding the database... vipw: done basie&prompt.root; cat /etc/master.passwd root:[password]:0:0::0:0:The super-user:/root:/bin/csh toor:[password]:0:0::0:0:The other super-user:/root:/bin/sh daemon:*:1:1::0:0:Owner of many system processes:/root:/sbin/nologin operator:*:2:5::0:0:System &:/:/sbin/nologin bin:*:3:7::0:0:Binaries Commands and Source,,,:/:/sbin/nologin tty:*:4:65533::0:0:Tty Sandbox:/:/sbin/nologin kmem:*:5:65533::0:0:KMem Sandbox:/:/sbin/nologin games:*:7:13::0:0:Games pseudo-user:/usr/games:/sbin/nologin news:*:8:8::0:0:News Subsystem:/:/sbin/nologin man:*:9:9::0:0:Mister Man Pages:/usr/share/man:/sbin/nologin bind:*:53:53::0:0:Bind Sandbox:/:/sbin/nologin uucp:*:66:66::0:0:UUCP pseudo-user:/var/spool/uucppublic:/usr/libexec/uucp/uucico xten:*:67:67::0:0:X-10 daemon:/usr/local/xten:/sbin/nologin pop:*:68:6::0:0:Post Office Owner:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin nobody:*:65534:65534::0:0:Unprivileged user:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin +::::::::: -bill basie&prompt.root; Udo Erdelhoff Contributed Using netgroups netgroups The method shown in the previous chapter works reasonably well if you need special rules for a very small number of users and/or machines. On larger networks, you will forget to bar some users from logging onto sensitive machines, or you may even have to modify each machine separately, thus losing the main benefit of NIS, centralized administration. The NIS developers' solution for this problem is called netgroups. Their purpose and semantics can be compared to the normal groups used by Unix file systems. The main differences are the lack of a numeric id and the ability to define a netgroup by including both user accounts and other netgroups. Netgroups were developed to handle large, complex networks with hundreds of users and machines. On one hand, this is a Good Thing if you are forced to deal with such a situation. On the other hand, this complexity makes it almost impossible to explain netgroups with really simple examples. The example used in the remainder of this chapter demonstrates this problem. Let us assume that your successful introduction of NIS in your laboratory caught your superiors' interest. Your next job is to extend your NIS domain to cover some of the other machines on campus. The two tables contain the names of the new users and new machines as well as brief descriptions of them. User Name(s) Description alpha, beta Normal employees of the IT department charlie, delta The new apprentices of the IT department echo, foxtrott, golf, ... Ordinary employees able, baker, ... The current interns Machine Name(s) Description war, death, famine, pollution Your most important servers. Only the IT employees are allowed to log onto these machines. pride, greed, envy, wrath, lust, sloth Less important servers. All members of the IT department are allowed to login onto these machines. one, two, three, four, ... Ordinary workstations. Only the real employees are allowed to use these machines. trashcan A very old machine without any critical data. Even the intern is allowed to use this box. If you tried to implement these restrictions by separately blocking each user, you would have to add one -user line to each system's passwd for each user who is not allowed to login onto that system. If you forget just one entry, you could be in trouble. It may be feasible to do this correctly during the initial setup, however you will eventually forget to add the lines for new users during day-to-day operations. After all, Murphy was an optimist. Handling this situation with netgroups offers several advantages. Each user need not be handled separately; you assign a user to one or more netgroups and allow or forbid logins for all members of the netgroup. If you add a new machine, you will only have to define login restrictions for netgroups. If a new user is added, you will only have to add the user to one or more netgroups. Those changes are independent of each other; no more for each combination of user and machine do... If your NIS setup is planned carefully, you will only have to modify exactly one central configuration file to grant or deny access to machines. The first step is the initialization of the NIS map netgroup. FreeBSD's &man.ypinit.8; does not create this map by default, but its NIS implementation will support it once it has been created. To create an empty map, simply type ellington&prompt.root; vi /var/yp/netgroup and start adding content. For our example, we need at least four netgroups: IT employees, IT apprentices, normal employees and interns. IT_EMP (,alpha,test-domain) (,beta,test-domain) IT_APP (,charlie,test-domain) (,delta,test-domain) USERS (,echo,test-domain) (,foxtrott,test-domain) \ (,golf,test-domain) INTERNS (,able,test-domain) (,baker,test-domain) IT_EMP, IT_APP etc. are the names of the netgroups. Each bracketed group adds one or more user accounts to it. The three fields inside a group are: The name of the host(s) where the following items are valid. If you do not specify a hostname, the entry is valid on all hosts. If you do specify a hostname, you will enter a realm of darkness, horror and utter confusion. The name of the account that belongs to this netgroup. The NIS domain for the account. You can import accounts from other NIS domains into your netgroup if you are one of unlucky fellows with more than one NIS domain. Each of these fields can contain wildcards. See &man.netgroup.5; for details. netgroups Netgroup names longer than 8 characters should not be used, especially if you have machines running other operating systems within your NIS domain. The names are case sensitive; using capital letters for your netgroup names is an easy way to distinguish between user, machine and netgroup names. Some NIS clients (other than FreeBSD) cannot handle netgroups with a large number of entries. For example, some older versions of SunOS start to cause trouble if a netgroup contains more than 15 entries. You can circumvent this limit by creating several sub-netgroups with 15 users or less and a real netgroup that consists of the sub-netgroups: BIGGRP1 (,joe1,domain) (,joe2,domain) (,joe3,domain) [...] BIGGRP2 (,joe16,domain) (,joe17,domain) [...] BIGGRP3 (,joe31,domain) (,joe32,domain) BIGGROUP BIGGRP1 BIGGRP2 BIGGRP3 You can repeat this process if you need more than 225 users within a single netgroup. Activating and distributing your new NIS map is easy: ellington&prompt.root; cd /var/yp ellington&prompt.root; make This will generate the three NIS maps netgroup, netgroup.byhost and netgroup.byuser. Use &man.ypcat.1; to check if your new NIS maps are available: ellington&prompt.user; ypcat -k netgroup ellington&prompt.user; ypcat -k netgroup.byhost ellington&prompt.user; ypcat -k netgroup.byuser The output of the first command should resemble the contents of /var/yp/netgroup. The second command will not produce output if you have not specified host-specific netgroups. The third command can be used to get the list of netgroups for a user. The client setup is quite simple. To configure the server war, you only have to start &man.vipw.8; and replace the line +::::::::: with +@IT_EMP::::::::: Now, only the data for the users defined in the netgroup IT_EMP is imported into war's password database and only these users are allowed to login. Unfortunately, this limitation also applies to the ~ function of the shell and all routines converting between user names and numerical user ids. In other words, cd ~user will not work, ls -l will show the numerical id instead of the username and find . -user joe -print will fail with No such user. To fix this, you will have to import all user entries without allowing them to login onto your servers. This can be achieved by adding another line to /etc/master.passwd. This line should contain +:::::::::/sbin/nologin, meaning Import all entries but replace the shell with /sbin/nologin in the imported entries. You can replace any field in the passwd entry by placing a default value in your /etc/master.passwd. Make sure that the line +:::::::::/sbin/nologin is placed after +@IT_EMP:::::::::. Otherwise, all user accounts imported from NIS will have /sbin/nologin as their login shell. After this change, you will only have to change one NIS map if a new employee joins the IT department. You could use a similar approach for the less important servers by replacing the old +::::::::: in their local version of /etc/master.passwd with something like this: +@IT_EMP::::::::: +@IT_APP::::::::: +:::::::::/sbin/nologin The corresponding lines for the normal workstations could be: +@IT_EMP::::::::: +@USERS::::::::: +:::::::::/sbin/nologin And everything would be fine until there is a policy change a few weeks later: The IT department starts hiring interns. The IT interns are allowed to use the normal workstations and the less important servers; and the IT apprentices are allowed to login onto the main servers. You add a new netgroup IT_INTERN, add the new IT interns to this netgroup and start to change the config on each and every machine... As the old saying goes: Errors in centralized planning lead to global mess. NIS' ability to create netgroups from other netgroups can be used to prevent situations like these. One possibility is the creation of role-based netgroups. For example, you could create a netgroup called BIGSRV to define the login restrictions for the important servers, another netgroup called SMALLSRV for the less important servers and a third netgroup called USERBOX for the normal workstations. Each of these netgroups contains the netgroups that are allowed to login onto these machines. The new entries for your NIS map netgroup should look like this: BIGSRV IT_EMP IT_APP SMALLSRV IT_EMP IT_APP ITINTERN USERBOX IT_EMP ITINTERN USERS This method of defining login restrictions works reasonably well if you can define groups of machines with identical restrictions. Unfortunately, this is the exception and not the rule. Most of the time, you will need the ability to define login restrictions on a per-machine basis. Machine-specific netgroup definitions are the other possibility to deal with the policy change outlined above. In this scenario, the /etc/master.passwd of each box contains two lines starting with ``+''. The first of them adds a netgroup with the accounts allowed to login onto this machine, the second one adds all other accounts with /sbin/nologin as shell. It is a good idea to use the ALL-CAPS version of the machine name as the name of the netgroup. In other words, the lines should look like this: +@BOXNAME::::::::: +:::::::::/sbin/nologin Once you have completed this task for all your machines, you will not have to modify the local versions of /etc/master.passwd ever again. All further changes can be handled by modifying the NIS map. Here is an example of a possible netgroup map for this scenario with some additional goodies. # Define groups of users first IT_EMP (,alpha,test-domain) (,beta,test-domain) IT_APP (,charlie,test-domain) (,delta,test-domain) DEPT1 (,echo,test-domain) (,foxtrott,test-domain) DEPT2 (,golf,test-domain) (,hotel,test-domain) DEPT3 (,india,test-domain) (,juliet,test-domain) ITINTERN (,kilo,test-domain) (,lima,test-domain) D_INTERNS (,able,test-domain) (,baker,test-domain) # # Now, define some groups based on roles USERS DEPT1 DEPT2 DEPT3 BIGSRV IT_EMP IT_APP SMALLSRV IT_EMP IT_APP ITINTERN USERBOX IT_EMP ITINTERN USERS # # And a groups for a special tasks # Allow echo and golf to access our anti-virus-machine SECURITY IT_EMP (,echo,test-domain) (,golf,test-domain) # # machine-based netgroups # Our main servers WAR BIGSRV FAMINE BIGSRV # User india needs access to this server POLLUTION BIGSRV (,india,test-domain) # # This one is really important and needs more access restrictions DEATH IT_EMP # # The anti-virus-machine mentioned above ONE SECURITY # # Restrict a machine to a single user TWO (,hotel,test-domain) # [...more groups to follow] If you are using some kind of database to manage your user accounts, you should be able to create the first part of the map with your database's report tools. This way, new users will automatically have access to the boxes. One last word of caution: It may not always be advisable to use machine-based netgroups. If you are deploying a couple dozen or even hundreds of identical machines for student labs, you should use role-based netgroups instead of machine-based netgroups to keep the size of the NIS map within reasonable limits. Important things to remember There are still a couple of things that you will need to do differently now that you are in an NIS environment. Every time you wish to add a user to the lab, you must add it to the master NIS server only, and you must remember to rebuild the NIS maps. If you forget to do this, the new user will not be able to login anywhere except on the NIS master. For example, if we needed to add a new user “jsmith” to the lab, we would: &prompt.root; pw useradd jsmith &prompt.root; cd /var/yp &prompt.root; make test-domain You could also run adduser jsmith instead of pw useradd jsmith. Keep the administration accounts out of the NIS maps. You don't want to be propagating administrative accounts and passwords to machines that will have users that shouldn't have access to those accounts. Keep the NIS master and slave secure, and minimize their downtime. If somebody either hacks or simply turns off these machines, they have effectively rendered many people without the ability to login to the lab. This is the chief weakness of any centralized administration system, and it is probably the most important weakness. If you do not protect your NIS servers, you will have a lot of angry users! NIS v1 compatibility FreeBSD's ypserv has some support for serving NIS v1 clients. FreeBSD's NIS implementation only uses the NIS v2 protocol, however other implementations include support for the v1 protocol for backwards compatibility with older systems. The ypbind daemons supplied with these systems will try to establish a binding to an NIS v1 server even though they may never actually need it (and they may persist in broadcasting in search of one even after they receive a response from a v2 server). Note that while support for normal client calls is provided, this version of ypserv does not handle v1 map transfer requests; consequently, it cannot be used as a master or slave in conjunction with older NIS servers that only support the v1 protocol. Fortunately, there probably are not any such servers still in use today. NIS servers that are also NIS clients Care must be taken when running ypserv in a multi-server domain where the server machines are also NIS clients. It is generally a good idea to force the servers to bind to themselves rather than allowing them to broadcast bind requests and possibly become bound to each other. Strange failure modes can result if one server goes down and others are dependent upon on it. Eventually all the clients will time out and attempt to bind to other servers, but the delay involved can be considerable and the failure mode is still present since the servers might bind to each other all over again. You can force a host to bind to a particular server by running ypbind with the flag. libscrypt v.s. libdescrypt NIS crypto library One of the most common issues that people run into when trying to implement NIS is crypt library compatibility. If your NIS server is using the DES crypt libraries, it will only support clients that are using DES as well. To check which one your server and clients are using look at the symlinks in /usr/lib. If the machine is configured to use the DES libraries, it will look something like this: &prompt.user; ls -l /usr/lib/*crypt* lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 13 Jul 15 08:55 libcrypt.a@ -> libdescrypt.a lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 14 Jul 15 08:55 libcrypt.so@ -> libdescrypt.so lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 16 Jul 15 08:55 libcrypt.so.2@ -> libdescrypt.so.2 lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 15 Jul 15 08:55 libcrypt_p.a@ -> libdescrypt_p.a -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 13018 Nov 8 14:27 libdescrypt.a lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 16 Nov 8 14:27 libdescrypt.so@ -> libdescrypt.so.2 -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 12965 Nov 8 14:27 libdescrypt.so.2 -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 14750 Nov 8 14:27 libdescrypt_p.a If the machine is configured to use the standard FreeBSD MD5 crypt libraries they will look something like this: &prompt.user; ls -l /usr/lib/*crypt* lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 13 Jul 15 08:55 libcrypt.a@ -> libscrypt.a lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 14 Jul 15 08:55 libcrypt.so@ -> libscrypt.so lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 16 Jul 15 08:55 libcrypt.so.2@ -> libscrypt.so.2 lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 15 Jul 15 08:55 libcrypt_p.a@ -> libscrypt_p.a -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 6194 Nov 8 14:27 libscrypt.a lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 14 Nov 8 14:27 libscrypt.so@ -> libscrypt.so.2 -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 7579 Nov 8 14:27 libscrypt.so.2 -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 6684 Nov 8 14:27 libscrypt_p.a If you have trouble authenticating on an NIS client, this is a pretty good place to start looking for possible problems. If you want to deploy an NIS server for a heterogenous network, you will probably have to use DES on all systems because it is the lowest common standard. Greg Sutter Written DHCP What is DHCP? - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) + Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol + DHCP Internet Software Consortium (ISC) DHCP, the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, describes the means by which a system can connect to a network and obtain the necessary information for communication upon that network. FreeBSD uses the ISC (Internet Software Consortium) DHCP implementation, so all implementation-specific information here is for use with the ISC distribution. What This Section Covers This handbook section attempts to describe only the parts of the DHCP system that are integrated with FreeBSD; consequently, the server portions are not described. The DHCP manual pages, in addition to the references below, are useful resources. How it Works UDP When dhclient, the DHCP client, is executed on the client machine, it begins broadcasting requests for configuration information. By default, these requests are on UDP port 68. The server replies on UDP 67, giving the client an IP address and other relevant network information such as netmask, router, and DNS servers. All of this information comes in the form of a DHCP "lease" and is only valid for a certain time (configured by the DHCP server maintainer). In this manner, stale IP addresses for clients no longer connected to the network can be automatically reclaimed. DHCP clients can obtain a great deal of information from the server. An exhaustive list may be found in &man.dhcp-options.5;. FreeBSD Integration FreeBSD fully integrates the ISC DHCP client, dhclient. DHCP client support is provided within both the installer and the base system, obviating the need for detailed knowledge of network configurations on any network that runs a DHCP server. dhclient has been included in all FreeBSD distributions since 3.2. sysinstall DHCP is supported by sysinstall. When configuring a network interface within sysinstall, the first question asked is, "Do you want to try dhcp configuration of this interface?" Answering affirmatively will execute dhclient, and if successful, will fill in the network configuration information automatically. There are two things you must do to have your system use DHCP upon startup: DHCP requirements Make sure that the bpf device is compiled into your kernel. To do this, add pseudo-device bpf to your kernel configuration file, and rebuild the kernel. For more information about building kernels, see . The bpf device is already part of the GENERIC kernel that is supplied with FreeBSD, so if you don't have a custom kernel, you shouldn't need to create one in order to get DHCP working. For those who are particularly security conscious, you should be warned that bpf is also the device that allows packet sniffers to work correctly (although they still have to be run as root). bpf is required to use DHCP, but if you are very sensitive about security, you probably shouldn't add bpf to your kernel in the expectation that at some point in the future you will be using DHCP. Edit your /etc/rc.conf to include the following: ifconfig_fxp0="DHCP" Be sure to replace fxp0 with the designation for the interface that you wish to dynamically configure. If you are using a different location for dhclient, or if you wish to pass additional flags to dhclient, also include the following (editing as necessary): dhcp_program="/sbin/dhclient" dhcp_flags="" DHCP server The DHCP server, dhcpd, is included as part of the isc-dhcp2 port in the ports collection. This port contains the full ISC DHCP distribution, consisting of client, server, relay agent and documentation. Files DHCP configuration files /etc/dhclient.conf dhclient requires a configuration file, /etc/dhclient.conf. Typically the file contains only comments, the defaults being reasonably sane. This configuration file is described by the &man.dhclient.conf.5; man page. /sbin/dhclient dhclient is statically linked and resides in /sbin. The &man.dhclient.8; manual page gives more information about dhclient. /sbin/dhclient-script dhclient-script is the FreeBSD-specific DHCP client configuration script. It is described in &man.dhclient-script.8;, but should not need any user modification to function properly. /var/db/dhclient.leases The DHCP client keeps a database of valid leases in this file, which is written as a log. &man.dhclient.leases.5; gives a slightly longer description. Further Reading The DHCP protocol is fully described in RFC 2131. An informational resource has also been set up at dhcp.org. Chern Lee Contributed DNS Overview BIND FreeBSD utilizes, by default, a version of BIND (Berkeley Internet Name Domain), which is the most common implementation of the DNS protocol. DNS is the protocol through which names are mapped to IP addresses, and vice versa. For example, a query for www.freebsd.org will send back a reply for the IP address of The FreeBSD Project's webpage, whereas, a query for ftp.freebsd.org will return the IP address of the corresponding FTP machine. Likewise, the opposite can happen. A query for an IP address can resolve its hostname. DNS DNS is coordinated across the Internet through a somewhat complex system of authoritative root name servers, and other smaller-scale nameservers who host and relay individual domain information. This document refers to BIND 8.x, as it is the most current, stable version used in FreeBSD. RFC1034 and RFC1035 dictates the DNS protocol. Currently, BIND is maintained by the Internet Software Consortium (www.isc.org) Terminology zones zone - Each individual domain, subdomain, or 'area' dictated by DNS is considered a zone. Examples of zones: . is the root zone org. is a zone under the root zone foobardomain.org is a zone under the org. zone foo.foobardomain.org. is a subdomain, a zone under the foobardomain.org. zone 1.2.3.in-addr.arpa is a zone referencing all IP addresses which fall under the 3.2.1.* IP space. named, bind, name server - these are all common names for the BIND name server package within FreeBSD. resolver resolver - a network process by which a system queries a nameserver for answers root zone root zone - literally, a '.', refers to the root, or beginning zone. All zones fall under this, as do all files in fall under the root directory. It is the beginning of the Internet zone hierarchy origin - refers to the point of start for the particular zone forward dns - mapping of hostnames to IP addresses reverse DNS reverse dns - the opposite, mapping of IP addresses to hostnames Reasons to run a name server You need your machine to host DNS information to the world An authoritative nameserver replies exclusively to requests. For example, you register foobardomain.org and wish to assign hostnames to the proper IP addresses. A slave nameserver, which replies to queries for a domain when the primary is down or inaccessible. The above two can also be done with in-addr.arpa, IP to hostname entries You wish your machine to act as a local relay of DNS information DNS traffic has been measured to be about 5% or more of the total Internet traffic. A local DNS server may have some added benefit by providing a local cache of DNS information. For example, when one queries for www.freebsd.org, their resolver goes out to (usually) your ISP's name server, and retrieves the query. With a local, caching DNS server, the query only has to be made once to the outside world. Every additional query will not have to go outside of the local network, since the information is cached. How it works A DNS server in FreeBSD relies on the BIND daemon. This daemon is called 'named' for obvious reasons. named - the bind daemon ndc - name daemon control program /etc/namedb - directory where all the bind information resides /etc/namedb/named.conf - daemon configuration file zone files are usually contained within the /etc/namedb directory, and contain the information (query answers from your site) served by your name server. Starting BIND BIND starting Since bind is installed by default, configuring it all is relatively simple. To ensure the named daemon is started at boot, put the following modifications in your /etc/rc.conf named_enable="YES" To start the daemon manually (after configuring it) &prompt.root; ndc start Configuration files BIND configuration files make-localhost Be sure to &prompt.root; cd /etc/namedb &prompt.root; sh make-localhost to properly create your local reverse dns zone file in /etc/namedb/localhost.rev. <filename>/etc/namedb/named.conf</filename> - // $FreeBSD: doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/advanced-networking/chapter.sgml,v 1.63 2001/07/23 22:51:23 chern Exp $ + // $FreeBSD: doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/advanced-networking/chapter.sgml,v 1.64 2001/07/27 22:03:56 murray Exp $ // // Refer to the named(8) man page for details. If you are ever going // to setup a primary server, make sure you've understood the hairy // details of how DNS is working. Even with simple mistakes, you can // break connectivity for affected parties, or cause huge amount of // useless Internet traffic. options { directory "/etc/namedb"; // In addition to the "forwarders" clause, you can force your name // server to never initiate queries of its own, but always ask its // forwarders only, by enabling the following line: // // forward only; // If you've got a DNS server around at your upstream provider, enter // its IP address here, and enable the line below. This will make you // benefit from its cache, thus reduce overall DNS traffic in the Internet. /* forwarders { 127.0.0.1; }; */ Just as the comment says, if you want to benefit from your uplink's cache, you can enable this section of the config file. Normally, your nameserver will recursively query different nameservers until it finds the answer it is looking for. Having this enabled will have it automatically see if your uplink's (or whatever provided) ns has the requested query. If your uplink has a heavily trafficked, fast nameserver, enabling this properly could work to your advantage. 127.0.0.1 will *NOT* work here; change this to the IP of a nameserver at your uplink. /* * If there is a firewall between you and nameservers you want * to talk to, you might need to uncomment the query-source * directive below. Previous versions of BIND always asked * questions using port 53, but BIND 8.1 uses an unprivileged * port by default. */ // query-source address * port 53; /* * If running in a sandbox, you may have to specify a different * location for the dumpfile. */ // dump-file "s/named_dump.db"; }; // Note: the following will be supported in a future release. /* host { any; } { topology { 127.0.0.0/8; }; }; */ // Setting up secondaries is way easier and the rough picture for this // is explained below. // // If you enable a local name server, don't forget to enter 127.0.0.1 // into your /etc/resolv.conf so this server will be queried first. // Also, make sure to enable it in /etc/rc.conf. zone "." { type hint; file "named.root"; }; zone "0.0.127.IN-ADDR.ARPA" { type master; file "localhost.rev"; }; zone "0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.IP6.INT" { type master; file "localhost.rev"; }; // NB: Do not use the IP addresses below, they are faked, and only // serve demonstration/documentation purposes! // // Example secondary config entries. It can be convenient to become // a secondary at least for the zone where your own domain is in. Ask // your network administrator for the IP address of the responsible // primary. // // Never forget to include the reverse lookup (IN-ADDR.ARPA) zone! // (This is the first bytes of the respective IP address, in reverse // order, with ".IN-ADDR.ARPA" appended.) // // Before starting to setup a primary zone, better make sure you fully // understand how DNS and BIND works, however. There are sometimes // unobvious pitfalls. Setting up a secondary is comparably simpler. // // NB: Don't blindly enable the examples below. :-) Use actual names // and addresses instead. // // NOTE!!! FreeBSD runs bind in a sandbox (see named_flags in rc.conf). // The directory containing the secondary zones must be write accessible // to bind. The following sequence is suggested: // // mkdir /etc/namedb/s // chown bind:bind /etc/namedb/s // chmod 750 /etc/namedb/s /* zone "domain.com" { type slave; file "s/domain.com.bak"; masters { 192.168.1.1; }; }; zone "0.168.192.in-addr.arpa" { type slave; file "s/0.168.192.in-addr.arpa.bak"; masters { 192.168.1.1; }; }; */ These are example slave entries, read below to see more. For each new domain added to your nameserver, you must add one of these entries to your named.conf The simplest zone entry, can look like zone "foobardomain.org" { type master; file "foorbardomain.org"; }; For a master entry with the zone information within foobardomain.org, or zone "foobardomain.org" { type slave; file "foobardomain.org"; }; for a slave. Note that slave zones automatically query the listed master (authoritative) name servers for the zone file. Zone files An example master 'foobardomain.org' (existing within /etc/namedb/foobardomain.org) is as follows: $TTL 3600 foobardomain.org. IN SOA ns1.foobardomain.org. admin.foobardomain.org. ( 5 ; Serial 10800 ; Refresh 3600 ; Retry 604800 ; Expire 86400 ) ; Minimum TTL ; DNS Servers @ IN NS ns1.foobardomain.org. @ IN NS ns2.foobardomain.org. ; Machine Names localhost IN A 127.0.0.1 ns1 IN A 3.2.1.2 ns2 IN A 3.2.1.3 mail IN A 3.2.1.10 @ IN A 3.2.1.30 ; Aliases www IN CNAME @ ; MX Record @ IN MX 10 mail.foobardomain.org. Note that every hostname ending in a '.' is an exact hostname, whereas everything without a trailing '.' is referenced to the origin. For example, www is translated into www + origin. In our fictitious zone file, our origin is foobardomain.org, so www would be www.foobardomain.org. The format of this file follows: recordname IN recordtype value DNS records The most commonly used DNS records: SOA - start of zone authority NS - an authoritative nameserver A - A host address CNAME - the canonical name for an alias MX - mail exchange PTR - a domain name pointer (used in reverse dns) foobardomain.org. IN SOA ns1.foobardomain.org. admin.foobardomain.org. ( 5 ; Serial 10800 ; Refresh after 3 hours 3600 ; Retry after 1 hour 604800 ; Expire after 1 week 86400 ) ; Minimum TTL of 1 day foobardomain.org. - the domain name, also the origin for this zone file. ns1.foobardomain.org. - the primary/authoritative nameserver for this zone admin.foobardomain.org. - the responsible person for this zone, e-mail address with @ replaced. (admin@foobardomain.org becomes admin.foobardomain.org) 5 - the serial number of the file. this must be incremented each time the zone file is modified. Nowadays, many admins prefer a yyyymmddrr format for the serial number. 2001041002 would mean last modified 04/10/2001, the latter 02 being the second time the zone file has been modified this day. The serial number is important as it alerts slave nameservers for a zone when it is updated. @ IN NS ns1.foobardomain.org. This is an NS entry. Every nameserver that is going to reply authoritatively for the zone must have one of these entries. The @ as seen here could have been foobardomain.org. The @ translates to the origin. localhost IN A 127.0.0.1 ns1 IN A 3.2.1.2 ns2 IN A 3.2.1.3 mail IN A 3.2.1.10 @ IN A 3.2.1.30 The A record indicates machine names. As seen above, ns1.foobardomain.org would resolve to 3.2.1.2. Again, the origin symbol, @, is used here, thus meaning foobardomain.org would resolve to 3.2.1.30. www IN CNAME @ The canonical name record is usually used for giving aliases to a machine. In the example, www is aliased to the machine addressed to the origin, or foobardomain.org (3.2.1.30). CNAMEs can be used to provide alias hostnames, or round robin one hostname among multiple machines. @ IN MX 10 mail.foobardomain.org. The MX record indicates which mail servers are responsible for handling incoming mail for the zone. mail.foobardomain.org is the hostname of the mail server, and 10 being the priority of that mailserver. One can have several mailservers, with priorities of 3, 2, 1. A mail server attempting to deliver to foobardomain.org would first try the highest priority MX, then the second highest, etc, until the mail can be properly delivered. For in-addr.arpa zone files (reverse dns), the same format is used, except with PTR entries instead of A or CNAME. $TTL 3600 1.2.3.in-addr.arpa. IN SOA ns1.foobardomain.org. admin.foobardomain.org. ( 5 ; Serial 10800 ; Refresh 3600 ; Retry 604800 ; Expire 3600 ) ; Minimum @ IN NS ns1.foobardomain.org. @ IN NS ns2.foobardomain.org. 2 IN PTR ns1.foobardomain.org. 3 IN PTR ns2.foobardomain.org. 10 IN PTR mail.foobardomain.org. 30 IN PTR foobardomain.org. This file gives the proper IP address to hostname mappings of our above fictitious domain. Caching Name Server BIND caching name server A caching nameserver is simply a nameserver that is not authoritative for any zones. It simply asks queries of its own, and remembers them for later use. To set one up, just configure the name server as usual, omitting any inclusions of zones. Mike Makonnen Contributed Running named in a Sandbox BIND running in a sandbox chroot For added security you may want to run &man.named.8; in a sandbox. This will reduce the potential damage should it be compromised. If you include a sandbox directory in its command line, named will &man.chroot.8; into that directory immediately upon finishing processing its command line. It is also a good idea to have named run as a non-privileged user in the sandbox. The default FreeBSD install contains a user bind with group bind. If we wanted the sandbox in the /etc/namedb/sandbox directory the command line for named would look like this: &prompt.root; /usr/sbin/named -u bind -g bind -t /etc/namedb/sandbox <path_to_named.conf> The following steps should be taken in order to successfully run named in a sandbox. Throughout the following discussion we will assume the path to your sandbox is /etc/namedb/sandbox Create the sandbox directory: /etc/namedb/sandbox Create other necessary directories off of the sandbox directory: etc and var/run copy /etc/localtime to sandbox/etc make bind:bind the owner of all files and directories in the sandbox: &prompt.root; chown -R bind:bind /etc/namedb/sandbox &prompt.root; chmod -R 750 /etc/namedb/sandbox There are some issues you need to be aware of when running named in a sandbox. Your &man.named.conf.5; file and all your zone files must be in the sandbox sandbox/etc/localtime is needed in order to have the correct time for your time zone in log messages. &man.named.8; will write its process id to a file in sandbox/var/run The Unix socket used for communication by the &man.ndc.8; utility will be created in sandbox/var/run When using the &man.ndc.8; utility you need to specify the location of the Unix socket created in the sandbox, by &man.named.8;, by using the -c switch: &prompt.root; ndc -c /etc/namedb/sandbox/var/run/ndc If you enable logging to file, the log files must be in the sandbox &man.named.8; can be started in a sandbox properly, if the following is in /etc/rc.conf named_flags="-u bind -g bind -t /etc/namedb/sandbox" How to use the nameserver If setup properly, the nameserver should be accessible through the network and locally. /etc/resolv.conf must contain a nameserver entry with the local IP address so it will query the local name server first. To access it over the network, the machine must have the nameserver's IP address set properly in its own nameserver configuration options. Security Although BIND is the most common implementation of DNS, there is always the issue of security. Possible and exploitable security holes are sometimes found. It is a good idea to subscribe to CERT and freebsd-announce to stay up to date with the current Internet and FreeBSD security issues. If a problem arises, keeping your sources up to date and having a fresh build of named can't hurt. Further Reading &man.ndc.8; &man.named.8; &man.named.conf.5; Official ISC BIND Page http://www.isc.org/products/BIND/ BIND FAQ http://www.nominum.com/resources/faqs/bind-faqs.html O'Reilly DNS and BIND 4th Edition RFC1034 - Domain Names - Concepts and Facilities RFC1035 - Domain Names - Implementation and Specification Chern Lee Contributed Network Address Translation daemon (natd) Overview natd FreeBSD's Network Address Translation daemon, commonly known as &man.natd.8; is a daemon that accepts incoming raw IP packets, changes the source to the local machine and re-injects these packets back into the outgoing IP packet stream. natd does this by changing the source IP address and port such that when data is received back, it is able to determine the original location of the data and forward it back to its original requester. Internet connection sharing IP masquerading The most common use of NAT is to perform what is commonly known as Internet Connection Sharing. Setup Due to the diminishing IP space in ipv4, and the increased number of users on high-speed consumer lines such as cable or DSL, people are in more and more need of an Internet Connection Sharing solution. The ability to connect several computers online through one connection and IP address makes &man.natd.8; a reasonable choice. Most commonly, a user has a machine connected to a cable or DSL line with one IP address and wishes to use this one connected computer to provide Internet access to several more over a LAN. To do this, the FreeBSD machine on the Internet must act as a gateway. This gateway machine must have two NICs--one for connecting to the Internet router, the other connecting to a LAN. All the machines on the LAN are connected through a hub or switch. _______ __________ ________ | | | | | | | Hub |-----| Client B |-----| Router |----- Internet |_______| |__________| |________| | ____|_____ | | | Client A | |__________| Network Layout With this setup, the machine without Internet access can use the machine with access as a gateway to access the outside world. kernel configuration Configuration The following options must be in the kernel configuration file: options IPFIREWALL options IPDIVERT Additionally, at choice, the following may also be suitable: options IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE The following must be in /etc/rc.conf: gateway_enable="YES" firewall_enable="YES" firewall_type="OPEN" natd_enable="YES" natd_interface="fxp0" natd_flags="" gateway_enable="YES" Sets up the machine to act as a gateway. Running sysctl -w net.inet.ip.forwarding=1 would have the same effect. firewall_enable="YES" Enables the firewall rules in /etc/rc.firewall at boot. firewall_type="OPEN" This specifies a predefined firewall ruleset that allows anything in. See /etc/rc.firewall for additional types. natd_interface="fxp0" Indicates which interface to forward packets through. (the interface connected to the Internet) natd_flags="" Any additional configuration options passed to &man.natd.8; on boot. Having the previous options defined in /etc/rc.conf would run natd -interface fxp0 at boot. This can also be run manually. Each machine and interface behind the LAN should be assigned IP address numbers in the private network space as defined by RFC 1918 and have a default gateway of the natd machine's internal IP address. For example, client a and b behind the LAN have IP addresses of 192.168.0.2 and 192.168.0.3, while the natd machine's LAN interface has an IP address of 192.168.0.1. Client a and b's default gateway must be set to that of the natd machine, 192.168.0.1. The natd machine's external, or Internet interface does not require any special modification for natd to work. Port Redirection The drawback with natd is that the LAN clients are not accessible from the Internet. Clients on the LAN can make outgoing connections to the world but cannot receive incoming ones. This presents a problem if trying to run Internet services on one of the LAN client machines. A simple way around this is to redirect selected Internet ports on the natd machine to a LAN client. For example, an IRC server runs on Client A, and a web server runs on Client B. For this to work properly, connections received on ports 6667 (irc) and 80 (web) must be redirected to the respective machines. The -redirect_port must be passed to &man.natd.8; with the proper options. The syntax is as follows: -redirect_port proto targetIP:targetPORT[-targetPORT] [aliasIP:]aliasPORT[-aliasPORT] [remoteIP[:remotePORT[-remotePORT]]] In the above example, the argument should be: -redirect_port tcp 192.168.0.2:6667 6667 -redirect_port tcp 192.168.0.3:80 80 This will redirect the proper tcp ports to the LAN client machines. The -redirect_port argument can be used to indicate port ranges over individual ports. For example, tcp 192.168.0.2:2000-3000 2000-3000 would redirect all connections received on ports 2000 to 3000 to ports 2000 to 3000 on Client A. These options can be used when directly running &man.natd.8; or placed within the natd_flags="" option in /etc/rc.conf. For further configuration options, consult &man.natd.8; Address Redirection address redirection Address redirection is useful if several IP addresses are available, yet they must be on one machine. With this, &man.natd.8; can assign each LAN client its own external IP address. &man.natd.8; then rewrites outgoing packets from the LAN clients with the proper external IP address and redirects all traffic incoming on that particular IP address back to the specific LAN client. This is also known as static NAT. For example, the IP addresses 128.1.1.1, 128.1.1.2, and 128.1.1.3 belong to the natd gateway machine. 128.1.1.1 can be used as the natd gateway machine's external IP address, while 128.1.1.2 and 128.1.1.3 are forwarded back to LAN clients A and B. The -redirect_address syntax is as follows: localIP The internal IP address of the LAN client. publicIP The external IP address corresponding to the LAN client. In the example, this argument would read: Like -redirect_port, these arguments are also placed within natd_flags of /etc/rc.conf. With address redirection, there is no need for port redirection since all data received on a particular IP address is redirected. The external IP addresses on the natd machine must be active and aliased to the external interface. Look at &man.rc.conf.5; to do so. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/basics/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/basics/chapter.sgml index 34a8935486..b2e81b5cd7 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/basics/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/basics/chapter.sgml @@ -1,597 +1,596 @@ Chris Shumway Rewritten Unix Basics Synopsis basics The following chapter will cover the basic commands and functionality of the FreeBSD operating system. If you are new to FreeBSD, you will definitely want to read through this chapter before asking for help. Permissions Unix FreeBSD, having its history rooted in BSD Unix, has its fundamentals based on several key Unix concepts. The first, and most pronounced, is that FreeBSD is a multi-user operating system. The system can handle several users all working simultaneously on completely unrelated tasks. The system is responsible for properly sharing and managing requests for hardware devices, peripherals, memory, and CPU time evenly to each user. Because the system is capable of supporting multiple users, everything the system manages has a set of permissions governing who can read, write, and execute the resource. These permissions are stored as two octets broken into three pieces, one for the owner of the file, one for the group that the file belongs to, and one for everyone else. This numerical representation works like this: permissions - files - permissions + file permissions Value Permission Directory Listing 0 No read, no write, no execute --- 1 No read, no write, execute --x 2 No read, write, no execute -w- 3 No read, write, execute -wx 4 Read, no write, no execute r-- 5 Read, no write, execute r-x 6 Read, write, no execute rw- 7 Read, write, execute rwx ls directories For the long directory listing by ls -l, a column will show a file's permissions for the owner, group, and everyone else. Here's how it is broken up: -rw-r--r-- The first character, from left to right, is a special character that tells if this is a regular file, a directory, a special character or block device, a socket, or any other special pseudo-file device. The next three characters, designated as rw- gives the permissions for the owner of the file. The next three characters, r-- gives the permissions for the group that the file belongs to. The final three characters, r--, gives the permissions for the rest of the world. A dash means that the permission is turned off. In the case of this file, the permissions are set so the owner can read and write to the file, the group can read the file, and the rest of the world can only read the file. According to the table above, the permissions for this file would be 644, where each digit represents the three parts of the file's permission. This is all well and good, but how does the system control permissions on devices? FreeBSD actually treats most hardware devices as a file that programs can open, read, and write data to just like any other file. These special device files are stored on the /dev directory. Directories are also treated as files. They have read, write, and execute permissions. The executable bit for a directory has a slightly different meaning than that of files. When a directory is marked executable, it means it can be searched into, for example, a directory listing can be done in that directory. There are more to permissions, but they are primarily used in special circumstances such as setuid binaries and sticky directories. If you want more information on file permissions and how to set them, be sure to look at the &man.chmod.1; man page. Directory Structures directory hierarchy Since FreeBSD uses its file systems to determine many fundamental system operations, the hierarchy of the file system is extremely important. Due to the fact that the &man.hier.7; man page provides a complete description of the directory structure, it will not be duplicated here. Please read &man.hier.7; for more information. Of significant importance is the root of all directories, the / directory. This directory is the first directory mounted at boot time and it contains the base system necessary at boot time. The root directory also contains mount points for every other file system that you want to mount. A mount point is a directory where additional file systems can be grafted onto the root file system. Standard mount points include /usr, /var, /mnt, and /cdrom. These directories are usually referenced to entries in the file /etc/fstab. /etc/fstab is a table of various file systems and mount points for reference by the system. Most of the file systems in /etc/fstab are mounted automatically at boot time from the script &man.rc.8; unless they contain the option. Consult the &man.fstab.5; manual page for more information on the format of the /etc/fstab file and the options it contains. Shells shells command-line In FreeBSD, a lot of everyday work is done in a command line interface called a shell. A shell's main job is to take commands from the input channel and execute them. A lot of shells also have built in functions to help everyday tasks such a file management, file globing, command line editing, command macros, and environment variables. FreeBSD comes with a set of shells, such as sh, the Bourne Shell, and csh, the C-shell. Many other shells are available from the FreeBSD Ports Collection that have much more power, such as tcsh and bash. Which shell do you use? It is really a matter of taste. If you are a C programmer you might feel more comfortable with a C-like shell such as tcsh. If you've come from Linux or are new to a Unix command line interface you might try bash. The point is that each shell has unique properties that may or may not work with your preferred working environment, and that you have a choice of what shell to use. One common feature in a shell is file-name completion. Given the typing of the first few letters of a command or filename, you can usually have the shell automatically complete the rest of the command or filename by hitting the TAB key on the keyboard. Here is an example. Suppose you have two files called foobar and foo.bar. You want to delete foo.bar. So what you would type on the keyboard is: rm fo[TAB].[TAB]. The shell would print out rm foo[BEEP].bar. The [BEEP] is the console bell, which is the shell telling me it was unable to totally complete the filename because there is more than one match. Both foobar and foo.bar start with fo, but it was able to complete to foo. If you type in ., then hit TAB again, the shell would be able to fill in the rest of the filename for you. environment variables Another function of the shell is environment variables. Environment variables are a variable key pair stored in the shell's environment space. This space can be read by any program invoked by the shell, and thus contains a lot of program configuration. Here is a list of common environment variables and what they mean: - enviornment variables + environment variables Variable Description USER Current logged in user's name. PATH Colon separated list of directories to search for binaries. DISPLAY Network name of the X11 display to connect to, if available. SHELL The current shell. TERM The name of the user's terminal. Used to determine the capabilities of the terminal. TERMCAP Database entry of the terminal escape codes to perform various terminal functions. OSTYPE Type of operating system. E.g., FreeBSD. MACHTYPE The CPU architecture that the system is running on. EDITOR The user's preferred text editor. PAGER The user's preferred text pager. MANPATH Colon separated list of directories to search for manual pages. Bourne shells To view or set an environment variable differs somewhat from shell to shell. For example, in the C-Style shells such as tcsh and csh, you would use setenv to set and view environment variables. Under Bourne shells such as sh and bash, you would use set and export to view and set your current environment variables. For example, to set or modify the EDITOR environment variable, under csh or tcsh a command like this would set EDITOR to /usr/local/bin/emacs: &prompt.user; setenv EDITOR /usr/local/bin/emacs Under Bourne shells: &prompt.user; export EDITOR="/usr/local/bin/emacs" You can also make most shells expand the environment variable by placing a $ character in front of it on the command line. For example, echo $TERM would print out whatever $TERM is set to, because the shell expands $TERM and passes it on to echo. Shells treat a lot of special characters, called meta-characters as special representations of data. The most common one is the * character, which represents any number of characters in a filename. These special meta-characters can be used to do file name globing. For example, typing in echo * is almost the same as typing in ls because the shell takes all the files that match * and puts them on the command line for echo to see. To prevent the shell from interpreting these special characters, they can be escaped from the shell by putting a backslash (\) character in front of them. echo $TERM prints whatever your terminal is set to. echo \$TERM prints $TERM as is. Changing your shell The easiest way to change your shell is to use the chsh command. Running chsh will place you into the editor that is in your EDITOR environment variable; if it is not set, you will be placed in vi. Change the Shell: line accordingly. You can also give chsh the option; this will set your shell for you, without requiring you to enter an editor. For example, if you wanted to change your shell to bash, the following should do the trick: &prompt.user; chsh -s /usr/local/bin/bash Running chsh with no parameters and editing the shell from there would work also. The shell that you wish to use must be present in the /etc/shells file. If you have installed a shell from the ports collection, then this should have been done for you already. If you installed the shell by hand, you must do this. For example, if you installed bash by hand and placed it into /usr/local/bin, you would want to: &prompt.root; echo "/usr/local/bin/bash" >> /etc/shells Then rerun chsh. Text Editors text editors editors A lot of configuration in FreeBSD is done by editing a text file. Because of this, it would be a good idea to become familiar with a text editor. FreeBSD comes with a few as part of the base system, and many more are available in the ports collection. ee The easiest and simplest editor to learn is an editor called ee, which stands for easy editor. To start ee, one would type at the command line ee filename where filename is the name of the file to be edited. For example, to edit /etc/rc.conf, type in ee /etc/rc.conf. Once inside of ee, all of the commands for manipulating the editor's functions are listed at the top of the display. The caret ^ character means the control key on the keyboard, so ^e expands to pressing the control key plus the letter e. To leave ee, hit the escape key, then choose leave editor. The editor will prompt you to save any changes if the file has been modified. vi editors vi emacs editors emacs FreeBSD also comes with more powerful text editors such as vi as part of the base system, and emacs and vim as part of the FreeBSD Ports Collection. These editors offer much more functionality and power at the expense of being a little more complicated to learn. However if you plan on doing a lot of text editing, learning a more powerful editor such as vim or emacs will save you much more time in the long run. For More Information... Manual pages man pages The most comprehensive documentation on FreeBSD is in the form of man pages. Nearly every program on the system comes with a short reference manual explaining the basic operation and various arguments. These manuals can be viewed with the man command. Use of the man command is simple: &prompt.user; man command command is the name of the command you wish to learn about. For example, to learn more about ls command type: &prompt.user; man ls The online manual is divided up into numbered sections: User commands. System calls and error numbers. Functions in the C libraries. Device drivers. File formats. Games and other diversions. Miscellaneous information. System maintenance and operation commands. Kernel developers. In some cases, the same topic may appear in more than one section of the online manual. For example, there is a chmod user command and a chmod() system call. In this case, you can tell the man command which one you want by specifying the section: &prompt.user; man 1 chmod This will display the manual page for the user command chmod. References to a particular section of the online manual are traditionally placed in parenthesis in written documentation, so &man.chmod.1; refers to the chmod user command and &man.chmod.2; refers to the system call. This is fine if you know the name of the command and simply wish to know how to use it, but what if you cannot recall the command name? You can use man to search for keywords in the command descriptions by using the switch: &prompt.user; man -k mail With this command you will be presented with a list of commands that have the keyword mail in their descriptions. This is actually functionally equivalent to using the apropos command. So, you are looking at all those fancy commands in /usr/bin but do not have the faintest idea what most of them actually do? Simply do: &prompt.user; cd /usr/bin &prompt.user; man -f * or &prompt.user; cd /usr/bin &prompt.user; whatis * which does the same thing. GNU Info Files Free Software Foundation FreeBSD includes many applications and utilities produced by the Free Software Foundation (FSF). In addition to man pages, these programs come with more extensive hypertext documents called info files which can be viewed with the info command or, if you installed emacs, the info mode of emacs. To use the &man.info.1; command, simply type: &prompt.user; info For a brief introduction, type h. For a quick command reference, type ?. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/config/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/config/chapter.sgml index 576e36558e..1d22f56c7d 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/config/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/config/chapter.sgml @@ -1,891 +1,890 @@ Chern Lee Written Mike Smith Based on a tutorial written by Matt Dillon and tuning(7) written by Configuration and Tuning Synopsis - System configuration - System optimization + system configuration/optimization Configuring a system correctly can substantially reduce the amount of work involved in maintaining and upgrading it in the future. This chapter describes some of the aspects of administrative configuration of FreeBSD systems. This chapter will also describe some of the parameters that can be set to tune a FreeBSD system for optimum performance. Initial Configuration Partition layout Partition layout /etc /var /usr Base Partitions When laying out your filesystem with &man.disklabel.8; or &man.sysinstall.8;, it is important to remember that hard drives can transfer data at a faster rate from the outer tracks than the inner. Knowing this, you should place your smaller, heavily-accessed filesystems, such as root and swap, closer to the outside of the drive, while placing larger partitions, such as /usr, towards the inner. To do so, it is a good idea to create partitions in a similar order: root, swap, /var, /usr. The size of your /var partition reflects the intended use of your machine. /var is primarily used to hold: mailboxes, print spool and log files. Mail boxes and log files, in particular, can grow to unexpected sizes based upon how many users are on your system and how long your log files are kept. If you intend to run a mailserver, a /var partition of over a gigabyte can be suitable. Additionally, /var/tmp must be large enough to contain any packages you may wish to add. The /usr partition holds the bulk of the files required to support the system and a subdirectory within it called /usr/local holds the bulk of the files installed from the &man.ports.7; hierarchy. If you do not use ports all that much and do not intend to keep system source (/usr/src) on the machine, you can get away with a 1 gigabyte /usr partition. However, if you install a lot of ports (especially window managers and Linux binaries), we recommend at least a two gigabyte /usr and if you also intend to keep system source on the machine, we recommend a three gigabyte /usr. Do not underestimate the amount of space you will need in this partition, it can creep up and surprise you! When sizing your partitions, keep in mind the space requirements for your system to grow. Running out of space in one partition while having plenty in another can lead to much frustration. Some users who have used &man.sysinstall.8;'s Auto-defaults partition sizer have found either their root or /var partitions too small later on. Partition wisely and generously. Swap Partition swap sizing swap partition As a rule of thumb, your swap space should typically be double the amount of main memory. For example, if the machine has 128 megabytes of memory, the swap file should be 256 megabytes. Systems with lesser memory may perform better with a lot more swap. It is not recommended that you configure any less than 256 megabytes of swap on a system and you should keep in mind future memory expansion when sizing the swap partition. The kernel's VM paging algorithms are tuned to perform best when the swap partition is at least two times the size of main memory. Configuring too little swap can lead to inefficiencies in the VM page scanning code as well as create issues later on if you add more memory to your machine. Finally, on larger systems with multiple SCSI disks (or multiple IDE disks operating on different controllers), it is strongly recommend that you configure swap on each drive (up to four drives). The swap partitions on the drives should be approximately the same size. The kernel can handle arbitrary sizes but internal data structures scale to 4 times the largest swap partition. Keeping the swap partitions near the same size will allow the kernel to optimally stripe swap space across the disks. Do not worry about overdoing it a little, swap space is the saving grace of Unix. Even if you don't normally use much swap, it can give you more time to recover from a runaway program before being forced to reboot. Why Partition? Why partition at all? Why not create one big root partition and be done with it? Then I don't have to worry about undersizing things! There are several reasons this is not a good idea. First, each partition has different operational characteristics and separating them allows the filesystem to tune itself to those characteristics. For example, the root and /usr partitions are read-mostly, with very little writing, while a lot of reading and writing could occur in /var and /var/tmp. By properly partitioning your system, fragmentation introduced in the smaller more heavily write-loaded partitions will not bleed over into the mostly-read partitions. Additionally, keeping the write-loaded partitions closer to the edge of the disk, for example before the really big partition instead of after in the partition table, will increase I/O performance in the partitions where you need it the most. Now it is true that you might also need I/O performance in the larger partitions, but they are so large that shifting them more towards the edge of the disk will not lead to a significant performance improvement whereas moving /var to the edge can have a huge impact. Finally, there are safety concerns. Having a small neat root partition that is essentially read-only gives it a greater chance of surviving a bad crash intact. Core Configuration rc files rc.conf The principal location for system configuration information is within /etc/rc.conf. This file contains a wide range of configuration information, principally used at system startup to configure the system. Its name directly implies this; it is configuration information for the rc* files. An administrator should make entries in the rc.conf file to override the default settings from /etc/defaults/rc.conf. The defaults file should not be copied verbatim to /etc - it contains default values, not examples. All system-specific changes should be made in the rc.conf file itself. A number of strategies may be applied in clustered applications to separate site-wide configuration from system-specific configuration in order to keep administration overheads down. The recommended approach is to place site-wide configuration into another file, such as /etc/rc.conf.site, and then include this file into /etc/rc.conf, which will contain only system-specific information. As rc.conf is read by &man.sh.1; it is trivial to achieve this. For example: rc.conf: . rc.conf.site hostname="node15.webcompany.com" network_interfaces="fxp0 lo0" ifconfig_fxp0="inet 10.1.1.1" rc.conf.site: defaultrouter="10.1.1.254" saver="daemon" blanktime="100" The rc.conf.site file can then be distributed to every system using rsync or similar program, whilst the rc.conf file remains unique. Upgrading the system using &man.sysinstall.8; or 'make world' will not overwrite the rc.conf file, so system configuration information will not be lost. Application Configuration Typically, installed applications have their own configuration files, with their own syntax, etc. It is important that these files be kept separate from the base system, so that they may be easily located and managed by the package management tools. /usr/local/etc Typically, these files are installed in /usr/local/etc. In the case where an application has a large number of configuration files, a subdirectory will be created to hold them. Normally, when a port or package is installed, sample configuration files are also installed. These are usually identified with a ".default" suffix. If there are no existing configuration files for the application, they will be created by copying the .default files. For example, here is /usr/local/etc/apache: -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 2184 May 20 1998 access.conf -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 2184 May 20 1998 access.conf.default -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 9555 May 20 1998 httpd.conf -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 9555 May 20 1998 httpd.conf.default -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 12205 May 20 1998 magic -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 12205 May 20 1998 magic.default -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 2700 May 20 1998 mime.types -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 2700 May 20 1998 mime.types.default -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 7980 May 20 1998 srm.conf -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 7933 May 20 1998 srm.conf.default It can be quickly seen that only the srm.conf file has been changed. A later update of the apache port would not overwrite this changed file. Starting Services services It is common for a system to host a number of services. These may be started in several different fashions, each having different advantages. /usr/local/etc/rc.d Software installed from a port or the packages collection will often place a script in /usr/local/etc/rc.d which is invoked at system startup with a 'start' argument, and at system shutdown with a 'stop' argument. This is the recommended way for starting system-wide services that are to be run as root, or that expect to be started as root. These scripts are registered as part of the installation of the package, and will be removed when the package is removed. A generic startup script in /usr/local/etc/rc.d looks like: #!/bin/sh echo -n ' FooBar' case "$1" in start) /usr/local/bin/foobar ;; stop) kill -9 `cat /var/run/foobar.pid` ;; *) echo "Usage: `basename $0` {start|stop}" >&2 exit 64 ;; esac exit 0 This script is called with at startup, and the at shutdown to allow it to carry out its purpose. Some services expect to be invoked by &man.inetd.8; when a connection is received on a suitable port. This is common for mail reader servers (POP and IMAP, etc.). These services are enabled by editing the file /etc/inetd.conf. See &man.inetd.8; for details on editing this file. Some additional system services may not be covered by the toggles in /etc/rc.conf. These are traditionally enabled by placing the command(s) to invoke them in /etc/rc.local. As of FreeBSD 3.1 there is no default /etc/rc.local; if it is created by the administrator it will however be honored in the normal fashion. Note that rc.local is generally regarded as the location of last resort; if there is a better place to start a service, do it there. Do not place any commands in /etc/rc.conf. To start daemons, or run any commands at boot time, place a script in /usr/local/etc/rc.d instead. It is also possible to use the &man.cron.8; daemon to start system services. This approach has a number of advantages, not least being that because &man.cron.8; runs these processes as the owner of the crontab, services may be started and maintained by non-root users. This takes advantage of an undocumented feature of &man.cron.8; the time specification may be replaced by '@reboot', which will cause the job to be run when &man.cron.8; is started shortly after system boot. Virtual Hosts virtual hosts ip aliases A very common use of FreeBSD is virtual site hosting, where one server appears to the network as many servers. This is achieved by assigning multiple network addresses to a single interface. A given network interface has one "real" address, and may have any number of "alias" addresses. These aliases are normally added by placing alias entries in /etc/rc.conf. An alias entry for the interface 'fxp0' looks like: ifconfig_fxp0_alias0="inet xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx netmask xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx" Note that alias entries must start with alias0 and proceed upwards in order, (for example, _alias1, _alias2, and so on). The configuration process will stop at the first missing number. The calculation of alias netmasks is important, but fortunately quite simple. For a given interface, there must be one address which correctly represents the network's netmask. Any other addresses which fall within this network must have a netmask of all 1's. For example, consider the case where the fxp0 interface is connected to two networks, the 10.1.1.0 network with a netmask of 255.255.255.0 and the 202.0.75.16 network with a netmask of 255.255.255.240. We want the system to appear at 10.1.1.1 through 10.1.1.5 and at 202.0.75.17 through 202.0.75.20. The following entries configure the adapter correctly for this arrangement: ifconfig_fxp0="inet 10.1.1.1 netmask 255.255.255.0" ifconfig_fxp0_alias0="inet 10.1.1.2 netmask 255.255.255.255" ifconfig_fxp0_alias1="inet 10.1.1.3 netmask 255.255.255.255" ifconfig_fxp0_alias2="inet 10.1.1.4 netmask 255.255.255.255" ifconfig_fxp0_alias3="inet 10.1.1.5 netmask 255.255.255.255" ifconfig_fxp0_alias4="inet 202.0.75.17 netmask 255.255.255.240" ifconfig_fxp0_alias5="inet 202.0.75.18 netmask 255.255.255.255" ifconfig_fxp0_alias6="inet 202.0.75.19 netmask 255.255.255.255" ifconfig_fxp0_alias7="inet 202.0.75.20 netmask 255.255.255.255" Configuration Files <filename>/etc</filename> Layout There are a number of directories in which configuration information is kept. These include: /etc Generic system configuration information; data here is system-specific. /etc/defaults Default versions of system configuration files. /etc/mail Extra sendmail configuration, other MTA configuration files. /etc/ppp Configuration for both user- and kernel-ppp programs. /etc/namedb Default location for bind(8) data. Normally the boot file is located here, and contains a directive to refer to other data in /var/db. /usr/local/etc Configuration files for installed applications. May contain per-application subdirectories. /usr/local/etc/rc.d Start/stop scripts for installed applications. /var/db Persistent system-specific data files, such as bind zone files, database files, and so on. Hostnames - hostnames + hostname DNS <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> resolv.conf /etc/resolv.conf dictates how FreeBSD's resolver accesses the Internet Domain Name System (DNS). The most common entries to resolv.conf are: nameserver The IP address of a nameserver the resolver should query. The servers are queried in the order listed with a maximum of three. search Search list hostname lookup. This is normally determined by the domain of the local hostname. domain The local domain name. A typical resolv.conf: search foobar.com nameserver 147.11.1.11 nameserver 147.11.100.30 If you are using DHCP, &man.dhclient.8; usually rewrites resolv.conf with information received from the DHCP server. <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> hosts /etc/hosts is a simple text database reminiscent of the old Internet. It works in conjunction with DNS and NIS providing name to IP address mappings. Local computers connected via a LAN can be placed in here for simplistic naming purposes instead of setting up a &man.named.8; server. Additionally, /etc/hosts can be used to provide a local record of Internet names, reducing the need to query externally for commonly accessed names. # $FreeBSD$ # # Host Database # This file should contain the addresses and aliases # for local hosts that share this file. # In the presence of the domain name service or NIS, this file may # not be consulted at all; see /etc/nsswitch.conf for the resolution order. # # ::1 localhost localhost.my.domain myname.my.domain 127.0.0.1 localhost localhost.my.domain myname.my.domain # # Imaginary network. #10.0.0.2 myname.my.domain myname #10.0.0.3 myfriend.my.domain myfriend # # According to RFC 1918, you can use the following IP networks for # private nets which will never be connected to the Internet: # # 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255 # 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255 # 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255 # # In case you want to be able to connect to the Internet, you need # real official assigned numbers. PLEASE PLEASE PLEASE do not try # to invent your own network numbers but instead get one from your # network provider (if any) or from the Internet Registry (ftp to # rs.internic.net, directory `/templates'). # /etc/hosts takes on the simple format of: [Internet address] [official hostname] [alias1] [alias2] ... For example: 10.0.0.1 myRealHostname.foobar.com myRealHostname foobar1 foobar2 Consult &man.hosts.5; for more information. Log File Configuration log files <filename>syslog.conf</filename> syslog.conf syslog.conf is the configuration file for the &man.syslogd.8; program. It indicates which types of syslog messages are logged to particular log files. # $FreeBSD$ # # Spaces ARE valid field separators in this file. However, # other *nix-like systems still insist on using tabs as field # separators. If you are sharing this file between systems, you # may want to use only tabs as field separators here. # Consult the syslog.conf(5) manpage. *.err;kern.debug;auth.notice;mail.crit /dev/console *.notice;kern.debug;lpr.info;mail.crit;news.err /var/log/messages security.* /var/log/security mail.info /var/log/maillog lpr.info /var/log/lpd-errs cron.* /var/log/cron *.err root *.notice;news.err root *.alert root *.emerg * # uncomment this to log all writes to /dev/console to /var/log/console.log #console.info /var/log/console.log # uncomment this to enable logging of all log messages to /var/log/all.log #*.* /var/log/all.log # uncomment this to enable logging to a remote loghost named loghost #*.* @loghost # uncomment these if you're running inn # news.crit /var/log/news/news.crit # news.err /var/log/news/news.err # news.notice /var/log/news/news.notice !startslip *.* /var/log/slip.log !ppp *.* /var/log/ppp.log Consult the &man.syslog.conf.5; manpage for more information. <filename>newsyslog.conf</filename> newsyslog.conf newsyslog.conf is the configuration file for &man.newsyslog.8;, a program that is scheduled to run normally by &man.cron.8; &man.newsyslog.8; determines when log files require archiving or rearranging. logfile is moved to logfile.1, logfile.1 is moved to logfile.2, and so on. Additionally, the log files may be archived in &man.gzip.1; format causing them to be named: logfile.0.gz, logfile.1.gz, and so on. newsyslog.conf indicates which log files are to be managed, how many are to be kept, and when they are to be touched. Log files can be rearranged and/or archived when they have either reached a certain size, or at a certain periodic time/date. # configuration file for newsyslog # $FreeBSD$ # # filename [owner:group] mode count size when [ZB] [/pid_file] [sig_num] /var/log/cron 600 3 100 * Z /var/log/amd.log 644 7 100 * Z /var/log/kerberos.log 644 7 100 * Z /var/log/lpd-errs 644 7 100 * Z /var/log/maillog 644 7 * @T00 Z /var/log/sendmail.st 644 10 * 168 B /var/log/messages 644 5 100 * Z /var/log/all.log 600 7 * @T00 Z /var/log/slip.log 600 3 100 * Z /var/log/ppp.log 600 3 100 * Z /var/log/security 600 10 100 * Z /var/log/wtmp 644 3 * @01T05 B /var/log/daily.log 640 7 * @T00 Z /var/log/weekly.log 640 5 1 $W6D0 Z /var/log/monthly.log 640 12 * $M1D0 Z /var/log/console.log 640 5 100 * Z Consult the &man.newsyslog.8; manpage for more information. <filename>sysctl.conf</filename> sysctl.conf sysctl sysctl.conf looks much like rc.conf. Values are set in a variable=value form. The specified values are set after the system goes into multi-user mode. Not all variables are settable in this mode. A sample sysctl.conf turning off logging of fatal signal exits and letting Linux programs know they are really running under FreeBSD. kern.logsigexit=0 # Do not log fatal signal exits (e.g. sig 11) compat.linux.osname=FreeBSD compat.linux.osrelease=4.3-STABLE Tuning with sysctl sysctl Tuning with sysctl &man.sysctl.8; is an interface that allows you to make changes to a running FreeBSD system. This includes many advanced options of the TCP/IP stack and virtual memory system that can dramatically improve performance for an experienced system administrator. Over five hundred system variables can be read and set using &man.sysctl.8;. At its core, &man.sysctl.8; serves to do two functions: read and modify system settings. To view all readable variables: &prompt.user; sysctl -a To read a particular variable, for example, kern.maxproc: &prompt.user; sysctl kern.maxproc kern.maxproc: 1044 To set a particular variable, use the = option: &prompt.root; sysctl kern.maxfiles=5000 kern.maxfiles: 2088 -> 5000 Settings of sysctl variables are usually either strings, numbers, or booleans. A boolean being 1 for yes or a 0 for no. Tuning disks Sysctl Variables <varname>vfs.vmiodirenable</varname> vfs.vmiodirenable The vfs.vmiodirenable sysctl variable defaults to 0 (off) (though soon it will default to 1) and may be set to 0 (off) or 1 (on). This parameter controls how directories are cached by the system. Most directories are small and use but a single fragment (typically 1K) in the filesystem and even less (typically 512 bytes) in the buffer cache. However, when operating in the default mode the buffer cache will only cache a fixed number of directories even if you have a huge amount of memory. Turning on this sysctl allows the buffer cache to use the VM Page Cache to cache the directories. The advantage is that all of memory is now available for caching directories. The disadvantage is that the minimum in-core memory used to cache a directory is the physical page size (typically 4K) rather than 512 bytes. We recommend turning this option on if you are running any services which manipulate large numbers of files. Such services can include web caches, large mail systems, and news systems. Turning on this option will generally not reduce performance even with the wasted memory but you should experiment to find out. <varname>hw.ata.wc</varname> hw.ata.wc FreeBSD 4.3 flirted with turning off IDE write caching. This reduced write bandwidth to IDE disks but was considered necessary due to serious data consistency issues introduced by hard drive vendors. Basically the problem is that IDE drives lie about when a write completes. With IDE write caching turned on, IDE hard drives will not only write data to disk out of order, they will sometimes delay some of the blocks indefinitely when under heavy disk loads. A crash or power failure can result in serious filesystem corruption. So our default was changed to be safe. Unfortunately, the result was such a huge loss in performance that we caved in and changed the default back to on after the release. You should check the default on your system by observing the hw.ata.wc sysctl variable. If IDE write caching is turned off, you can turn it back on by setting the kernel variable back to 1. This must be done from the boot loader at boot time. Attempting to do it after the kernel boots will have no effect. For more information, please see &man.ata.4;. Soft Updates Soft Updates tunefs The &man.tunefs.8; program can be used to fine-tune a filesystem. This program has many different options, but for now we are only concerned with toggling Soft Updates on and off, which is done by : &prompt.root; tunefs -n enable /filesystem &prompt.root; tunefs -n disable /filesystem A filesystem cannot be modified with &man.tunefs.8; while it is mounted. A good time to enable Soft Updates is before any partitions have been mounted, in single-user mode. Soft Updates drastically improves meta-data performance, mainly file creation and deletion, through the use of a memory cache. We recommend turning Soft Updates on on all of your filesystems. There are two downsides to Soft Updates that you should be aware of: First, Soft Updates guarantees filesystem consistency in the case of a crash but could very easily be several seconds (even a minute!) behind updating the physical disk. If you crash you may lose more work than otherwise. Secondly, Soft Updates delays the freeing of filesystem blocks. If you have a filesystem (such as the root filesystem) which is close to full, doing a major update of it, e.g. make installworld, can run it out of space and cause the update to fail. Tuning kernel limits Tuning kernel limits File/process limits <varname>kern.maxfiles</varname> kern.maxfiles kern.maxfiles can be raised or lowered based upon your system requirements. This variable indicates the maximum number of file descriptors on your system. When the file descriptor table is full, file: table is full will show up repeatedly in the system message buffer, which can be viewed with the dmesg command. Each open file, socket, or fifo uses one file descriptor. A large-scale production server may easily require many thousands of file descriptors, depending on the kind and number of services running concurrently. kern.maxfile's default value is dictated by the option in your kernel config. kern.maxfiles grows proportionally to the value of . \ No newline at end of file +--> diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/contrib/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/contrib/chapter.sgml index 2358f3e8d4..a081effc72 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/contrib/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/contrib/chapter.sgml @@ -1,6344 +1,6347 @@ Contributing to FreeBSD Contributed by &a.jkh;. contributing So you want to contribute something to FreeBSD? That is great! We can always use the help, and FreeBSD is one of those systems that relies on the contributions of its user base in order to survive. Your contributions are not only appreciated, they are vital to FreeBSD's continued growth! Contrary to what some people might also have you believe, you do not need to be a hot-shot programmer or a close personal friend of the FreeBSD core team in order to have your contributions accepted. The FreeBSD Project's development is done by a large and growing number of international contributors whose ages and areas of technical expertise vary greatly, and there is always more work to be done than there are people available to do it. Since the FreeBSD project is responsible for an entire operating system environment (and its installation) rather than just a kernel or a few scattered utilities, our TODO list also spans a very wide range of tasks, from documentation, beta testing and presentation to highly specialized types of kernel development. No matter what your skill level, there is almost certainly something you can do to help the project! Commercial entities engaged in FreeBSD-related enterprises are also encouraged to contact us. Need a special extension to make your product work? You will find us receptive to your requests, given that they are not too outlandish. Working on a value-added product? Please let us know! We may be able to work cooperatively on some aspect of it. The free software world is challenging a lot of existing assumptions about how software is developed, sold, and maintained throughout its life cycle, and we urge you to at least give it a second look. What is Needed The following list of tasks and sub-projects represents something of an amalgam of the various core team TODO lists and user requests we have collected over the last couple of months. Where possible, tasks have been ranked by degree of urgency. If you are interested in working on one of the tasks you see here, send mail to the coordinator listed by clicking on their names. If no coordinator has been appointed, maybe you would like to volunteer? High priority tasks - todo list + + FreeBSD Project + todo list + The following tasks are considered to be urgent, usually because they represent something that is badly broken or sorely needed: 3-stage boot issues. Overall coordination: &a.hackers; Do WinNT compatible drive tagging so that the 3rd stage can provide an accurate mapping of BIOS geometries for disks. Filesystem problems. Overall coordination: &a.fs; Clean up and document the nullfs filesystem code. Coordinator: &a.eivind; Fix the union file system. Coordinator: &a.dg; Implement Int13 vm86 disk driver. Coordinator: &a.hackers; New bus architecture. Coordinator: &a.newbus; Port existing ISA drivers to new architecture. Move all interrupt-management code to appropriate parts of the bus drivers. Port PCI subsystem to new architecture. Coordinator: &a.dfr; Figure out the right way to handle removable devices and then use that as a substrate on which PC-Card and CardBus support can be implemented. Resolve the probe/attach priority issue once and for all. Move any remaining buses over to the new architecture. Kernel issues. Overall coordination: &a.hackers; Add more pro-active security infrastructure. Overall coordination: &a.security; Build something like Tripwire(TM) into the kernel, with a remote and local part. There are a number of cryptographic issues to getting this right; contact the coordinator for details. Coordinator: &a.eivind; Make the entire kernel use suser() instead of comparing to 0. It is presently using about half of each. Coordinator: &a.eivind; Split securelevels into different parts, to allow an administrator to throw away those privileges he can throw away. Setting the overall securelevel needs to have the same effect as now, obviously. Coordinator: &a.eivind; Make it possible to upload a list of allowed programs to BPF, and then block BPF from accepting other programs. This would allow BPF to be used e.g. for DHCP, without allowing an attacker to start snooping the local network. Update the security checker script. We should at least grab all the checks from the other BSD derivatives, and add checks that a system with securelevel increased also have reasonable flags on the relevant parts. Coordinator: &a.eivind; Add authorization infrastructure to the kernel, to allow different authorization policies. Part of this could be done by modifying suser(). Coordinator: &a.eivind; Add code to the NFS layer so that you cannot chdir("..") out of an NFS partition. E.g., /usr is a UFS partition with /usr/src NFS exported. Now it is possible to use the NFS filehandle for /usr/src to get access to /usr. Medium priority tasks The following tasks need to be done, but not with any particular urgency: Full KLD based driver support/Configuration Manager. Write a configuration manager (in the 3rd stage boot?) that probes your hardware in a sane manner, keeps only the KLDs required for your hardware, etc. PCMCIA/PCCARD. Coordinators: &a.msmith; and &a.imp; Documentation! Reliable operation of the pcic driver (needs testing). Recognizer and handler for sio.c (mostly done). Recognizer and handler for ed.c (mostly done). Recognizer and handler for ep.c (mostly done). User-mode recognizer and handler (partially done). Advanced Power Management. Coordinators: &a.msmith; and &a.phk; APM sub-driver (mostly done). IDE/ATA disk sub-driver (partially done). syscons/pcvt sub-driver. Integration with the PCMCIA/PCCARD drivers (suspend/resume). Low priority tasks The following tasks are purely cosmetic or represent such an investment of work that it is not likely that anyone will get them done anytime soon: The first N items are from Terry Lambert terry@lambert.org NetWare Server (protected mode ODI driver) loader and sub-services to allow the use of ODI card drivers supplied with network cards. The same thing for NDIS drivers and NetWare SCSI drivers. An "upgrade system" option that works on Linux boxes instead of just previous rev FreeBSD boxes. Symmetric Multiprocessing with kernel preemption (requires kernel preemption). A concerted effort at support for portable computers. This is somewhat handled by changing PCMCIA bridging rules and power management event handling. But there are things like detecting internal v.s.. external display and picking a different screen resolution based on that fact, not spinning down the disk if the machine is in dock, and allowing dock-based cards to disappear without affecting the machines ability to boot (same issue for PCMCIA). Smaller tasks Most of the tasks listed in the previous sections require either a considerable investment of time or an in-depth knowledge of the FreeBSD kernel (or both). However, there are also many useful tasks which are suitable for "weekend hackers", or people without programming skills. If you run FreeBSD-current and have a good Internet connection, there is a machine current.FreeBSD.org which builds a full release once a day — every now and again, try and install the latest release from it and report any failures in the process. Read the freebsd-bugs mailing list. There might be a problem you can comment constructively on or with patches you can test. Or you could even try to fix one of the problems yourself. Read through the FAQ and Handbook periodically. If anything is badly explained, out of date or even just completely wrong, let us know. Even better, send us a fix (SGML is not difficult to learn, but there is no objection to ASCII submissions). Help translate FreeBSD documentation into your native language (if not already available) — just send an email to &a.doc; asking if anyone is working on it. Note that you are not committing yourself to translating every single FreeBSD document by doing this — in fact, the documentation most in need of translation is the installation instructions. Read the freebsd-questions mailing list and &ng.misc occasionally (or even regularly). It can be very satisfying to share your expertise and help people solve their problems; sometimes you may even learn something new yourself! These forums can also be a source of ideas for things to work on. If you know of any bug fixes which have been successfully applied to -current but have not been merged into -stable after a decent interval (normally a couple of weeks), send the committer a polite reminder. Move contributed software to src/contrib in the source tree. Make sure code in src/contrib is up to date. Build the source tree (or just part of it) with extra warnings enabled and clean up the warnings. Fix warnings for ports which do deprecated things like using gets() or including malloc.h. If you have contributed any ports, send your patches back to the original author (this will make your life easier when they bring out the next version) Suggest further tasks for this list! Work through the PR database problem reports database The FreeBSD PR list shows all the current active problem reports and requests for enhancement that have been submitted by FreeBSD users. Look through the open PRs, and see if anything there takes your interest. Some of these might be very simple tasks, that just need an extra pair of eyes to look over them and confirm that the fix in the PR is a good one. Others might be much more complex. Start with the PRs that have not been assigned to anyone else, but if one them is assigned to someone else, but it looks like something you can handle, e-mail the person it is assigned to and ask if you can work on it—they might already have a patch ready to be tested, or further ideas that you can discuss with them. How to Contribute Contributions to the system generally fall into one or more of the following 6 categories: Bug reports and general commentary An idea or suggestion of general technical interest should be mailed to the &a.hackers;. Likewise, people with an interest in such things (and a tolerance for a high volume of mail!) may subscribe to the hackers mailing list by sending mail to &a.majordomo;. See mailing lists for more information about this and other mailing lists. If you find a bug or are submitting a specific change, please report it using the &man.send-pr.1; program or its WEB-based equivalent. Try to fill-in each field of the bug report. Unless they exceed 65KB, include any patches directly in the report. When including patches, do not use cut-and-paste because cut-and-paste turns tabs into spaces and makes them unusable. Consider compressing patches and using &man.uuencode.1; if they exceed 20KB. Upload very large submissions to ftp.FreeBSD.org:/pub/FreeBSD/incoming/. After filing a report, you should receive confirmation along with a tracking number. Keep this tracking number so that you can update us with details about the problem by sending mail to bug-followup@FreeBSD.org. Use the number as the message subject, e.g. "Re: kern/3377". Additional information for any bug report should be submitted this way. If you do not receive confirmation in a timely fashion (3 days to a week, depending on your email connection) or are, for some reason, unable to use the &man.send-pr.1; command, then you may ask someone to file it for you by sending mail to the &a.bugs;. Changes to the documentation documentation submissions Changes to the documentation are overseen by the &a.doc;. Send submissions and changes (even small ones are welcome!) using send-pr as described in Bug Reports and General Commentary. Changes to existing source code FreeBSD-current An addition or change to the existing source code is a somewhat trickier affair and depends a lot on how far out of date you are with the current state of the core FreeBSD development. There is a special on-going release of FreeBSD known as FreeBSD-current which is made available in a variety of ways for the convenience of developers working actively on the system. See Staying current with FreeBSD for more information about getting and using FreeBSD-current. Working from older sources unfortunately means that your changes may sometimes be too obsolete or too divergent for easy re-integration into FreeBSD. Chances of this can be minimized somewhat by subscribing to the &a.announce; and the &a.current; lists, where discussions on the current state of the system take place. Assuming that you can manage to secure fairly up-to-date sources to base your changes on, the next step is to produce a set of diffs to send to the FreeBSD maintainers. This is done with the &man.diff.1; command, with the context diff form being preferred. For example: diff &prompt.user; diff -c oldfile newfile or &prompt.user; diff -c -r olddir newdir would generate such a set of context diffs for the given source file or directory hierarchy. See the man page for &man.diff.1; for more details. Once you have a set of diffs (which you may test with the &man.patch.1; command), you should submit them for inclusion with FreeBSD. Use the &man.send-pr.1; program as described in Bug Reports and General Commentary. Do not just send the diffs to the &a.hackers; or they will get lost! We greatly appreciate your submission (this is a volunteer project!); because we are busy, we may not be able to address it immediately, but it will remain in the pr database until we do. uuencode If you feel it appropriate (e.g. you have added, deleted, or renamed files), bundle your changes into a tar file and run the &man.uuencode.1; program on it. Shar archives are also welcome. If your change is of a potentially sensitive nature, e.g. you are unsure of copyright issues governing its further distribution or you are simply not ready to release it without a tighter review first, then you should send it to &a.core; directly rather than submitting it with &man.send-pr.1;. The core mailing list reaches a much smaller group of people who do much of the day-to-day work on FreeBSD. Note that this group is also very busy and so you should only send mail to them where it is truly necessary. Please refer to &man.intro.9; and &man.style.9; style for some information on coding style. We would appreciate it if you were at least aware of this information before submitting code. New code or major value-added packages In the case of a significant contribution of a large body work, or the addition of an important new feature to FreeBSD, it becomes almost always necessary to either send changes as uuencoded tar files or upload them to a web or FTP site for other people to access. If you do not have access to a web or FTP site, ask on an appropriate FreeBSD mailing list for someone to host the changes for you. When working with large amounts of code, the touchy subject of copyrights also invariably comes up. Acceptable copyrights for code included in FreeBSD are: BSD copyright The BSD copyright. This copyright is most preferred due to its no strings attached nature and general attractiveness to commercial enterprises. Far from discouraging such commercial use, the FreeBSD Project actively encourages such participation by commercial interests who might eventually be inclined to invest something of their own into FreeBSD. - GPL - GNU Public License + GPLGNU General Public License + GNU General Public License The GNU Public License, or GPL. This license is not quite as popular with us due to the amount of extra effort demanded of anyone using the code for commercial purposes, but given the sheer quantity of GPL'd code we currently require (compiler, assembler, text formatter, etc) it would be silly to refuse additional contributions under this license. Code under the GPL also goes into a different part of the tree, that being /sys/gnu or /usr/src/gnu, and is therefore easily identifiable to anyone for whom the GPL presents a problem. Contributions coming under any other type of copyright must be carefully reviewed before their inclusion into FreeBSD will be considered. Contributions for which particularly restrictive commercial copyrights apply are generally rejected, though the authors are always encouraged to make such changes available through their own channels. To place a BSD-style copyright on your work, include the following text at the very beginning of every source code file you wish to protect, replacing the text between the %% with the appropriate information. Copyright (c) %%proper_years_here%% %%your_name_here%%, %%your_state%% %%your_zip%%. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer as the first lines of this file unmodified. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY %%your_name_here%% ``AS IS'' AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL %%your_name_here%% BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. $Id$ For your convenience, a copy of this text can be found in /usr/share/examples/etc/bsd-style-copyright. Money, Hardware or Internet access We are always very happy to accept donations to further the cause of the FreeBSD Project and, in a volunteer effort like ours, a little can go a long way! Donations of hardware are also very important to expanding our list of supported peripherals since we generally lack the funds to buy such items ourselves. <anchor id="donations">Donating funds Empty, pending information from the FreeBSD Foundation. Donating hardware donations Donations of hardware in any of the 3 following categories are also gladly accepted by the FreeBSD Project: General purpose hardware such as disk drives, memory or complete systems should be sent to the FreeBSD, Inc. address listed in the donating funds section. Hardware for which ongoing compliance testing is desired. We are currently trying to put together a testing lab of all components that FreeBSD supports so that proper regression testing can be done with each new release. We are still lacking many important pieces (network cards, motherboards, etc) and if you would like to make such a donation, please contact &a.dg; for information on which items are still required. Hardware currently unsupported by FreeBSD for which you would like to see such support added. Please contact the &a.core; before sending such items as we will need to find a developer willing to take on the task before we can accept delivery of new hardware. Donating Internet access We can always use new mirror sites for FTP, WWW or cvsup. If you would like to be such a mirror, please contact the FreeBSD project administrators hubs@FreeBSD.org for more information. Donors Gallery The FreeBSD Project is indebted to the following donors and would like to publicly thank them here! Contributors to the central server project: The following individuals and businesses made it possible for the FreeBSD Project to build a new central server machine to eventually replace freefall.FreeBSD.org by donating the following items: &a.mbarkah and his employer, Hemisphere Online, donated a Pentium Pro (P6) 200MHz CPU ASA Computers donated a Tyan 1662 motherboard. Joe McGuckin joe@via.net of ViaNet Communications donated a Kingston ethernet controller. Jack O'Neill jack@diamond.xtalwind.net donated an NCR 53C875 SCSI controller card. Ulf Zimmermann ulf@Alameda.net of Alameda Networks donated 128MB of memory, a 4 Gb disk drive and the case. Direct funding: The following individuals and businesses have generously contributed direct funding to the project: Annelise Anderson ANDRSN@HOOVER.STANFORD.EDU &a.dillon Blue Mountain Arts Epilogue Technology Corporation &a.sef Global Technology Associates, Inc Don Scott Wilde Gianmarco Giovannelli gmarco@masternet.it Josef C. Grosch joeg@truenorth.org Robert T. Morris &a.chuckr Kenneth P. Stox ken@stox.sa.enteract.com of Imaginary Landscape, LLC. Dmitry S. Kohmanyuk dk@dog.farm.org Laser5 of Japan (a portion of the profits from sales of their various FreeBSD CDROMs). Fuki Shuppan Publishing Co. donated a portion of their profits from Hajimete no FreeBSD (FreeBSD, Getting started) to the FreeBSD and XFree86 projects. ASCII Corp. donated a portion of their profits from several FreeBSD-related books to the FreeBSD project. Yokogawa Electric Corp has generously donated significant funding to the FreeBSD project. BuffNET Pacific Solutions Siemens AG via Andre Albsmeier andre.albsmeier@mchp.siemens.de Chris Silva ras@interaccess.com Hardware contributors: The following individuals and businesses have generously contributed hardware for testing and device driver development/support: BSDi for providing the Pentium P5-90 and 486/DX2-66 EISA/VL systems that are being used for our development work, to say nothing of the network access and other donations of hardware resources. TRW Financial Systems, Inc. provided 130 PCs, three 68 GB file servers, twelve Ethernets, two routers and an ATM switch for debugging the diskless code. Dermot McDonnell donated the Toshiba XM3401B CDROM drive currently used in freefall. &a.chuck; contributed his floppy tape streamer for experimental work. Larry Altneu larry@ALR.COM, and &a.wilko;, provided Wangtek and Archive QIC-02 tape drives in order to improve the wt driver. Ernst Winter ewinter@lobo.muc.de contributed a 2.88 MB floppy drive to the project. This will hopefully increase the pressure for rewriting the floppy disk driver. Tekram Technologies sent one each of their DC-390, DC-390U and DC-390F FAST and ULTRA SCSI host adapter cards for regression testing of the NCR and AMD drivers with their cards. They are also to be applauded for making driver sources for free operating systems available from their FTP server ftp://ftp.tekram.com/scsi/FreeBSD/. Larry M. Augustin contributed not only a Symbios Sym8751S SCSI card, but also a set of data books, including one about the forthcoming Sym53c895 chip with Ultra-2 and LVD support, and the latest programming manual with information on how to safely use the advanced features of the latest Symbios SCSI chips. Thanks a lot! Christoph Kukulies kuku@FreeBSD.org donated an FX120 12 speed Mitsumi CDROM drive for IDE CDROM driver development. Special contributors: BSDi (formerly Walnut Creek CDROM) has donated almost more than we can say (see the history document for more details). In particular, we would like to thank them for the original hardware used for freefall.FreeBSD.org, our primary development machine, and for thud.FreeBSD.org, a testing and build box. We are also indebted to them for funding various contributors over the years and providing us with unrestricted use of their T1 connection to the Internet. The interface business GmbH, Dresden has been patiently supporting &a.joerg; who has often preferred FreeBSD work over paid work, and used to fall back to their (quite expensive) EUnet Internet connection whenever his private connection became too slow or flaky to work with it... Berkeley Software Design, Inc. has contributed their DOS emulator code to the remaining BSD world, which is used in the doscmd command. Core Team Alumni core team The following people were members of the FreeBSD core team during the periods indicated. We thank them for their past efforts in the service of the FreeBSD project. In rough chronological order: &a.ache (1993 - 2000) &a.jmb (1993 - 2000) &a.bde (1992 - 2000) &a.gibbs (1993 - 2000) &a.rich (1994 - 2000) &a.phk (1992 - 2000) &a.gpalmer (1993 - 2000) &a.sos (1993 - 2000) &a.wollman (1993 - 2000) &a.joerg (1995 - 2000) &a.jdp (1997 - 2000) &a.guido (1995 - 1999) &a.dyson (1993 - 1998) &a.nate (1992 - 1996) &a.rgrimes (1992 - 1995) Andreas Schulz (1992 - 1995) &a.csgr (1993 - 1995) &a.paul (1992 - 1995) &a.smace (1993 - 1994) Andrew Moore (1993 - 1994) Christoph Robitschko (1993 - 1994) J. T. Conklin (1992 - 1993) Development Team Alumni development team The following people were members of the FreeBSD development team during the periods indicated. We thank them for their past efforts in the service of the FreeBSD project. In rough chronological order: &a.tedm (???? - 2000) &a.karl (???? - 2000) &a.gclarkii (1993 - 2000) &a.jraynard (???? - 2000) &a.jgreco (???? - 1999) &a.ats (???? - 1999) Jamil Weatherby (1997 - 1999) meganm (???? - 1998) &a.dyson (???? - 1998) Amancio Hasty (1997 - 1998) Drew Derbyshire (1997 - 1998) Derived Software Contributors This software was originally derived from William F. Jolitz's 386BSD release 0.1, though almost none of the original 386BSD specific code remains. This software has been essentially re-implemented from the 4.4BSD-Lite release provided by the Computer Science Research Group (CSRG) at the University of California, Berkeley and associated academic contributors. There are also portions of NetBSD and OpenBSD that have been integrated into FreeBSD as well, and we would therefore like to thank all the contributors to NetBSD and OpenBSD for their work. Additional FreeBSD Contributors (in alphabetical order by first name): ABURAYA Ryushirou rewsirow@ff.iij4u.or.jp AMAGAI Yoshiji amagai@nue.org Aaron Bornstein aaronb@j51.com Aaron Smith aaron@mutex.org Achim Patzner ap@noses.com Ada T Lim ada@bsd.org Adam Baran badam@mw.mil.pl Adam Glass glass@postgres.berkeley.edu Adam Herzog adam@herzogdesigns.com Adam Kranzel adam@alameda.edu Adam McDougall mcdouga9@egr.msu.edu Adam Strohl troll@digitalspark.net Adoal Xu adoal@iname.com Adrian Colley aecolley@ois.ie Adrian Hall ahall@mirapoint.com Adrian Mariano adrian@cam.cornell.edu Adrian Steinmann ast@marabu.ch Adrian T. Filipi-Martin atf3r@agate.cs.virginia.edu Ajit Thyagarajan unknown Akio Morita amorita@meadow.scphys.kyoto-u.ac.jp Akira SAWADA unknown Akira Watanabe akira@myaw.ei.meisei-u.ac.jp Akito Fujita fujita@zoo.ncl.omron.co.jp Alain Kalker A.C.P.M.Kalker@student.utwente.nl Alan Bawden alan@curry.epilogue.com Alec Wolman wolman@cs.washington.edu Aled Morris aledm@routers.co.uk Aleksandr A Babaylov .@babolo.ru Alex G. Bulushev bag@demos.su Alex D. Chen dhchen@Canvas.dorm7.nccu.edu.tw Alex Le Heux alexlh@funk.org Alex Kapranoff kappa@zombie.antar.bryansk.ru Alex Perel veers@disturbed.net Alex Semenyaka alex@rinet.ru Alex Varju varju@webct.com Alex Zepeda garbanzo@hooked.net Alexander B. Povolotsky tarkhil@mgt.msk.ru Alexander Gelfenbain mail@gelf.com Alexander Leidinger netchild@wurzelausix.CS.Uni-SB.DE Alexandre Peixoto alexandref@tcoip.com.br Alexandre Snarskii snar@paranoia.ru Alistair G. Crooks agc@uts.amdahl.com Allan Bowhill bowhill@bowhill.vservers.com Allan Saddi asaddi@philosophysw.com Allen Campbell allenc@verinet.com Amakawa Shuhei amakawa@hoh.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Amancio Hasty hasty@star-gate.com Amir Farah amir@comtrol.com Amir Shalem amir@boom.org.il Amy Baron amee@beer.org The Anarcat beaupran@iro.umontreal.ca Anatoly A. Orehovsky tolik@mpeks.tomsk.su Anatoly Vorobey mellon@pobox.com Anders Andersson anders@codefactory.se Anders Nordby anders@fix.no Anders Thulin Anders.X.Thulin@telia.se Andras Olah olah@cs.utwente.nl Andre Albsmeier Andre.Albsmeier@mchp.siemens.de Andre Goeree abgoeree@uwnet.nl Andre Oppermann andre@pipeline.ch Andreas Haakh ah@alman.robin.de Andreas Kohout shanee@rabbit.augusta.de Andreas Lohr andreas@marvin.RoBIN.de Andreas Schulz unknown Andreas Wetzel mickey@deadline.snafu.de Andreas Wrede andreas@planix.com Andres Vega Garcia unknown Andrew Atrens atreand@statcan.ca Andrew Boothman andrew@cream.org Andrew Gillham gillham@andrews.edu Andrew Gordon andrew.gordon@net-tel.co.uk Andrew Herbert andrew@werple.apana.org.au Andrew J. Korty ajk@purdue.edu Andrew L. Moore alm@mclink.com Andrew L. Neporada andrew@chg.ru Andrew McRae amcrae@cisco.com Andrew Stevenson andrew@ugh.net.au Andrew Timonin tim@pool1.convey.ru Andrew V. Stesin stesin@elvisti.kiev.ua Andrew Webster awebster@dataradio.com Andrey Novikov andrey@novikov.com Andrey Simonenko simon@comsys.ntu-kpi.kiev.ua Andrey Tchoritch andy@venus.sympad.net Andy Farkas andyf@speednet.com.au Andy Valencia ajv@csd.mot.com Andy Whitcroft andy@sarc.city.ac.uk Angelo Turetta ATuretta@stylo.it Anthony C. Chavez magus@xmission.com Anthony Yee-Hang Chan yeehang@netcom.com Anton N. Bruesov antonz@library.ntu-kpi.kiev.ua Anton Voronin anton@urc.ac.ru Antti Kaipila anttik@iki.fi arci vega@sophia.inria.fr Are Bryne are.bryne@communique.no Ari Suutari ari@suutari.iki.fi Arindum Mukerji rmukerji@execpc.com Arjan de Vet devet@IAEhv.nl Arne Henrik Juul arnej@Lise.Unit.NO Arun Sharma adsharma@sharmas.dhs.org Arnaud S. Launay asl@launay.org Ask Bjoern Hansen ask@valueclick.com Atsushi Furuta furuta@sra.co.jp Atsushi Murai amurai@spec.co.jp Atushi Sakauchi sakauchi@yamame.to Bakul Shah bvs@bitblocks.com Barry Bierbauch pivrnec@vszbr.cz Barry Lustig barry@ictv.com Ben Hutchinson benhutch@xfiles.org.uk Ben Jackson unknown Ben Walter bwalter@itachi.swcp.com Benjamin Lewis bhlewis@gte.net Berend de Boer berend@pobox.com Bernd Rosauer br@schiele-ct.de Bill Kish kish@osf.org Bill Trost trost@cloud.rain.com Blaz Zupan blaz@amis.net Bob Van Valzah Bob@whitebarn.com Bob Wilcox bob@obiwan.uucp Bob Willcox bob@luke.pmr.com Boris Staeblow balu@dva.in-berlin.de Boyd Faulkner faulkner@mpd.tandem.com Boyd R. Faulkner faulkner@asgard.bga.com Brad Chapman chapmanb@arches.uga.edu Brad Hendrickse bradh@uunet.co.za Brad Karp karp@eecs.harvard.edu Bradley Dunn bradley@dunn.org Brad Jones brad@kazrak.com Brandon Fosdick bfoz@glue.umd.edu Brandon Gillespie brandon@roguetrader.com &a.wlloyd Brent J. Nordquist bjn@visi.com Brett Lymn blymn@mulga.awadi.com.AU Brett Taylor brett@peloton.runet.edu Brian Campbell brianc@pobox.com Brian Clapper bmc@willscreek.com Brian Cully shmit@kublai.com Brian Handy handy@lambic.space.lockheed.com Brian Litzinger brian@MediaCity.com Brian McGovern bmcgover@cisco.com Brian Moore ziff@houdini.eecs.umich.edu Brian R. Haug haug@conterra.com Brian Tao taob@risc.org Brion Moss brion@queeg.com Bruce Albrecht bruce@zuhause.mn.org Bruce Gingery bgingery@gtcs.com Bruce J. Keeler loodvrij@gridpoint.com Bruce Murphy packrat@iinet.net.au Bruce Walter walter@fortean.com Carey Jones mcj@acquiesce.org Carl Fongheiser cmf@netins.net Carl Mascott cmascott@world.std.com Casper casper@acc.am Castor Fu castor@geocast.com Chad David davidc@acns.ab.ca Chain Lee chain@110.net Charles Hannum mycroft@ai.mit.edu Charles Henrich henrich@msu.edu Charles Mott cmott@scientech.com Charles Owens owensc@enc.edu Chet Ramey chet@odin.INS.CWRU.Edu Chia-liang Kao clkao@CirX.ORG Chiharu Shibata chi@bd.mbn.or.jp Chip Norkus unknown Chris Csanady cc@tarsier.ca.sandia.gov Chris Dabrowski chris@vader.org Chris Dillon cdillon@wolves.k12.mo.us Chris Shenton cshenton@angst.it.hq.nasa.gov &a.cshumway; Chris Stenton jacs@gnome.co.uk Chris Timmons skynyrd@opus.cts.cwu.edu Chris Torek torek@ee.lbl.gov Christian Gusenbauer cg@fimp01.fim.uni-linz.ac.at Christian Haury Christian.Haury@sagem.fr Christian Weisgerber naddy@mips.inka.de Christoph P. Kukulies kuku@FreeBSD.org Christoph Robitschko chmr@edvz.tu-graz.ac.at Christoph Weber-Fahr wefa@callcenter.systemhaus.net Christopher G. Demetriou cgd@postgres.berkeley.edu Christopher N. Harrell cnh@ivmg.net Christopher Preston rbg@gayteenresource.org Christopher T. Johnson cjohnson@neunacht.netgsi.com Chrisy Luke chrisy@flix.net Chuck Hein chein@cisco.com Cliff Rowley dozprompt@onsea.com Colman Reilly careilly@tcd.ie Conrad Sabatier conrads@home.com Coranth Gryphon gryphon@healer.com Cornelis van der Laan nils@guru.ims.uni-stuttgart.de Cove Schneider cove@brazil.nbn.com Craig Leres leres@ee.lbl.gov Craig Loomis unknown Craig Metz cmetz@inner.net Craig Spannring cts@internetcds.com Craig Struble cstruble@vt.edu Cristian Ferretti cfs@riemann.mat.puc.cl Curt Mayer curt@toad.com Cy Schubert cschuber@uumail.gov.bc.ca Cyrille Lefevre clefevre@citeweb.net Cyrus Rahman cr@jcmax.com Dai Ishijima ishijima@tri.pref.osaka.jp Daisuke Watanabe NU7D-WTNB@asahi-net.or.jp Damian Hamill damian@cablenet.net Dan Cross tenser@spitfire.ecsel.psu.edu Dan Langille dan@freebsddiary.org Dan Lukes dan@obluda.cz Dan Nelson dnelson@emsphone.com Dan Papasian bugg@bugg.strangled.net Dan Piponi wmtop@tanelorn.demon.co.uk Dan Walters hannibal@cyberstation.net Daniel Hagan dhagan@cs.vt.edu Daniel O'Connor doconnor@gsoft.com.au Daniel Poirot poirot@aio.jsc.nasa.gov Daniel Rock rock@cs.uni-sb.de Daniel W. McRobb dwm@caimis.com Danny Egen unknown Danny J. Zerkel dzerkel@phofarm.com Dave Adkins adkin003@tc.umn.edu Dave Andersen angio@aros.net Dave Blizzard dblizzar@sprynet.com Dave Bodenstab imdave@synet.net Dave Burgess burgess@hrd769.brooks.af.mil Dave Chapeskie dchapes@ddm.on.ca Dave Cornejo dave@dogwood.com Dave Edmondson davided@sco.com Dave Glowacki dglo@ssec.wisc.edu Dave Marquardt marquard@austin.ibm.com Dave Tweten tweten@FreeBSD.org David A. Adkins adkin003@tc.umn.edu David A. Bader dbader@eece.unm.edu David Borman dab@bsdi.com David Dawes dawes@XFree86.org David Filo unknown David Holland dholland@eecs.harvard.edu David Holloway daveh@gwythaint.tamis.com David Horwitt dhorwitt@ucsd.edu David Hovemeyer daveho@infocom.com David Jones dej@qpoint.torfree.net David Kelly dkelly@tomcat1.tbe.com David Kulp dkulp@neomorphic.com David L. Nugent davidn@blaze.net.au David Leonard d@scry.dstc.edu.au David Muir Sharnoff muir@idiom.com David S. Miller davem@jenolan.rutgers.edu David Sugar dyfet@gnu.org David Wolfskill dhw@whistle.com Dean Gaudet dgaudet@arctic.org Dean Huxley dean@fsa.ca Denis Fortin unknown Denis Shaposhnikov dsh@vlink.ru Dennis Glatting dennis.glatting@software-munitions.com Denton Gentry denny1@home.com der Mouse mouse@Collatz.McRCIM.McGill.EDU Derek Inksetter derek@saidev.com DI. Christian Gusenbauer cg@scotty.edvz.uni-linz.ac.at Dirk Keunecke dk@panda.rhein-main.de Dirk Nehrling nerle@pdv.de Dishanker Rajakulendren draj@oceanfree.net Dmitry A. Yankofm@astral.ntu-kpi.kiev.ua Dmitry Khrustalev dima@xyzzy.machaon.ru Dmitry Kohmanyuk dk@farm.org Dom Mitchell dom@myrddin.demon.co.uk Domas Mituzas midom@dammit.lt Dominik Brettnacher domi@saargate.de Dominik Rothert dr@domix.de Don Croyle croyle@gelemna.ft-wayne.in.us Donn Miller dmmiller@cvzoom.net Dan Pelleg dpelleg+unison@cs.cmu.edu &a.whiteside; Don Morrison dmorrisn@u.washington.edu Don Yuniskis dgy@rtd.com Donald Maddox dmaddox@conterra.com Douglas Ambrisko ambrisko@whistle.com Douglas Carmichael dcarmich@mcs.com Douglas Crosher dtc@scrooge.ee.swin.oz.au Drew Derbyshire ahd@kew.com Dustin Sallings dustin@spy.net Eckart "Isegrim" Hofmann Isegrim@Wunder-Nett.org Ed Gold vegold01@starbase.spd.louisville.edu Ed Hudson elh@p5.spnet.com Edward Chuang edwardc@firebird.org.tw Edward Wang edward@edcom.com Edwin Groothus edwin@nwm.wan.philips.com Edwin Mons e@ik.nu Ege Rekk aagero@aage.priv.no Eiji-usagi-MATSUmoto usagi@clave.gr.jp Eike Bernhardt eike.bernhardt@gmx.de ELISA Font Project Elmar Bartel bartel@informatik.tu-muenchen.de Eoin Lawless eoin@maths.tcd.ie Eric A. Griff eagriff@global2000.net Eric Blood eblood@cs.unr.edu Eric D. Futch efutch@nyct.net Eric J. Haug ejh@slustl.slu.edu Eric J. Schwertfeger eric@cybernut.com Eric L. Hernes erich@lodgenet.com Eric P. Scott eps@sirius.com Eric Sprinkle eric@ennovatenetworks.com Erich Stefan Boleyn erich@uruk.org Erich Zigler erich@tacni.net Erik H. Bakke erikhb@bgnett.no Erik E. Rantapaa rantapaa@math.umn.edu Erik H. Moe ehm@cris.com Ernst de Haan ernst@heinz.jollem.com Ernst Winter ewinter@lobo.muc.de Espen Skoglund esk@ira.uka.de Eugene M. Kim astralblue@usa.net Eugene Radchenko genie@qsar.chem.msu.su Eugeny Kuzakov CoreDumped@coredumped.null.ru Evan Champion evanc@synapse.net Faried Nawaz fn@Hungry.COM Flemming Jacobsen fj@batmule.dk Fong-Ching Liaw fong@juniper.net Francis M J Hsieh mjshieh@life.nthu.edu.tw Francisco Reyes fjrm@yahoo.com Frank Bartels knarf@camelot.de Frank Chen Hsiung Chan frankch@waru.life.nthu.edu.tw Frank Durda IV uhclem@nemesis.lonestar.org Frank MacLachlan fpm@n2.net Frank Nobis fn@Radio-do.de Frank ten Wolde franky@pinewood.nl Frank van der Linden frank@fwi.uva.nl Frank Volf volf@oasis.IAEhv.nl Fred Cawthorne fcawth@jjarray.umn.edu Fred Gilham gilham@csl.sri.com Fred Templin templin@erg.sri.com Frederick Earl Gray fgray@rice.edu FUJIMOTO Kensaku fujimoto@oscar.elec.waseda.ac.jp FURUSAWA Kazuhisa furusawa@com.cs.osakafu-u.ac.jp &a.stanislav; Gabor Kincses gabor@acm.org Gabor Zahemszky zgabor@CoDe.hu Gareth McCaughan gjm11@dpmms.cam.ac.uk Gary A. Browning gab10@griffcd.amdahl.com Gary Howland gary@hotlava.com Gary J. garyj@rks32.pcs.dec.com Gary Kline kline@thought.org Gaspar Chilingarov nightmar@lemming.acc.am Gea-Suan Lin gsl@tpts4.seed.net.tw Gene Raytsin pal@paladin7.net Geoff Rehmet csgr@alpha.ru.ac.za Georg Wagner georg.wagner@ubs.com Gianlorenzo Masini masini@uniroma3.it Gianmarco Giovannelli gmarco@giovannelli.it Gil Kloepfer Jr. gil@limbic.ssdl.com Gilad Rom rom_glsa@ein-hashofet.co.il Giles Lean giles@nemeton.com.au Ginga Kawaguti ginga@amalthea.phys.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp Giorgos Keramidas keramida@ceid.upatras.gr Glen Foster gfoster@gfoster.com Glenn Johnson gljohns@bellsouth.net Godmar Back gback@facility.cs.utah.edu Goran Hammarback goran@astro.uu.se Gord Matzigkeit gord@enci.ucalgary.ca Gordon Greeff gvg@uunet.co.za Graham Wheeler gram@cdsec.com Greg A. Woods woods@zeus.leitch.com Greg Ansley gja@ansley.com Greg Robinson greg@rosevale.com.au Greg Troxel gdt@ir.bbn.com Greg Ungerer gerg@stallion.oz.au Gregory Bond gnb@itga.com.au Gregory D. Moncreaff moncrg@bt340707.res.ray.com Guy Harris guy@netapp.com Guy Helmer ghelmer@cs.iastate.edu HAMADA Naoki hamada@astec.co.jp Hannu Savolainen hannu@voxware.pp.fi Hans Huebner hans@artcom.de Hans Petter Bieker zerium@webindex.no Hans Zuidam hans@brandinnovators.com Harlan Stenn Harlan.Stenn@pfcs.com Harold Barker hbarker@dsms.com Harry Newton harry_newton@telinco.co.uk Havard Eidnes Havard.Eidnes@runit.sintef.no Heikki Suonsivu hsu@cs.hut.fi Heiko W. Rupp unknown Helmut F. Wirth hfwirth@ping.at Henrik Vestergaard Draboel hvd@terry.ping.dk Herb Peyerl hpeyerl@NetBSD.org Hideaki Ohmon ohmon@tom.sfc.keio.ac.jp Hidekazu Kuroki hidekazu@cs.titech.ac.jp Hideki Yamamoto hyama@acm.org Hideyuki Suzuki hideyuki@sat.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Hirayama Issei iss@mail.wbs.ne.jp Hiroaki Sakai sakai@miya.ee.kagu.sut.ac.jp Hiroharu Tamaru tamaru@ap.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Hironori Ikura hikura@kaisei.org Hiroshi Nishikawa nis@pluto.dti.ne.jp Hiroya Tsubakimoto unknown Holger Lamm holger@eit.uni-kl.de Holger Veit Holger.Veit@gmd.de Holm Tiffe holm@geophysik.tu-freiberg.de HONDA Yasuhiro honda@kashio.info.mie-u.ac.jp Horance Chou horance@freedom.ie.cycu.edu.tw Horihiro Kumagai kuma@jp.FreeBSD.org HOSOBUCHI Noriyuki hoso@buchi.tama.or.jp HOTARU-YA hotaru@tail.net Hr.Ladavac lada@ws2301.gud.siemens.co.at Hubert Feyrer hubertf@NetBSD.ORG Hugh F. Mahon hugh@nsmdserv.cnd.hp.com Hugh Mahon h_mahon@fc.hp.com Hung-Chi Chu hcchu@r350.ee.ntu.edu.tw Ian Holland ianh@tortuga.com.au Ian Struble ian@broken.net Ian Vaudrey i.vaudrey@bigfoot.com Igor Khasilev igor@jabber.paco.odessa.ua Igor Roshchin str@giganda.komkon.org Igor Serikov bt@turtle.pangeatech.com Igor Sviridov siac@ua.net Igor Vinokurov igor@zynaps.ru Ikuo Nakagawa ikuo@isl.intec.co.jp Ilia Chipitsine ilia@jane.cgu.chel.su Ilya V. Komarov mur@lynx.ru IMAI Takeshi take-i@ceres.dti.ne.jp IMAMURA Tomoaki tomoak-i@is.aist-nara.ac.jp Itsuro Saito saito@miv.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp IWASHITA Yoji shuna@pop16.odn.ne.jp J. Bryant jbryant@argus.flash.net J. David Lowe lowe@saturn5.com J. Han hjh@photino.com J. Hawk jhawk@MIT.EDU J.T. Conklin jtc@cygnus.com Jack jack@zeus.xtalwind.net Jacob Bohn Lorensen jacob@jblhome.ping.mk Jagane D Sundar jagane@netcom.com Jake Hamby jehamby@anobject.com James Clark jjc@jclark.com James D. Stewart jds@c4systm.com James da Silva jds@cs.umd.edu James Jegers jimj@miller.cs.uwm.edu James Raynard fhackers@jraynard.demon.co.uk James T. Liu jtliu@phlebas.rockefeller.edu Jamie Heckford jamie@jamiesdomain.co.uk Jan Conard charly@fachschaften.tu-muenchen.de Jan Jungnickel Jan@Jungnickel.com Jan Koum jkb@FreeBSD.org Janick Taillandier Janick.Taillandier@ratp.fr Janusz Kokot janek@gaja.ipan.lublin.pl Jarle Greipsland jarle@idt.unit.no Jason DiCioccio geniusj@ods.org Jason Garman init@risen.org Jason R. Mastaler jason-freebsd@mastaler.com Jason Thorpe thorpej@NetBSD.org Jason Wright jason@OpenBSD.org Jason Young doogie@forbidden-donut.anet-stl.com Javier Martin Rueda jmrueda@diatel.upm.es Jay Fenlason hack@datacube.com Jay Krell jay.krell@cornell.edu Jaye Mathisen mrcpu@cdsnet.net Jeff Bartig jeffb@doit.wisc.edu Jeff Brown jabrown@caida.org Jeff Forys jeff@forys.cranbury.nj.us Jeff Kletsky Jeff@Wagsky.com Jeff Palmer scorpio@drkshdw.org Jeffrey Evans evans@scnc.k12.mi.us Jeffrey Wheat jeff@cetlink.net Jeremy Allison jallison@whistle.com Jeremy Chadwick yoshi@parodius.com Jeremy Chatfield jdc@xinside.com Jeremy Karlson karlj000@unbc.ca Jeremy Prior unknown Jeremy Shaffner jeremy@external.org Jesse McConnell jesse@cylant.com Jesse Rosenstock jmr@ugcs.caltech.edu Jian-Da Li jdli@csie.nctu.edu.tw Jim Babb babb@FreeBSD.org Jim Binkley jrb@cs.pdx.edu Jim Bloom bloom@acm.org Jim Carroll jim@carroll.com Jim Flowers jflowers@ezo.net Jim Leppek jleppek@harris.com Jim Lowe james@cs.uwm.edu Jim Mattson jmattson@sonic.net Jim Mercer jim@komodo.reptiles.org Jim Sloan odinn@atlantabiker.net Jim Wilson wilson@moria.cygnus.com Jimbo Bahooli griffin@blackhole.iceworld.org Jin Guojun jin@george.lbl.gov Joachim Kuebart kuebart@mathematik.uni-ulm.de Joao Carlos Mendes Luis jonny@jonny.eng.br Jochen Pohl jpo.drs@sni.de Joe "Marcus" Clarke marcus@marcuscom.com Joe Abley jabley@automagic.org Joe Jih-Shian Lu jslu@dns.ntu.edu.tw Joe Orthoefer j_orthoefer@tia.net Joe Traister traister@mojozone.org Joel Faedi Joel.Faedi@esial.u-nancy.fr Joel Ray Holveck joelh@gnu.org Joel Sutton jsutton@bbcon.com.au Jordan DeLong fracture@allusion.net Joseph Scott joseph@randomnetworks.com Johan Granlund johan@granlund.nu Johan Karlsson k@numeri.campus.luth.se Johan Larsson johan@moon.campus.luth.se Johann Tonsing jtonsing@mikom.csir.co.za Johannes Helander unknown Johannes Stille unknown John Beckett jbeckett@southern.edu John Beukema jbeukema@hk.super.net John Brezak unknown John Capo jc@irbs.com John F. Woods jfw@jfwhome.funhouse.com John Goerzen jgoerzen@alexanderwohl.complete.org John Heidemann johnh@isi.edu John Hood cgull@owl.org John Kohl unknown John Lind john@starfire.mn.org John Mackin john@physiol.su.oz.au John Merryweather Cooper jmcoopr@webmail.bmi.net John P johnp@lodgenet.com John Perry perry@vishnu.alias.net John Preisler john@vapornet.com John Reynolds jjreynold@home.com John Rochester jr@cs.mun.ca John Sadler john_sadler@alum.mit.edu John Saunders john@pacer.nlc.net.au John Wehle john@feith.com John Woods jfw@eddie.mit.edu Johny Mattsson lonewolf@flame.org Jon Morgan morgan@terminus.trailblazer.com Jonathan Belson jon@witchspace.com Jonathan H N Chin jc254@newton.cam.ac.uk Jonathan Hanna jh@pc-21490.bc.rogers.wave.ca Jonathan Pennington john@coastalgeology.org Jorge Goncalves j@bug.fe.up.pt Jorge M. Goncalves ee96199@tom.fe.up.pt Jos Backus jbackus@plex.nl Jose Marques jose@nobody.org Josef Grosch jgrosch@superior.mooseriver.com Joseph Stein joes@wstein.com Josh Gilliam josh@quick.net Josh Tiefenbach josh@ican.net Juergen Lock nox@jelal.hb.north.de Juha Inkari inkari@cc.hut.fi Jukka A. Ukkonen jau@iki.fi Julian Assange proff@suburbia.net Julian Coleman j.d.coleman@ncl.ac.uk &a.jhs Julian Jenkins kaveman@magna.com.au Junichi Satoh junichi@jp.FreeBSD.org Junji SAKAI sakai@jp.FreeBSD.org Junya WATANABE junya-w@remus.dti.ne.jp Justas justas@mbank.lv Justin Stanford jus@security.za.net K.Higashino a00303@cc.hc.keio.ac.jp Kai Vorma vode@snakemail.hut.fi Kaleb S. Keithley kaleb@ics.com Kaneda Hiloshi vanitas@ma3.seikyou.ne.jp Kang-ming Liu gugod@gugod.org Kapil Chowksey kchowksey@hss.hns.com Karl Denninger karl@mcs.com Karl Dietz Karl.Dietz@triplan.com Karl Lehenbauer karl@NeoSoft.com KATO Tsuguru tkato@prontomail.ne.jp Kawanobe Koh kawanobe@st.rim.or.jp Kees Jan Koster kjk1@ukc.ac.uk Keith Bostic bostic@bostic.com Keith E. Walker kew@icehouse.net Keith Moore unknown Keith Sklower unknown Ken Hornstein unknown Ken Key key@cs.utk.edu Ken Mayer kmayer@freegate.com Kenji Saito marukun@mx2.nisiq.net Kenji Tomita tommyk@da2.so-net.or.jp Kenneth Furge kenneth.furge@us.endress.com Kenneth Monville desmo@bandwidth.org Kenneth R. Westerback krw@tcn.net Kenneth Stailey kstailey@gnu.ai.mit.edu Kent Talarico kent@shipwreck.tsoft.net Kent Vander Velden graphix@iastate.edu Kentaro Inagaki JBD01226@niftyserve.ne.jp Kevin Bracey kbracey@art.acorn.co.uk Kevin Day toasty@dragondata.com Kevin Lahey kml@nas.nasa.gov Kevin Meltzer perlguy@perlguy.com Kevin Street street@iname.com Kevin Van Maren vanmaren@fast.cs.utah.edu Killer killer@prosalg.no Kim Scarborough sluggo@unknown.nu Kiril Mitev kiril@ideaglobal.com Kiroh HARADA kiroh@kh.rim.or.jp Klaus Herrmann klaus.herrmann@gmx.net Klaus Klein kleink@layla.inka.de Klaus-J. Wolf Yanestra@t-online.de Koichi Sato copan@ppp.fastnet.or.jp Konrad Heuer kheuer@gwdu60.gwdg.de Konstantin Chuguev Konstantin.Chuguev@dante.org.uk Kostya Lukin lukin@okbmei.msk.su Kouichi Hirabayashi kh@mogami-wire.co.jp Kris Dow kris@vilnya.demon.co.uk KUNISHIMA Takeo kunishi@c.oka-pu.ac.jp Kurt D. Zeilenga Kurt@Boolean.NET Kurt Olsen kurto@tiny.mcs.usu.edu L. Jonas Olsson ljo@ljo-slip.DIALIN.CWRU.Edu Larry Altneu larry@ALR.COM Lars Bernhardsson lab@fnurt.net Lars Köller Lars.Koeller@Uni-Bielefeld.DE Laurence Lopez lopez@mv.mv.com Lee Cremeans lcremean@tidalwave.net Leo Kim leo@florida.sarang.net Leo Serebryakov lev@serebryakov.spb.ru Liang Tai-hwa avatar@www.mmlab.cse.yzu.edu.tw Lon Willett lon%softt.uucp@math.utah.edu Louis A. Mamakos louie@TransSys.COM Louis Mamakos loiue@TransSys.com Lowell Gilbert lowell@world.std.com Lucas James Lucas.James@ldjpc.apana.org.au Lyndon Nerenberg lyndon@orthanc.ab.ca M. L. Dodson bdodson@scms.utmb.EDU M.C. Wong unknown Magnus Enbom dot@tinto.campus.luth.se Mahesh Neelakanta mahesh@gcomm.com Makoto MATSUSHITA matusita@jp.FreeBSD.org Makoto WATANABE watanabe@zlab.phys.nagoya-u.ac.jp Makoto YAMAKURA makoto@pinpott.spnet.ne.jp Malte Lance malte.lance@gmx.net MANTANI Nobutaka nobutaka@nobutaka.com Manu Iyengar iyengar@grunthos.pscwa.psca.com Marc Frajola marc@dev.com Marc Ramirez mrami@mramirez.sy.yale.edu Marc Slemko marcs@znep.com Marc van Kempen wmbfmk@urc.tue.nl Marc van Woerkom van.woerkom@netcologne.de Marcin Cieslak saper@system.pl Mark Andrews unknown Mark Cammidge mark@gmtunx.ee.uct.ac.za Mark Diekhans markd@grizzly.com Mark Huizer xaa@stack.nl Mark J. Taylor mtaylor@cybernet.com Mark Knight markk@knigma.org Mark Krentel krentel@rice.edu Mark Mayo markm@vmunix.com Mark Thompson thompson@tgsoft.com Mark Tinguely tinguely@plains.nodak.edu Mark Treacy unknown Mark Valentine mark@thuvia.org Markus Holmberg saska@acc.umu.se Martin Birgmeier unknown Martin Blapp blapp@attic.ch Martin Hinner mhi@linux.gyarab.cz Martin Ibert mib@ppe.bb-data.de Martin Kammerhofer dada@sbox.tu-graz.ac.at Martin Minkus diskiller@cnbinc.com Martin Renters martin@tdc.on.ca Martti Kuparinen martti.kuparinen@ericsson.com Masachika ISHIZUKA ishizuka@isis.min.ntt.jp Masahiro Sekiguchi seki@sysrap.cs.fujitsu.co.jp Masahiro TAKEMURA mastake@msel.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Masanobu Saitoh msaitoh@spa.is.uec.ac.jp Masanori Kanaoka kana@saijo.mke.mei.co.jp Masanori Kiriake seiken@ARGV.AC Masatoshi TAMURA tamrin@shinzan.kuee.kyoto-u.ac.jp Mats Lofkvist mal@algonet.se Matt Bartley mbartley@lear35.cytex.com Matt Heckaman matt@LUCIDA.QC.CA Matt Thomas matt@3am-software.com Matt White mwhite+@CMU.EDU Matthew C. Mead mmead@Glock.COM Matthew Cashdollar mattc@rfcnet.com Matthew Emmerton root@gabby.gsicomp.on.ca Matthew Flatt mflatt@cs.rice.edu Matthew Fuller fullermd@futuresouth.com Matthew Stein matt@bdd.net Matthew West mwest@uct.ac.za Matthias Pfaller leo@dachau.marco.de Matthias Scheler tron@netbsd.org Mattias Gronlund Mattias.Gronlund@sa.erisoft.se Mattias Pantzare pantzer@ludd.luth.se Maurice Castro maurice@planet.serc.rmit.edu.au Max Euston meuston@jmrodgers.com Max Khon fjoe@husky.iclub.nsu.ru Maxim Bolotin max@rsu.ru Maxim Konovalov maxim@macomnet.ru Maxime Henrion mhenrion@cybercable.fr Micha Class michael_class@hpbbse.bbn.hp.com Michael Alyn Miller malyn@strangeGizmo.com Michael Lucas mwlucas@blackhelicopters.org Michael Lyngbøl michael@lyngbol.dk Michael Butler imb@scgt.oz.au Michael Butschky butsch@computi.erols.com Michael Clay mclay@weareb.org Michael Galassi nerd@percival.rain.com Michael Hancock michaelh@cet.co.jp Michael Hohmuth hohmuth@inf.tu-dresden.de Michael Perlman canuck@caam.rice.edu Michael Petry petry@netwolf.NetMasters.com Michael Reifenberger root@totum.plaut.de Michael Sardo jaeger16@yahoo.com Michael Searle searle@longacre.demon.co.uk Michael Urban murban@tznet.com Michael Vasilenko acid@stu.cn.ua Michal Listos mcl@Amnesiac.123.org Michio Karl Jinbo karl@marcer.nagaokaut.ac.jp Miguel Angel Sagreras msagre@cactus.fi.uba.ar Mihoko Tanaka m_tonaka@pa.yokogawa.co.jp Mika Nystrom mika@cs.caltech.edu Mikael Hybsch micke@dynas.se Mikael Karpberg karpen@ocean.campus.luth.se Mike Bristow mike@urgle.com Mike Del repenting@hotmail.com Mike Durian durian@plutotech.com Mike Durkin mdurkin@tsoft.sf-bay.org Mike E. Matsnev mike@azog.cs.msu.su Mike Evans mevans@candle.com Mike Futerko mike@LITech.lviv.ua Mike Grupenhoff kashmir@umiacs.umd.edu Mike Harding mvh@ix.netcom.com Mike Hibler mike@marker.cs.utah.edu Mike Karels unknown Mike McGaughey mmcg@cs.monash.edu.au Mike Meyer mwm@mired.org Mike Mitchell mitchell@ref.tfs.com Mike Murphy mrm@alpharel.com Mike Peck mike@binghamton.edu Mike Sherwood mike@fate.com Mike Spengler mks@msc.edu Mikhail A. Sokolov mishania@demos.su Ming-I Hseh PA@FreeBSD.ee.Ntu.edu.TW Mitsuru Yoshida mitsuru@riken.go.jp Monte Mitzelfelt monte@gonefishing.org Morgan Davis root@io.cts.com MOROHOSHI Akihiko moro@race.u-tokyo.ac.jp Mostyn Lewis mostyn@mrl.com Motomichi Matsuzaki mzaki@e-mail.ne.jp Motoyuki Kasahara m-kasahr@sra.co.jp N.G.Smith ngs@sesame.hensa.ac.uk Nadav Eiron nadav@barcode.co.il NAGAO Tadaaki nagao@cs.titech.ac.jp NAKAJI Hiroyuki nakaji@tutrp.tut.ac.jp NAKAMURA Kazushi nkazushi@highway.or.jp NAKAMURA Motonori motonori@econ.kyoto-u.ac.jp NAKATA, Maho chat95@mbox.kyoto-inet.or.jp Nanbor Wang nw1@cs.wustl.edu Naofumi Honda honda@Kururu.math.sci.hokudai.ac.jp Naoki Hamada nao@tom-yam.or.jp Narvi narvi@haldjas.folklore.ee Nathan Dorfman nathan@rtfm.net Neal Fachan kneel@ishiboo.com Niall Smart rotel@indigo.ie Nicholas Esborn nick@netdot.net Nick Barnes Nick.Barnes@pobox.com Nick Handel nhandel@NeoSoft.com Nick Hilliard nick@foobar.org Nick Johnson freebsd@spatula.net Nick Williams njw@cs.city.ac.uk Nickolay N. Dudorov nnd@itfs.nsk.su NIIMI Satoshi sa2c@and.or.jp Niklas Hallqvist niklas@filippa.appli.se Nils M. Holm nmh@t3x.org Nisha Talagala nisha@cs.berkeley.edu No Name adrian@virginia.edu No Name alex@elvisti.kiev.ua No Name anto@netscape.net No Name bobson@egg.ics.nitch.ac.jp No Name bovynf@awe.be No Name burg@is.ge.com No Name chris@gnome.co.uk No Name colsen@usa.net No Name coredump@nervosa.com No Name dannyman@arh0300.urh.uiuc.edu No Name davids@SECNET.COM No Name derek@free.org No Name devet@adv.IAEhv.nl No Name djv@bedford.net No Name dvv@sprint.net No Name enami@ba2.so-net.or.jp No Name flash@eru.tubank.msk.su No Name flash@hway.ru No Name fn@pain.csrv.uidaho.edu No Name frf@xocolatl.com No Name gclarkii@netport.neosoft.com No Name gordon@sheaky.lonestar.org No Name graaf@iae.nl No Name greg@greg.rim.or.jp No Name grossman@cygnus.com No Name gusw@fub46.zedat.fu-berlin.de No Name hfir@math.rochester.edu No Name hnokubi@yyy.or.jp No Name iaint@css.tuu.utas.edu.au No Name invis@visi.com No Name ishisone@sra.co.jp No Name iverson@lionheart.com No Name jpt@magic.net No Name junker@jazz.snu.ac.kr No Name k-sugyou@ccs.mt.nec.co.jp No Name kenji@reseau.toyonaka.osaka.jp No Name kfurge@worldnet.att.net No Name lh@aus.org No Name lhecking@nmrc.ucc.ie No Name mrgreen@mame.mu.oz.au No Name nakagawa@jp.FreeBSD.org No Name ohki@gssm.otsuka.tsukuba.ac.jp No Name owaki@st.rim.or.jp No Name pechter@shell.monmouth.com No Name pete@pelican.pelican.com No Name pritc003@maroon.tc.umn.edu No Name risner@stdio.com No Name roman@rpd.univ.kiev.ua No Name root@ns2.redline.ru No Name root@uglabgw.ug.cs.sunysb.edu No Name stephen.ma@jtec.com.au No Name sumii@is.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp No Name takas-su@is.aist-nara.ac.jp No Name tamone@eig.unige.ch No Name tjevans@raleigh.ibm.com No Name tony-o@iij.ad.jp amurai@spec.co.jp No Name torii@tcd.hitachi.co.jp No Name uenami@imasy.or.jp No Name uhlar@netlab.sk No Name vode@hut.fi No Name wlloyd@mpd.ca No Name wlr@furball.wellsfargo.com No Name wmbfmk@urc.tue.nl No Name yamagata@nwgpc.kek.jp No Name ziggy@ryan.org No Name ZW6T-KND@j.asahi-net.or.jp Nobuhiro Yasutomi nobu@psrc.isac.co.jp Nobuyuki Koganemaru kogane@koganemaru.co.jp NOKUBI Hirotaka h-nokubi@yyy.or.jp Norio Suzuki nosuzuki@e-mail.ne.jp Noritaka Ishizumi graphite@jp.FreeBSD.org Noriyuki Soda soda@sra.co.jp Oddbjorn Steffenson oddbjorn@tricknology.org Oh Junseon hollywar@mail.holywar.net Olaf Wagner wagner@luthien.in-berlin.de Oleg Semyonov os@altavista.net Oleg Sharoiko os@rsu.ru Oleg V. Volkov rover@lglobus.ru Olexander Kunytsa kunia@wolf.istc.kiev.ua Oliver Breuninger ob@seicom.NET Oliver Friedrichs oliver@secnet.com Oliver Fromme oliver.fromme@heim3.tu-clausthal.de Oliver Helmling oliver.helmling@stud.uni-bayreuth.de Oliver Laumann net@informatik.uni-bremen.de Oliver Lehmann Kai_Allard_Liao@gmx.de Oliver Oberdorf oly@world.std.com Olof Johansson offe@ludd.luth.se Osokin Sergey aka oZZ ozz@FreeBSD.org.ru Pace Willisson pace@blitz.com Paco Rosich rosich@modico.eleinf.uv.es Palle Girgensohn girgen@partitur.se Parag Patel parag@cgt.com Pascal Pederiva pascal@zuo.dec.com Pasvorn Boonmark boonmark@juniper.net Patrick Alken cosine@ellipse.mcs.drexel.edu Patrick Bihan-Faou patrick@mindstep.com Patrick Hausen unknown Patrick Li pat@databits.net Patrick Seal patseal@hyperhost.net Paul Antonov apg@demos.su Paul F. Werkowski unknown Paul Fox pgf@foxharp.boston.ma.us Paul Koch koch@thehub.com.au Paul Kranenburg pk@NetBSD.org Paul M. Lambert plambert@plambert.net Paul Mackerras paulus@cs.anu.edu.au Paul Popelka paulp@uts.amdahl.com Paul S. LaFollette, Jr. unknown Paul Sandys myj@nyct.net Paul T. Root proot@horton.iaces.com Paul Vixie paul@vix.com Paulo Menezes paulo@isr.uc.pt Paulo Menezes pm@dee.uc.pt Pedro A M Vazquez vazquez@IQM.Unicamp.BR Pedro Giffuni giffunip@asme.org Per Wigren wigren@home.se Pete Bentley pete@demon.net Pete Fritchman petef@databits.net Peter Childs pjchilds@imforei.apana.org.au Peter Cornelius pc@inr.fzk.de Peter Haight peterh@prognet.com Peter Jeremy peter.jeremy@alcatel.com.au Peter M. Chen pmchen@eecs.umich.edu Peter Much peter@citylink.dinoex.sub.org Peter Olsson unknown Peter Philipp pjp@bsd-daemon.net Peter Stubbs PETERS@staidan.qld.edu.au Peter van Heusden pvh@egenetics.com Phil Maker pjm@cs.ntu.edu.au Phil Sutherland philsuth@mycroft.dialix.oz.au Phil Taylor phil@zipmail.co.uk Philip Musumeci philip@rmit.edu.au Philippe Lefebvre nemesis@balistik.net Pierre Y. Dampure pierre.dampure@k2c.co.uk Pius Fischer pius@ienet.com Pomegranate daver@flag.blackened.net Powerdog Industries kevin.ruddy@powerdog.com Priit Järv priit@cc.ttu.ee R Joseph Wright rjoseph@mammalia.org R. Kym Horsell Ralf Friedl friedl@informatik.uni-kl.de Randal S. Masutani randal@comtest.com Randall Hopper rhh@ct.picker.com Randall W. Dean rwd@osf.org Randy Bush rbush@bainbridge.verio.net Rasmus Kaj kaj@Raditex.se Reinier Bezuidenhout rbezuide@mikom.csir.co.za Remy Card Remy.Card@masi.ibp.fr Ricardas Cepas rch@richard.eu.org Riccardo Veraldi veraldi@cs.unibo.it Rich Wood rich@FreeBSD.org.uk Richard Henderson richard@atheist.tamu.edu Richard Hwang rhwang@bigpanda.com Richard Kiss richard@homemail.com Richard J Kuhns rjk@watson.grauel.com Richard M. Neswold rneswold@enteract.com Richard Seaman, Jr. dick@tar.com Richard Stallman rms@gnu.ai.mit.edu Richard Straka straka@user1.inficad.com Richard Tobin richard@cogsci.ed.ac.uk Richard Wackerbarth rkw@Dataplex.NET Richard Winkel rich@math.missouri.edu Richard Wiwatowski rjwiwat@adelaide.on.net Rick Macklem rick@snowhite.cis.uoguelph.ca Rick Macklin unknown Rob Austein sra@epilogue.com Rob Mallory rmallory@qualcomm.com Rob Snow rsnow@txdirect.net Robert Crowe bob@speakez.com Robert D. Thrush rd@phoenix.aii.com Robert Eckardt roberte@MEP.Ruhr-Uni-Bochum.de Robert P Ricci ricci@cs.utah.edu Robert Sanders rsanders@mindspring.com Robert Sexton robert@kudra.com Robert Shady rls@id.net Robert Swindells swindellsr@genrad.co.uk Robert Withrow witr@rwwa.com Robert Yoder unknown Robin Carey robin@mailgate.dtc.rankxerox.co.uk Rod Taylor rod@idiotswitch.org Roger Hardiman roger@cs.strath.ac.uk Roland Jesse jesse@cs.uni-magdeburg.de Roman Shterenzon roman@xpert.com Ron Bickers rbickers@intercenter.net Ron Lenk rlenk@widget.xmission.com Ronald Kuehn kuehn@rz.tu-clausthal.de Rudolf Cejka cejkar@dcse.fee.vutbr.cz Ruslan Belkin rus@home2.UA.net Ruslan Shevchenko rssh@cam.grad.kiev.ua Russell L. Carter rcarter@pinyon.org Russell Vincent rv@groa.uct.ac.za Ryan Younce ryany@pobox.com Ryuichiro IMURA imura@af.airnet.ne.jp Sakai Hiroaki sakai@miya.ee.kagu.sut.ac.jp Sakari Jalovaara sja@tekla.fi Sam Hartman hartmans@mit.edu Samuel Lam skl@ScalableNetwork.com Samuel Tardieu sam@inf.enst.fr Samuele Zannoli zannoli@cs.unibo.it Sander Janssen janssen@rendo.dekooi.nl Sander Vesik sander@haldjas.folklore.ee Sandro Sigala ssigala@globalnet.it SANETO Takanori sanewo@strg.sony.co.jp SASAKI Shunsuke ele@pop17.odn.ne.jp Sascha Blank blank@fox.uni-trier.de Sascha Wildner swildner@channelz.GUN.de Satoh Junichi junichi@astec.co.jp SAWADA Mizuki miz@qb3.so-net.ne.jp Scot Elliott scot@poptart.org Scot W. Hetzel hetzels@westbend.net Scott A. Kenney saken@rmta.ml.org Scott A. Moberly smoberly@xavier.dyndns.org Scott Blachowicz scott.blachowicz@seaslug.org Scott Burris scott@pita.cns.ucla.edu Scott Hazen Mueller scott@zorch.sf-bay.org Scott Michel scottm@cs.ucla.edu Scott Mitchel scott@uk.FreeBSD.org Scott Reynolds scott@clmqt.marquette.mi.us Sebastian Strollo seb@erix.ericsson.se Serge V. Vakulenko vak@zebub.msk.su Sergei Chechetkin csl@whale.sunbay.crimea.ua Sergei S. Laskavy laskavy@pc759.cs.msu.su Sergey Gershtein sg@mplik.ru Sergey Kosyakov ks@itp.ac.ru Sergey N. Vorokov serg@tmn.ru Sergey Potapov sp@alkor.ru Sergey Samoyloff gonza@techline.ru Sergey Shkonda serg@bcs.zp.ua Sergey Skvortsov skv@protey.ru Sergey V.Dorokhov svd@kbtelecom.nalnet.ru Sergio Lenzi lenzi@bsi.com.br Shaun Courtney shaun@emma.eng.uct.ac.za Shawn M. Carey smcarey@mailbox.syr.edu Shigio Yamaguchi shigio@tamacom.com Shinya Esu esu@yk.rim.or.jp Shinya FUJIE fujie@tk.elec.waseda.ac.jp Shuichi Tanaka stanaka@bb.mbn.or.jp Simon simon@masi.ibp.fr Simon Burge simonb@telstra.com.au Simon Dick simond@irrelevant.org Simon J Gerraty sjg@melb.bull.oz.au Simon Marlow simonm@dcs.gla.ac.uk Simon Shapiro shimon@simon-shapiro.org Sin'ichiro MIYATANI siu@phaseone.co.jp Slaven Rezic eserte@cs.tu-berlin.de Soochon Radee slr@mitre.org Soren Dayton csdayton@midway.uchicago.edu Soren Dossing sauber@netcom.com Soren S. Jorvang soren@wheel.dk Stefan Bethke stb@hanse.de Stefan Eggers seggers@semyam.dinoco.de Stefan Moeding s.moeding@ndh.net Stefan Petri unknown Stefan `Sec` Zehl sec@42.org Steinar Haug sthaug@nethelp.no Stephane E. Potvin sepotvin@videotron.ca Stephane Legrand stephane@lituus.fr Stephen Clawson sclawson@marker.cs.utah.edu Stephen F. Combs combssf@salem.ge.com Stephen Farrell stephen@farrell.org Stephen Hocking sysseh@devetir.qld.gov.au Stephen J. Roznowski sjr@home.net Stephen McKay syssgm@devetir.qld.gov.au Stephen Melvin melvin@zytek.com Steve Bauer sbauer@rock.sdsmt.edu Steve Coltrin spcoltri@unm.edu Steve Deering unknown Steve Gerakines steve2@genesis.tiac.net Steve Gericke steveg@comtrol.com Steve Piette steve@simon.chi.il.US Steve Schwarz schwarz@alpharel.com Steven Enderle panic@subphase.de Steven G. Kargl kargl@troutmask.apl.washington.edu Steven H. Samorodin samorodi@NUXI.com Steven McCanne mccanne@cs.berkeley.edu Steven Plite splite@purdue.edu Steven Wallace unknown Stijn Hoop stijn@win.tue.nl Stuart Henderson stuart@internationalschool.co.uk Sue Blake sue@welearn.com.au Sugimoto Sadahiro ixtl@komaba.utmc.or.jp SUGIMURA Takashi sugimura@jp.FreeBSD.org Sugiura Shiro ssugiura@duo.co.jp Sujal Patel smpatel@wam.umd.edu Sungman Cho smcho@tsp.korea.ac.kr Sune Stjerneby stjerneby@usa.net SURANYI Peter suranyip@jks.is.tsukuba.ac.jp Suzuki Yoshiaki zensyo@ann.tama.kawasaki.jp Svein Skogen tds@nsn.no Sybolt de Boer bolt@xs4all.nl Tadashi Kumano kumano@strl.nhk.or.jp Taguchi Takeshi taguchi@tohoku.iij.ad.jp TAKAHASHI Kaoru kaoru@kaisei.org Takahiro Yugawa yugawa@orleans.rim.or.jp Takashi Mega mega@minz.org Takashi Uozu j1594016@ed.kagu.sut.ac.jp Takayuki Ariga a00821@cc.hc.keio.ac.jp Takeru NAIKI naiki@bfd.es.hokudai.ac.jp Takeshi Amaike amaike@iri.co.jp Takeshi MUTOH mutoh@info.nara-k.ac.jp Takeshi Ohashi ohashi@mickey.ai.kyutech.ac.jp Takeshi WATANABE watanabe@crayon.earth.s.kobe-u.ac.jp Takuya SHIOZAKI tshiozak@makino.ise.chuo-u.ac.jp Tatoku Ogaito tacha@tera.fukui-med.ac.jp Tatsuya Kudoh cdr@cosmonet.org Ted Buswell tbuswell@mediaone.net Ted Faber faber@isi.edu Ted Lemon mellon@isc.org Terry Lambert terry@lambert.org Terry Lee terry@uivlsi.csl.uiuc.edu Tetsuya Furukawa tetsuya@secom-sis.co.jp Theo de Raadt deraadt@OpenBSD.org Thomas thomas@mathematik.uni-Bremen.de Thomas D. Dean tomdean@ix.netcom.com Thomas David Rivers rivers@dignus.com Thomas G. McWilliams tgm@netcom.com Thomas Graichen graichen@omega.physik.fu-berlin.de Thomas König Thomas.Koenig@ciw.uni-karlsruhe.de Thomas Ptacek unknown Thomas Quinot thomas@cuivre.fr.eu.org Thomas A. Stephens tas@stephens.org Thomas Stromberg tstrombe@rtci.com Thomas Valentino Crimi tcrimi+@andrew.cmu.edu Thomas Wintergerst thomas@lemur.nord.de Þórður Ívarsson totii@est.is Thierry Thomas tthomas@mail.dotcom.fr Timothy Jensen toast@blackened.com Tim Kientzle kientzle@netcom.com Tim Singletary tsingle@sunland.gsfc.nasa.gov Tim Wilkinson tim@sarc.city.ac.uk Timo J. Rinne tri@iki.fi Tobias Reifenberger treif@mayn.de Todd Miller millert@openbsd.org Tom root@majestix.cmr.no Tom tom@sdf.com Tom Gray - DCA dcasba@rain.org Tom Jobbins tom@tom.tj Tom Pusateri pusateri@juniper.net Tom Rush tarush@mindspring.com Tom Samplonius tom@misery.sdf.com Tomohiko Kurahashi kura@melchior.q.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Tony Kimball alk@Think.COM Tony Li tli@jnx.com Tony Lynn wing@cc.nsysu.edu.tw Tony Maher tonym@angis.org.au Torbjorn Granlund tege@matematik.su.se Toshihiko SHIMOKAWA toshi@tea.forus.or.jp Toshihiro Kanda candy@kgc.co.jp Toshiomi Moriki Toshiomi.Moriki@ma1.seikyou.ne.jp Trefor S. trefor@flevel.co.uk Trenton Schulz twschulz@cord.edu Trevor Blackwell tlb@viaweb.com Udo Schweigert ust@cert.siemens.de Ugo Paternostro paterno@dsi.unifi.it Ulf Kieber kieber@sax.de Ulli Linzen ulli@perceval.camelot.de URATA Shuichiro s-urata@nmit.tmg.nec.co.jp Uwe Arndt arndt@mailhost.uni-koblenz.de Vadim Belman vab@lflat.vas.mobilix.dk Vadim Chekan vadim@gc.lviv.ua Vadim Kolontsov vadim@tversu.ac.ru Vadim Mikhailov mvp@braz.ru Valentin Nechayev netch@lucky.net &a.logo; Van Jacobson van@ee.lbl.gov Vasily V. Grechishnikov bazilio@ns1.ied-vorstu.ac.ru Vasim Valejev vasim@uddias.diaspro.com Vernon J. Schryver vjs@mica.denver.sgi.com Veselin Slavov vess@btc.net Vic Abell abe@cc.purdue.edu Ville Eerola ve@sci.fi Vince Valenti vince@blue-box.net Vincent Poy vince@venus.gaianet.net Vincenzo Capuano VCAPUANO@vmprofs.esoc.esa.de Virgil Champlin champlin@pa.dec.com Vladimir A. Jakovenko vovik@ntu-kpi.kiev.ua Vladimir Kushnir kushn@mail.kar.net Vsevolod Lobko seva@alex-ua.com W. Gerald Hicks wghicks@bellsouth.net W. Richard Stevens rstevens@noao.edu Walt Howard howard@ee.utah.edu Walt M. Shandruk walt@erudition.net Warren Toomey wkt@csadfa.cs.adfa.oz.au Wayne Scott wscott@ichips.intel.com Werner Griessl werner@btp1da.phy.uni-bayreuth.de Wes Santee wsantee@wsantee.oz.net Wietse Venema wietse@wzv.win.tue.nl Wiljo Heinen wiljo@freeside.ki.open.de Willem Jan Withagen wjw@surf.IAE.nl William Jolitz withheld William Liao william@tale.net Wojtek Pilorz wpilorz@celebris.bdk.lublin.pl Wolfgang Helbig helbig@ba-stuttgart.de Wolfgang Solfrank ws@tools.de Wolfgang Stanglmeier wolf@FreeBSD.org Wu Ching-hong woju@FreeBSD.ee.Ntu.edu.TW Yarema yds@ingress.com Yaroslav Terletsky ts@polynet.lviv.ua Yasuhiro Fukama yasuf@big.or.jp Yasuhito FUTATSUKI futatuki@fureai.or.jp Yen-Ming Lee leeym@bsd.ce.ntu.edu.tw Yen-Shuo Su yssu@CCCA.NCTU.edu.tw Yin-Jieh Chen yinjieh@Crazyman.Dorm13.NCTU.edu.tw Yixin Jin yjin@rain.cs.ucla.edu Yoichi Asai yatt@msc.biglobe.ne.jp Yoichi Nakayama yoichi@eken.phys.nagoya-u.ac.jp Yoshiaki Uchikawa yoshiaki@kt.rim.or.jp Yoshihiko SARUMRU mistral@imasy.or.jp Yoshihisa NAKAGAWA y-nakaga@ccs.mt.nec.co.jp Yoshikazu Goto gotoh@ae.anritsu.co.jp Yoshimasa Ohnishi ohnishi@isc.kyutech.ac.jp Yoshishige Arai ryo2@on.rim.or.jp Yuichi MATSUTAKA matutaka@osa.att.ne.jp Yujiro MIYATA miyata@bioele.nuee.nagoya-u.ac.jp Yu-Shun Wang yushunwa@isi.edu Yusuke Nawano azuki@azkey.org Yuu Yashiki s974123@cc.matsuyama-u.ac.jp Yuuki SAWADA mami@whale.cc.muroran-it.ac.jp Yuuichi Narahara aconitum@po.teleway.ne.jp Yuval Yarom yval@cs.huji.ac.il Yves Fonk yves@cpcoup5.tn.tudelft.nl Yves Fonk yves@dutncp8.tn.tudelft.nl Zach Heilig zach@gaffaneys.com Zach Zurflu zach@pabst.bendnet.com Zahemszhky Gabor zgabor@code.hu Zhong Ming-Xun zmx@mail.CDPA.nsysu.edu.tw 386BSD Patch Kit Patch Contributors (in alphabetical order by first name): Adam Glass glass@postgres.berkeley.edu Adrian Hall ahall@mirapoint.com Andrey A. Chernov ache@astral.msk.su Andrew Herbert andrew@werple.apana.org.au Andrew Moore alm@netcom.com Andy Valencia ajv@csd.mot.com jtk@netcom.com Arne Henrik Juul arnej@Lise.Unit.NO Bakul Shah bvs@bitblocks.com Barry Lustig barry@ictv.com Bob Wilcox bob@obiwan.uucp Branko Lankester Brett Lymn blymn@mulga.awadi.com.AU Charles Hannum mycroft@ai.mit.edu Chris G. Demetriou cgd@postgres.berkeley.edu Chris Torek torek@ee.lbl.gov Christoph Robitschko chmr@edvz.tu-graz.ac.at Daniel Poirot poirot@aio.jsc.nasa.gov Dave Burgess burgess@hrd769.brooks.af.mil Dave Rivers rivers@ponds.uucp David Dawes dawes@physics.su.OZ.AU David Greenman dg@Root.COM Eric J. Haug ejh@slustl.slu.edu Felix Gaehtgens felix@escape.vsse.in-berlin.de Frank Maclachlan fpm@crash.cts.com Gary A. Browning gab10@griffcd.amdahl.com Gary Howland gary@hotlava.com Geoff Rehmet csgr@alpha.ru.ac.za Goran Hammarback goran@astro.uu.se Guido van Rooij guido@gvr.org Guy Antony Halse guy@rucus.ru.ac.za Guy Harris guy@auspex.com Havard Eidnes Havard.Eidnes@runit.sintef.no Herb Peyerl hpeyerl@novatel.cuc.ab.ca Holger Veit Holger.Veit@gmd.de Ishii Masahiro, R. Kym Horsell J.T. Conklin jtc@cygnus.com Jagane D Sundar jagane@netcom.com James Clark jjc@jclark.com James Jegers jimj@miller.cs.uwm.edu James W. Dolter James da Silva jds@cs.umd.edu et al Jay Fenlason hack@datacube.com Jim Wilson wilson@moria.cygnus.com Jörg Lohse lohse@tech7.informatik.uni-hamburg.de Jörg Wunsch joerg_wunsch@uriah.heep.sax.de John Dyson John Woods jfw@eddie.mit.edu Jordan K. Hubbard jkh@whisker.hubbard.ie Julian Elischer julian@dialix.oz.au Julian Stacey jhs@FreeBSD.org Karl Dietz Karl.Dietz@triplan.com Karl Lehenbauer karl@NeoSoft.com karl@one.neosoft.com Keith Bostic bostic@toe.CS.Berkeley.EDU Ken Hughes Kent Talarico kent@shipwreck.tsoft.net Kevin Lahey kml%rokkaku.UUCP@mathcs.emory.edu kml@mosquito.cis.ufl.edu Konstantinos Konstantinidis kkonstan@duth.gr Marc Frajola marc@dev.com Mark Tinguely tinguely@plains.nodak.edu tinguely@hookie.cs.ndsu.NoDak.edu Martin Renters martin@tdc.on.ca Michael Clay mclay@weareb.org Michael Galassi nerd@percival.rain.com Mike Durkin mdurkin@tsoft.sf-bay.org Naoki Hamada nao@tom-yam.or.jp Nate Williams nate@bsd.coe.montana.edu Nick Handel nhandel@NeoSoft.com nick@madhouse.neosoft.com Pace Willisson pace@blitz.com Paul Kranenburg pk@cs.few.eur.nl Paul Mackerras paulus@cs.anu.edu.au Paul Popelka paulp@uts.amdahl.com Peter da Silva peter@NeoSoft.com Phil Sutherland philsuth@mycroft.dialix.oz.au Poul-Henning Kamp phk@FreeBSD.org Ralf Friedl friedl@informatik.uni-kl.de Rick Macklem root@snowhite.cis.uoguelph.ca Robert D. Thrush rd@phoenix.aii.com Rodney W. Grimes rgrimes@cdrom.com Sascha Wildner swildner@channelz.GUN.de Scott Burris scott@pita.cns.ucla.edu Scott Reynolds scott@clmqt.marquette.mi.us Sean Eric Fagan sef@kithrup.com Simon J Gerraty sjg@melb.bull.oz.au sjg@zen.void.oz.au Stephen McKay syssgm@devetir.qld.gov.au Terry Lambert terry@icarus.weber.edu Terry Lee terry@uivlsi.csl.uiuc.edu Tor Egge Tor.Egge@idi.ntnu.no Warren Toomey wkt@csadfa.cs.adfa.oz.au Wiljo Heinen wiljo@freeside.ki.open.de William Jolitz withheld Wolfgang Solfrank ws@tools.de Wolfgang Stanglmeier wolf@dentaro.GUN.de Yuval Yarom yval@cs.huji.ac.il diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/cutting-edge/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/cutting-edge/chapter.sgml index e9748478a8..2174552e85 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/cutting-edge/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/cutting-edge/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1536 +1,1536 @@ The Cutting Edge Restructured, reorganized, and parts updated by &a.jim; March 2000. Original work by &a.jkh;, &a.phk;, &a.jdp;, and &a.nik; with feedback from various others. Synopsis &os; is under constant development between releases. For people who want to be on the cutting edge, there are several easy mechanisms for keeping your system in sync with the latest developments. Be warned—the cutting edge is not for everyone! This chapter will help you decide if you want to track the development system, or stick with one of the released versions. &os.current; vs. &os.stable; -CURRENT -STABLE There are two development branches to FreeBSD; &os.current; and &os.stable;. This section will explain a bit about each and describe how to keep your system up-to-date with each respective tree. &os.current; will be discussed first, then &os.stable;. Staying Current with &os; As you are reading this, keep in mind that &os.current; is the bleeding edge of &os; development and that if you are new to &os;, you are most likely going to want to think twice about running it. What is &os.current;? snapshot &os.current; is, quite literally, nothing more than a daily snapshot of the working sources for &os;. These include work in progress, experimental changes and transitional mechanisms that may or may not be present in the next official release of the software. While many of us compile almost daily from &os.current; sources, there are periods of time when the sources are literally un-compilable. These problems are generally resolved as expeditiously as possible, but whether or not &os.current; sources bring disaster or greatly desired functionality can literally be a matter of which part of any given 24 hour period you grabbed them in! Who needs &os.current;? &os.current; is made generally available for 3 primary interest groups: Members of the &os; group who are actively working on some part of the source tree and for whom keeping current is an absolute requirement. Members of the &os; group who are active testers, willing to spend time working through problems in order to ensure that &os.current; remains as sane as possible. These are also people who wish to make topical suggestions on changes and the general direction of &os;. Peripheral members of the &os; (or some other) group who merely wish to keep an eye on things and use the current sources for reference purposes (e.g. for reading, not running). These people also make the occasional comment or contribute code. What is &os.current; <emphasis>not</emphasis>? A fast-track to getting pre-release bits because you heard there is some cool new feature in there and you want to be the first on your block to have it. A quick way of getting bug fixes. In any way officially supported by us. We do our best to help people genuinely in one of the 3 legitimate &os.current; categories, but we simply do not have the time to provide tech support for it. This is not because we are mean and nasty people who do not like helping people out (we would not even be doing &os; if we were), it is literally because we cannot answer 400 messages a day and actually work on FreeBSD! Given the choice between improving &os; and answering lots of questions, most developers, and users, would probably opt for the former. Using &os.current; Join the &a.current; and the &a.cvsall; . This is not just a good idea, it is essential. If you are not on the &a.current;, you will not see the comments that people are making about the current state of the system and thus will probably end up stumbling over a lot of problems that others have already found and solved. Even more importantly, you will miss out on important bulletins which may be critical to your system's continued health. The &a.cvsall; mailing list will allow you to see the commit log entry for each change as it is made along with any pertinent information on possible side-effects. To join these lists, send mail to &a.majordomo; and specify the following in the body of your message: subscribe freebsd-current subscribe cvs-all majordomo Optionally, you can also say help and Majordomo will send you full help on how to subscribe and unsubscribe to the various other mailing lists we support. Grab the sources from ftp.FreeBSD.org. You can do this in one of three ways: cvsup cron -CURRENT Syncing with CVSup Use the cvsup program with this supfile. This is the second most recommended method, since it allows you to grab the entire collection once and then only what has changed from then on. Many people run cvsup from cron and keep their sources up-to-date automatically. For a fairly easy interface to this, simply type:
&prompt.root; pkg_add -f ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/development/CVSup/cvsupit.tgz
 -CURRENT Downloading with ftp Use ftp. The source tree for &os.current; is always exported on: ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-current/. We also use wu-ftpd which allows compressed/tarred grabbing of whole trees. e.g. you see: usr.bin/lex You can do the following to get the whole directory as a tar file: ftp> cd usr.bin ftp> get lex.tar -CURRENT Syncing with CTM Use the CTM facility. If you have very bad connectivity (high price connections or only e-mail access) CTM is an option. However, it is a lot of hassle and can give you broken files. This leads to it being rarely used, which again increases the chance of it not working for fairly long periods of time. We recommend using CVSup for anybody with a 9600bps modem or faster connection. If you are grabbing the sources to run, and not just look at, then grab all of &os.current;, not just selected portions. The reason for this is that various parts of the source depend on updates elsewhere, and trying to compile just a subset is almost guaranteed to get you into trouble. Before compiling &os.current;, read the Makefilein /usr/src carefully. You should at least run a make world the first time through as part of the upgrading process. Reading the &a.current; will keep you up-to-date on other bootstrapping procedures that sometimes become necessary as we move towards the next release. Be active! If you are running &os.current;, we want to know what you have to say about it, especially if you have suggestions for enhancements or bug fixes. Suggestions with accompanying code are received most enthusiastically! Staying Stable with &os; What is &os.stable;? -STABLE &os.stable; is our development branch from which major releases are made. Changes go into this branch at a different pace, and with the general assumption that they've first gone into &os.current; first for testing. This is still a development branch, however, and this means that at any given time, the sources for &os.stable; may or may not be suitable for any particular purpose. It is simply another engineering development track, not a resource for end-users. Who needs &os.stable;? If you are interested in tracking or contributing to the FreeBSD development process, especially as it relates to the next point release of FreeBSD, then you should consider following &os.stable;. While it is true that security fixes also go into the &os.stable; branch, you do not need to track &os.stable; to do this. Every security advisory for FreeBSD explains how to fix the problem for the releases it affects, and tracking an entire development branch just for security reasons is likely to bring in a lot of unwanted changes as well. Although we endeavor to ensure that the &os.stable; branch compiles and runs at all times, this cannot be guaranteed. In addition, while code is developed in &os.current; before including it in &os.stable;, more people run &os.stable; than &os.current;, so it is inevitable that bugs and corner cases will sometimes be found in &os.stable; that were not apparent in &os.current;. For these reasons, we do not recommend that you blindly track &os.stable;, and it is particularly important that you do not update any production servers to &os.stable; without first thoroughly testing the code in your development environment. If you do not have the resources to do this then we recommend that you run the most recent release of FreeBSD, and use the binary update mechanism to move from release to release. Using &os.stable; -STABLE using Join the &a.stable;. This will keep you informed of build-dependencies that may appear in &os.stable; or any other issues requiring special attention. Developers will also make announcements in this mailing list when they are contemplating some controversial fix or update, giving the users a chance to respond if they have any issues to raise concerning the proposed change. The &a.cvsall; mailing list will allow you to see the commit log entry for each change as it is made along with any pertinent information on possible side-effects. To join these lists, send mail to &a.majordomo; and specify the following in the body of your message: subscribe freebsd-stable subscribe cvs-all majordomo Optionally, you can also say help and Majordomo will send you full help on how to subscribe and unsubscribe to the various other mailing lists we support. If you are installing a new system and want it to be as stable as possible, you can simply grab the latest dated branch snapshot from ftp://releng4.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ and install it like any other release. If you are already running a previous release of &os; and wish to upgrade via sources then you can easily do so from ftp.FreeBSD.org. This can be done in one of three ways: CTM -STABLE syncing with CTM Use the CTM facility. Unless you have a good TCP/IP connection at a flat rate, this is the way to do it. -STABLE syncing with CVSup Use the cvsup program with this supfile. This is the second most recommended method, since it allows you to grab the entire collection once and then only what has changed from then on. Many people run cvsup from cron to keep their sources up-to-date automatically. For a fairly easy interface to this, simply type:
&prompt.root; pkg_add -f ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/development/CVSup/cvsupit.tgz
 -STABLE downloading with FTP Use ftp. The source tree for &os.stable; is always exported on: ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-stable/ We also use wu-ftpd which allows compressed/tarred grabbing of whole trees. e.g. you see: usr.bin/lex You can do the following to get the whole directory for you as a tar file: ftp> cd usr.bin ftp> get lex.tar Essentially, if you need rapid on-demand access to the source and communications bandwidth is not a consideration, use cvsup or ftp. Otherwise, use CTM. -STABLE compiling Before compiling &os.stable;, read the Makefile in /usr/src carefully. You should at least run a make world the first time through as part of the upgrading process. Reading the &a.stable; will keep you up-to-date on other bootstrapping procedures that sometimes become necessary as we move towards the next release. Synchronizing Your Source There are various ways of using an Internet (or email) connection to stay up-to-date with any given area of the &os; project sources, or all areas, depending on what interests you. The primary services we offer are Anonymous CVS, CVSup, and CTM. While it is possible to update only parts of your source tree, the only supported update procedure is to update the entire tree and recompile both userland (i.e., all the programs that run in user space, such as those in /bin and /sbin) and kernel sources. Updating only part of your source tree, only the kernel, or only userland will often result in problems. These problems may range from compile errors to kernel panics or data corruption. anonymous CVS Anonymous CVS and CVSup use the pull model of updating sources. In the case of CVSup the user (or a cron script) invokes the cvsup program, and it interacts with a cvsupd server somewhere to bring your files up-to-date. The updates you receive are up-to-the-minute and you get them when, and only when, you want them. You can easily restrict your updates to the specific files or directories that are of interest to you. Updates are generated on the fly by the server, according to what you have and what you want to have. Anonymous CVS is quite a bit more simplistic than CVSup in that it's just an extension to CVS which allows it to pull changes directly from a remote CVS repository. CVSup can do this far more efficiently, but Anonymous CVS is easier to use. CTM CTM, on the other hand, does not interactively compare the sources you have with those on the master archive or otherwise pull them across.. Instead, a script which identifies changes in files since its previous run is executed several times a day on the master CTM machine, any detected changes being compressed, stamped with a sequence-number and encoded for transmission over email (in printable ASCII only). Once received, these CTM deltas can then be handed to the &man.ctm.rmail.1; utility which will automatically decode, verify and apply the changes to the user's copy of the sources. This process is far more efficient than CVSup, and places less strain on our server resources since it is a push rather than a pull model. There are other trade-offs, of course. If you inadvertently wipe out portions of your archive, CVSup will detect and rebuild the damaged portions for you. CTM won't do this, and if you wipe some portion of your source tree out (and don't have it backed up) then you will have to start from scratch (from the most recent CVS base delta) and rebuild it all with CTM or, with anoncvs, simply delete the bad bits and resync. More information about Anonymous CVS, CTM, and CVSup is available further down in this section. Using <command>make world</command> make world Once you have synchronized your local source tree against a particular version of &os; (&os.stable;, &os.current;, and so on) you can then use the source tree to rebuild the system. Take a backup It cannot be stressed enough how important it is to take a backup of your system before you do this. While rebuilding the world is (as long as you follow these instructions) an easy task to do, there will inevitably be times when you make mistakes, or when mistakes made by others in the source tree render your system unbootable. Make sure you have taken a backup. And have a fix-it floppy to hand. You will probably never have to use it, but it is better to be safe than sorry! Subscribe to the right mailing list mailing list The &os.stable; and &os.current; branches are, by their nature, in development. People that contribute to &os; are human, and mistakes occasionally happen. Sometimes these mistakes can be quite harmless, just causing your system to print a new diagnostic warning. Or the change may be catastrophic, and render your system unbootable or destroy your filesystems (or worse). If problems like these occur, a heads up is posted to the appropriate mailing list, explaining the nature of the problem and which systems it affects. And an all clear announcement is posted when the problem has been solved. If you try and track &os.stable; or &os.current; and do not read the stable@FreeBSD.org or current@FreeBSD.org mailing lists then you are asking for trouble. Read <filename>/usr/src/UPDATING</filename> Before you do anything else, read /usr/src/UPDATING (or the equivalent file wherever you have a copy of the source code). This file should contain important information about problems you might encounter, or specify the order in which you might have to run certain commands. If UPDATING contradicts something you read here, UPDATING takes precedence. Reading UPDATING is not an acceptable substitute for subscribing to the correct mailing list, as described previously. The two requirements are complementary, not exclusive. Check <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename> make.conf Examine the files /etc/defaults/make.conf and /etc/make.conf. The first contains some default defines – most of which are commented out. To make use of them when you rebuild your system from source, add them to /etc/make.conf. Keep in mind that anything you add to /etc/make.conf is also used every time you run make, so it is a good idea to set them to something sensible for your system. A typical user will probably want to copy the CFLAGS and NOPROFILE lines found in /etc/defaults/make.conf to /etc/make.conf and uncomment them. Examine the other definitions (COPTFLAGS, NOPORTDOCS and so on) and decide if they are relevant to you. Update <filename>/etc/group</filename> The /etc directory contains a large part of your system's configuration information, as well as scripts that are run at system startup. Some of these scripts change from version to version of FreeBSD. Some of the configuration files are also used in the day to day running of the system. In particular, /etc/group. There have been occasions when the installation part of make world has expected certain usernames or groups to exist. When performing an upgrade it is likely that these groups did not exist. This caused problems when upgrading. The most recent example of this is when the ppp subsystem were installed using a non-existent (for them) group name. The solution is to examine /usr/src/etc/group and compare its list of groups with your own. If there are any groups in the new file that are not in your file then copy them over. Similarly, you should rename any groups in /etc/group which have the same GID but a different name to those in /usr/src/etc/group. If you are feeling particularly paranoid, you can check your system to see which files are owned by the group you are renaming or deleting. &prompt.root; find / -group GID -print will show all files owned by group GID (which can be either a group name or a numeric group ID). Drop to single user mode single-user mode You may want to compile the system in single user mode. Apart from the obvious benefit of making things go slightly faster, reinstalling the system will touch a lot of important system files, all the standard system binaries, libraries, include files and so on. Changing these on a running system (particularly if you have active users on the system at the time) is asking for trouble. multi-user mode Another method is to compile the system in multi-user mode, and then drop into single user mode for the installation. If you would like to do it this way, simply hold off on the following steps until the build has completed. As the superuser, you can execute &prompt.root; from a running system, which will drop it to single user mode. Alternatively, reboot the system, and at the boot prompt, enter the flag. The system will then boot single user. At the shell prompt you should then run: &prompt.root; fsck -p &prompt.root; mount -u / &prompt.root; mount -a -t ufs &prompt.root; swapon -a This checks the filesystems, remounts / read/write, mounts all the other UFS filesystems referenced in /etc/fstab and then turns swapping on. Remove <filename>/usr/obj</filename> As parts of the system are rebuilt they are placed in directories which (by default) go under /usr/obj. The directories shadow those under /usr/src. You can speed up the make world process, and possibly save yourself some dependency headaches by removing this directory as well. Some files below /usr/obj may have the immutable flag set (see &man.chflags.1; for more information) which must be removed first. &prompt.root; cd /usr/obj &prompt.root; chflags -R noschg * &prompt.root; rm -rf * Recompile the source Saving the output It is a good idea to save the output you get from running &man.make.1; to another file. If something goes wrong you will have a copy of the error message. While this might not help you in diagnosing what has gone wrong, it can help others if you post your problem to one of the &os; mailing lists. The easiest way to do this is to use the &man.script.1; command, with a parameter that specifies the name of the file to save all output to. You would do this immediately before rebuilding the world, and then type exit when the process has finished. &prompt.root; script /var/tmp/mw.out Script started, output file is /var/tmp/mw.out &prompt.root; make TARGET … compile, compile, compile … &prompt.root; exit Script done, … If you do this, do not save the output in /tmp. This directory may be cleared next time you reboot. A better place to store it is in /var/tmp (as in the previous example) or in root's home directory. Compile and install the base system You must be in the /usr/src directory... &prompt.root; cd /usr/src (unless, of course, your source code is elsewhere, in which case change to that directory instead). make To rebuild the world you use the &man.make.1; command. This command reads instructions from the Makefile, which describes how the programs that comprise &os; should be rebuilt, the order in which they should be built, and so on. The general format of the command line you will type is as follows: &prompt.root; make In this example, is an option that you would pass to &man.make.1;. See the &man.make.1; manual page for an example of the options you can pass. passes a variable to the Makefile. The behavior of the Makefile is controlled by these variables. These are the same variables as are set in /etc/make.conf, and this provides another way of setting them. &prompt.root; make -DNOPROFILE=true target is another way of specifying that profiled libraries should not be built, and corresponds with the NOPROFILE= true # Avoid compiling profiled libraries lines in /etc/make.conf. target tells &man.make.1; what you want to do. Each Makefile defines a number of different targets, and your choice of target determines what happens. Some targets are listed in the Makefile, but are not meant for you to run. Instead, they are used by the build process to break out the steps necessary to rebuild the system into a number of sub-steps. Most of the time you won't need to pass any parameters to &man.make.1;, and so your command like will look like this: &prompt.root; make target Beginning with version 2.2.5 of &os; (actually, it was first created on the &os.current; branch, and then retrofitted to &os.stable; midway between 2.2.2 and 2.2.5) the world target has been split in two. buildworld and installworld. As the names imply, buildworld builds a complete new tree under /usr/obj, and installworld installs this tree on the current machine. This is very useful for 2 reasons. First, it allows you to do the build safe in the knowledge that no components of your running system will be affected. The build is self hosted. Because of this, you can safely run buildworld on a machine running in multi-user mode with no fear of ill-effects. It is still recommended that you run the installworld part in single user mode, though. Secondly, it allows you to use NFS mounts to upgrade multiple machines on your network. If you have three machines, A, B and C that you want to upgrade, run make buildworld and make installworld on A. B and C should then NFS mount /usr/src and /usr/obj from A, and you can then run make installworld to install the results of the build on B and C. Although the world target still exists, you are strongly encouraged not to use it. Run &prompt.root; make buildworld It is now possible to specify a -j option to make which will cause it to spawn several simultaneous processes. This is most useful on multi-CPU machines. However, since much of the compiling process is IO bound rather than CPU bound it is also useful on single CPU machines. On a typical single-CPU machine you would run: &prompt.root; make -j4 buildworld &man.make.1; will then have up to 4 processes running at any one time. Empirical evidence posted to the mailing lists shows this generally gives the best performance benefit. If you have a multi-CPU machine and you are using an SMP configured kernel try values between 6 and 10 and see how they speed things up. Be aware that this is still somewhat experimental, and commits to the source tree may occasionally break this feature. If the world fails to compile using this parameter try again without it before you report any problems. Timings make world timings Many factors influence the build time, but currently a 500MHz Pentium 3 with 128MB of RAM takes about 3 and a half hours to build the &os.current; tree, with no tricks or shortcuts used during the process. A &os.stable; tree will build somewhat faster. Compile and install a new kernel kernel compiling To take full advantage of your new system you should recompile the kernel. This is practically a necessity, as certain memory structures may have changed, and programs like &man.ps.1; and &man.top.1; will fail to work until the kernel and source code versions are the same. The simplest, safest way to do this is to build and install a kernel based on GENERIC. While GENERIC may not have all the necessary devices for your system, it should contain everything necessary to boot your system back to single user mode. This is a good test that the new system works properly. After booting from GENERIC and verifying that your system works you can then build a new kernel based on your normal kernel config file. If you are upgrading to &os; 4.0 or above then the standard kernel build procedure (as described in ) is deprecated. Instead, you should run these commands. &prompt.root; cd /usr/src &prompt.root; make buildkernel &prompt.root; make installkernel If you are upgrading to a version of &os; below 4.0 you should use the standard kernel build procedure. However, it is recommended that you use the new version of &man.config.8;, using a command line like this. &prompt.root; /usr/obj/usr/src/usr.sbin/config/config KERNELNAME Reboot in to single user mode single-user mode You should reboot in to single user mode to test the new kernel works. Do this by following the instructions in . Install the new system binaries If you were building a version of &os; recent enough to have used make buildworld then you should now use the installworld to install the new system binaries. Run &prompt.root; make installworld If you specified variables on the make buildworld command line, you must specify the same variables in the make installworld command line. This does not necessarily hold true for other options; for example, must never be used with installworld. For example, if you ran: &prompt.root; make -DNOPROFILE=true buildworld you must install the results with: &prompt.root; make -DNOPROFILE=true installworld otherwise it would try and install profiled libraries that had not been built during the make buildworld phase. Update files not updated by <command>make world</command> Remaking the world will not update certain directories (in particular, /etc, /var and /usr) with new or changed configuration files. mergemaster The simplest way to update these files is to use &man.mergemaster.8;, though it is possible to do it manually if you would prefer to do that. We strongly recommend you use &man.mergemaster.8;, however, and if you do then you can skip forward to the next section, since &man.mergemaster.8; is very simple to use. You should read the manual page first, and make a backup of /etc in case anything goes wrong. If you wish to do the update manually, you cannot just copy over the files from /usr/src/etc to /etc and have it work. Some of these files must be installed first. This is because the /usr/src/etc directory is not a copy of what your /etc directory should look like. In addition, there are files that should be in /etc that are not in /usr/src/etc. The simplest way to do this by hand is to install the files into a new directory, and then work through them looking for differences. Backup your existing <filename>/etc</filename> Although, in theory, nothing is going to touch this directory automatically, it is always better to be sure. So copy your existing /etc directory somewhere safe. Something like: &prompt.root; cp -Rp /etc /etc.old does a recursive copy, preserves times, ownerships on files and suchlike. You need to build a dummy set of directories to install the new /etc and other files into. /var/tmp/root is a reasonable choice, and there are a number of subdirectories required under this as well. &prompt.root; mkdir /var/tmp/root &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/etc &prompt.root; make DESTDIR=/var/tmp/root distrib-dirs distribution This will build the necessary directory structure and install the files. A lot of the subdirectories that have been created under /var/tmp/root are empty and should be deleted. The simplest way to do this is to: &prompt.root; cd /var/tmp/root &prompt.root; find -d . -type d | xargs rmdir 2>/dev/null This will remove all empty directories. (Standard error is redirected to /dev/null to prevent the warnings about the directories that are not empty.) /var/tmp/root now contains all the files that should be placed in appropriate locations below /. You now have to go through each of these files, determining how they differ with your existing files. Note that some of the files that will have been installed in /var/tmp/root have a leading /var/tmp/root/ and /var/tmp/root/root/, although there may be others (depending on when you are reading this. Make sure you use The simplest way to do this is to use &man.diff.1; to compare the two files. &prompt.root; diff /etc/shells /var/tmp/root/etc/shells This will show you the differences between your /etc/shells file and the new /etc/shells file. Use these to decide whether to merge in changes that you have made or whether to copy over your old file. Name the new root directory (<filename>/var/tmp/root</filename>) with a time stamp, so you can easily compare differences between versions Frequently rebuilding the world means that you have to update /etc frequently as well, which can be a bit of a chore. You can speed this process up by keeping a copy of the last set of changed files that you merged into /etc. The following procedure gives one idea of how to do this. Make the world as normal. When you want to update /etc and the other directories, give the target directory a name based on the current date. If you were doing this on the 14th of February 1998 you could do the following. &prompt.root; mkdir /var/tmp/root-19980214 &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/etc &prompt.root; make DESTDIR=/var/tmp/root-19980214 \ distrib-dirs distribution Merge in the changes from this directory as outlined above. Do not remove the /var/tmp/root-19980214 directory when you have finished. When you have downloaded the latest version of the source and remade it, follow step 1. This will give you a new directory, which might be called /var/tmp/root-19980221 (if you wait a week between doing updates). You can now see the differences that have been made in the intervening week using &man.diff.1; to create a recursive diff between the two directories. &prompt.root; cd /var/tmp &prompt.root; diff -r root-19980214 root-19980221 Typically, this will be a much smaller set of differences than those between /var/tmp/root-19980221/etc and /etc. Because the set of differences is smaller, it is easier to migrate those changes across into your /etc directory. You can now remove the older of the two /var/tmp/root-* directories. &prompt.root; rm -rf /var/tmp/root-19980214 Repeat this process every time you need to merge in changes to /etc. You can use &man.date.1; to automate the generation of the directory names. &prompt.root; mkdir /var/tmp/root-`date "+%Y%m%d"` Update <filename>/dev</filename> DEVFS DEVFS If you are using DEVFS this is unnecessary. In most cases, the &man.mergemaster.8 tool will realize when it is necessary to update the devices, and offer to complete it automatically. These instructions tell how to update the devices manually. For safety's sake, this is a multi-step process. Copy /var/tmp/root/dev/MAKEDEV to /dev. &prompt.root; cp /var/tmp/root/dev/MAKEDEV /dev MAKEDEV If you used &man.mergemaster.8; to update /etc, then your MAKEDEV script should have been updated already, though it can't hurt to check (with &man.diff.1;) and copy it manually if necessary. Now, take a snapshot of your current /dev. This snapshot needs to contain the permissions, ownerships, major and minor numbers of each filename, but it should not contain the time stamps. The easiest way to do this is to use &man.awk.1; to strip out some of the information. &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; ls -l | awk '{print $1, $2, $3, $4, $5, $6, $NF}' > /var/tmp/dev.out Remake all the devices. &prompt.root; Write another snapshot of the directory, this time to /var/tmp/dev2.out. Now look through these two files for any devices that you missed creating. There should not be any, but it is better to be safe than sorry. &prompt.root; diff /var/tmp/dev.out /var/tmp/dev2.out You are most likely to notice disk slice discrepancies which will involve commands such as &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV sd0s1 to recreate the slice entries. Your precise circumstances may vary. Update <filename>/stand</filename> This step is included only for completeness. It can safely be omitted. For the sake of completeness, you may want to update the files in /stand as well. These files consist of hard links to the /stand/sysinstall binary. This binary should be statically linked, so that it can work when no other filesystems (and in particular /usr) have been mounted. &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/release/sysinstall &prompt.root; make all install - Rebooting You are now done. After you have verified that everything appears to be in the right place you can reboot the system. A simple &man.fastboot.8; should do it. &prompt.root; fastboot Finished You should now have successfully upgraded your &os; system. Congratulations. If things went slightly wrong, it is easy to rebuild a particular piece of the system. For example, if you accidently deleted /etc/magic as part of the upgrade or merge of /etc, the &man.file.1; command will stop working. In this case, the fix would be to run: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/usr.bin/file &prompt.root; - Questions Do I need to re-make the world for every change? There is no easy answer to this one, as it depends on the nature of the change. For example, if you just ran CVSup, and it has shown the following files as being updated, src/games/cribbage/instr.c src/games/sail/pl_main.c src/release/sysinstall/config.c src/release/sysinstall/media.c src/share/mk/bsd.port.mk it probably is not worth rebuilding the entire world. You could just go to the appropriate sub-directories and make all install, and that's about it. But if something major changed, for example src/lib/libc/stdlib then you should either re-make the world, or at least those parts of it that are statically linked (as well as anything else you might have added that is statically linked). At the end of the day, it is your call. You might be happy re-making the world every fortnight say, and let changes accumulate over that fortnight. Or you might want to re-make just those things that have changed, and are confident you can spot all the dependencies. And, of course, this all depends on how often you want to upgrade, and whether you are tracking &os.stable; or &os.current;. My compile failed with lots of signal 11 (or other signal number) errors. What has happened? + signal 11 - signal 11 This is normally indicative of hardware problems. (Re)making the world is an effective way to stress test your hardware, and will frequently throw up memory problems. These normally manifest themselves as the compiler mysteriously dying on receipt of strange signals. A sure indicator of this is if you can restart the make and it dies at a different point in the process. In this instance there is little you can do except start swapping around the components in your machine to determine which one is failing. Can I remove /usr/obj when I have finished? The short answer is yes. /usr/obj contains all the object files that were produced during the compilation phase. Normally, one of the first steps in the /usr/obj around after you have finished makes little sense, and will free up a large chunk of disk space (currently about 340MB). However, if you know what you are doing you can have If you want to live dangerously then make the world, passing the NOCLEAN definition to make, like this: &prompt.root; make -DNOCLEAN world Can interrupted builds be resumed? This depends on how far through the process you got before you found a problem. In general (and this is not a hard and fast rule) the make world process builds new copies of essential tools (such as &man.gcc.1;, and &man.make.1;) and the system libraries. These tools and libraries are then installed. The new tools and libraries are then used to rebuild themselves, and are installed again. The entire system (now including regular user programs, such as &man.ls.1; or &man.grep.1;) is then rebuilt with the new system files. If you are at the last stage, and you know it (because you have looked through the output that you were storing) then you can (fairly safely) do … fix the problem … &prompt.root; cd /usr/src &prompt.root; make -DNOCLEAN all This will not undo the work of the previous make world. If you see the message -------------------------------------------------------------- Building everything.. -------------------------------------------------------------- in the make world output then it is probably fairly safe to do so. If you do not see that message, or you are not sure, then it is always better to be safe than sorry, and restart the build from scratch. NFS Can I use one machine as a This is a fairly easy task, and can save hours of compile time for many machines. Simply run the buildworld on a central machine, and then NFS mount /usr/src and /usr/obj on the remote machine and installworld there. How can I speed up making the world? Run in single user mode. Put the /usr/src and /usr/obj directories on separate filesystems held on separate disks. If possible, put these disks on separate disk controllers. Better still, put these filesystems across multiple disks using the &man.ccd.4 (concatenated disk driver) device. Turn off profiling (set NOPROFILE=true in /etc/make.conf). You almost certainly do not need it. Also in /etc/make.conf, set CFLAGS to something like -O -pipe. The optimization -O2 is much slower, and the optimization difference between -O and -O2 is normally negligible. -pipe lets the compiler use pipes rather than temporary files for communication, which saves disk access (at the expense of memory). Pass the option to make to run multiple processes in parallel. This usually helps regardless of whether you have a single or a multi processor machine. The filesystem holding /usr/src can be mounted (or remounted) with the option. This prevents the filesystem from recording the file access time. You probably do not need this information anyway. &prompt.root; mount -u -o noatime /usr/src The example assumes /usr/src is on its own filesystem. If it is not (if it is a part of /usr for example) then you will need to use that filesystem mount point, and not /usr/src. The filesystem holding /usr/obj can be mounted (or remounted) with the async option. This causes disk writes to happen asynchronously. In other words, the write completes immediately, and the data is written to the disk a few seconds later. This allows writes to be clustered together, and can be a dramatic performance boost. Keep in mind that this option makes your filesystem more fragile. With this option there is an increased chance that, should power fail, the filesystem will be in an unrecoverable state when the machine restarts. If /usr/obj is the only thing on this filesystem then it is not a problem. If you have other, valuable data on the same filesystem then ensure your backups are fresh before you enable this option. &prompt.root; mount -u -o async /usr/obj As above, if /usr/obj is not on its own filesystem, replace it in the example with the name of the appropriate mount point. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml index 863e8786a5..4a71cc4bbb 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1257 +1,1257 @@ Disks Synopsis This chapter covers how to use disks, whether physical, memory, or networked, on FreeBSD. BIOS Drive Numbering Before you install and configure FreeBSD on your system, there is an important subject that you should be aware of, especially if you have multiple hard drives. DOS Microsoft Windows In a PC running DOS or any of the BIOS-dependent operating systems (WINxxx), the BIOS is able to abstract the normal disk drive order, and the operating system goes along with the change. This allows the user to boot from a disk drive other than the so-called primary master. This is especially convenient for some users who have found that the simplest and cheapest way to keep a system backup is to buy an identical second hard drive, and perform routine copies of the first drive to the second drive using Ghost or XCOPY . Then, if the first drive fails, or is attacked by a virus, or is scribbled upon by an operating system defect, he can easily recover by instructing the BIOS to logically swap the drives. It's like switching the cables on the drives, but without having to open the case. SCSI BIOS More expensive systems with SCSI controllers often include BIOS extensions which allow the SCSI drives to be re-ordered in a similar fashion for up to seven drives. A user who is accustomed to taking advantage of these features may become surprised when the results with FreeBSD are not as expected. FreeBSD does not use the BIOS, and does not know the logical BIOS drive mapping. This can lead to very perplexing situations, especially when drives are physically identical in geometry, and have also been made as data clones of one another. When using FreeBSD, always restore the BIOS to natural drive numbering before installing FreeBSD, and then leave it that way. If you need to switch drives around, then do so, but do it the hard way, and open the case and move the jumpers and cables. An illustration from the files of Bill and Fred's Exceptional Adventures: Bill breaks-down an older Wintel box to make another FreeBSD box for Fred. Bill installs a single SCSI drive as SCSI unit zero, and installs FreeBSD on it. Fred begins using the system, but after several days notices that the older SCSI drive is reporting numerous soft errors, and reports this fact to Bill. After several more days, Bill decides it's time to address the situation, so he grabs an identical SCSI drive from the disk drive "archive" in the back room. An initial surface scan indicates that this drive is functioning well, so Bill installs this drive as SCSI unit four, and makes an image copy from drive zero to drive four. Now that the new drive is installed and functioning nicely, Bill decides that it's a good idea to start using it, so he uses features in the SCSI BIOS to re-order the disk drives so that the system boots from SCSI unit four. FreeBSD boots and runs just fine. Fred continues his work for several days, and soon Bill and Fred decide that it's time for a new adventure -- time to upgrade to a newer version of FreeBSD. Bill removes SCSI unit zero because it was a bit flaky, and replaces it with another identical disk drive from the "archive." Bill then installs the new version of FreeBSD onto the new SCSI unit zero using Fred's magic Internet FTP floppies. The installation goes well. Fred uses the new version of FreeBSD for a few days, and certifies that it is good enough for use in the engineering department...it's time to copy all of his work from the old version. So Fred mounts SCSI unit four (the latest copy of the older FreeBSD version). Fred is dismayed to find that none of his precious work is present on SCSI unit four. Where did the data go? When Bill made an image copy of the original SCSI unit zero onto SCSI unit four, unit four became the "new clone," When Bill re-ordered the SCSI BIOS so that he could boot from SCSI unit four, he was only fooling himself. FreeBSD was still running on SCSI unit zero. Making this kind of BIOS change will cause some or all of the Boot and Loader code to be fetched from the selected BIOS drive, but when the FreeBSD kernel drivers take-over, the BIOS drive numbering will be ignored, and FreeBSD will transition back to normal drive numbering. In the illustration at hand, the system continued to operate on the original SCSI unit zero, and all of Fred's data was there, not on SCSI unit four. The fact that the system appeared to be running on SCSI unit four was simply an artifact of human expectations. We are delighted to mention that no data bytes were killed or harmed in any way by our discovery of this phenomenon. The older SCSI unit zero was retrieved from the bone pile, and all of Fred's work was returned to him, (and now Bill knows that he can count as high as zero). Although SCSI drives were used in this illustration, the concepts apply equally to IDE drives. Disk Naming IDE SCSI RAID fash memory Physical drives come in two main flavors, IDE, or SCSI; but there are also drives backed by RAID controllers, flash memory, and so forth. Since these behave quite differently, they have their own drivers and devices. Physical Disk Naming Conventions Drive type Drive device name IDE hard drives ad in 4.0-RELEASE, wd before 4.0-RELEASE. IDE CDROM drives acd from 4.1-RELEASE, wcd before 4.0-RELEASE. SCSI hard drives da from 3.0-RELEASE, sd before 3.0-RELEASE. SCSI CDROM drives cd Assorted non-standard CDROM drives mcd for Mitsumi CD-ROM, scd for Sony CD-ROM, matcd for Matsushita/Panasonic CD-ROM Floppy drives fd SCSI tape drives sa from 3.0-RELEASE, st before 3.0-RELEASE. IDE tape drives ast from 4.0-RELEASE, wst before 4.0-RELEASE. Flash drives fla for DiskOnChip Flash device from 3.3-RELEASE. RAID drives myxd for Mylex, and amrd for AMI MegaRAID, idad for Compaq Smart RAID. from 4.0-RELEASE. id between 3.2-RELEASE and 4.0-RELEASE.
- + Slices and Partitions slices partitions dangerously dedicated Physical disks usually contain slices, unless they are dangerously dedicated. Slice numbers follow the device name, prefixed with an s: da0s1. Slices, dangerously dedicated physical drives, and other drives contain partitions, which represented as letters from a to h. b is reserved for swap partitions, and c is an unused partition the size of the entire slice or drive. This is explained in . Mounting and Unmounting Filesystems The filesystem is best visualized as a tree, rooted, as it were, at /. /dev, /usr, and the other directories in the root directory are branches, which may have their own branches, such as /usr/local, and so on. root filesystem There are various reasons to house some of these directories on separate filesystems. /var contains the directories log/, spool/, and various types of temporary files, and as such, may get filled up. Filling up the root filesystem isn't a good idea, so splitting /var from / is often favorable. Another common reason to contain certain directory trees on other filesystems is if they are to be housed on separate physical disks, or are separate virtual disks, such as Network File System mounts, or CDROM drives. The <filename>fstab</filename> File filesystems mounted with fstab During the boot process, filesystems listed in /etc/fstab are automatically mounted (unless they are listed with ). The /etc/fstab file contains a list of lines of the following format: device /mount-point fstype options dumpfreq passno device A device name (which should exist), as explained in the Disk naming conventions above. mount-point A directory (which should exist), on which to mount the filesystem. fstype The filesystem type to pass to &man.mount.8;. The default FreeBSD filesystem is ufs. options Either for read-write filesystems, or for read-only filesystems, followed by any other options that may be needed. A common option is for filesystems not normally mounted during the boot sequence. Other options in the &man.mount.8; manual page. dumpfreq The number of days the filesystem should be dumped, and passno is the pass number during which the filesystem is checked during the boot sequence. The mount Command filesystems mounting The &man.mount.8; command is what is ultimately used to mount filesystems. In its most basic form, you use: &prompt.root; mount device mountpoint There are plenty of options, as mentioned in the &man.mount.8; manual page, but the most common are: Mount Options Mount all filesystems in /etc/fstab, as modified by , if given. Do everything but actually mount the filesystem. Force the mounting the filesystem. Mount the filesystem read-only. fstype Mount the given filesystem as the given filesystem type, or mount only filesystems of the given type, if given the option. ufs is the default filesystem type. Update mount options on the filesystem. Be verbose. Mount the filesystem read-write. The takes a comma-separated list of the options, including the following: nodev Do not interpret special devices on the filesystem. Useful security option. noexec Do not allow execution of binaries on this filesystem. Useful security option. nosuid Do not interpret setuid or setgid flags on the filesystem. Useful security option. The umount Command filesystems unmounting The &man.umount.8; command takes, as a parameter, one of a mountpoint, a device name, or the or option. All forms take to force unmounting, and for verbosity. and are used to unmount all mounted filesystems, possibly modified by the filesystem types listed after . , however, doesn't attempt to unmount the root filesystem. Adding Disks disks adding Originally contributed by &a.obrien; 26 April 1998 Lets say we want to add a new SCSI disk to a machine that currently only has a single drive. First turn off the computer and install the drive in the computer following the instructions of the computer, controller, and drive manufacturer. Due the wide variations of procedures to do this, the details are beyond the scope of this document. Login as user root. After you've installed the drive, inspect /var/run/dmesg.boot to ensure the new disk was found. Continuing with our example, the newly added drive will be da1 and we want to mount it on /1 (if you are adding an IDE drive, the device name will be wd1 in pre-4.0 systems, or ad1 in most 4.X systems). partitions slices fdisk Because FreeBSD runs on IBM-PC compatible computers, it must take into account the PC BIOS partitions. These are different from the traditional BSD partitions. A PC disk has up to four BIOS partition entries. If the disk is going to be truly dedicated to FreeBSD, you can use the dedicated mode. Otherwise, FreeBSD will have to live with in one of the PC BIOS partitions. FreeBSD calls the PC BIOS partitions slices so as not to confuse them with traditional BSD partitions. You may also use slices on a disk that is dedicated to FreeBSD, but used in a computer that also has another operating system installed. This is to not confuse the fdisk utility of the other operating system. In the slice case the drive will be added as /dev/da1s1e. This is read as: SCSI disk, unit number 1 (second SCSI disk), slice 1 (PC BIOS partition 1), and e BSD partition. In the dedicated case, the drive will be added simply as /dev/da1e. Using &man.sysinstall.8; sysinstall adding disks Navigating <application>Sysinstall</application> You may use /stand/sysinstall to partition and label a new disk using its easy to use menus. Either login as user root or use the su command. Run /stand/sysinstall and enter the Configure menu. Within the FreeBSD Configuration Menu, scroll down and select the Partition item. Next you should be presented with a list of hard drives installed in your system. If you do not see da1 listed, you need to recheck your physical installation and dmesg output in the file /var/run/dmesg.boot. FDISK Partition Editor Select da1 to enter the FDISK Partition Editor. Type A to use the entire disk for FreeBSD. When asked if you want to remain cooperative with any future possible operating systems, answer YES. Write the changes to the disk using W. Now exit the FDISK editor by typing q. Next you will be asked about the Master Boot Record. Since you are adding a disk to an already running system, choose None. Disk Label Editor BSD partitions Next, Sysinstall will enter the Disk Label Editor. This is where you will create the traditional BSD partitions. A disk can have up to eight partitions, labeled a-h. A few of the partition labels have special uses. The a partition is used for the root partition (/). Thus only your system disk (e.g, the disk you boot from) should have an a partition. The b partition is used for swap partitions, and you may have many disks with swap partitions. The c partition addresses the entire disk in dedicated mode, or the entire FreeBSD slice in slice mode. The other partitions are for general use. Sysinstall's Label editor favors the e partition for non-root, non-swap partitions. Within the Label editor, create a single file system by typing C. When prompted if this will be a FS (file system) or swap, choose FS and type in a mount point (e.g, /mnt). When adding a disk in post-install mode, Sysinstall will not create entries in /etc/fstab for you, so the mount point you specify isn't important. You are now ready to write the new label to the disk and create a file system on it. Do this by typing W. Ignore any errors from Sysinstall that it could not mount the new partition. Exit the Label Editor and Sysinstall completely. Finish The last step is to edit /etc/fstab to add an entry for your new disk. Using Command Line Utilities Using Slices This setup will allow your disk to work correctly with other operating systems that might be installed on your computer and will not confuse other operating systems' fdisk utilities. It is recommended to use this method for new disk installs. Only use dedicated mode if you have a good reason to do so! &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rda1 bs=1k count=1 &prompt.root; fdisk -BI da1 #Initialize your new disk &prompt.root; disklabel -B -w -r da1s1 auto #Label it. &prompt.root; disklabel -e da1s1 # Edit the disklabel just created and add any partitions. &prompt.root; mkdir -p /1 &prompt.root; newfs /dev/da1s1e # Repeat this for every partition you created. &prompt.root; mount -t ufs /dev/da1s1e /1 # Mount the partition(s) &prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # Add the appropriate entry/entries to your /etc/fstab. If you have an IDE disk, substitute ad for da. On pre-4.X systems use wd. Dedicated OS/2 If you will not be sharing the new drive with another operating system, you may use the dedicated mode. Remember this mode can confuse Microsoft operating systems; however, no damage will be done by them. IBM's OS/2 however, will appropriate any partition it finds which it doesn't understand. &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rda1 bs=1k count=1 &prompt.root; disklabel -Brw da1 auto &prompt.root; disklabel -e da1 # create the `e' partition &prompt.root; newfs -d0 /dev/rda1e &prompt.root; mkdir -p /1 &prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # add an entry for /dev/da1e &prompt.root; mount /1 An alternate method is: &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rda1 count=2 &prompt.root; disklabel /dev/rda1 | disklabel -BrR da1 /dev/stdin &prompt.root; newfs /dev/rda1e &prompt.root; mkdir -p /1 &prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # add an entry for /dev/da1e &prompt.root; mount /1 Virtual Disks: Network, Memory, and File-Based Filesystems virtual disks disks virtual Aside from the disks you physically insert into your computer: floppies, CDs, hard drives, and so forth; other forms of disks are understood by FreeBSD - the virtual disks. NFS Coda disks memory These include network filesystems such as the Network Filesystem and Coda, memory-based filesystems such as md and file-backed filesystems created by vnconfig. vnconfig: File-Backed Filesystem disks file-backed &man.vnconfig.8; configures and enables vnode pseudo-disk devices. A vnode is a representation of a file, and is the focus of file activity. This means that &man.vnconfig.8; uses files to create and operate a filesystem. One possible use is the mounting of floppy or CD images kept in files. To mount an existing filesystem image: Using vnconfig to mount an existing filesystem image &prompt.root; vnconfig vn0 diskimage &prompt.root; mount /dev/vn0c /mnt To create a new filesystem image with vnconfig: Creating a New File-Backed Disk with vnconfig &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=newimage bs=1k count=5k 5120+0 records in 5120+0 records out &prompt.root; vnconfig -s labels -c vn0 newimage &prompt.root; disklabel -r -w vn0 auto &prompt.root; newfs vn0c Warning: 2048 sector(s) in last cylinder unallocated /dev/rvn0c: 10240 sectors in 3 cylinders of 1 tracks, 4096 sectors 5.0MB in 1 cyl groups (16 c/g, 32.00MB/g, 1280 i/g) super-block backups (for fsck -b #) at: 32 &prompt.root; mount /dev/vn0c /mnt &prompt.root; df /mnt Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on /dev/vn0c 4927 1 4532 0% /mnt md: Memory Filesystem disks memory filesystem md is a simple, efficient means to do memory filesystems. Simply take a filesystem you've prepared with, for example, &man.vnconfig.8;, and: md memory disk &prompt.root; dd if=newimage of=/dev/md0 5120+0 records in 5120+0 records out &prompt.root; mount /dev/md0c /mnt &prompt.root; df /mnt Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on /dev/md0c 4927 1 4532 0% /mnt Disk Quotas accounting disk space disk quotas Quotas are an optional feature of the operating system that allow you to limit the amount of disk space and/or the number of files a user, or members of a group, may allocate on a per-file system basis. This is used most often on timesharing systems where it is desirable to limit the amount of resources any one user or group of users may allocate. This will prevent one user from consuming all of the available disk space. Configuring Your System to Enable Disk Quotas Before attempting to use disk quotas it is necessary to make sure that quotas are configured in your kernel. This is done by adding the following line to your kernel configuration file: options QUOTA The stock GENERIC kernel does not have this enabled by default, so you will have to configure, build and install a custom kernel in order to use disk quotas. Please refer to the Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel section for more information on kernel configuration. Next you will need to enable disk quotas in /etc/rc.conf. This is done by adding the line: enable_quotas=YES disk quotas checking For finer control over your quota startup, there is an additional configuration variable available. Normally on bootup, the quota integrity of each file system is checked by the quotacheck program. The quotacheck facility insures that the data in the quota database properly reflects the data on the file system. This is a very time consuming process that will significantly affect the time your system takes to boot. If you would like to skip this step, a variable in /etc/rc.conf is made available for the purpose: check_quotas=NO If you are running FreeBSD prior to 3.2-RELEASE, the configuration is simpler, and consists of only one variable. Set the following in your /etc/rc.conf: check_quotas=YES Finally you will need to edit /etc/fstab to enable disk quotas on a per-file system basis. This is where you can either enable user or group quotas or both for all of your file systems. To enable per-user quotas on a file system, add the userquota option to the options field in the /etc/fstab entry for the file system you want to enable quotas on. For example: /dev/da1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota 1 2 Similarly, to enable group quotas, use the groupquota option instead of the userquota keyword. To enable both user and group quotas, change the entry as follows: /dev/da1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota,groupquota 1 2 By default the quota files are stored in the root directory of the file system with the names quota.user and quota.group for user and group quotas respectively. See &man.fstab.5; for more information. Even though the &man.fstab.5; man page says that you can specify an alternate location for the quota files, this is not recommended because the various quota utilities do not seem to handle this properly. At this point you should reboot your system with your new kernel. /etc/rc will automatically run the appropriate commands to create the initial quota files for all of the quotas you enabled in /etc/fstab, so there is no need to manually create any zero length quota files. In the normal course of operations you should not be required to run the quotacheck, quotaon, or quotaoff commands manually. However, you may want to read their man pages just to be familiar with their operation. Setting Quota Limits disk quotas limits Once you have configured your system to enable quotas, verify that they really are enabled. An easy way to do this is to run: &prompt.root; quota -v You should see a one line summary of disk usage and current quota limits for each file system that quotas are enabled on. You are now ready to start assigning quota limits with the edquota command. You have several options on how to enforce limits on the amount of disk space a user or group may allocate, and how many files they may create. You may limit allocations based on disk space (block quotas) or number of files (inode quotas) or a combination of both. Each of these limits are further broken down into two categories; hard and soft limits. hard limit A hard limit may not be exceeded. Once a user reaches his hard limit he may not make any further allocations on the file system in question. For example, if the user has a hard limit of 500 blocks on a file system and is currently using 490 blocks, the user can only allocate an additional 10 blocks. Attempting to allocate an additional 11 blocks will fail. soft limit Soft limits, on the other hand, can be exceeded for a limited amount of time. This period of time is known as the grace period, which is one week by default. If a user stays over his or her soft limit longer than the grace period, the soft limit will turn into a hard limit and no further allocations will be allowed. When the user drops back below the soft limit, the grace period will be reset. The following is an example of what you might see when you run the edquota command. When the edquota command is invoked, you are placed into the editor specified by the EDITOR environment variable, or in the vi editor if the EDITOR variable is not set, to allow you to edit the quota limits. &prompt.root; edquota -u test Quotas for user test: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) inodes in use: 7, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60) /usr/var: blocks in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) inodes in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60) You will normally see two lines for each file system that has quotas enabled. One line for the block limits, and one line for inode limits. Simply change the value you want updated to modify the quota limit. For example, to raise this users block limit from a soft limit of 50 and a hard limit of 75 to a soft limit of 500 and a hard limit of 600, change: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) to: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 500, hard = 600) The new quota limits will be in place when you exit the editor. Sometimes it is desirable to set quota limits on a range of uids. This can be done by use of the option on the edquota command. First, assign the desired quota limit to a user, and then run edquota -p protouser startuid-enduid. For example, if user test has the desired quota limits, the following command can be used to duplicate those quota limits for uids 10,000 through 19,999: &prompt.root; edquota -p test 10000-19999 See the &man.edquota.8; for more detailed information. Checking Quota Limits and Disk Usage disk quotas checking You can use either the quota or the repquota commands to check quota limits and disk usage. The quota command can be used to check individual user and group quotas and disk usage. Only the super-user may examine quotas and usage for other users, or for groups that they are not a member of. The repquota command can be used to get a summary of all quotas and disk usage for file systems with quotas enabled. The following is some sample output from the quota -v command for a user that has quota limits on two file systems. Disk quotas for user test (uid 1002): Filesystem blocks quota limit grace files quota limit grace /usr 65* 50 75 5days 7 50 60 /usr/var 0 50 75 0 50 60 grace period On the /usr file system in the above example this user is currently 15 blocks over the soft limit of 50 blocks and has 5 days of the grace period left. Note the asterisk * which indicates that the user is currently over his quota limit. Normally file systems that the user is not using any disk space on will not show up in the output from the quota command, even if he has a quota limit assigned for that file system. The option will display those file systems, such as the /usr/var file system in the above example. Quotas over NFS NFS Quotas are enforced by the quota subsystem on the NFS server. The &man.rpc.rquotad.8; daemon makes quota information available to the &man.quota.1; command on NFS clients, allowing users on those machines to see their quota statistics. Enable rpc.rquotad in /etc/inetd.conf like so: rquotad/1 dgram rpc/udp wait root /usr/libexec/rpc.rquotad rpc.rquotad Now restart inetd: &prompt.root; kill -HUP `cat /var/run/inetd.pid` Creating CDs CDROMs creating Contributed by Mike Meyer mwm@mired.org, April 2001. Introduction CDs have a number of features that differentiate them from conventional disks. Initially, they weren't writable by the user. They are designed so that they can be read continuously without delays to move the head between tracks. They are also much easier to transport between systems than similarly sized media were at the time. CDs do have tracks, but this refers to a section of data to be read continuously and not a physical property of the disk. To produce a CD on FreeBSD, you prepare the data files that are going to make up the tracks on the CD, then write the tracks to the CD. ISO 9660 filesystems ISO-9660 The ISO 9660 file system was designed to deal with these differences. It unfortunately codifies file system limits that were common then. Fortunately, it provides an extension mechanism that allows properly written CDs to exceed those limits while still working with systems that do not support those extensions. mkisofs The mkisofs program is used to produce a data file containing an ISO 9660 file system. It has options that support various extensions, and is described below. You can install it with the sysutils/mkisofs port. CD burner ATAPI Which tool to use to burn the CD depends on whether your CD burner is ATAPI or something else. ATAPI CD burners use the burncd program that is part of the base system. SCSI and USB CD burners should use the cdrecord from the sysutils/cdrecord port. burncd has a limited number of supported drives. To find out if a drive is supported, see CD-R/RW supported drives. mkisofs mkisofs produces an ISO 9660 file system that is an image of a directory tree in the Unix file system name space. The simplest usage is: &prompt.root; mkisofs imagefile.iso /path/to/tree filesystems ISO-9660 This command will create an imagefile containing an ISO 9660 file system that is a copy of the tree at /path/to/tree. In the process, it will map the file names to names that fit the limitations of the standard ISO 9660 file system, and will exclude files that have names uncharacteristic of ISO file systems. filesystems HFS filesystems Joliet A number of options are available to overcome those restrictions. In particular, enables the Rock Ridge extensions common to Unix systems, enables Joliet extensions used by Microsoft systems, and can be used to create HFS file systems used by MacOS. For CDs that are going to be used only on FreeBSD systems, can be used to disable all filename restrictions. When used with , it produces a file system image that is identical to the FreeBSD tree you started from, though it may violate the ISO 9660 standard in a number of ways. CDROMs creating bootable The last option of general use is . This is used to specify the location of the boot image for use in producing an El Torito bootable CD. This option takes an argument which is the path to a boot image from the top of the tree being written to the CD. So, given that /tmp/myboot holds a bootable FreeBSD system with the boot image in /tmp/myboot/boot/cdboot, you could produce the image of an ISO 9660 file system in /tmp/bootable.iso like so: &prompt.root; mkisofs boot/cdboot /tmp/bootable.iso /tmp/myboot Having done that, if you have vn configured in your kernel, you can mount the file system with: &prompt.root; vnconfig vn0c /tmp/bootable.iso &prompt.root; mount cd9660 /dev/vn0c /mnt At which point you can verify that /mnt and /tmp/myboot are identical. There are many other options you can use with mkisofs to fine-tune its behavior. In particular: modifications to an ISO 9660 layout and the creation of Joilet and HFS discs. See the &man.mkisofs.8; man page for details. burncd CDROMs burning If you have an ATAPI CD burner, you can use the burncd command to burn an ISO image onto a CD. burncd is part of the base system, installed as /usr/sbin/burncd. Usage is very simple, as it has few options: &prompt.root; burncd cddevice data imagefile.iso fixate Will burn a copy of imagefile.iso on cddevice. The default device is /dev/acd0. See &man.burncd.8; for options to set the write speed, eject the CD after burning, and write audio data. cdrecord If you do not have an ATAPI CD burner, you will have to use cdrecord to burn your CDs. cdrecord is not part of the base system; you must install it from either the port at sysutils/cdrecord or the appropriate package. Changes to the base system can cause binary versions of this program to fail, possibly resulting in a coaster. You should therefore either upgrade the port when you upgrade your system, or if you are tracking -STABLE, upgrade the port when a new version becomes available. While cdrecord has many options, basic usage is even simpler than burncd. Burning an ISO 9660 image is done with: &prompt.root; cdrecord device imagefile.iso The tricky part of using cdrecord is finding the to use. To find the proper setting, use the flag of cdrecord, which might produce results like this: CDROMs burning &prompt.root; cdrecord Cdrecord 1.9 (i386-unknown-freebsd4.2) Copyright (C) 1995-2000 Jörg Schilling Using libscg version 'schily-0.1' scsibus0: 0,0,0 0) 'SEAGATE ' 'ST39236LW ' '0004' Disk 0,1,0 1) 'SEAGATE ' 'ST39173W ' '5958' Disk 0,2,0 2) * 0,3,0 3) 'iomega ' 'jaz 1GB ' 'J.86' Removable Disk 0,4,0 4) 'NEC ' 'CD-ROM DRIVE:466' '1.26' Removable CD-ROM 0,5,0 5) * 0,6,0 6) * 0,7,0 7) * scsibus1: 1,0,0 100) * 1,1,0 101) * 1,2,0 102) * 1,3,0 103) * 1,4,0 104) * 1,5,0 105) 'YAMAHA ' 'CRW4260 ' '1.0q' Removable CD-ROM 1,6,0 106) 'ARTEC ' 'AM12S ' '1.06' Scanner 1,7,0 107) * This lists the appropriate value for the devices on the list. Locate your CD burner, and use the three numbers separated by commas as the value for . In this case, the CRW device is 1,5,0, so the appropriate input would be =1,5,0. There are easier ways to specify this value; see &man.cdrecord.1; for details. That is also the place to look for information on writing audio tracks, controlling the speed, and other things. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml index 2c31e2c034..5099982c02 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml @@ -1,2125 +1,2125 @@ Jim Mock Restructured, reorganized, and parts rewritten Installing FreeBSD Synopsis installation The following chapter will attempt to guide you through the installation of FreeBSD on your system. It can be installed through a variety of methods, including anonymous FTP (assuming you have network connectivity via modem or local network), CDROM, floppy disk, tape, an MS-DOS partition, or even NFS. No matter which method you choose, you will need to get started by creating the installation disks as described in the next section. Booting into the FreeBSD installer, even if you are not planning on installing FreeBSD right away, will provide important information about compatibility with your hardware. This information may dictate which installation options are even possible for you. It can also provide clues early-on in the process to potential problems you may come across later. installation network anonymous FTP If you plan to install FreeBSD via anonymous FTP, the only things you will need are the installation floppies. The installation program itself will handle anything else that is required. For more information about obtaining FreeBSD, see the Obtaining FreeBSD section of the Appendix. By now, you are probably wondering what exactly it is you need to do. Continue on to the installation guide. Installation Guide The following sections will guide you through preparing for and actually installing FreeBSD. If you find something missing, please let us know about it by sending email to the &a.doc;. Preparing for the Installation There are various things you should do in preparation for the installation. The following describes what needs to be done prior to each type of installation. The first thing to do is to make sure your hardware is supported by FreeBSD. The list of supported hardware should come in handy here. It would also be a good idea to make a list of any special cards you have installed, such as SCSI controllers, Ethernet cards, sound cards, etc.. The list should include their IRQs and IO port addresses. Creating the Installation Floppies installation boot floppies installation CDROM You may need to prepare some floppy disks. These disks will be used to boot your computer in to the FreeBSD install process. This step is not necessary if you are installing from CDROM, and your computer supports booting from the CDROM. If you do not meet these requirements then you will need to create some floppies to boot from. If you are not sure whether your computer can boot from the CDROM it does not hurt to try. Just insert the CDROM as normal and restart your computer. You might need to adjust some options in your BIOS so that your computer will try and boot from the CDROM drive before the hard disk. Even if you have the CDROM it might make sense for you to download the files. There have been occasions where bugs in the FreeBSD installer have been discovered after the CDs have been released. When this happens the copies of the images on the FTP site will be fixed as soon as possible. Obviously, it is not possible to update the CDs after they have been pressed. Acquire the boot floppy images These are files with a .flp extension. If you have a CDROM release of FreeBSD then you will find the files in the floppies subdirectory. Alternatively, you can download the images from the floppies directory of the FreeBSD FTP site or your local mirror. The names of the files you will need varies between FreeBSD releases (sometimes) and the architecture you will be installing on. The installation boot image information on the FTP site provides up-to-the-minute information about the specific files you will need. Prepare the floppy disks You must prepare one floppy disk per image file you had to download. It is imperative that these disks are free from defects. The easiest way to test this is to format the disks for yourself. Do not trust pre-formatted floppies. If you try to install FreeBSD and the installation program crashes, freezes, or otherwise misbehaves one of the first things to suspect is the floppies. Try writing the floppy image files to some other disks, and try again. Write the image files to the floppy disks. The image files, such as kern.flp, are not regular files you copy to the disk. Instead, they are images of the complete contents of the disk. This means that you can not use commands like DOS' copy to write the files. Instead, you must use specific tools to write the images directly to the disk. DOS If you are creating the floppies on a computer running DOS then we provide a tool to do this called fdimage. If you are using the floppies from the CDROM, and your CDROM is the E: drive then you would run this: E:\> tools\fdimage floppies\kern.flp A: Repeat this command for each .flp file, replacing the floppy disk each time. Adjust the command line as necessary, depending on where you have placed the .flp files. If you do not have the CDROM then fdimage can be downloaded from the tools directory on the FreeBSD FTP site. If you are writing the floppies on a Unix system (such as another FreeBSD system) you can use the &man.dd.1; command to write the image files directly to disk. On FreeBSD you would run: &prompt.root; dd if=kern.flp of=/dev/fd0 On FreeBSD /dev/fd0 refers to the first floppy disk (the A: drive). /dev/fd1 would be the B: drive, and so on. Other Unix variants might have different names for the floppy disk devices, and you will need to check the documentation for the system as necessary. Before Installing from CDROM If your CDROM is of an unsupported type, please skip ahead to the MS-DOS Preparation section. There is not a whole lot of preparation needed if you are installing from one of BSDi's FreeBSD CDROMs (other CDROM distributions may work as well, though we cannot say for certain as we have no hand or say in how they created). You can either boot into the CD installation directly from DOS using the install.bat or you can make floppies with the makeflp.bat command. If the CD has El Torito boot support and your system supports booting directly from the CDROM drive (many older systems do NOT), simply insert the first CD of the set into the drive and reboot your system. You will be put into the installation menu directly from the CD. DOS If you are installing from an MS-DOS partition and have the proper drivers to access your CD, run the install.bat script provided on the CDROM. This will attempt to boot the FreeBSD installation directly from DOS. You must do this from actual DOS (i.e., boot in DOS mode) and not from a DOS window under Windows. For the easiest interface of all (from DOS), type view. This will bring up a DOS menu utility that leads you through all of the available options. Unix If you are creating the boot floppies from a Unix machine, see the Creating the Boot Floppies section of this guide for examples. Once you have booted from DOS or floppy, you should then be able to select CDROM as the media type during the install process and load the entire distribution from CDROM. No other types of installation media should be required. After your system is fully installed and you have rebooted (from the hard disk), you can mount the CDROM at any time by typing: &prompt.root; mount /cdrom Before removing the CD from the drive again, you must first unmount it. This is done with the following command: &prompt.root; umount /cdrom Do not just remove it from the drive! Before invoking the installation, be sure that the CDROM is in the drive so that the install probe can find it. This is also true if you wish the CDROM to be added to the default system configuration automatically during the installation (whether or not you actually use it as the installation media). installation network FTP Finally, if you would like people to be able to FTP install FreeBSD directly from the CDROM in your machine, you will find it quite easy. After the machine is fully installed, you simply need to add the following line to the password file (using the vipw command): ftp:*:99:99::0:0:FTP:/cdrom:/nonexistent Anyone with network connectivity to your machine can now chose a media type of FTP and type in ftp://your machine after picking Other in the FTP sites menu during the install. If you choose to enable anonymous FTP during the installation of your system, the installation program will do the above for you. Before installing from Floppies installation floppies If you must install from floppy disk (which we suggest you do NOT do), either due to unsupported hardware or simply because you insist on doing things the hard way, you must first prepare some floppies for the installation. At a minimum, you will need as many 1.44MB or 1.2MB floppies as it takes to hold all the files in the bin (binary distribution) directory. If you are preparing the floppies from DOS, then they MUST be formatted using the MS-DOS FORMAT command. If you are using Windows, use Explorer to format the disks (right-click on the A: drive, and select "Format". Do NOT trust factory pre-formatted floppies! Format them again yourself, just to be sure. Many problems reported by our users in the past have resulted from the use of improperly formatted media, which is why we are making a point of it now. If you are creating the floppies on another FreeBSD machine, a format is still not a bad idea, though you do not need to put a DOS filesystem on each floppy. You can use the disklabel and newfs commands to put a UFS filesystem on them instead, as the following sequence of commands (for a 3.5" 1.44MB floppy) illustrates: &prompt.root; fdformat -f 1440 fd0.1440 &prompt.root; disklabel -w -r fd0.1440 floppy3 &prompt.root; newfs -t 2 -u 18 -l 1 -i 65536 /dev/fd0 Use fd0.1200 and floppy5 for 5.25" 1.2MB disks. Then you can mount and write to them like any other filesystem. After you have formatted the floppies, you will need to copy the files to them. The distribution files are split into chunks conveniently sized so that 5 of them will fit on a conventional 1.44MB floppy. Go through all your floppies, packing as many files as will fit on each one, until you have all of the distributions you want packed up in this fashion. Each distribution should go into a subdirectory on the floppy, e.g.: a:\bin\bin.aa, a:\bin\bin.ab, and so on. Once you come to the Media screen during the install process, select Floppy and you will be prompted for the rest. Before Installing from MS-DOS installation from MS-DOS To prepare for an installation from an MS-DOS partition, copy the files from the distribution into a directory named, for example, c:\FreeBSD. The directory structure of the CDROM or FTP site must be partially reproduced within this directory, so we suggest using the DOS xcopy command if you are copying it from a CD. For example, to prepare for a minimal installation of FreeBSD: C:\> md c:\FreeBSD C:\> xcopy e:\bin c:\FreeBSD\bin\ /s C:\> xcopy e:\manpages c:\FreeBSD\manpages\ /s Assuming that C: is where you have free space and E: is where your CDROM is mounted. If you do not have a CDROM drive, you can download the distribution from ftp.FreeBSD.org. Each distribution is in its own directory; for example, the bin distribution can be found in the &rel.current;/bin directory. For as many distributions you wish to install from an MS-DOS partition (and you have the free space for), install each one under c:\FreeBSD — the BIN distribution is the only one required for a minimum installation. Before Installing from QIC/SCSI Tape installation from QIC/SCSI Tape Installing from tape is probably the easiest method, short of an online FTP install or CDROM install. The installation program expects the files to be simply tarred onto the tape, so after getting all of the distribution files you are interested in, simply tar them onto the tape like so: &prompt.root; cd /freebsd/distdir &prompt.root; tar cvf /dev/rwt0 dist1 ... dist2 When you go to do the installation, you should also make sure that you leave enough room in some temporary directory (which you will be allowed to choose) to accommodate the full contents of the tape you have created. Due to the non-random access nature of tapes, this method of installation requires quite a bit of temporary storage. You should expect to require as much temporary storage as you have stuff written on tape. When starting the installation, the tape must be in the drive before booting from the boot floppy. The installation probe may otherwise fail to find it. Before Installing over a Network installation network serial (SLIP or PPP) installation network parallel (PLIP) installation network Ethernet There are three types of network installations you can do. Serial port (SLIP or PPP), Parallel port (PLIP (laplink cable)), or Ethernet (a standard Ethernet controller (includes some PCMCIA)). The SLIP support is rather primitive, and limited primarily to hard-wired links, such as a serial cable running between a laptop computer and another computer. The link should be hard-wired as the SLIP installation does not currently offer a dialing capability; that facility is provided with the PPP utility, which should be used in preference to SLIP whenever possible. If you are using a modem, then PPP is almost certainly your only choice. Make sure that you have your service provider's information handy as you will need to know it fairly early in the installation process. If you use PAP or CHAP to connect your ISP (in other words, if you can connect to the ISP in Windows without using a script), then all you will need to do is type in dial at the ppp prompt. Otherwise, you will need to know how to dial your ISP using the AT commands specific to your modem, as the PPP dialer provides only a very simple terminal emulator. Please refer to the user-ppp handbook and FAQ entries for further information. If you have problems, logging can be directed to the screen using the command set log local .... If a hard-wired connection to another FreeBSD (2.0-R or later) machine is available, you might also consider installing over a laplink parallel port cable. The data rate over the parallel port is much higher than what is typically possible over a serial line (up to 50kbytes/sec), thus resulting in a quicker installation. Finally, for the fastest possible network installation, an Ethernet adapter is always a good choice! FreeBSD supports most common PC Ethernet cards; a table of supported cards (and their required settings) is provided in the Supported Hardware list. If you are using one of the supported PCMCIA Ethernet cards, also be sure that it is plugged in before the laptop is powered on! FreeBSD does not, unfortunately, currently support hot insertion of PCMCIA cards during installation. You will also need to know your IP address on the network, the netmask value for your address class, and the name of your machine. If you are installing over a PPP connection and do not have a static IP, fear not, the IP address can be dynamically assigned by your ISP. Your system administrator can tell you which values to use for your particular network setup. If you will be referring to other hosts by name rather than IP address, you will also need a name server and possibly the address of a gateway (if you are using PPP, it is your provider's IP address) to use in talking to it. If you want to install by FTP via a HTTP proxy (see below), you will also need the proxy's address. If you do not know the answers to all or most of these questions, then you should really probably talk to your system administrator or ISP before trying this type of installation. Before Installing via NFS installation network NFS The NFS installation is fairly straight-forward. Simply copy the FreeBSD distribution files you want onto a server somewhere and then point the NFS media selection at it. If this server supports only privileged port (as is generally the default for Sun workstations), you will need to set this option in the Options menu before installation can proceed. If you have a poor quality Ethernet card which suffers from very slow transfer rates, you may also wish to toggle the appropriate Options flag. In order for NFS installation to work, the server must support subdir mounts, e.g., if your FreeBSD 3.4 distribution directory lives on:ziggy:/usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD, then ziggy will have to allow the direct mounting of /usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD, not just /usr or /usr/archive/stuff. In FreeBSD's /etc/exports file, this is controlled by the . Other NFS servers may have different conventions. If you are getting permission denied messages from the server, then it is likely that you do not have this enabled properly. Before Installing via FTP installation network FTP FTP installation may be done from any FreeBSD mirror site containing a reasonably up-to-date version of FreeBSD. A full list of FTP mirrors located all over the world is provided during the install process. If you are installing from an FTP site not listed in this menu, or are having trouble getting your name server configured properly, you can also specify a URL to use by selecting the choice labeled Other in that menu. You can also use the IP address of a machine you wish to install from, so the following would work in the absence of a name server: ftp://209.55.82.20/pub/FreeBSD/&rel.current;-RELEASE There are three FTP installation modes you can choose from: active or passive FTP or via a HTTP proxy. FTP Active This option will make all FTP transfers use Active mode. This will not work through firewalls, but will often work with older FTP servers that do not support passive mode. If your connection hangs with passive mode (the default), try active! FTP Passive FTP Passive mode This option instructs FreeBSD to use Passive mode for all FTP operations. This allows the user to pass through firewalls that do not allow incoming connections on random port addresses. FTP via a HTTP proxy FTP via a HTTP proxy This option instructs FreeBSD to use the HTTP protocol (like a web browser) to connect to a proxy for all FTP operations. The proxy will translate the requests and send them to the FTP server. This allows the user to pass through firewalls that do not allow FTP at all, but offer a HTTP proxy. In this case, you have to specify the proxy in addition to the FTP server. There is another type of FTP proxy other tha HTTP proxies. This type is very uncommon, though. If you are not absolutely certain, you can assume that you have a HTTP proxy as described above. For a proxy FTP server, you should usually give the name of the server you really want as a part of the username, after an @ sign. The proxy server then fakes the real server. For example, assuming you want to install from ftp.FreeBSD.org, using the proxy FTP server foo.bar.com, listening on port 1024. In this case, you go to the options menu, set the FTP username to ftp@ftp.FreeBSD.org, and the password to your email address. As your installation media, you specify FTP (or passive FTP, if the proxy supports it), and the URL ftp://foo.bar.com:1234/pub/FreeBSD. Since /pub/FreeBSD from ftp.FreeBSD.org is proxied under foo.bar.com, you are able to install from that machine (which will fetch the files from ftp.FreeBSD.org as your installation requests them. Check your BIOS drive numbering If you have used features in your BIOS to renumber your disk drives without re-cabling them then you should read first to avoid confusion. Installing FreeBSD Once you have completed the pre-installation step relevant to your situation, you are ready to install FreeBSD! Although you should not experience any difficulty, there is always the chance that you may, no matter how slight it is. If this is the case in your situation, then you may wish to go back and re-read the relevant preparation section or sections. Perhaps you will come across something you missed the first time. If you are having hardware problems, or FreeBSD refuses to boot at all, read the Hardware Guide for a list of possible solutions. sysinstall The FreeBSD boot floppies contain all of the online documentation you should need to be able to navigate through an installation. If it does not, please let us know what you found to be the most confusing or most lacking. Send your comments to the &a.doc;. It is the objective of the installation program (sysinstall) to be self-documenting enough that painful step-by-step guides are no longer necessary. It may take us a little while to reach that objective, but nonetheless, it is still our objective. Meanwhile, you may also find the following typical installation sequence to be helpful: Boot the kern.flp floppy and when asked, remove it and insert the mfsroot.flp and hit return. After a boot sequence which can take anywhere from 30 seconds to 3 minutes, depending on your hardware, you should be presented with a menu of initial choices. If the kern.flp floppy does not boot at all or the boot hangs at some stage, read the Q&A section of the Hardware Guide for possible causes. Press F1. You should see some basic usage instructions on the menu screen and general navigation. If you have not used this menu system before then please read this thoroughly. Select the Options item and set any special preferences you may have. installation standard installation express installation custom Select a Standard, Express, or Custom install, depending on whether or not you would like the installation to help you through a typical installation, give you a high degree of control over each step, or simply whiz through it (using reasonable defaults when possible) as fast as possible. If you have never used FreeBSD before, the Standard installation method is most recommended. The final configuration menu choice allows you to further configure your FreeBSD installation by giving you menu-driven access to various system defaults. Some items, like networking, may be especially important if you did a CDROM, tape, or floppy install and have not yet configured your network interfaces (assuming you have any). Properly configuring such interfaces here will allow FreeBSD to come up on the network when you first reboot from the hard disk. Supported Hardware hardware FreeBSD currently runs on a wide variety of ISA, VLB, EISA, and PCI bus based PCs, ranging from the 386SX to Pentium class machines (though the 386SX is not recommended). Support for generic IDE or ESDI drive configurations, various SCSI controllers, and network and serial cards is also provided. FreeBSD also supports IBM's microchannel (MCA) bus. In order to run FreeBSD, a recommended minimum of eight megabytes of RAM is suggested. Sixteen megabytes is the preferred amount of RAM as you may have some trouble with anything less than sixteen depending on your hardware. What follows is a list of hardware currently known to work with FreeBSD. There may be other hardware that works as well, but we have simply not received any confirmation of it. Disk Controllers disk controllers WD1003 (any generic MFM/RLL) WD1007 (any generic IDE/ESDI) IDE ATA Adaptec 1535 ISA SCSI controllers Adaptec 154X series ISA SCSI controllers Adaptec 174X series EISA SCSI controllers in standard and enhanced mode Adaptec 274X/284X/2920C/294X/2950/3940/3950 (Narrow/Wide/Twin) series EISA/VLB/PCI SCSI controllers Adaptec AIC-7850, AIC-7860, AIC-7880, AIC-789X on-board SCSI controllers Adaptec 1510 series ISA SCSI controllers (not for bootable devices) Adaptec 152X series ISA SCSI controllers Adaptec AIC-6260 and AIC-6360 based boards, which include the AHA-152X and SoundBlaster SCSI cards AdvanSys SCSI controllers (all models) BusLogic MultiMaster W Series Host Adapters including BT-948, BT-958, BT-9580 BusLogic MultiMaster C Series Host Adapters including BT-946C, BT-956C, BT-956CD, BT-445C, BT-747C, BT-757C, BT-757CD, BT-545C, BT-540CF BusLogic MultiMaster S Series Host Adapters including BT-445S, BT-747S, BT-747D, BT-757S, BT-757D, BT-545S, BT-542D, BT-742A, BT-542B BusLogic MultiMaster A Series Host Adapters including BT-742A, BT-542B AMI FastDisk controllers that are true BusLogic MultiMaster clones are also supported. BusLogic/Mylex Flashpoint adapters are NOT yet supported. DPT SmartCACHE Plus, SmartCACHE III, SmartRAID III, SmartCACHE IV, and SmartRAID IV SCSI/RAID are supported. The DPT SmartRAID/CACHE V is not yet supported. The DPT PM3754U2-16M SCSI RAID Controller is also supported. Compaq Intelligent Disk Array Controllers: IDA, IDA-2, IAES, SMART, SMART-2/E, Smart-2/P, SMART-2SL, Integrated Array, and Smart Arrays 3200, 3100ES, 221, 4200, 4200, 4250ES. SymBios (formerly NCR) 53C810, 53C810a, 53C815, 53C820, 53C825a, 53C860, 53C875, 53C875j, 53C885, and 53C896 PCI SCSI controllers including ASUS SC-200, Data Technology DTC3130 (all variants), Diamond FirePort (all), NCR cards (all), SymBios cards (all), Tekram DC390W, 390U, and 390F, and Tyan S1365 QLogic 1020, 1040, 1040B, and 2100 SCSI and Fibre Channel Adapters DTC 3290 EISA SCSI controller in 1542 evaluation mode With all supported SCSI controllers, full support is provided for SCSI-I and SCSI-II peripherals, including hard disks, optical disks, tape drives (including DAT and 8mm Exabyte), medium changers, processor target devices, and CDROM drives. WORM devices that support CDROM commands are supported for read-only access by the CDROM driver. WORM/CD-R/CD-RW writing support is provided by cdrecord, which is in the ports tree. The following CDROM type systems are supported at this time: cd - SCSI interface (includes ProAudio Spectrum and SoundBlaster SCSI) matcd - Matsushita/Panasonic (Creative SoundBlaster) proprietary interface (562/563 models) scd - Sony proprietary interface (all models) acd - ATAPI IDE interface The following drivers were supported under the old SCSI subsystem, but are NOT YET supported under the new CAM SCSI subsystem: NCR5380/NCR53400 (ProAudio Spectrum) SCSI controller UltraStor 14F, 24F, and 34F SCSI controllers Seagate ST01/02 SCSI controllers Future Domain 8XX/950 series SCSI controllers WD7000 SCSI controller There is work-in-progress to port the UltraStor driver to the new CAM framework, but no estimates on when or if it will be completed. Unmaintained drivers, which might or might not work for your hardware: Floppy tape interface (Colorado/Mountain/Insight) mcd - Mitsumi proprietary CDROM interface (all models) Network Cards network cards Adaptec Duralink PCI fast ethernet adapters based on the Adaptec AIC-6195 fast ethernet controller chip, including the following: ANA-62011 64-bit single port 10/100baseTX adapter ANA-62022 64-bit dual port 10/100baseTX adapter ANA-62044 64-bit quad port 10/100baseTX adapter ANA-69011 32-bit single port 10/100baseTX adapter ANA-62020 64-bit single port 100baseFX adapter Allied-Telesyn AT1700 and RE2000 cards Alteon Networks PCI gigabit ethernet NICs based on the Tigon 1 and Tigon 2 chipsets including the Alteon AceNIC (Tigon 1 and 2), 3Com 3c985-SX (Tigon 1 and 2), Netgear GA620 (Tigon 2), Silicon Graphics Gigabit Ethernet, DEC/Compaq EtherWORKS 1000, NEC Gigabit Ethernet AMD PCnet/PCI (79c970 and 53c974 or 79c974) RealTek 8129/8139 fast ethernet NICs including the following: Allied-Telesyn AT2550 Allied-Telesyn AT2500TX Genius GF100TXR (RTL8139) NDC Communications NE100TX-E OvisLink LEF-8129TX OvisLink LEF-8139TX Netronix Inc. EA-1210 NetEther 10/100 KTX-9130TX 10/100 Fast Ethernet Accton Cheetah EN1207D (MPX 5030/5038; RealTek 8139 clone) SMC EZ Card 10/100 PCI 1211-TX Lite-On 98713, 98713A, 98715, and 98725 fast ethernet NICs, including the LinkSys EtherFast LNE100TX, NetGear FA310-TX Rev. D1, Matrox FastNIC 10/100, Kingston KNE110TX Macronix 98713, 98713A, 98715, 98715A, and 98725 fast ethernet NICs including the NDC Communications SFA100A (98713A), CNet Pro120A (98713 or 98713A), CNet Pro120B (98715), SVEC PN102TX (98713) Macronix/Lite-On PNIC II LC82C115 fast ethernet NICs including the LinkSys EtherFast LNE100TX version 2 Winbond W89C840F fast ethernet NICs including the Trendware TE100-PCIE VIA Technologies VT3043 Rhine I and VT86C100A Rhine II fast ethernet NICs including the Hawking Technologies PN102TX and D-Link DFE-530TX Silicon Integrated Systems SiS 900 and SiS 7016 PCI fast ethernet NICs Sundance Technologies ST201 PCI fast ethernet NICs including the D-Link DFE-550TX SysKonnect SK-984x PCI gigabit ethernet cards including the SK-9841 1000baseLX (single mode fiber, single port), the SK-9842 1000baseSX (multimode fiber, single port), the SK-9843 1000baseLX (single mode fiber, dual port), and the SK-9844 1000baseSX (multimode fiber, dual port). Texas Instruments ThunderLAN PCI NICs, including the Compaq Netelligent 10, 10/100, 10/100 Proliant, 10/100 Dual-Port, 10/100 TX Embedded UTP, 10 T PCI UTP/Coax, and 10/100 TX UTP, the Compaq NetFlex 3P, 3P Integrated, and 3P w/BNC, the Olicom OC-2135/2138, OC-2325, OC-2326 10/100 TX UTP, and the Racore 8165 10/100baseTX and 8148 10baseT/100baseTX/100baseFX multi-personality cards ADMtek AL981-based and AN985-based PCI fast ethernet NICs ASIX Electronics AX88140A PCI NICs including the Alfa Inc. GFC2204 and CNet Pro110B DEC EtherWORKS III NICs (DE203, DE204, and DE205) DEC EtherWORKS II NICs (DE200, DE201, DE202, and DE422) DEC DC21040, DC21041, or DC21140 based NICs (SMC Etherpower 8432T, DE245, etc.) DEC FDDI (DEFPA/DEFEA) NICs Efficient ENI-155p ATM PCI FORE PCA-200E ATM PCI Fujitsu MB86960A/MB86965A HP PC Lan+ cards (model numbers: 27247B and 27252A) Intel EtherExpress ISA (not recommended due to driver instability) Intel EtherExpress Pro/10 Intel EtherExpress Pro/100B PCI Fast Ethernet Isolan AT 4141-0 (16 bit) Isolink 4110 (8 bit) Novell NE1000, NE2000, and NE2100 Ethernet interfaces PCI network cards emulating the NE2000, including the RealTek 8029, NetVin 5000, Winbond W89C940, Surecom NE-34, VIA VT86C926 3Com 3C501, 3C503 Etherlink II, 3C505 Etherlink/+, 3C507 Etherlink 16/TP, 3C509, 3C579, 3C589 (PCMCIA), 3C590/592/595/900/905/905B/905C PCI and EISA (Fast) Etherlink III / (Fast) Etherlink XL, 3C980/3C980B Fast Etherlink XL server adapter, 3CSOHO100-TX OfficeConnect adapter Toshiba ethernet cards PCMCIA ethernet cards from IBM and National Semiconductor are also supported USB Peripherals USB Peripherals A wide range of USB peripherals are supported. Owing to the generic nature of most USB devices, with some exceptions any device of a given class will be supported even if not explicitly listed here. USB keyboards USB mice USB printers and USB to parallel printer conversion cables USB hubs Motherboard chipsets: ALi Aladdin-V Intel 82371SB (PIIX3) and 82371AB and EB (PIIX4) chipsets NEC uPD 9210 Host Controller VIA 83C572 USB Host Controller and any other UHCI or OHCI compliant motherboard chipset (no exceptions known). PCI plug-in USB host controllers ADS Electronics PCI plug-in card (2 ports) Entrega PCI plug-in card (4 ports) Specific USB devices reported to be working: Agiler Mouse 29UO Andromeda hub Apple iMac mouse and keyboard ATen parallel printer adapter Belkin F4U002 parallel printer adapter and Belkin mouse BTC BTC7935 keyboard with mouse port Cherry G81-3504 Chic mouse Cypress mouse Entrega USB-to-parallel printer adapter Genius Niche mouse Iomega USB Zip 100 MB Kensington Mouse-in-a-Box Logitech M2452 keyboard Logitech wheel mouse (3 buttons) Logitech PS/2 / USB mouse (3 buttons) MacAlly mouse (3 buttons) MacAlly self-powered hub (4 ports) Microsoft Intellimouse (3 buttons) Microsoft keyboard NEC hub Trust Ami Mouse (3 buttons) ISDN (European DSS1 [Q.921/Q.931] protocol) ISDN Asuscom I-IN100-ST-DV (experimental, may work) Asuscom ISDNlink 128K AVM A1 AVM Fritz!Card classic AVM Fritz!Card PCI AVM Fritz!Card PCMCIA (currently FreeBSD 3.X only) AVM Fritz!Card PnP (currently FreeBSD 3.X only) Creatix ISDN-S0/8 Creatix ISDN-S0/16 Creatix ISDN-S0 PnP Dr.Neuhaus Niccy 1008 Dr.Neuhaus Niccy 1016 Dr.Neuhaus Niccy GO@ (ISA PnP) Dynalink IS64PH (no longer maintained) ELSA 1000pro ISA ELSA 1000pro PCI ELSA PCC-16 ITK ix1 micro (currently FreeBSD 3.X only) ITK ix1 micro V.3 (currently FreeBSD 3.X only) Sagem Cybermod (ISA PnP, may work) Sedlbauer Win Speed Siemens I-Surf 2.0 Stollman Tina-pp (under development) Teles S0/8 Teles S0/16 Teles S0/16.3 (the c Versions - like 16.3c - are unsupported!) Teles S0 PnP (experimental, may work) 3Com/USRobotics Sportster ISDN TA intern (non-PnP version) Sound Devices The following soundcards or codecs are supported (devices marked 'experimental' are only supported in FreeBSD-CURRENT and might work only unstably): sound cards 16550 UART (Midi) (experimental, needs a trick in the hints file) Advance Asound 100, 110 and Logic ALS120 Aureal Vortex1/Vortex2 and Vortex Advantage based soundcards by a third party driver Creative Labs SB16, SB32, SB AWE64 (including Gold), Vibra16, SB PCI (experimental), SB Live! (experimental) and most SoundBlaster compatible cards Creative Labs SB Midi Port (experimental), SB OPL3 Synthesizer (experimental) Crystal Semiconductor CS461x/462x Audio Accelerator, the support for the CS461x Midi port is experimental Crystal Semiconductor CS428x Audio Controller CS4237, CS4236, CS4232, CS4231 (ISA) ENSONIQ AudioPCI ES1370/1371 ESS ES1868, ES1869, ES1879, ES1888 Gravis UltraSound PnP, MAX NeoMagic 256AV/ZX (PCI) OPTi931 (ISA) OSS-compatible sequencer (Midi) (experimental) Trident 4DWave DX/NX (PCI) Yahama OPL-SAx (ISA) Miscellaneous Devices AST 4 port serial card using shared IRQ ARNET 8 port serial card using shared IRQ ARNET (now Digiboard) Sync 570/i high-speed serial Boca BB1004 4-Port serial card (Modems NOT supported) Boca IOAT66 6-Port serial card (Modems supported) Boca BB1008 8-Port serial card (Modems NOT supported) Boca BB2016 16-Port serial card (Modems supported) Cyclades Cyclom-y Serial Board Moxa SmartIO CI-104J 4-Port serial card STB 4 port card using shared IRQ SDL Communications RISCom/8 Serial Board SDL Communications RISCom/N2 and N2pci high-speed sync serial boards Specialix SI/XIO/SX multiport serial cards, with both the older SIHOST2.x and the new enhanced (transputer based, aka JET) host cards; ISA, EISA and PCI are supported Stallion multiport serial boards: EasyIO, EasyConnection 8/32 & 8/64, ONboard 4/16 and Brumby Adlib, SoundBlaster, SoundBlaster Pro, ProAudioSpectrum, Gravis UltraSound, and Roland MPU-401 sound cards Connectix QuickCam Matrox Meteor Video frame grabber Creative Labs Video Spigot frame grabber Cortex1 frame grabber Various frame grabbers based on the Brooktree Bt848 and Bt878 chip HP4020, HP6020, Philips CDD2000/CDD2660 and Plasmon CD-R drives Bus mice PS/2 mice Standard PC Joystick X-10 power controllers GPIB and Transputer drives Genius and Mustek hand scanners Floppy tape drives (some rather old models only, driver is rather stale) Lucent Technologies WaveLAN/IEEE 802.11 PCMCIA and ISA standard speed (2Mbps) and turbo speed (6Mbps) wireless network adapters and workalikes (NCR WaveLAN/IEEE 802.11, Cabletron RoamAbout 802.11 DS) The ISA versions of these adapters are actually PCMCIA cards combined with an ISA to PCMCIA bridge card, so both kinds of devices work with the same driver. Troubleshooting installation troubleshooting The following section covers basic installation troubleshooting, such as common problems people have reported. There are also a few questions and answers for people wishing to dual-boot FreeBSD with MS-DOS. What to do if something goes wrong... Due to various limitations of the PC architecture, it is impossible for probing to be 100% reliable, however, there are a few things you can do if it fails. Check the supported hardware list to make sure your hardware is supported. If your hardware is supported and you still experience lock-ups or other problems, reset your computer, and when the visual kernel configuration option is given, choose it. This will allow you to go through your hardware and supply information to the system about it. The kernel on the boot disks is configured assuming that most hardware devices are in their factory default configuration in terms of IRQs, IO addresses, and DMA channels. If your hardware has been reconfigured, you will most likely need to use the configuration editor to tell FreeBSD where to find things. It is also possible that a probe for a device not present will cause a later probe for another device that is present to fail. In that case, the probes for the conflicting driver(s) should be disabled. Do not disable any drivers you will need during the installation, such as your screen (sc0). If the installation wedges or fails mysteriously after leaving the configuration editor, you have probably removed or changed something you should not have. Reboot and try again. In configuration mode, you can: List the device drivers installed in the kernel. Change device drivers for hardware that is not present in your system. Change IRQs, DRQs, and IO port addresses used by a device driver. After adjusting the kernel to match your hardware configuration, type Q to boot with the new settings. Once the installation has completed, any changes you made in the configuration mode will be permanent so you do not have to reconfigure every time you boot. It is still highly likely that you will eventually want to build a custom kernel. MS-DOS User's Questions and Answers DOS Many users wish to install FreeBSD on PCs inhabited by MS-DOS. Here are some commonly asked questions about installing FreeBSD on such systems. Help, I have no space! Do I need to delete everything first? If your machine is already running MS-DOS and has little or no free space available for the FreeBSD installation, all hope is not lost! You may find the FIPS utility, provided in the tools directory on the FreeBSD CDROM or various FreeBSD FTP sites to be quite useful. FIPS FIPS allows you to split an existing MS-DOS partition into two pieces, preserving the original partition and allowing you to install onto the second free piece. You first defragment your MS-DOS partition using the Windows DEFRAG utility (go into Explorer, right-click on the hard drive, and choose to defrag your hard drive), or Norton Disk Tools. You then must run FIPS. It will prompt you for the rest of the information it needs. Afterwards, you can reboot and install FreeBSD on the new free slice. See the Distributions menu for an estimate of how much free space you will need for the kind of installation you want. Partition Magic There is also a very useful product from PowerQuest called Partition Magic. This application has far more functionality than FIPS, and is highly recommended if you plan to often add/remove operating systems (like me). However, it does cost money, and if you plan to install FreeBSD once and then leave it there, FIPS will probably be fine for you. Can I use compressed MS-DOS filesystems from FreeBSD? No. If you are using a utility such as Stacker(tm) or DoubleSpace(tm), FreeBSD will only be able to use whatever portion of the filesystem you leave uncompressed. The rest of the filesystem will show up as one large file (the stacked/double spaced file!). Do not remove that file or you will probably regret it greatly! It is probably better to create another uncompressed primary MS-DOS partition and use this for communications between MS-DOS and FreeBSD. Can I mount my extended MS-DOS partition? partitions slices Yes. DOS extended partitions are mapped in at the end of the other slices in FreeBSD, e.g., your D: drive might be /dev/da0s5, your E: drive, /dev/da0s6, and so on. This example assumes, of course, that your extended partition is on SCSI drive 0. For IDE drives, substitute ad for da appropriately if installing 4.0-RELEASE or later, and substitute wd for da if you are installing a version of FreeBSD prior to 4.0. You otherwise mount extended partitions exactly like you would any other DOS drive, for example: &prompt.root; mount -t msdos /dev/ad0s5 /dos_d Advanced Installation Guide Written by &a.logo;, May 2001. This section describes how to install FreeBSD in exceptional cases. Installing FreeBSD on a system without a monitor or keyboard installation headless (serial console) serial console This type of installation is called a "headless install", because the machine that you are trying to install FreeBSD on either doesnt have a monitor attached to it, or doesnt even have a VGA output. How is this possible you ask? Using a serial console. A serial console is basically using another machine to act as the main display and keyboard for a system. To do this, just follow these steps: Fetch the right boot floppy images First you will need to get the right disk images so that you can boot into the install program. The secret with using a serial console is that you tell the boot loader to send I/O through a serial port instead of displaying console output to the VGA device and trying to read input from a local keyboard. Enough of that now, let's get back to getting these disk images. You will need to get kern.flp and mfsroot.flp from the floppies directory. Write the image files to the floppy disks. The image files, such as kern.flp, are not regular files that you copy to the disk. Instead, they are images of the complete contents of the disk. This means that you can not use commands like DOS' copy to write the files. Instead, you must use specific tools to write the images directly to the disk. fdimage If you are creating the floppies on a computer running DOS then we provide a tool to do this called fdimage. If you are using the floppies from the CDROM, and your CDROM is the E: drive then you would run this: E:\> tools\fdimage floppies\kern.flp A: Repeat this command for each .flp file, replacing the floppy disk each time. Adjust the command line as necessary, depending on where you have placed the .flp files. If you do not have the CDROM then fdimage can be downloaded from the tools directory on the FreeBSD FTP site. If you are writing the floppies on a Unix system (such as another FreeBSD system) you can use the &man.dd.1; command to write the image files directly to disk. On FreeBSD you would run: &prompt.root; dd if=kern.flp of=/dev/fd0 On FreeBSD /dev/fd0 refers to the first floppy disk (the A: drive). /dev/fd1 would be the B: drive, and so on. Other Unix variants might have different names for the floppy disk devices, and you will need to check the documentation for the system as necessary. Enabling the boot floppies to boot into a serial console Do not try to mount the floppy if it is write-protected mount If you were to boot into the floppies that you just made, FreeBSD would boot into its normal install mode. We want FreeBSD to boot into a serial console for our install. To do this, you have to mount the kern.flp floppy onto your FreeBSD system using the &man.mount.8; command. &prompt.root; mount /dev/fd0 /mnt Now that you have the floppy mounted, you must change into the floppy directory &prompt.root; cd /mnt Here is where you must set the floppy to boot into a serial console. You have to make a file called boot.config containing "/boot/loader -h". All this does is pass a flag to the bootloader to boot into a serial console. &prompt.root; echo "/boot/loader -h" > boot.config Now that you have your floppy configured correctly, you must unmount the floppy using the &man.umount.8; command &prompt.root; cd / &prompt.root; umount /mnt Now you can remove the floppy from the floppy drive Connecting your null modem cable - null modem cable + null-modem cable You now need to connect a null modem cable between the two machines. Just connect the cable to the serial ports of the 2 machines. A normal serial cable will not work here, you need a null modem cable because it has some of the wires inside crossed over. Booting up for the install It's now time to go ahead and start the install. Put the kern.flp floppy in the floppy drive of the machine you're doing the headless install on, and power on the machine. Connecting to your headless machine cu Now you have to connect to that machine with &man.cu.1;: &prompt.root; cu -l /dev/cuaa0 That's it! You should be able to control the headless machine through your cu session now. It will ask you to put in the mfsroot.flp, and then it will come up with a selection of what kind of terminal to use. Just select the FreeBSD color console and proceed with your install! diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/introduction/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/introduction/chapter.sgml index 080b60841c..5ac0bcbbd7 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/introduction/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/introduction/chapter.sgml @@ -1,862 +1,870 @@ Jim Mock Restructured, reorganized, and parts rewritten Introduction Synopsis Thank you for your interest in FreeBSD! The following chapter covers various items about the FreeBSD Project, such as its history, goals, development model, and so on. 4.4BSD-Lite FreeBSD is a 4.4BSD-Lite based operating system for the Intel architecture (x86) and DEC Alpha based systems. Ports to other architectures are also underway. For a brief overview of FreeBSD, see the next section. You can also read about the history of FreeBSD, or the current release. If you are interested in contributing something to the Project (code, hardware, unmarked bills), see the contributing to FreeBSD section. Welcome to FreeBSD! Since you are still here reading this, you most likely have some idea as to what FreeBSD is and what it can do for you. If you are new to FreeBSD, read on for more information. What is FreeBSD? Intel architecture (x86) DEC Alpha architecture In general, FreeBSD is a state-of-the-art operating system based on 4.4BSD-Lite. It runs on computer systems based on the Intel architecture (x86), and also the DEC Alpha architecture. FreeBSD is used to power some of the biggest sites on the Internet, including: Yahoo! Yahoo! Hotmail Hotmail Apache Apache Be, Inc. Be, Inc. Blue Mountain Arts Blue Mountain Arts Pair Networks Pair Networks Whistle Communications Whistle Communications BSDi BSDi and many more. What can FreeBSD do? FreeBSD has many noteworthy features. Some of these are: preemptive multitasking Preemptive multitasking with dynamic priority adjustment to ensure smooth and fair sharing of the computer between applications and users, even under the heaviest of loads. multi-user facilities Multi-user facilities which allow many people to use a FreeBSD system simultaneously for a variety of things. This means, for example, that system peripherals such as printers and tape drives are properly shared between all users on the system or the network and that individual resource limits can be placed on users or groups of users, protecting critical system resources from over-use. TCP/IP networking Strong TCP/IP networking with support for industry standards such as SLIP, PPP, NFS, DHCP, and NIS. This means that your FreeBSD machine can inter-operate easily with other systems as well as act as an enterprise server, providing vital functions such as NFS (remote file access) and e-mail services or putting your organization on the Internet with WWW, FTP, routing and firewall (security) services. memory protection Memory protection ensures that applications (or users) cannot interfere with each other. One application crashing will not affect others in any way. FreeBSD is a 32-bit operating system (64-bit on the Alpha) and was designed as such from the ground up. - X-Windows + + X Window System + XFree86 + + The industry standard X Window System (X11R6) provides a graphical user interface (GUI) for the cost of a common VGA card and monitor and comes with full sources. binary compatibility Linux binary compatibility SCO binary compatibility SVR4 binary compatibility BSD/OS binary compatibility NetBSD Binary compatibility with many programs built for Linux, SCO, SVR4, BSDI and NetBSD. Thousands of ready-to-run applications are available from the FreeBSD ports and packages collection. Why search the net when you can find it all right here? Thousands of additional and easy-to-port applications are available on the Internet. FreeBSD is source code compatible with most popular commercial Unix systems and thus most applications require few, if any, changes to compile. virtual memory Demand paged virtual memory and merged VM/buffer cache design efficiently satisfies applications with large appetites for memory while still maintaining interactive response to other users. Symetric Multi-Processing (SMP) SMP support for machines with multiple CPUs. compilers C compilers C++ compilers Fortran A full complement of C, C++, Fortran, and Perl development tools. Many additional languages for advanced research and development are also available in the ports and packages collection. source code Source code for the entire system means you have the greatest degree of control over your environment. Why be locked into a proprietary solution at the mercy of your vendor when you can have a truly Open System? Extensive on-line documentation. And many more! 4.4BSD-Lite Computer Systems Resarch Group (CSRG) U.C. Berkeley FreeBSD is based on the 4.4BSD-Lite release from Computer Systems Research Group (CSRG) at the University of California at Berkeley, and carries on the distinguished tradition of BSD systems development. In addition to the fine work provided by CSRG, the FreeBSD Project has put in many thousands of hours in fine tuning the system for maximum performance and reliability in real-life load situations. As many of the commercial giants struggle to field PC operating systems with such features, performance and reliability, FreeBSD can offer them now! The applications to which FreeBSD can be put are truly limited only by your own imagination. From software development to factory automation, inventory control to azimuth correction of remote satellite antennae; if it can be done with a commercial Unix product then it is more than likely that you can do it with FreeBSD, too! FreeBSD also benefits significantly from the literally thousands of high quality applications developed by research centers and universities around the world, often available at little to no cost. Commercial applications are also available and appearing in greater numbers every day. Because the source code for FreeBSD itself is generally available, the system can also be customized to an almost unheard of degree for special applications or projects, and in ways not generally possible with operating systems from most major commercial vendors. Here is just a sampling of some of the applications in which people are currently using FreeBSD: Internet Services: The robust TCP/IP networking built into FreeBSD makes it an ideal platform for a variety of Internet services such as: FTP servers FTP servers web servers World Wide Web servers (standard or secure [SSL]) - firewalls + firewall IP masquerading Firewalls and NAT (IP masquerading) gateways. electronic mail Electronic Mail servers USENET USENET News or Bulletin Board Systems And more... With FreeBSD, you can easily start out small with an inexpensive 386 class PC and upgrade all the way up to a quad-processor Xeon with RAID storage as your enterprise grows. Education: Are you a student of computer science or a related engineering field? There is no better way of learning about operating systems, computer architecture and networking than the hands on, under the hood experience that FreeBSD can provide. A number of freely available CAD, mathematical and graphic design packages also make it highly useful to those whose primary interest in a computer is to get other work done! Research: With source code for the entire system available, FreeBSD is an excellent platform for research in operating systems as well as other branches of computer science. FreeBSD's freely available nature also makes it possible for remote groups to collaborate on ideas or shared development without having to worry about special licensing agreements or limitations on what may be discussed in open forums. router DNS Server Networking: Need a new router? A name server (DNS)? A firewall to keep people out of your internal network? FreeBSD can easily turn that unused 386 or 486 PC sitting in the corner into an advanced router with sophisticated packet-filtering capabilities. - X-Windows + X Window System XFree86 - X-Windows + X Window System Accellerated-X X Window workstation: FreeBSD is a fine choice for an inexpensive X terminal solution, either using the freely available XFree86 server or one of the excellent commercial servers provided by X Inside. Unlike an X terminal, FreeBSD allows many applications to be run locally, if desired, thus relieving the burden on a central server. FreeBSD can even boot diskless, making individual workstations even cheaper and easier to administer. GNU Compiler Collection Software Development: The basic FreeBSD system comes with a full complement of development tools including the renowned GNU C/C++ compiler and debugger. FreeBSD is available in both source and binary form on CDROM and via anonymous FTP. Please see for more information about obtaining FreeBSD. About the FreeBSD Project The following section provides some background information on the project, including a brief history, project goals, and the development model of the project. A Brief History of FreeBSD Contributed by &a.jkh;. 386BSD Patchkit Hubbard, Jordan Williams, Nate Grimes, Rod FreeBSD Project History The FreeBSD project had its genesis in the early part of 1993, partially as an outgrowth of the Unofficial 386BSD Patchkit by the patchkit's last 3 coordinators: Nate Williams, Rod Grimes and myself. 386BSD Our original goal was to produce an intermediate snapshot of 386BSD in order to fix a number of problems with it that the patchkit mechanism just was not capable of solving. Some of you may remember the early working title for the project being 386BSD 0.5 or 386BSD Interim in reference to that fact. Jolitz, Bill 386BSD was Bill Jolitz's operating system, which had been up to that point suffering rather severely from almost a year's worth of neglect. As the patchkit swelled ever more uncomfortably with each passing day, we were in unanimous agreement that something had to be done and decided to try and assist Bill by providing this interim cleanup snapshot. Those plans came to a rude halt when Bill Jolitz suddenly decided to withdraw his sanction from the project without any clear indication of what would be done instead. Greenman, David Walnut Creek CDROM It did not take us long to decide that the goal remained worthwhile, even without Bill's support, and so we adopted the name FreeBSD, coined by David Greenman. Our initial objectives were set after consulting with the system's current users and, once it became clear that the project was on the road to perhaps even becoming a reality, I contacted Walnut Creek CDROM with an eye towards improving FreeBSD's distribution channels for those many unfortunates without easy access to the Internet. Walnut Creek CDROM not only supported the idea of distributing FreeBSD on CD but also went so far as to provide the project with a machine to work on and a fast Internet connection. Without Walnut Creek CDROM's almost unprecedented degree of faith in what was, at the time, a completely unknown project, it is quite unlikely that FreeBSD would have gotten as far, as fast, as it has today. 4.3BSD-Lite Net/2 U.C. Berkeley 386BSD Free Software Foundation The first CDROM (and general net-wide) distribution was FreeBSD 1.0, released in December of 1993. This was based on the 4.3BSD-Lite (Net/2) tape from U.C. Berkeley, with many components also provided by 386BSD and the Free Software Foundation. It was a fairly reasonable success for a first offering, and we followed it with the highly successful FreeBSD 1.1 release in May of 1994. Novell U.C. Berkeley Net/2 AT&amp;T Around this time, some rather unexpected storm clouds formed on the horizon as Novell and U.C. Berkeley settled their long-running lawsuit over the legal status of the Berkeley Net/2 tape. A condition of that settlement was U.C. Berkeley's concession that large parts of Net/2 were encumbered code and the property of Novell, who had in turn acquired it from AT&T some time previously. What Berkeley got in return was Novell's blessing that the 4.4BSD-Lite release, when it was finally released, would be declared unencumbered and all existing Net/2 users would be strongly encouraged to switch. This included FreeBSD, and the project was given until the end of July 1994 to stop shipping its own Net/2 based product. Under the terms of that agreement, the project was allowed one last release before the deadline, that release being FreeBSD 1.1.5.1. FreeBSD then set about the arduous task of literally re-inventing itself from a completely new and rather incomplete set of 4.4BSD-Lite bits. The Lite releases were light in part because Berkeley's CSRG had removed large chunks of code required for actually constructing a bootable running system (due to various legal requirements) and the fact that the Intel port of 4.4 was highly incomplete. It took the project until November of 1994 to make this transition, at which point it released FreeBSD 2.0 to the net and on CDROM (in late December). Despite being still more than a little rough around the edges, the release was a significant success and was followed by the more robust and easier to install FreeBSD 2.0.5 release in June of 1995. We released FreeBSD 2.1.5 in August of 1996, and it appeared to be popular enough among the ISP and commercial communities that another release along the 2.1-STABLE branch was merited. This was FreeBSD 2.1.7.1, released in February 1997 and capping the end of mainstream development on 2.1-STABLE. Now in maintenance mode, only security enhancements and other critical bug fixes will be done on this branch (RELENG_2_1_0). FreeBSD 2.2 was branched from the development mainline (-CURRENT) in November 1996 as the RELENG_2_2 branch, and the first full release (2.2.1) was released in April 1997. Further releases along the 2.2 branch were done in the summer and fall of '97, the last of which (2.2.8) appeared in November 1998. The first official 3.0 release appeared in October 1998 and spelled the beginning of the end for the 2.2 branch. The tree branched again on Jan 20, 1999, leading to the 4.0-CURRENT and 3.X-STABLE branches. From 3.X-STABLE, 3.1 was released on February 15, 1999, 3.2 on May 15, 1999, 3.3 on September 16, 1999, 3.4 on December 20, 1999, and 3.5 on June 24, 2000, which was followed a few days later by a minor point release update to 3.5.1, to incorporate some last-minute security fixes to Kerberos. This will be the final release in the 3.X branch. There was another branch on March 13, 2000, which saw the emergence of the 4.X-STABLE branch, now considered to be the "current -stable branch". There have been several releases from it so far: 4.0-RELEASE came out in March 2000, 4.1 was released in July 2000, 4.2 in November 2000, and 4.3 in April 2001. There will be more releases along the 4.X-stable (RELENG_4) branch throughout 2001. Long-term development projects continue to take place in the 5.0-CURRENT (trunk) branch, and SNAPshot releases of 5.0 on CDROM (and, of course, on the net) are continually made available from the snapshot server as work progresses. Jordan Hubbard Contributed FreeBSD Project Goals FreeBSD Project Goals The goals of the FreeBSD Project are to provide software that may be used for any purpose and without strings attached. Many of us have a significant investment in the code (and project) and would certainly not mind a little financial compensation now and then, but we are definitely not prepared to insist on it. We believe that our first and foremost mission is to provide code to any and all comers, and for whatever purpose, so that the code gets the widest possible use and provides the widest possible benefit. This is, I believe, one of the most fundamental goals of Free Software and one that we enthusiastically support. GNU General Public License (GPL) GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL) BSD Copyright That code in our source tree which falls under the GNU General Public License (GPL) or Library General Public License (LGPL) comes with slightly more strings attached, though at least on the side of enforced access rather than the usual opposite. Due to the additional complexities that can evolve in the commercial use of GPL software we do, however, prefer software submitted under the more relaxed BSD copyright when it's a reasonable option to do so. Satoshi Asami Contributed The FreeBSD Development Model FreeBSD Project Development Model The development of FreeBSD is a very open and flexible process, FreeBSD being literally built from the contributions of hundreds of people around the world, as can be seen from our our list of contributors in . We are constantly on the lookout for new developers and ideas, and those interested in becoming more closely involved with the project need simply contact us at the &a.hackers;. The &a.announce; is also available to those wishing to make other FreeBSD users aware of major areas of work. Useful things to know about the FreeBSD project and its development process, whether working independently or in close cooperation: The CVS repository - CVS Repository - Concurrent Version System (see CVS repository) + CVS + repository + + + Concurrent Version System + CVS The central source tree for FreeBSD is maintained by CVS (Concurrent Version System), a freely available source code control tool that comes bundled with FreeBSD. The primary CVS repository resides on a machine in Santa Clara CA, USA from where it is replicated to numerous mirror machines throughout the world. The CVS tree, as well as the -CURRENT and -STABLE trees which are checked out of it, can be easily replicated to your own machine as well. Please refer to the Synchronizing your source tree section for more information on doing this. The committers list committers The committers are the people who have write access to the CVS tree, and are thus authorized to make modifications to the FreeBSD source (the term committer comes from the &man.cvs.1; commit command, which is used to bring new changes into the CVS repository). The best way of making submissions for review by the committers list is to use the &man.send-pr.1; command, though if something appears to be jammed in the system then you may also reach them by sending mail to cvs-committers@FreeBSD.org. The FreeBSD core team core team The FreeBSD core team would be equivalent to the board of directors if the FreeBSD Project were a company. The primary task of the core team is to make sure the project, as a whole, is in good shape and is heading in the right directions. Inviting dedicated and responsible developers to join our group of committers is one of the functions of the core team, as is the recruitment of new core team members as others move on. The current core team was elected from a pool of committer candidates in October 2000. Elections are held every 2 years. Some core team members also have specific areas of responsibility, meaning that they are committed to ensuring that some large portion of the system works as advertised. Most members of the core team are volunteers when it comes to FreeBSD development and do not benefit from the project financially, so commitment should also not be misconstrued as meaning guaranteed support. The board of directors analogy above is not actually very accurate, and it may be more suitable to say that these are the people who gave up their lives in favor of FreeBSD against their better judgment! Outside contributors contributors Last, but definitely not least, the largest group of developers are the users themselves who provide feedback and bug fixes to us on an almost constant basis. The primary way of keeping in touch with FreeBSD's more non-centralized development is to subscribe to the &a.hackers; (see mailing list info) where such things are discussed. The list of those who have contributed something, which made its way into our source tree, is a long and growing one, so why not join it by contributing something back to FreeBSD today? Providing code is not the only way of contributing to the project; for a more complete list of things that need doing, please refer to the how to contribute section in this handbook. In summary, our development model is organized as a loose set of concentric circles. The centralized model is designed for the convenience of the users of FreeBSD, who are thereby provided with an easy way of tracking one central code base, not to keep potential contributors out! Our desire is to present a stable operating system with a large set of coherent application programs that the users can easily install and use, and this model works very well in accomplishing that. All we ask of those who would join us as FreeBSD developers is some of the same dedication its current people have to its continued success! The Current FreeBSD Release NetBSD OpenBSD 386BSD Free Software Foundation U.C. Berkeley Computer Systems Resarch Group (CSRG) FreeBSD is a freely available, full source 4.4BSD-Lite based release for Intel i386, i486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Celeron, Pentium II, Pentium III (or compatible) and DEC Alpha based computer systems. It is based primarily on software from U.C. Berkeley's CSRG group, with some enhancements from NetBSD, OpenBSD, 386BSD, and the Free Software Foundation. Since our release of FreeBSD 2.0 in late 94, the performance, feature set, and stability of FreeBSD has improved dramatically. The largest change is a revamped virtual memory system with a merged VM/file buffer cache that not only increases performance, but also reduces FreeBSD's memory footprint, making a 5MB configuration a more acceptable minimum. Other enhancements include full NIS client and server support, transaction TCP support, dial-on-demand PPP, integrated DHCP support, an improved SCSI subsystem, ISDN support, support for ATM, FDDI, Fast and Gigabit Ethernet (1000Mbit) adapters, improved support for the latest Adaptec controllers, and many hundreds of bug fixes. We have also taken the comments and suggestions of many of our users to heart and have attempted to provide what we hope is a more sane and easily understood installation process. Your feedback on this (constantly evolving) process is especially welcome! In addition to the base distributions, FreeBSD offers a ported software collection with thousands of commonly sought-after programs. At the time of this printing, there were over &os.numports; ports! The list of ports ranges from http (WWW) servers, to games, languages, editors, and almost everything in between. The entire ports collection requires approximately 100MB of storage, all ports being expressed as deltas to their original sources. This makes it much easier for us to update ports, and greatly reduces the disk space demands made by the older 1.0 ports collection. To compile a port, you simply change to the directory of the program you wish to install, type make install, and let the system do the rest. The full original distribution for each port you build is retrieved dynamically off the CDROM or a local FTP site, so you need only enough disk space to build the ports you want. Almost every port is also provided as a pre-compiled package, which can be installed with a simple command (pkg_add) by those who do not wish to compile their own ports from source. A number of additional documents which you may find very helpful in the process of installing and using FreeBSD may now also be found in the /usr/share/doc directory on any machine running FreeBSD 2.1 or later. You may view the locally installed manuals with any HTML capable browser using the following URLs: The FreeBSD Handbook /usr/share/doc/handbook/index.html The FreeBSD FAQ /usr/share/doc/faq/index.html You can also view the master (and most frequently updated) copies at http://www.FreeBSD.org/. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.sgml index 999de2b6a0..b2f0e3e0f3 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1245 +1,1245 @@ Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel Synopsis Updated and restructured by &a.jim;, March 2000. Originally contributed by &a.jehamby;, 6 October 1995. kernel building a custom kernel The following chapter of the handbook covers everything you will need to know in order to build a custom kernel. If you are wondering what the benefits of a custom kernel are, or would like to know how to configure, compile, and install a custom kernel, this chapter is for you. Why Build a Custom Kernel? Building a custom kernel is one of the most important rites of passage nearly every Unix user must endure. This process, while time consuming, will provide many benefits to your FreeBSD system. Unlike the GENERIC kernel, which must support a wide range of hardware, a custom kernel only contains support for your PC's hardware. This has a number of benefits, such as: Faster boot time. Since the kernel will only probe the hardware you have on your system, the time it takes your system to boot will decrease dramatically. Less memory use. A custom kernel often uses less memory than the GENERIC kernel, which is important because the kernel is one process that must always be present in memory. For this reason, a custom kernel is especially useful on a system with a small amount of RAM. Additional hardware support. A custom kernel allows you to add in support for devices such as sound cards, which are not present in the GENERIC kernel. Building and Installing a Custom Kernel kernel building / installing First, let us take a quick tour of the kernel build directory. All directories mentioned will be relative to the main /usr/src/sys directory, which is also accessible through /sys. There are a number of subdirectories here representing different parts of the kernel, but the most important, for our purposes, are arch/conf, where you will edit your custom kernel configuration, and compile, which is the staging area where your kernel will be built. arch represents either i386, alpha, or pc98 (an alternative development branch of PC hardware, popular in Japan). Everything inside a particular architecture's directory deals with that architecture only; the rest of the code is common to all platforms to which FreeBSD could potentially be ported. Notice the logical organization of the directory structure, with each supported device, filesystem, and option in its own subdirectory. If there is not a /usr/src/sys directory on your system, then the kernel source has not been installed. The easiest way to do this is by running /stand/sysinstall as root, choosing Configure, then Distributions, then src, then sys. Next, move to the arch/conf directory and copy the GENERIC configuration file to the name you want to give your kernel. For example: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/sys/i386/conf &prompt.root; cp GENERIC MYKERNEL Traditionally, this name is in all capital letters and, if you are maintaining multiple FreeBSD machines with different hardware, it is a good idea to name it after your machine's hostname. We will call it MYKERNEL for the purpose of this example. Storing your kernel config file directly under /usr/src can be a bad idea. If you are experiencing problems it can be tempting to just delete /usr/src and start again. Five seconds after you do that you realise that you have deleted your custom kernel config file. You might want to keep your kernel config file elsewhere, and then create a symbolic link to the file in the i386 directory. For example: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/sys/i386/conf &prompt.root; mkdir /root/kernels &prompt.root; cp GENERIC /root/kernels/MYKERNEL &prompt.root; ln -s /root/kernels/MYKERNEL You must execute these and all of the following commands under the root account or you will get permission denied errors. Now, edit MYKERNEL with your favorite text editor. If you are just starting out, the only editor available will probably be vi, which is too complex to explain here, but is covered well in many books in the bibliography. However, FreeBSD does offer an easier editor called ee which, if you are a beginner, should be your editor of choice. Feel free to change the comment lines at the top to reflect your configuration or the changes you have made to differentiate it from GENERIC. SunOS If you have built a kernel under SunOS or some other BSD operating system, much of this file will be very familiar to you. If you are coming from some other operating system such as DOS, on the other hand, the GENERIC configuration file might seem overwhelming to you, so follow the descriptions in the Configuration File section slowly and carefully. Be sure to always check the file /usr/src/UPDATING, before you perform any update steps, in the case you sync your source-tree with the latest sources of the FreeBSD project. In this file all important issues with updating FreeBSD are written down. /usr/src/UPDATING always fits to your version of the FreeBSD source, and is therefore more accurate for those information than the handbook. You must now compile the source code for the kernel. There are two procedures you can use to do this, and the one you will use depends on why you are rebuilding the kernel, and the version of FreeBSD you are running. If you have installed only the kernel source code, use procedure 1. If you are running a FreeBSD version prior to 4.0, and you are not upgrading to FreeBSD 4.0 or higher using the make world procedure, use procedure 1. If you are building a new kernel without updating the source code (perhaps just to add a new option, such as IPFIREWALL) you can use either procedure. If you are rebuilding the kernel as part of a make world process, use procedure 2. Procedure 1. Building a kernel the <quote>traditional</quote> way Run &man.config.8; to generate the kernel source code. &prompt.root; /usr/sbin/config MYKERNEL Change in to the build directory. &prompt.root; cd ../../compile/MYKERNEL Compile the kernel. &prompt.root; make depend &prompt.root; make Install the new kernel. &prompt.root; make install Procedure 2. Building a kernel the <quote>new</quote> way Change to the /usr/src directory &prompt.root; cd /usr/src Compile the kernel. &prompt.root; make buildkernel KERNCONF=MYKERNEL Install the new kernel. &prompt.root; make installkernel KERNCONF=MYKERNEL In FreeBSD 4.2 and older you must replace KERNCONF= with KERNEL=. 4.2-STABLE that was fetched after Feb 2nd, 2001 does recognize KERNCONF= cvsup - anoncvs + anonymous CVS CTM CVS anonymous If you have not upgraded your source tree in any way (you have not run CVSup, CTM, or used anoncvs), then you should use the config, make depend, make, make install sequence. kernel.old The new kernel will be copied to the root directory as /kernel and the old kernel will be moved to /kernel.old. Now, shutdown the system and reboot to use your kernel. In case something goes wrong, there are some troubleshooting instructions at the end of this document. Be sure to read the section which explains how to recover in case your new kernel does not boot. If you have added any new devices (such as sound cards) you may have to add some device nodes to your /dev directory before you can use them. The Configuration File kernel LINT LINT kernel config file The general format of a configuration file is quite simple. Each line contains a keyword and one or more arguments. For simplicity, most lines only contain one argument. Anything following a # is considered a comment and ignored. The following sections describe each keyword, generally in the order they are listed in GENERIC, although some related keywords have been grouped together in a single section (such as Networking) even though they are actually scattered throughout the GENERIC file. An exhaustive list of options and more detailed explanations of the device lines is present in the LINT configuration file, located in the same directory as GENERIC. If you are in doubt as to the purpose or necessity of a line, check first in LINT. Quoting numbers In all versions of FreeBSD up to and including 3.X, &man.config.8; required that any strings in the configuration file that contained numbers used as text had to be enclosed in double quotes. This requirement was removed in the 4.X branch, which this book covers, so if you are on a pre-4.X system, see the /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT and /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC files on your system for examples. kernel example config file The following is an example GENERIC kernel configuration file with various additional comments where needed for clarity. This example should match your copy in /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC fairly closely. For details of all the possible kernel options, see /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT. # # GENERIC -- Generic kernel configuration file for FreeBSD/i386 # # For more information on this file, please read the handbook section on # Kernel Configuration Files: # # http://www.freebsd.org/handbook/kernelconfig-config.html # # The handbook is also available locally in /usr/share/doc/handbook # if you've installed the doc distribution, otherwise always see the # FreeBSD World Wide Web server (http://www.FreeBSD.ORG/) for the # latest information. # # An exhaustive list of options and more detailed explanations of the # device lines is also present in the ./LINT configuration file. If you are # in doubt as to the purpose or necessity of a line, check first in LINT. # # $FreeBSD: src/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC,v 1.246 2000/03/09 16:32:55 jlemon Exp $ The following are the mandatory keywords required in every kernel you build: kernel options machine machine i386 This is the machine architecture. It must be either i386, alpha, or pc98. kernel options cpu cpu I386_CPU cpu I486_CPU cpu I586_CPU cpu I686_CPU The above specifies the type of CPU you have in your system. You may have multiple instances of the CPU line (i.e., you are not sure whether you should use I586_CPU or I686_CPU), however, for a custom kernel, it is best to specify only the CPU you have. If you are unsure which type your CPU use, you can use the dmesg command to view your boot up messages. kernel options cpu type The Alpha architecture has different values for cpu_type. They include: cpu EV4 cpu EV5 If you are using an Alpha machine, you should be using one of the above CPU types. kernel options ident ident GENERIC This is the identification of the kernel. You should change this to whatever you named your kernel, in our previous example, MYKERNEL. The value you put in the ident string will print when you boot up the kernel, so it is useful to give a kernel a different name if you want to keep it separate from your usual kernel (i.e., you want to build an experimental kernel). kernel options maxusers maxusers 32 The maxusers option sets the size of a number of important system tables. This number is supposed to be roughly equal to the number of simultaneous users you expect to have on your machine. However, under normal circumstances, you will want to set maxusers to at least 4, especially if you are using the X Window System or compiling software. The reason is that the most important table set by maxusers is the maximum number of processes, which is set to 20 + 16 * maxusers, so if you set maxusers to 1, then you can only have 36 simultaneous processes, including the 18 or so that the system starts up at boot time, and the 15 or so you will probably create when you start the X Window System. Even a simple task like reading a man page will start up nine processes to filter, decompress, and view it. Setting maxusers to 64 will allow you to have up to 1044 simultaneous processes, which should be enough for nearly all uses. If, however, you see the dreaded proc table full error when trying to start another program, or are running a server with a large number of simultaneous users (like ftp.FreeBSD.org), you can always increase the number and rebuild. maxusers does not limit the number of users which can log into your machine. It simply sets various table sizes to reasonable values considering the maximum number of users you will likely have on your system and how many processes each of them will be running. One keyword which does limit the number of simultaneous remote logins is pseudo-device pty 16. Everything that follows is more or less optional. See the notes underneath or next to each option for more information. #makeoptions DEBUG=-g #Build kernel with gdb(1) debug symbols options MATH_EMULATE #Support for x87 emulation This line allows the kernel to simulate a math co-processor if your computer does not have one (386 or 486SX). If you have a 486DX, or a 386 or 486SX (with a separate 387 or 487 chip), or higher (Pentium, Pentium II, etc.), you can comment this line out. The normal math co-processor emulation routines that come with FreeBSD are not very accurate. If you do not have a math co-processor, and you need the best accuracy, it is recommended that you change this option to GPL_MATH_EMULATION to use the GNU math support, which is not included by default for licensing reasons. options INET #InterNETworking Networking support. Leave this in, even if you do not plan to be connected to a network. Most programs require at least loopback networking (i.e., making network connections within your PC), so this is essentially mandatory. options INET6 #IPv6 communications protocols This enables the IPv6 communication protocols. options FFS #Berkeley Fast Filesystem options FFS_ROOT #FFS usable as root device [keep this!] This is the basic hard drive filesystem. Leave it in if you boot from the hard disk. options MFS #Memory Filesystem options MD_ROOT #MD is a potential root device This is the memory-mapped filesystem. This is basically a RAM disk for fast storage of temporary files, useful if you have a lot of swap space that you want to take advantage of. A perfect place to mount an MFS partition is on the /tmp directory, since many programs store temporary data here. To mount an MFS RAM disk on /tmp, add the following line to /etc/fstab: /dev/ad1s2b /tmp mfs rw 0 0 Now you simply need to either reboot, or run the command mount /tmp. kernel options NFS kernel options NFS_ROOT options NFS #Network Filesystem options NFS_ROOT #NFS usable as root device, NFS required The network filesystem. Unless you plan to mount partitions from a Unix file server over TCP/IP, you can comment these out. kernel options MSDOSFS options MSDOSFS #MSDOS Filesystem The MS-DOS filesystem. Unless you plan to mount a DOS formatted hard drive partition at boot time, you can safely comment this out. It will be automatically loaded the first time you mount a DOS partition, as described above. Also, the excellent mtools software (in the ports collection) allows you to access DOS floppies without having to mount and unmount them (and does not require MSDOSFS at all). options CD9660 #ISO 9660 Filesystem options CD9660_ROOT #CD-ROM usable as root, CD9660 required The ISO 9660 filesystem for CDROMs. Comment it out if you do not have a CDROM drive or only mount data CDs occasionally (since it will be dynamically loaded the first time you mount a data CD). Audio CDs do not need this filesystem. options PROCFS #Process filesystem The process filesystem. This is a pretend filesystem mounted on /proc which allows programs like &man.ps.1; to give you more information on what processes are running. options COMPAT_43 #Compatible with BSD 4.3 [KEEP THIS!] Compatibility with 4.3BSD. Leave this in; some programs will act strangely if you comment this out. options SCSI_DELAY=15000 #Delay (in ms) before probing SCSI This causes the kernel to pause for 15 seconds before probing each SCSI device in your system. If you only have IDE hard drives, you can ignore this, otherwise you will probably want to lower this number, perhaps to 5 seconds, to speed up booting. Of course, if you do this, and FreeBSD has trouble recognizing your SCSI devices, you will have to raise it back up. options UCONSOLE #Allow users to grab the console Allow users to grab the console, which is useful for X users. For example, you can create a console xterm by typing xterm -C, which will display any write, talk, and any other messages you receive, as well as any console messages sent by the kernel. options USERCONFIG #boot -c editor This option allows you to boot the configuration editor from the boot menu. options VISUAL_USERCONFIG #visual boot -c editor This option allows you to boot the visual configuration editor from the boot menu. options KTRACE #ktrace(1) support This enables kernel process tracing, which is useful in debugging. options SYSVSHM #SYSV-style shared memory This option provides for System V shared memory. The most common use of this is the XSHM extension in X, which many graphics-intensive programs will automatically take advantage of for extra speed. If you use X, you'll definitely want to include this. options SYSVSEM #SYSV-style semaphores Support for System V semaphores. Less commonly used but only adds a few hundred bytes to the kernel. options SYSVMSG #SYSV-style message queues Support for System V messages. Again, only adds a few hundred bytes to the kernel. The &man.ipcs.1; command will list any processes using each of these System V facilities. options P1003_1B #Posix P1003_1B real-time extensions options _KPOSIX_PRIORITY_SCHEDULING Real-time extensions added in the 1993 POSIX. Certain applications in the ports collection use these (such as Star Office). kernel options ICMP_BANDLIM options ICMP_BANDLIM #Rate limit bad replies This option enables ICMP error response bandwidth limiting. You typically want this option as it will help protect the machine from denial of service packet attacks. kernel options SMP # To make an SMP kernel, the next two are needed #options SMP # Symmetric MultiProcessor Kernel #options APIC_IO # Symmetric (APIC) I/O The above are both required for SMP support. device isa All PCs supported by FreeBSD have one of these. If you have an IBM PS/2 (Micro Channel Architecture), you cannot run FreeBSD at this time (support is being worked on). device eisa Include this if you have an EISA motherboard. This enables auto-detection and configuration support for all devices on the EISA bus. device pci Include this if you have a PCI motherboard. This enables auto-detection of PCI cards and gatewaying from the PCI to ISA bus. # Floppy drives device fdc0 at isa? port IO_FD1 irq 6 drq 2 device fd0 at fdc0 drive 0 device fd1 at fdc0 drive 1 This is the floppy drive controller. fd0 is the A: floppy drive, and fd1 is the B: drive. device ata This driver supports all ATA and ATAPI devices. You only need one device ata line for the kernel to detect all PCI ATA/ATAPI devices on modern machines. device atadisk # ATA disk drives This is needed along with device ata for ATAPI disk drives. device atapicd # ATAPI CDROM drives This is needed along with device ata for ATAPI CDROM drives. device atapifd # ATAPI floppy drives This is needed along with device ata for ATAPI floppy drives. device atapist # ATAPI tape drives This is needed along with device ata for ATAPI tape drives. options ATA_STATIC_ID #Static device numbering This makes the controller number static (like the old driver) or else the device numbers are dynamically allocated. # ATA and ATAPI devices device ata0 at isa? port IO_WD1 irq 14 device ata1 at isa? port IO_WD2 irq 15 Use the above for older, non-PCI systems. # SCSI Controllers device ahb # EISA AHA1742 family device ahc # AHA2940 and onboard AIC7xxx devices device amd # AMD 53C974 (Teckram DC-390(T)) device dpt # DPT Smartcache - See LINT for options! device isp # Qlogic family device ncr # NCR/Symbios Logic device sym # NCR/Symbios Logic (newer chipsets) device adv0 at isa? device adw device bt0 at isa? device aha0 at isa? device aic0 at isa? SCSI controllers. Comment out any you do not have in your system. If you have an IDE only system, you can remove these altogether. # SCSI peripherals device scbus # SCSI bus (required) device da # Direct Access (disks) device sa # Sequential Access (tape etc) device cd # CD device pass # Passthrough device (direct SCSI access) SCSI peripherals. Again, comment out any you do not have, or if you have only IDE hardware, you can remove them completely. # RAID controllers device ida # Compaq Smart RAID device amr # AMI MegaRAID device mlx # Mylex DAC960 family Supported RAID controllers. If you do not have any of these, you can comment them out or remove them. # atkbdc0 controls both the keyboard and the PS/2 mouse device atkbdc0 at isa? port IO_KBD The keyboard controller (atkbdc) provides I/O services for the AT keyboard and PS/2 style pointing devices. This controller is required by the keyboard driver (atkbd) and the PS/2 pointing device driver (psm). device atkbd0 at atkbdc? irq 1 The atkbd driver, together with atkbdc controller, provides access to the AT 84 keyboard or the AT enhanced keyboard which is connected to the AT keyboard controller. device psm0 at atkbdc? irq 12 Use this device if your mouse plugs into the PS/2 mouse port. device vga0 at isa? The video card driver. # splash screen/screen saver pseudo-device splash Splash screen at start up! Screen savers require this too. # syscons is the default console driver, resembling an SCO console device sc0 at isa? sc0 is the default console driver, which resembles a SCO console. Since most full-screen programs access the console through a terminal database library like termcap, it should not matter whether you use this or vt0, the VT220 compatible console driver. When you log in, set your TERM variable to scoansi if full-screen programs have trouble running under this console. # Enable this and PCVT_FREEBSD for pcvt vt220 compatible console driver #device vt0 at isa? #options XSERVER # support for X server on a vt console #options FAT_CURSOR # start with block cursor # If you have a ThinkPAD, uncomment this along with the rest of the PCVT lines #options PCVT_SCANSET=2 # IBM keyboards are non-std This is a VT220-compatible console driver, backward compatible to VT100/102. It works well on some laptops which have hardware incompatibilities with sc0. Also set your TERM variable to vt100 or vt220 when you log in. This driver might also prove useful when connecting to a large number of different machines over the network, where termcap or terminfo entries for the sc0 device are often not available — vt100 should be available on virtually any platform. # Floating point support - do not disable. device npx0 at nexus? port IO_NPX irq 13 npx0 is the interface to the floating point math unit in FreeBSD, which is either the hardware co-processor or the software math emulator. This is not optional. # Power management support (see LINT for more options) device apm0 at nexus? disable flags 0x20 # Advanced Power Management Advanced Power Management support. Useful for laptops. # PCCARD (PCMCIA) support device card device pcic0 at isa? irq 10 port 0x3e0 iomem 0xd0000 device pcic1 at isa? irq 11 port 0x3e2 iomem 0xd4000 disable PCMCIA support. You need this if you are installing on a laptop. # Serial (COM) ports device sio0 at isa? port IO_COM1 flags 0x10 irq 4 device sio1 at isa? port IO_COM2 irq 3 device sio2 at isa? disable port IO_COM3 irq 5 device sio3 at isa? disable port IO_COM4 irq 9 These are the four serial ports referred to as COM1 through COM4 in the MS-DOS/Windows world. If you have an internal modem on COM4 and a serial port at COM2, you will have to change the IRQ of the modem to 2 (for obscure technical reasons, IRQ2 = IRQ 9) in order to access it from FreeBSD. If you have a multiport serial card, check the manual page for &man.sio.4; for more information on the proper values for these lines. Some video cards (notably those based on S3 chips) use IO addresses in the form of 0x*2e8, and since many cheap serial cards do not fully decode the 16-bit IO address space, they clash with these cards making the COM4 port practically unavailable. Each serial port is required to have a unique IRQ (unless you are using one of the multiport cards where shared interrupts are supported), so the default IRQs for COM3 and COM4 cannot be used. # Parallel port device ppc0 at isa? irq 7 This is the ISA-bus parallel port interface. device ppbus # Parallel port bus (required) Provides support for the parallel port bus. device lpt # Printer Support for parallel port printers. All three of the above are required to enable parallel printer support. device plip # TCP/IP over parallel This is the driver for the parallel network interface. device ppi # Parallel port interface device The general-purpose I/O (geek port) + IEEE1284 I/O. #device vpo # Requires scbus and da zip drive This is for an Iomega Zip drive. It requires scbus and da support. Best performance is achieved with ports in EPP 1.9 mode. # PCI Ethernet NICs. device de # DEC/Intel DC21x4x (Tulip) device fxp # Intel EtherExpress PRO/100B (82557, 82558) device tx # SMC 9432TX (83c170 EPIC) device vx # 3Com 3c590, 3c595 (Vortex) device wx # Intel Gigabit Ethernet Card (Wiseman) Various PCI network card drivers. Comment out or remove any of these not present in your system. # PCI Ethernet NICs that use the common MII bus controller code. device miibus # MII bus support MII bus support is required for some PCI 10/100 Ethernet NICs, namely those which use MII-compliant transceivers or implement transceiver control interfaces that operate like an MII. Adding device miibus to the kernel config pulls in support for the generic miibus API and all of the PHY drivers, including a generic one for PHYs that are not specifically handled by an individual driver device dc # DEC/Intel 21143 and various workalikes device rl # RealTek 8129/8139 device sf # Adaptec AIC-6915 (Starfire) device sis # Silicon Integrated Systems SiS 900/SiS 7016 device ste # Sundance ST201 (D-Link DFE-550TX) device tl # Texas Instruments ThunderLAN device vr # VIA Rhine, Rhine II device wb # Winbond W89C840F device xl # 3Com 3c90x (Boomerang, Cyclone) Drivers that use the MII bus controller code. # ISA Ethernet NICs. device ed0 at isa? port 0x280 irq 10 iomem 0xd8000 device ex device ep # WaveLAN/IEEE 802.11 wireless NICs. Note: the WaveLAN/IEEE really # exists only as a PCMCIA device, so there is no ISA attachment needed # and resources will always be dynamically assigned by the pccard code. device wi # Aironet 4500/4800 802.11 wireless NICs. Note: the declaration below will # work for PCMCIA and PCI cards, as well as ISA cards set to ISA PnP # mode (the factory default). If you set the switches on your ISA # card for a manually chosen I/O address and IRQ, you must specify # those parameters here. device an # The probe order of these is presently determined by i386/isa/isa_compat.c. device ie0 at isa? port 0x300 irq 10 iomem 0xd0000 device fe0 at isa? port 0x300 device le0 at isa? port 0x300 irq 5 iomem 0xd0000 device lnc0 at isa? port 0x280 irq 10 drq 0 device cs0 at isa? port 0x300 device sn0 at isa? port 0x300 irq 10 # requires PCCARD (PCMCIA) support to be activated #device xe0 at isa? ISA Ethernet drivers. See /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT for which cards are supported by which driver. # Pseudo devices - the number indicates how many units to allocate. pseudo-device loop # Network loopback This is the generic loopback device for TCP/IP. If you telnet or FTP to localhost (a.k.a., 127.0.0.1) it will come back at you through this pseudo-device. This is mandatory. pseudo-device ether # Ethernet support ether is only needed if you have an Ethernet card. It includes generic Ethernet protocol code. pseudo-device sl 1 # Kernel SLIP sl is for SLIP support. This has been almost entirely supplanted by PPP, which is easier to set up, better suited for modem-to-modem connection, and more powerful. The number after sl specifies how many simultaneous SLIP sessions to support. pseudo-device ppp 1 # Kernel PPP This is for kernel PPP support for dial-up connections. There is also a version of PPP implemented as a userland application that uses tun and offers more flexibility and features such as demand dialing. The number after ppp specifies how many simultaneous PPP connections to support. pseudo-device tun # Packet tunnel. This is used by the userland PPP software. The number after tun specifies the number of simultaneous PPP sessions to support. See the PPP section of this book for more information. pseudo-device pty # Pseudo-ttys (telnet etc) This is a pseudo-terminal or simulated login port. It is used by incoming telnet and rlogin sessions, xterm, and some other applications such as emacs. The number indicates the number of ptys to create. If you need more than the default of 16 simultaneous xterm windows and/or remote logins, be sure to increase this number accordingly, up to a maximum of 256. pseudo-device md # Memory disks Memory disk pseudo-devices. pseudo-device gif 4 # IPv6 and IPv4 tunneling This implements IPv6 over IPv4 tunneling, IPv4 over IPv6 tunneling, IPv4 over IPv4 tunneling, and IPv6 over IPv6 tunneling. pseudo-device faith 1 # IPv6-to-IPv4 relaying (translation) This pseudo-device captures packets that are sent to it and diverts them to the IPv4/IPv6 translation daemon. # The `bpf' pseudo-device enables the Berkeley Packet Filter. # Be aware of the administrative consequences of enabling this! pseudo-device bpf # Berkeley packet filter This is the Berkeley Packet Filter. This pseudo-device allows network interfaces to be placed in promiscuous mode, capturing every packet on a broadcast network (e.g., an Ethernet). These packets can be captured to disk and or examined with the &man.tcpdump.1; program. # USB support #device uhci # UHCI PCI->USB interface #device ohci # OHCI PCI->USB interface #device usb # USB Bus (required) #device ugen # Generic #device uhid # Human Interface Devices #device ukbd # Keyboard #device ulpt # Printer #device umass # Disks/Mass storage - Requires scbus and da #device ums # Mouse # USB Ethernet, requires mii #device aue # ADMtek USB ethernet #device cue # CATC USB ethernet #device kue # Kawasaki LSI USB ethernet Support for various USB devices. For more information and additional devices supported by FreeBSD, see /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT. Making Device Nodes device nodes MAKEDEV Almost every device in the kernel has a corresponding node entry in the /dev directory. These nodes look like regular files, but are actually special entries into the kernel which programs use to access the device. The shell script /dev/MAKEDEV, which is executed when you first install the operating system, creates nearly all of the device nodes supported. However, it does not create all of them, so when you add support for a new device, it pays to make sure that the appropriate entries are in this directory, and if not, add them. Here is a simple example: Suppose you add the IDE CD-ROM support to the kernel. The line to add is: device acd0 This means that you should look for some entries that start with acd0 in the /dev directory, possibly followed by a letter, such as c, or preceded by the letter r, which means a raw device. It turns out that those files are not there, so you must change to the /dev directory and type: MAKEDEV &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV acd0 When this script finishes, you will find that there are now acd0c and racd0c entries in /dev so you know that it executed correctly. For sound cards, the following command creates the appropriate entries: &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV snd0 When creating device nodes for devices such as sound cards, if other people have access to your machine, it may be desirable to protect the devices from outside access by adding them to the /etc/fbtab file. See &man.fbtab.5; for more information. Follow this simple procedure for any other non-GENERIC devices which do not have entries. All SCSI controllers use the same set of /dev entries, so you do not need to create these. Also, network cards and SLIP/PPP pseudo-devices do not have entries in /dev at all, so you do not have to worry about these either. If Something Goes Wrong There are four categories of trouble that can occur when building a custom kernel. They are: config fails If the config command fails when you give it your kernel description, you have probably made a simple error somewhere. Fortunately, config will print the line number that it had trouble with, so you can quickly skip to it with vi. For example, if you see: config: line 17: syntax error You can skip to the problem in vi by typing 17G in command mode. Make sure the keyword is typed correctly, by comparing it to the GENERIC kernel or another reference. make fails If the make command fails, it usually signals an error in your kernel description, but not severe enough for config to catch it. Again, look over your configuration, and if you still cannot resolve the problem, send mail to the &a.questions; with your kernel configuration, and it should be diagnosed very quickly. The kernel will not boot If your new kernel does not boot, or fails to recognize your devices, do not panic! Fortunately, BSD has an excellent mechanism for recovering from incompatible kernels. Simply choose the kernel you want to boot from at the FreeBSD boot loader (i.e., boot kernel.old). When reconfiguring a kernel, it is always a good idea to keep a kernel that is known to work on hand. After booting with a good kernel you can check over your configuration file and try to build it again. One helpful resource is the /var/log/messages file which records, among other things, all of the kernel messages from every successful boot. Also, the &man.dmesg.8; command will print the kernel messages from the current boot. If you are having trouble building a kernel, make sure to keep a GENERIC, or some other kernel that is known to work on hand as a different name that will not get erased on the next build. You cannot rely on kernel.old because when installing a new kernel, kernel.old is overwritten with the last installed kernel which may be non-functional. Also, as soon as possible, move the working kernel to the proper kernel location or commands such as &man.ps.1; will not work properly. The proper command to unlock the kernel file that make installs (in order to move another kernel back permanently) is: &prompt.root; chflags noschg /kernel And, if you want to lock your new kernel into place, or any file for that matter, so that it cannot be moved or tampered with: &prompt.root; chflags schg /kernel The kernel works, but ps does not work any more! If you have installed a different version of the kernel from the one that the system utilities have been built with, for example, a 4.X kernel on a 3.X system, many system-status commands like &man.ps.1; and &man.vmstat.8; will not work any more. You must recompile the libkvm library as well as these utilities. This is one reason it is not normally a good idea to use a different version of the kernel from the rest of the operating system. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml index d11569aa02..55eb5369e3 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml @@ -1,528 +1,528 @@ Electronic Mail Rewritten by &a.jim;, 02 December 1999. Original work done by &a.wlloyd;. Synopsis email electronic mail Electronic Mail, better known as email, is one of the most widely used forms of communication today. Millions of people use email every day, and chances are if you are reading this online, you fall into that category and probably even have more than one email address. Electronic Mail configuration is the subject of many System Administration books. If you plan on doing anything beyond setting up one mailhost for your network, you need industrial strength help. DNS Some parts of email configuration are controlled in the Domain Name System (DNS). If you are going to run your own DNS server, be sure to read through the files in /etc/namedb and man -k named. Using Electronic Mail POP IMAP There are five major parts involved in an email exchange. They are: the user program, the server daemon, DNS, a pop or IMAP daemon, and of course, the mailhost itself. The User Program This includes command line programs such as mutt, pine, elm, and mail, and GUI programs such as balsa, xfmail to name a few, and something more sophisticated like a WWW browser. These programs simply pass off the email transactions to the local mailhost, either by calling one of the server daemons available or delivering it over TCP. Mailhost Server Daemon - mail server daemon + mail server daemons sendmail - mail server daemon + mail server daemons postfix - mail server daemon + mail server daemons qmail - mail server daemon + mail server daemons exim This is usually sendmail (by default with FreeBSD) or one of the other mail server daemons such as qmail, postfix, or exim. There are others, but those are the most widely used. The server daemon usually has two functions—it looks after receiving incoming mail and delivers outgoing mail. It does not allow you to connect to it via POP or IMAP to read your mail. You need an additional daemon for that. Be aware that some older versions of sendmail have some serious security problems, however as long as you run a current version of it you should not have any problems. As always, it is a good idea to stay up-to-date with any software you run. Email and DNS The Domain Name System (DNS) and its daemon named play a large role in the delivery of email. In order to deliver mail from your site to another, the server daemon will look up the site in the DNS to determine the host that will receive mail for the destination. It works the same way when you have mail sent to you. The DNS contains the database mapping hostname to an IP address, and a hostname to mailhost. The IP address is specified in an A record. The MX (Mail eXchanger) record specifies the mailhost that will receive mail for you. If you do not have an MX record for your hostname, the mail will be delivered directly to your host. Receiving Mail email receiving Receiving mail for your domain is done by the mail host. It will collect mail sent to you and store it for reading or pickup. In order to pick the stored mail up, you will need to connect to the mail host. This is done by either using POP or IMAP. If you want to read mail directly on the mail host, then a POP or IMAP server is not needed. POP IMAP If you want to run a POP or IMAP server, there are two things you need to do: Get a POP or IMAP daemon from the ports collection and install it on your system. Modify /etc/inetd.conf to load the POP or IMAP server. The Mail Host mail host The mail host is the name given to a server that is responsible for delivering and receiving mail for your host, and possibly your network. Troubleshooting email troubleshooting Here are some frequently asked questions and answers. These have been migrated from the FAQ. Why do I have to use the FQDN for hosts on my site? You will probably find that the host is actually in a different domain; for example, if you are in foo.bar.edu and you wish to reach a host called mumble in the bar.edu domain, you will have to refer to it by the fully-qualified domain name, mumble.bar.edu, instead of just mumble. BIND Traditionally, this was allowed by BSD BIND resolvers. However the current version of BIND that ships with FreeBSD no longer provides default abbreviations for non-fully qualified domain names other than the domain you are in. So an unqualified host mumble must either be found as mumble.foo.bar.edu, or it will be searched for in the root domain. This is different from the previous behavior, where the search continued across mumble.bar.edu, and mumble.edu. Have a look at RFC 1535 for why this was considered bad practice, or even a security hole. As a good workaround, you can place the line: search foo.bar.edu bar.edu instead of the previous: domain foo.bar.edu into your /etc/resolv.conf. However, make sure that the search order does not go beyond the boundary between local and public administration, as RFC 1535 calls it. Sendmail says mail loops back to myself This is answered in the sendmail FAQ as follows: * I am getting Local configuration error messages, such as: 553 relay.domain.net config error: mail loops back to myself 554 <user@domain.net>... Local configuration error How can I solve this problem? You have asked mail to the domain (e.g., domain.net) to be forwarded to a specific host (in this case, relay.domain.net) by using an MX record, but the relay machine does not recognize itself as domain.net. Add domain.net to /etc/sendmail.cw (if you are using FEATURE(use_cw_file)) or add Cw domain.net to /etc/sendmail.cf. The sendmail FAQ is in /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail and is recommended reading if you want to do any tweaking of your mail setup. PPP How can I do email with a dial-up PPP host? You want to connect a FreeBSD box on a lan, to the Internet. The FreeBSD box will be a mail gateway for the lan. The PPP connection is non-dedicated. There are at least two ways to do this. UUCP The other is to use UUCP. The key is to get a Internet site to provide secondary MX service for your domain. For example: bigco.com. MX 10 bigco.com. MX 20 smalliap.com. Only one host should be specified as the final recipient (add Cw bigco.com in /etc/sendmail.cf on bigco.com). When the senders' sendmail is trying to deliver the mail it will try to connect to you over the modem link. It will most likely time out because you are not online. sendmail will automatically deliver it to the secondary MX site, i.e., your Internet provider. The secondary MX site will try every (sendmail_flags = -bd -q15m in /etc/rc.conf) 15 minutes to connect to your host to deliver the mail to the primary MX site. You might want to use something like this as a login script. #!/bin/sh # Put me in /usr/local/bin/pppbigco ( sleep 60 ; /usr/sbin/sendmail -q ) & /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pppbigco If you are going to create a separate login script for a user you could use sendmail -qRbigco.com instead in the script above. This will force all mail in your queue for bigco.com to be processed immediately. A further refinement of the situation is as follows. Message stolen from the &a.isp;. > we provide the secondary MX for a customer. The customer connects to > our services several times a day automatically to get the mails to > his primary MX (We do not call his site when a mail for his domains > arrived). Our sendmail sends the mailqueue every 30 minutes. At the > moment he has to stay 30 minutes online to be sure that all mail is > gone to the primary MX. > > Is there a command that would initiate sendmail to send all the mails > now? The user has not root-privileges on our machine of course. In the privacy flags section of sendmail.cf, there is a definition Opgoaway,restrictqrun Remove restrictqrun to allow non-root users to start the queue processing. You might also like to rearrange the MXs. We are the 1st MX for our customers like this, and we have defined: # If we are the best MX for a host, try directly instead of generating # local config error. OwTrue That way a remote site will deliver straight to you, without trying the customer connection. You then send to your customer. Only works for hosts, so you need to get your customer to name their mail machine customer.com as well as hostname.customer.com in the DNS. Just put an A record in the DNS for customer.com. Advanced Topics The following section covers more involved topics such as mail configuration and setting up mail for your entire domain. Basic Configuration email configuration Out of the box, you should be able to send email to external hosts as long as you have set up /etc/resolv.conf or are running your own name server. If you would like to have mail for your host delivered to that specific host, there are two methods: Run your own name server and have your own domain. For example, FreeBSD.org Get mail delivered directly to your host. This is done by delivering mail directly to the current DNS name for your machine. For example, example.FreeBSD.org. SMTP Regardless of which of the above you choose, in order to have mail delivered directly to your host, you must have a permanent (static) IP address (no dynamic PPP dial-up). If you are behind a firewall, it must pass SMTP traffic on to you. If you want to receive mail at your host itself, you need to be sure of one of two things: MX record Make sure that the MX record in your DNS points to your host's IP address. Make sure there is no MX entry in your DNS for your host. Either of the above will allow you to receive mail directly at your host. Try this: &prompt.root; hostname example.FreeBSD.org &prompt.root; host example.FreeBSD.org example.FreeBSD.org has address 204.216.27.XX If that is what you see, mail directly to yourlogin@example.FreeBSD.org should work without problems. If instead you see something like this: &prompt.root; host example.FreeBSD.org example.FreeBSD.org has address 204.216.27.XX example.FreeBSD.org mail is handled (pri=10) by hub.FreeBSD.org All mail sent to your host (example.FreeBSD.org) will end up being collected on hub under the same username instead of being sent directly to your host. The above information is handled by your DNS server. The DNS record that carries mail routing information is the Mail eXchange entry. If no MX record exists, mail will be delivered directly to the host by way of its IP address. The MX entry for freefall.FreeBSD.org at one time looked like this: freefall MX 30 mail.crl.net freefall MX 40 agora.rdrop.com freefall MX 10 freefall.FreeBSD.org freefall MX 20 who.cdrom.com As you can see, freefall had many MX entries. The lowest MX number is the host that ends up receiving the mail in the end while the others will queue mail temporarily if freefall is busy or down. Alternate MX sites should have separate Internet connections from your own in order to be the most useful. Your ISP or other friendly site should have no problem providing this service for you. Mail for your Domain In order to set up a mailhost (a.k.a., mail server) you need to have any mail sent to various workstations directed to it. Basically, you want to hijack any mail for your domain (in this case *.FreeBSD.org) and divert it to your mail server so your users can check their mail via POP or directly on the server. DNS To make life easiest, a user account with the same username should exist on both machines. Use adduser to do this. The mailhost you will be using must be the designated mail exchange for each workstation on the network. This is done in your DNS configuration like so: example.FreeBSD.org A 204.216.27.XX ; Workstation MX 10 hub.FreeBSD.org ; Mailhost This will redirect mail for the workstation to the mailhost no matter where the A record points. The mail is sent to the MX host. You cannot do this yourself unless you are running a DNS server. If you are not, or cannot, run your own DNS server, talk to your ISP or whoever does your DNS for you. If you're doing virtual email hosting, the following information will come in handy. For the sake of an example, we will assume you have a customer with their own domain, in this case customer1.org and you want all the mail for customer1.org sent to your mailhost, which is named mail.myhost.com. The entry in your DNS should look like this: customer1.org MX 10 mail.myhost.com You do not need an A record if you only want to handle email for the domain. Be aware that this means pinging customer1.org will not work unless an A record exists for it. The last thing that you must do is tell sendmail on your mailhost what domains and/or hostnames it should be accepting mail for. There are a few different ways this can be done. Either of the following will work: Add the hosts to your /etc/sendmail.cw file if you are using the FEATURE(use_cw_file). If you are using sendmail 8.10 or higher, the file is /etc/mail/local-host-names. Add a Cwyour.host.com line to your /etc/sendmail.cf or /etc/mail/sendmail.cf if you are using sendmail 8.10 or higher. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml index 153dcb6aa6..6984bf7997 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml @@ -1,2901 +1,2901 @@ PPP and SLIP Restructured, reorganized, and updated by &a.jim;, 1 March 2000. Synopsis PPP SLIP If you are connecting to the Internet via modem, or wish to provide dial-up connections to the Internet for others using FreeBSD, you have the option of using PPP or SLIP. PPP user PPP PPP kernel PPP PPP over Ethernet This chapter covers three varieties of PPP; user, kernel, and PPPoE (PPP over Ethernet). It also covers setting up a SLIP client and server. The first variety of PPP that will be covered is User PPP. User PPP was introduced into FreeBSD in 2.0.5-RELEASE as an addition to the already existing kernel implementation of PPP. You may be wondering what the main difference is between User PPP and kernel PPP. The answer is simple; user PPP does not run as a daemon, and can run as and when desired. No PPP interface needs to be compiled into their kernel; it runs as a user process, and uses the tunnel device driver (tun) to get data into and out of the kernel. From here on out in this chapter, user ppp will simply be referred to as ppp unless a distinction needs to be made between it and any other PPP software such as pppd. Unless otherwise stated, all of the commands explained in this section should be executed as root. Using User PPP Originally contributed by &a.brian;, with input from &a.nik;, &a.dirkvangulik;, and &a.pjc;. User PPP Assumptions This document assumes you have the following: ISP PPP An account with an Internet Service Provider (ISP) which you connect to using PPP. Further, you have a modem or other device connected to your system and configured correctly, which allows you to connect to your ISP. The dial-up number(s) of your ISP. PAP CHAP Unix login name password Your login name and password. This can be either a regular Unix-style login and password pair, or a PAP or CHAP login and password pair. - name server + nameserver The IP address(es) of one or more name servers. Normally, you will be given two IP addresses by your ISP to use for this. If they have not given you at least one, then you can use the enable dns command in your ppp.conf file to tell ppp to set the name servers for you. The following information may be supplied by your ISP, but is not completely necessary: The IP address of your ISP's gateway. The gateway is the machine to which you will connect and will be set up as your default route. If you do not have this information, we can make one up and your ISP's PPP server will tell us the correct value when we connect. This IP number is referred to as HISADDR by ppp. The netmask you should use. If your ISP has not provided you with one, you can safely use 255.255.255.0. static IP address If your ISP provides you with a static IP address and hostname, you can enter it. Otherwise, we simply let the peer assign whatever IP address it sees fit. If you do not have any of the required information, contact your ISP and make sure they provide it to you. Preparing the Kernel As previously mentioned, ppp uses the tun device, and whichever kernel you are using must have tun configured. The tun device is preconfigured for the default GENERIC kernel that ships with FreeBSD. However, if you have installed a custom kernel, you must make sure your kernel is configured for ppp. kernel - compilation + compiling To check, go to your kernel compile directory (/sys/i386/conf or /sys/pc98/conf) and examine your configuration file. It should have the following line somewhere in it: pseudo-device tun 1 If this line is not present, you will need to add it to the configuration file and recompile your kernel. The stock GENERIC kernel has this included, so if you have not installed a custom kernel or do not have a /sys directory, you do not have to change anything. If you do need to recompile your kernel, please refer to the kernel configuration section for more information. You can check how many tunnel devices your current kernel has by typing the following: &prompt.root; ifconfig -a tun0: flags=8051<UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 inet 200.10.100.1 --> 203.10.100.24 netmask 0xffffffff tun1: flags=8050<POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 576 tun2: flags=8051<UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 inet 203.10.100.1 --> 203.10.100.20 netmask 0xffffffff tun3: flags=8010<POINTOPOINT,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 In FreeBSD 4.0 and later releases, you will only see any tun devices which have already been used. This means you might not see any tun devices. If this is the case, do not worry; the device should be created dynamically when ppp attempts to use it. This case shows four tunnel devices, two of which are currently configured and being used. It should be noted that the RUNNING flag above indicates that the interface has been used at some point—it is not an error if your interface does not show up as RUNNING. If for some reason you have a kernel that does not have the tun device in it and cannot recompile the kernel, all is not lost. You should be able to dynamically load the code. Please refer to the appropriate &man.modload.8; and &man.lkm.4; man pages for further details. Check the <devicename>tun</devicename> device Under normal circumstances, most users will only require one tun device (/dev/tun0). If you have specified more than one on the pseudo-device line for tun in your kernel configuration file, then alter all references to tun0 below to reflect whichever device number you are using (e.g., tun2). The easiest way to make sure that the tun0 device is configured correctly, is to remake the device. This process is quite easy. To remake the device, do the following: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV tun0 If you need 16 tunnel devices in your kernel, you will need to create them. This can be done by executing the following commands: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV tun15 To confirm that the kernel is configured correctly, issue the follow command and compare the results: &prompt.root; ifconfig tun0 tun0: flags=8050<POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mut 1500 The RUNNING flag may not yet be set, in which case you will see: &prompt.root; ifconfig tun0 tun0: flags=8010<POINTOPOINT,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 Remember from earlier that you might not see the device if it has not been used yet, as tun devices are created on demand in FreeBSD 4.0 and later releases. Name Resolution Configuration resolver hostname hosts The resolver is the part of the system that turns IP addresses into hostnames and vice versa. It can be configured to look for maps that describe IP to hostname mappings in one of two places. The first is a file called /etc/hosts. Read &man.hosts.5; for more information. The second is the Internet Domain Name Service (DNS), a distributed data base, the discussion of which is beyond the scope of this document. The resolver is a set of system calls that do the name mappings, but you have to tell them where to find their information. You do this by first editing the file /etc/host.conf. Do not call this file /etc/hosts.conf (note the extra s) as the results can be confusing. Edit <filename>/etc/host.conf</filename> This file should contain the following two lines (in this order): hosts bind These instruct the resolver to first look in the file /etc/hosts, and then to consult the DNS if the name was not found. Edit <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> This file should contain the IP addresses and names of machines on your network. At a bare minimum it should contain entries for the machine which will be running ppp. Assuming that your machine is called foo.bar.com with the IP address 10.0.0.1, /etc/hosts should contain: 127.0.0.1 localhost.bar.com localhost 127.0.0.1 localhost.bar.com. 10.0.0.1 foo.bar.com foo 10.0.0.1 foo.bar.com. The first two lines define the alias localhost as a synonym for the current machine. Regardless of your own IP address, the IP address for this line should always be 127.0.0.1. The second two lines map the name foo.bar.com (and the shorthand foo) to the IP address 10.0.0.1. If your provider allocates you a static IP address and name, use them in place of the 10.0.0.1 entry. Edit <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> The /etc/resolv.conf file tells the resolver how to behave. If you are running your own DNS, you may leave this file empty. Normally, you will need to enter the following line(s): domain bar.com nameserver x.x.x.x nameserver y.y.y.y The x.x.x.x and y.y.y.y addresses are those given to you by your ISP. Add as many nameserver lines as your ISP provides. The domain line defaults to your hostname's domain, and is probably unnecessary. Refer to the &man.resolv.conf.5; manual page for details of other possible entries in this file. PPP ISP If you are running PPP version 2 or greater, the enable dns command will tell PPP to request that your ISP confirms the nameserver values. If your ISP supplies different addresses (or if there are no nameserver lines in /etc/resolv.conf), PPP will rewrite the file with the ISP-supplied values. <application>PPP</application> Configuration PPPconfiguration Both ppp and pppd (the kernel level implementation of PPP) use the configuration files located in the /usr/share/examples/ppp directory. The sample configuration files provided are a good reference, so do not delete them. Configuring ppp requires that you edit a number of files, depending on your requirements. What you put in them depends to some extent on whether your ISP allocates IP addresses statically (i.e., you get given one IP address, and always use that one) or dynamically (i.e., your IP address changes each time you connect to your ISP). PPP and Static IP Addresses PPPwith static IP addresses You will need to create a configuration file called /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. It should look similar to the example below. Lines that end in a : start in the first column, all other lines should be indented as shown using spaces or tabs. 1 default: 2 set device /dev/cuaa0 3 set speed 115200 4 set dial "ABORT BUSY ABORT NO\\sCARRIER TIMEOUT 5 \"\" ATE1Q0 OK-AT-OK \\dATDT\\TTIMEOUT 40 CONNECT" 5 provider: 6 set phone "(123) 456 7890" 7 set login "TIMEOUT 10 \"\" \"\" gin:--gin: foo word: bar col: ppp" 8 set timeout 300 9 set ifaddr x.x.x.x y.y.y.y 255.255.255.0 0.0.0.0 10 add default HISADDR 11 enable dns Do not include the line numbers, they are just for reference in this discussion. Line 1: Identifies the default entry. Commands in this entry are executed automatically when ppp is run. Line 2: Identifies the device to which the modem is connected. COM1 is /dev/cuaa0 and COM2 is /dev/cuaa1. Line 3: Sets the speed you want to connect at. If 115200 does not work (it should with any reasonably new modem), try 38400 instead. Line 4: PPPuser PPP The dial string. User PPP uses an expect-send syntax similar to the &man.chat.8; program. Refer to the manual page for information on the features of this language. Line 5: Identifies an entry for a provider called provider. Line 6: Sets the phone number for this provider. Multiple phone numbers may be specified using the colon (:) or pipe character (|)as a separator. The difference between the two separators is described in &man.ppp.8;. To summarize, if you want to rotate through the numbers, use a colon. If you want to always attempt to dial the first number first and only use the other numbers if the first number fails, use the pipe character. Always quote the entire set of phone numbers as shown. Line 7: The login string is of the same chat-like syntax as the dial string. In this example, the string works for a service whose login session looks like this: J. Random Provider login: foo password: bar protocol: ppp You will need to alter this script to suit your own needs. When you write this script for the first time, you should enable chat logging to ensure that the conversation is going as expected. PAP CHAP If you are using PAP or CHAP, there will be no login at this point, so your login string can be left blank. See PAP and CHAP authentication for further details. Line 8: timeout Sets the default timeout (in seconds) for the connection. Here, the connection will be closed automatically after 300 seconds of inactivity. If you never want to timeout, set this value to zero. Line 9: ISP Sets the interface addresses. The string x.x.x.x should be replaced by the IP address that your provider has allocated to you. The string y.y.y.y should be replaced by the IP address that your ISP indicated for their gateway (the machine to which you connect). If your ISP hasn't given you a gateway address, use 10.0.0.2/0. If you need to use a guessed address, make sure that you create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup as per the instructions for PPP and Dynamic IP addresses. If this line is omitted, ppp cannot run in or mode. Line 10: Adds a default route to your ISP's gateway. The special word HISADDR is replaced with the gateway address specified on line 9. It is important that this line appears after line 9, otherwise HISADDR will not yet be initialized. Line 11: nameserver This line tells PPP to ask your ISP to confirm that your nameserver addresses are correct. If your ISP supports this facility, PPP can then update /etc/resolv.conf with the correct nameserver entries. It is not necessary to add an entry to ppp.linkup when you have a static IP address as your routing table entries are already correct before you connect. You may however wish to create an entry to invoke programs after connection. This is explained later with the sendmail example. Example configuration files can be found in the /usr/share/examples/ppp directory. PPP and Dynamic IP Addresses PPPwith dynamic IP addresses IPCP If your service provider does not assign static IP addresses, ppp can be configured to negotiate the local and remote addresses. This is done by guessing an IP address and allowing ppp to set it up correctly using the IP Configuration Protocol (IPCP) after connecting. The ppp.conf configuration is the same as PPP and Static IP Addresses, with the following change: 9 set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0 255.255.255.0 Again, do not include the line numbers, they are just for reference. Indentation of at least one space is required. Line 9: The number after the / character is the number of bits of the address that ppp will insist on. You may wish to use IP numbers more appropriate to your circumstances, but the above example will always work. The last argument (0.0.0.0) tells PPP to negotiate using address 0.0.0.0 rather than 10.0.0.1. Do not use 0.0.0.0 as the first argument to set ifaddr as it prevents PPP from setting up an initial route in mode. If you are running version 1.x of PPP, you will also need to create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. ppp.linkup is used after a connection has been established. At this point, ppp will know what IP addresses should really be used. The following entry will delete the existing bogus routes, and create correct ones: 1 provider: 2 delete ALL 3 add 0 0 HISADDR Line 1: On establishing a connection, ppp will look for an entry in ppp.linkup according to the following rules: First, try to match the same label as we used in ppp.conf. If that fails, look for an entry for the IP address of our gateway. This entry is a four-octet IP style label. If we still have not found an entry, look for the MYADDR entry. Line 2: This line tells ppp to delete all of the existing routes for the acquired tun interface (except the direct route entry). Line 3: This line tells ppp to add a default route that points to HISADDR. HISADDR will be replaced with the IP number of the gateway as negotiated in the IPCP. See the pmdemand entry in the files /usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.conf.sample and /usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.linkup.sample for a detailed example. Version 2 of PPP introduces sticky routes. Any add or delete lines that contain MYADDR or HISADDR will be remembered, and any time the actual values of MYADDR or HISADDR change, the routes will be reapplied. This removes the necessity of repeating these lines in ppp.linkup. Receiving Incoming Calls PPPreceiving incoming calls When you configure ppp to receive incoming calls on a machine connected to a LAN, you must decide if you wish to forward packets to the LAN. If you do, you should allocate the peer an IP number from your LAN's subnet, and use the command enable proxy in your /etc/ppp/ppp.conf file. You should also confirm that the /etc/rc.conf file contains the following: gateway="YES" Which getty? Configuring FreeBSD for Dial-up Services provides a good description on enabling dial-up services using &man.getty.8;. An alternative to getty is mgetty, a smarter version of getty designed with dial-up lines in mind. The advantages of using mgetty is that it actively talks to modems, meaning if port is turned off in /etc/ttys then your modem will not answer the phone. Later versions of mgetty (from 0.99beta onwards) also support the automatic detection of PPP streams, allowing your clients script-less access to your server. Refer to Mgetty and AutoPPP for more information on mgetty. <application>PPP</application> Permissions The ppp command must normally be run as user id 0. If however, you wish to allow ppp to run in server mode as a normal user by executing ppp as described below, that user must be given permission to run ppp by adding them to the network group in /etc/group. You will also need to give them access to one or more sections of the configuration file using the allow command: allow users fred mary If this command is used in the default section, it gives the specified users access to everything. PPP Shells for Dynamic-IP Users PPP shells Create a file called /etc/ppp/ppp-shell containing the following: #!/bin/sh IDENT=`echo $0 | sed -e 's/^.*-\(.*\)$/\1/'` CALLEDAS="$IDENT" TTY=`tty` if [ x$IDENT = xdialup ]; then IDENT=`basename $TTY` fi echo "PPP for $CALLEDAS on $TTY" echo "Starting PPP for $IDENT" exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct $IDENT This script should be executable. Now make a symbolic link called ppp-dialup to this script using the following commands: &prompt.root; ln -s ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-dialup You should use this script as the shell for all of your dialup users. This is an example from /etc/password for a dialup PPP user with username pchilds (remember don't directly edit the password file, use vipw). pchilds:*:1011:300:Peter Childs PPP:/home/ppp:/etc/ppp/ppp-dialup Create a /home/ppp directory that is world readable containing the following 0 byte files: -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27 02:23 .hushlogin -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27 02:22 .rhosts which prevents /etc/motd from being displayed. PPP shells for Static-IP Users PPP shells Create the ppp-shell file as above and for each account with statically assigned IPs create a symbolic link to ppp-shell. For example, if you have three dialup customers fred, sam, and mary, that you route class C networks for, you would type the following: &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-fred &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-sam &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-mary Each of these users dialup accounts should have their shell set to the symbolic link created above (i.e., mary's shell should be /etc/ppp/ppp-mary). Setting up ppp.conf for dynamic-IP users The /etc/ppp/ppp.conf file should contain something along the lines of: default: set debug phase lcp chat set timeout 0 ttyd0: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20 255.255.255.255 enable proxy ttyd1: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.21 255.255.255.255 enable proxy The indenting is important. The default: section is loaded for each session. For each dialup line enabled in /etc/ttys create an entry similar to the one for ttyd0: above. Each line should get a unique IP address from your pool of IP addresses for dynamic users. Setting up <filename>ppp.conf</filename> for static-IP users Along with the contents of the sample /usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.conf above you should add a section for each of the statically assigned dialup users. We will continue with our fred, sam, and mary example. fred: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.101.1 255.255.255.255 sam: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.102.1 255.255.255.255 mary: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.103.1 255.255.255.255 The file /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup should also contain routing information for each static IP user if required. The line below would add a route for the 203.14.101.0 class C via the client's ppp link. fred: add 203.14.101.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR sam: add 203.14.102.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR mary: add 203.14.103.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR More on <command>mgetty</command>, AutoPPP, and MS extensions <command>mgetty</command> and AutoPPP mgetty AutoPPP LCP Configuring and compiling mgetty with the AUTO_PPP option enabled allows mgetty to detect the LCP phase of PPP connections and automatically spawn off a ppp shell. However, since the default login/password sequence does not occur it is necessary to authenticate users using either PAP or CHAP. This section assumes the user has successfully configured, compiled, and installed a version of mgetty with the AUTO_PPP option (v0.99beta or later). Make sure your /usr/local/etc/mgetty+sendfax/login.config file has the following in it: /AutoPPP/ - - /etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup This will tell mgetty to run the ppp-pap-dialup script for detected PPP connections. Create a file called /etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup containing the following (the file should be executable): #!/bin/sh exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pap$IDENT For each dialup line enabled in /etc/ttys, create a corresponding entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. This will happily co-exist with the definitions we created above. pap: enable pap set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20-203.14.100.40 enable proxy Each user logging in with this method will need to have a username/password in /etc/ppp/ppp.secret file, or alternatively add the following option to authenticate users via PAP from /etc/password file. enable passwdauth If you wish to assign some users a static IP number, you can specify the number as the third argument in /etc/ppp/ppp.secret. See /usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.secret.sample for examples. MS extensions DNS NetBIOS PPPMicrosoft extensions It is possible to configure PPP to supply DNS and NetBIOS nameserver addresses on demand. To enable these extensions with PPP version 1.x, the following lines might be added to the relevant section of /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. enable msext set ns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2 set nbns 203.14.100.5 And for PPP version 2 and above: accept dns set dns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2 set nbns 203.14.100.5 This will tell the clients the primary and secondary name server addresses, and a netbios nameserver host. In version 2 and above, if the set dns line is omitted, PPP will use the values found in /etc/resolv.conf. PAP and CHAP authentication PAP CHAP Some ISPs set their system up so that the authentication part of your connection is done using either of the PAP or CHAP authentication mechanisms. If this is the case, your ISP will not give a login: prompt when you connect, but will start talking PPP immediately. PAP is less secure than CHAP, but security is not normally an issue here as passwords, although being sent as plain text with PAP, are being transmitted down a serial line only. There's not much room for crackers to eavesdrop. Referring back to the PPP and Static IP addresses or PPP and Dynamic IP addresses sections, the following alterations must be made: 7 set login … 12 set authname MyUserName 13 set authkey MyPassword As always, do not include the line numbers, they are just for reference in this discussion. Indentation of at least one space is required. Line 7: Your ISP will not normally require that you log into the server if you're using PAP or CHAP. You must therefore disable your set login string. Line 12: This line specifies your PAP/CHAP user name. You will need to insert the correct value for MyUserName. Line 13: password This line specifies your PAP/CHAP password. You will need to insert the correct value for MyPassword. You may want to add an additional line, such as: 15 accept PAP or 15 accept CHAP to make it obvious that this is the intention, but PAP and CHAP are both accepted by default. Changing your <command>ppp</command> configuration on the fly It is possible to talk to the ppp program while it is running in the background, but only if a suitable diagnostic port has been set up. To do this, add the following line to your configuration: set server /var/run/ppp-tun%d DiagnosticPassword 0177 This will tell PPP to listen to the specified unix-domain socket, asking clients for the specified password before allowing access. The %d in the name is replaced with the tun device number that is in use. Once a socket has been set up, the &man.pppctl.8; program may be used in scripts that wish to manipulate the running program. Final system configuration PPPconfiguration You now have ppp configured, but there are a few more things to do before it is ready to work. They all involve editing the /etc/rc.conf file. Working from the top down in this file, make sure the hostname= line is set, e.g.: hostname="foo.bar.com" If your ISP has supplied you with a static IP address and name, it's probably best that you use this name as your host name. Look for the network_interfaces variable. If you want to configure your system to dial your ISP on demand, make sure the tun0 device is added to the list, otherwise remove it. network_interfaces="lo0 tun0" ifconfig_tun0= The ifconfig_tun0 variable should be empty, and a file called /etc/start_if.tun0 should be created. This file should contain the line: ppp -auto mysystem This script is executed at network configuration time, starting your ppp daemon in automatic mode. If you have a LAN for which this machine is a gateway, you may also wish to use the switch. Refer to the manual page for further details. Set the router program to NO with following line in your /etc/rc.conf: router_enable="NO" routed It is important that the routed daemon is not started (it is started by default), as it routed tends to delete the default routing table entries created by ppp. It is probably worth your while ensuring that the sendmail_flags line does not include the option, otherwise sendmail will attempt to do a network lookup every now and then, possibly causing your machine to dial out. You may try: sendmail_flags="-bd" sendmail The downside of this is that you must force sendmail to re-examine the mail queue whenever the ppp link is up by typing: &prompt.root; /usr/sbin/sendmail -q You may wish to use the !bg command in ppp.linkup to do this automatically: 1 provider: 2 delete ALL 3 add 0 0 HISADDR 4 !bg sendmail -bd -q30m SMTP If you don't like this, it is possible to set up a dfilter to block SMTP traffic. Refer to the sample files for further details. Now the only thing left to do is reboot the machine. All that is left is to reboot the machine. After rebooting, you can now either type: &prompt.root; ppp and then dial provider to start the PPP session, or, if you want ppp to establish sessions automatically when there is outbound traffic (and you have not created the start_if.tun0 script), type: &prompt.root; ppp -auto provider Summary To recap, the following steps are necessary when setting up ppp for the first time: Client side: Ensure that the tun device is built into your kernel. Ensure that the tunX device file is available in the /dev directory. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The pmdemand example should suffice for most ISPs. If you have a dynamic IP address, create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. Update your /etc/rc.conf file. Create a start_if.tun0 script if you require demand dialing. Server side: Ensure that the tun device is built into your kernel. Ensure that the tunX device file is available in the /dev directory. Create an entry in /etc/passwd (using the &man.vipw.8; program). Create a profile in this users home directory that runs ppp -direct direct-server or similar. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The direct-server example should suffice. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. Update your /etc/rc.conf file. Using Kernel PPP Parts originally contributed by &a.gena; and &a.rhuff;. Setting up Kernel PPP PPPkernel PPP Before you start setting up PPP on your machine make sure that pppd is located in /usr/sbin and the directory /etc/ppp exists. pppd can work in two modes: As a client, i.e., you want to connect your machine to the outside world via a PPP serial connection or modem line. PPPserver as a server, i.e. your machine is located on the network and used to connect other computers using PPP. In both cases you will need to set up an options file (/etc/ppp/options or ~/.ppprc if you have more than one user on your machine that uses PPP). You also will need some modem/serial software (preferably kermit) so you can dial and establish a connection with the remote host. Using <command>pppd</command> as a client PPPclient Cisco The following /etc/ppp/options might be used to connect to a CISCO terminal server PPP line. crtscts # enable hardware flow control modem # modem control line noipdefault # remote PPP server must supply your IP address. # if the remote host doesn't send your IP during IPCP # negotiation , remove this option passive # wait for LCP packets domain ppp.foo.com # put your domain name here :<remote_ip> # put the IP of remote PPP host here # it will be used to route packets via PPP link # if you didn't specified the noipdefault option # change this line to <local_ip>:<remote_ip> defaultroute # put this if you want that PPP server will be your # default router To connect: kermit modem Dial to the remote host using kermit (or some other modem program), and enter your user name and password (or whatever is needed to enable PPP on the remote host). Exit kermit (without hanging up the line). Enter the following: &prompt.root; /usr/src/usr.sbin/pppd.new/pppd /dev/tty01 19200 Be sure to use the appropriate speed and device name. Now your computer is connected with PPP. If the connection fails, you can add the option to the /etc/ppp/options file and check messages on the console to track the problem. Following /etc/ppp/pppup script will make all 3 stages automatically: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.dial pppd /dev/tty01 19200 kermit /etc/ppp/kermit.dial is a kermit script that dials and makes all necessary authorization on the remote host (an example of such a script is attached to the end of this document). Use the following /etc/ppp/pppdown script to disconnect the PPP line: #!/bin/sh pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill -TERM ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi /sbin/ifconfig ppp0 down /sbin/ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.hup /etc/ppp/ppptest Check to see if PPP is still running by executing /usr/etc/ppp/ppptest, which should look like this: #!/bin/sh pid=`ps ax| grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then echo 'pppd running: PID=' ${pid-NONE} else echo 'No pppd running.' fi set -x netstat -n -I ppp0 ifconfig ppp0 To hang up the modem, execute /etc/ppp/kermit.hup, which should contain: set line /dev/tty01 ; put your modem device here set speed 19200 set file type binary set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none pau 1 out +++ inp 5 OK out ATH0\13 echo \13 exit Here is an alternate method using chat instead of kermit. The following two files are sufficient to accomplish a pppd connection. /etc/ppp/options: /dev/cuaa1 115200 crtscts # enable hardware flow control modem # modem control line connect "/usr/bin/chat -f /etc/ppp/login.chat.script" noipdefault # remote PPP serve must supply your IP address. # if the remote host doesn't send your IP during # IPCP negotiation, remove this option passive # wait for LCP packets domain <your.domain> # put your domain name here : # put the IP of remote PPP host here # it will be used to route packets via PPP link # if you didn't specified the noipdefault option # change this line to <local_ip>:<remote_ip> defaultroute # put this if you want that PPP server will be # your default router /etc/ppp/login.chat.script: The following should go on a single line. ABORT BUSY ABORT 'NO CARRIER' "" AT OK ATDT<phone.number> CONNECT "" TIMEOUT 10 ogin:-\\r-ogin: <login-id> TIMEOUT 5 sword: <password> Once these are installed and modified correctly, all you need to do is run pppd, like so: &prompt.root; pppd This sample is based primarily on information provided by: Trev Roydhouse <Trev.Roydhouse@f401.n711.z3.fidonet.org> and used with permission. Using <command>pppd</command> as a server /etc/ppp/options should contain something similar to the following: crtscts # Hardware flow control netmask 255.255.255.0 # netmask ( not required ) 192.114.208.20:192.114.208.165 # ip's of local and remote hosts # local ip must be different from one # you assigned to the ethernet ( or other ) # interface on your machine. # remote IP is ip address that will be # assigned to the remote machine domain ppp.foo.com # your domain passive # wait for LCP modem # modem line The following /etc/ppp/pppserv script will enable tell pppd to behave as a server: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi # reset ppp interface ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete # enable autoanswer mode kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.ans # run ppp pppd /dev/tty01 19200 Use this /etc/ppp/pppservdown script to stop the server: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.noans The following kermit script (/etc/ppp/kermit.ans) will enable/disable autoanswer mode on your modem. It should look like this: set line /dev/tty01 set speed 19200 set file type binary set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none pau 1 out +++ inp 5 OK out ATH0\13 inp 5 OK echo \13 out ATS0=1\13 ; change this to out ATS0=0\13 if you want to disable ; autoanswer mod inp 5 OK echo \13 exit A script named /etc/ppp/kermit.dial is used for dialing and authenticating on the remote host. You will need to customize it for your needs. Put your login and password in this script; you will also need to change the input statement depending on responses from your modem and remote host. ; ; put the com line attached to the modem here: ; set line /dev/tty01 ; ; put the modem speed here: ; set speed 19200 set file type binary ; full 8 bit file xfer set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none set modem hayes set dial hangup off set carrier auto ; Then SET CARRIER if necessary, set dial display on ; Then SET DIAL if necessary, set input echo on set input timeout proceed set input case ignore def \%x 0 ; login prompt counter goto slhup :slcmd ; put the modem in command mode echo Put the modem in command mode. clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer pause 1 output +++ ; hayes escape sequence input 1 OK\13\10 ; wait for OK if success goto slhup output \13 pause 1 output at\13 input 1 OK\13\10 if fail goto slcmd ; if modem doesn't answer OK, try again :slhup ; hang up the phone clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer pause 1 echo Hanging up the phone. output ath0\13 ; hayes command for on hook input 2 OK\13\10 if fail goto slcmd ; if no OK answer, put modem in command mode :sldial ; dial the number pause 1 echo Dialing. output atdt9,550311\13\10 ; put phone number here assign \%x 0 ; zero the time counter :look clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer increment \%x ; Count the seconds input 1 {CONNECT } if success goto sllogin reinput 1 {NO CARRIER\13\10} if success goto sldial reinput 1 {NO DIALTONE\13\10} if success goto slnodial reinput 1 {\255} if success goto slhup reinput 1 {\127} if success goto slhup if < \%x 60 goto look else goto slhup :sllogin ; login assign \%x 0 ; zero the time counter pause 1 echo Looking for login prompt. :slloop increment \%x ; Count the seconds clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer output \13 ; ; put your expected login prompt here: ; input 1 {Username: } if success goto sluid reinput 1 {\255} if success goto slhup reinput 1 {\127} if success goto slhup if < \%x 10 goto slloop ; try 10 times to get a login prompt else goto slhup ; hang up and start again if 10 failures :sluid ; ; put your userid here: ; output ppp-login\13 input 1 {Password: } ; ; put your password here: ; output ppp-password\13 input 1 {Entering SLIP mode.} echo quit :slnodial echo \7No dialtone. Check the telephone line!\7 exit 1 ; local variables: ; mode: csh ; comment-start: "; " ; comment-start-skip: "; " ; end: Using <application>PPP</application> over Ethernet (PPPoE) PPPover Ethernet PPPoE PPP, over Ethernet Contributed by &a.jim; (from node.to) 10 Jan 2000. The following describes how to set up PPP over Ethernet, a.k.a, PPPoE. Prerequisites There are a few requirements that your system will need to meet in order for PPPoE to function properly. They are: Kernel source for FreeBSD 3.4 or later ppp from FreeBSD 3.4 or later Kernel Configuration kernelconfiguration You will need to set the following options in your kernel configuration file and then compile a new kernel. Optionally, you can add although if this functionality is not available at runtime, ppp will load the relevant modules on demand Setting up <filename>ppp.conf</filename> Here is an example of a working ppp.conf: default: # or name_of_service_provider set device PPPoE:xl1 # replace xl1 with your ethernet device set mru 1492 set mtu 1492 set authname YOURLOGINNAME set authkey YOURPASSWORD set log Phase tun command # you can add more detailed logging if you wish set dial set login set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0 add default HISADDR nat enable yes # if you want to enable nat for your local net papchap: set authname YOURLOGINNAME set authkey YOURPASSWORD Care should be taken when running PPPoE with the option. Running <application>PPP</application> As root, you can run: &prompt.root; ppp -ddial name_of_service_provider Starting <application>PPP</application> at Boot Add the following to your /etc/rc.conf file: ppp_enable="YES" ppp_mode="ddial" ppp_nat="YES" ppp_profile="default" # or your provider PPPoE with a 3Com HomeConnect ADSL Modem Dual Link Contributed by &a.lioux;, 07 Apr 2001. In short, it does not work. It should, but unfortunately, that is not the case. For whatever reason, this modem does not follow RFC 2516 (A Method for transmitting PPP over Ethernet (PPPoE), written by L. Mamakos, K. Lidl, J. Evarts, D. Carrel, D. Simone, and R. Wheeler). Since it does not follow the specification, FreeBSD's PPPoE implementation will not talk to it. It is very likely that it will not work under other Unix systems for that same reason. Complain to 3Com if you think it should comply with the PPPoE specification. ADSL If you absolutely want to use your ADSL connection with FreeBSD and are stuck with this modem, you can either: DSL Try replacing the modem with a different brand or model if your DSL provider permits you to do so. If you are not sure which brand(s) will work, the &a.questions; is a good place to ask. Try to get it working. Keep in mind that there is no guarantee it will work, your mileage may vary. If you want to try to make it work, you can do the following, but please keep in mind that you do this at your own risk! Just because it worked for me does not mean it will work for you. There are three steps to the process. They are: Make sure you already have ppp.conf set up. See the beginning of this chapter for more details on doing so. Since the modem does not speak the correct protocol, we need to learn how to speak its variant of the protocol. This information was obtained from a DSLreports forum message. The modem speaks 0x3c12 for DISCOVERY, and 0x3c13 for PAYLOAD identifiers instead of 0x8863 and 0x8864 respectively, as mandated by the PPPoE specification. Code RFC's Code Dual Link Modem's Code PAYLOAD 0x8863 0x3c12 PAYLOAD 0x8864 0x3c13 So, now what? You need to recompile the NETGRAPH_PPPOE code with the modem's codes. For this, you should have installed the full kernel sources. Find the /usr/src/sys/netgraph/ng_pppoe.h file. Be careful while editing this file. You have to modify both the little and the big endian entries. For big endian, find the line with 0x8863 in it, and replace the number with 0x3c12. Do the same with 0x8864, replacing it with 0x3c13. For little endian, find the line with 0x6388in it, and replace the number with 0x123c. Do the same with 0x6488, replacing it with 0x133c. Here is a diff of how the new file should look: &prompt.user; diff -u ng_pppoe.h.orig ng_pppoe.h --- ng_pppoe.h.orig Thu Apr 12 13:42:46 2001 +++ ng_pppoe.h Thu Apr 12 13:44:47 2001 @@ -148,8 +148,8 @@ #define PTT_SYS_ERR (0x0202) #define PTT_GEN_ERR (0x0203) -#define ETHERTYPE_PPPOE_DISC 0x8863 /* pppoe discovery packets */ -#define ETHERTYPE_PPPOE_SESS 0x8864 /* pppoe session packets */ +#define ETHERTYPE_PPPOE_DISC 0x3c12 /* pppoe discovery packets */ +#define ETHERTYPE_PPPOE_SESS 0x3c13 /* pppoe session packets */ #else #define PTT_EOL (0x0000) #define PTT_SRV_NAME (0x0101) @@ -162,8 +162,8 @@ #define PTT_SYS_ERR (0x0202) #define PTT_GEN_ERR (0x0302) -#define ETHERTYPE_PPPOE_DISC 0x6388 /* pppoe discovery packets */ -#define ETHERTYPE_PPPOE_SESS 0x6488 /* pppoe session packets */ +#define ETHERTYPE_PPPOE_DISC 0x123c /* pppoe discovery packets */ +#define ETHERTYPE_PPPOE_SESS 0x133c /* pppoe session packets */ #endif struct pppoe_tag { Then do the following as root: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/sys/modules/netgraph/pppoe &prompt.root; make clean depend all install &prompt.root; make clean Now you can speak the modem's variant of the PPPoE specification. The third step is to figure out the name of the profile your ISP assigned to the modem. The information for this step was obtained from the Roaring Penguin PPPoE program which can be found in the ports collection. If you still are not able to find it, ask your ISP's tech support. If they do not know it either, and you are feeling bold (this may de-program your modem and render it useless, so think twice about doing it). Install the program shipped with the modem by your provider. Then, access the System menu from the program. The name of your profile should be listed there. It is usually ISP. The profile name will be used in the PPPoE configuration inside ppp.conf as the provider parameter. See the &man.ppp.8; manual page for more information. The PPPoE line in your ppp.conf should look like this: set device PPPoE:xl1:ISP Do not forget to change xl1 to the proper device for your Ethernet card. Do not forget to change ISP to the profile you have just found above. For additional information, you can try: Cheaper Broadband with FreeBSD on DSL by Renaud Waldura in Daemon News. Another PPPoE tutorial by Sympatico Users Group. Using SLIP SLIP Originally contributed by &a.asami; and &a.ghelmer;, with input from &a.wilko; and &a.piero;. Setting up a SLIP Client SLIPclient The following is one way to set up a FreeBSD machine for SLIP on a static host network. For dynamic hostname assignments (i.e., your address changes each time you dial up), you probably need to do something much fancier. First, determine which serial port your modem is connected to. I have a symbolic link to /dev/modem from /dev/cuaa1, and only use the modem name in my configuration files. It can become quite cumbersome when you need to fix a bunch of files in /etc and .kermrc's all over the system! /dev/cuaa0 is COM1, cuaa1 is COM2, etc. Make sure you have the following in your kernel configuration file: pseudo-device sl 1 It is included in the GENERIC kernel, so this should not be a problem unless you have deleted it. Things you have to do only once Add your home machine, the gateway and nameservers to your /etc/hosts file. Mine looks like this: 127.0.0.1 localhost loghost 136.152.64.181 silvia.HIP.Berkeley.EDU silvia.HIP silvia 136.152.64.1 inr-3.Berkeley.EDU inr-3 slip-gateway 128.32.136.9 ns1.Berkeley.edu ns1 128.32.136.12 ns2.Berkeley.edu ns2 Make sure you have before in your /etc/host.conf. Otherwise, funny things may happen. Edit the /etc/rc.conf file. Set your hostname by editing the line that says: hostname=myname.my.domain You should give it your full Internet hostname. Add sl0 to the list of network interfaces by changing the line that says: network_interfaces="lo0" to: network_interfaces=lo0 sl0 Set the startup flags of sl0 by adding a line: ifconfig_sl0="inet ${hostname} slip-gateway netmask 0xffffff00 up" - default router + default route Designate the default router by changing the line: defaultrouter=NO to: defaultrouter=slip-gateway Make a file /etc/resolv.conf which contains: domain HIP.Berkeley.EDU nameserver 128.32.136.9 nameserver 128.32.136.12 - name server + nameserver domain name As you can see, these set up the nameserver hosts. Of course, the actual domain names and addresses depend on your environment. Set the password for root and toor (and any other accounts that do not have a password). Use passwd or &man.vipw.8;, do not edit the /etc/passwd or /etc/master.passwd files! Reboot your machine and make sure it comes up with the correct hostname. Making a SLIP connection SLIPconnecting with Dial up, type slip at the prompt, enter your machine name and password. The things you need to enter depends on your environment. If you use kermit, you can try a script like this: # kermit setup set modem hayes set line /dev/modem set speed 115200 set parity none set flow rts/cts set terminal bytesize 8 set file type binary # The next macro will dial up and login define slip dial 643-9600, input 10 =>, if failure stop, - output slip\x0d, input 10 Username:, if failure stop, - output silvia\x0d, input 10 Password:, if failure stop, - output ***\x0d, echo \x0aCONNECTED\x0a Of course, you have to change the hostname and password to fit yours. After doing so, you can just type slip from the kermit prompt to get connected. Leaving your password in plain text anywhere in the filesystem is generally a BAD idea. Do it at your own risk. Leave the kermit there (you can suspend it by z) and as root, type: &prompt.root; slattach -h -c -s 115200 /dev/modem If you are able to ping hosts on the other side of the router, you are connected! If it does not work, you might want to try instead of as an argument to slattach. How to shutdown the connection Do the following: &prompt.root; kill -INT `cat /var/run/slattach.modem.pid` to kill slattach. Keep in mind you must be root to do the above. Then go back to kermit (fg if you suspended it) and exit from it (q). The slattach man page says you have to use ifconfig sl0 down to mark the interface down, but this does not seem to make any difference for me. (ifconfig sl0 reports the same thing.) Some times, your modem might refuse to drop the carrier (mine often does). In that case, simply start kermit and quit it again. It usually goes out on the second try. Troubleshooting If it does not work, feel free to ask me. The things that people tripped over so far: Not using or in slattach (I have no idea why this can be fatal, but adding this flag solved the problem for at least one person). Using instead of (might be hard to see the difference on some fonts). Try ifconfig sl0 to see your interface status. For example, you might get: &prompt.root; ifconfig sl0 sl0: flags=10<POINTOPOINT> inet 136.152.64.181 --> 136.152.64.1 netmask ffffff00 Also, netstat -r will give the routing table, in case you get the no route to host messages from ping. Mine looks like: &prompt.root; netstat -r Routing tables Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use IfaceMTU Rtt Netmasks: (root node) (root node) Route Tree for Protocol Family inet: (root node) => default inr-3.Berkeley.EDU UG 8 224515 sl0 - - localhost.Berkel localhost.Berkeley UH 5 42127 lo0 - 0.438 inr-3.Berkeley.E silvia.HIP.Berkele UH 1 0 sl0 - - silvia.HIP.Berke localhost.Berkeley UGH 34 47641234 lo0 - 0.438 (root node) This is after transferring a bunch of files, your numbers should be smaller). Setting up a SLIP Server SLIPserver This document provides suggestions for setting up SLIP Server services on a FreeBSD system, which typically means configuring your system to automatically startup connections upon login for remote SLIP clients. The author has written this document based on his experience; however, as your system and needs may be different, this document may not answer all of your questions, and the author cannot be responsible if you damage your system or lose data due to attempting to follow the suggestions here. Prerequisites - TCP/IP + TCP/IP networking This document is very technical in nature, so background knowledge is required. It is assumed that you are familiar with the TCP/IP network protocol, and in particular, network and node addressing, network address masks, subnetting, routing, and routing protocols, such as RIP. Configuring SLIP services on a dial-up server requires a knowledge of these concepts, and if you are not familiar with them, please read a copy of either Craig Hunt's TCP/IP Network Administration published by O'Reilly & Associates, Inc. (ISBN Number 0-937175-82-X), or Douglas Comer's books on the TCP/IP protocol. modem It is further assumed that you have already setup your modem(s) and configured the appropriate system files to allow logins through your modems. If you have not prepared your system for this yet, please see the tutorial for configuring dialup services; if you have a World-Wide Web browser available, browse the list of tutorials at http://www.FreeBSD.org/. You may also want to check the manual pages for &man.sio.4; for information on the serial port device driver and &man.ttys.5;, &man.gettytab.5;, &man.getty.8;, & &man.init.8; for information relevant to configuring the system to accept logins on modems, and perhaps &man.stty.1; for information on setting serial port parameters (such as clocal for directly-connected serial interfaces). Quick Overview In its typical configuration, using FreeBSD as a SLIP server works as follows: a SLIP user dials up your FreeBSD SLIP Server system and logs in with a special SLIP login ID that uses /usr/sbin/sliplogin as the special user's shell. The sliplogin program browses the file /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts to find a matching line for the special user, and if it finds a match, connects the serial line to an available SLIP interface and then runs the shell script /etc/sliphome/slip.login to configure the SLIP interface. An Example of a SLIP Server Login For example, if a SLIP user ID were Shelmerg, Shelmerg's entry in /etc/master.passwd would look something like this (except it would be all on one line): Shelmerg:password:1964:89::0:0:Guy Helmer - SLIP:/usr/users/Shelmerg:/usr/sbin/sliplogin When Shelmerg logs in, sliplogin will search /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts for a line that had a matching user ID; for example, there may be a line in /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts that reads: Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmer 0xfffffc00 autocomp sliplogin will find that matching line, hook the serial line into the next available SLIP interface, and then execute /etc/sliphome/slip.login like this: /etc/sliphome/slip.login 0 19200 Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmer 0xfffffc00 autocomp If all goes well, /etc/sliphome/slip.login will issue an ifconfig for the SLIP interface to which sliplogin attached itself (slip interface 0,in the above example, which was the first parameter in the list given to slip.login) to set the local IP address (dc-slip), remote IP address (sl-helmer), network mask for the SLIP interface (0xfffffc00), and any additional flags (autocomp). If something goes wrong, sliplogin usually logs good informational messages via the daemon syslog facility, which usually goes into /var/log/messages (see the manual pages for &man.syslogd.8; and &man.syslog.conf.5; and perhaps check /etc/syslog.conf to see to which files syslogd is logging). OK, enough of the examples — let us dive into setting up the system. Kernel Configuration kernelconfiguration FreeBSD's default kernels usually come with two SLIP interfaces defined (sl0 and sl1); you can use netstat -i to see whether these interfaces are defined in your kernel. Sample output from netstat -i: Name Mtu Network Address Ipkts Ierrs Opkts Oerrs Coll ed0 1500 <Link>0.0.c0.2c.5f.4a 291311 0 174209 0 133 ed0 1500 138.247.224 ivory 291311 0 174209 0 133 lo0 65535 <Link> 79 0 79 0 0 lo0 65535 loop localhost 79 0 79 0 0 sl0* 296 <Link> 0 0 0 0 0 sl1* 296 <Link> 0 0 0 0 0 The sl0 and sl1 interfaces shown in netstat -i's output indicate that there are two SLIP interfaces built into the kernel. (The asterisks after the sl0 and sl1 indicate that the interfaces are down.) However, FreeBSD's default kernels do not come configured to forward packets (ie, your FreeBSD machine will not act as a router) due to Internet RFC requirements for Internet hosts (see RFCs 1009 [Requirements for Internet Gateways], 1122 [Requirements for Internet Hosts — Communication Layers], and perhaps 1127 [A Perspective on the Host Requirements RFCs]), so if you want your FreeBSD SLIP Server to act as a router, you will have to edit the /etc/rc.conf file and change the setting of the gateway_enable variable to . You will then need to reboot for the new settings to take effect. You will notice that near the end of the default kernel configuration file (/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC) is a line that reads: pseudo-device sl 2 SLIP This is the line that defines the number of SLIP devices available in the kernel; the number at the end of the line is the maximum number of SLIP connections that may be operating simultaneously. Please refer to Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel for help in reconfiguring your kernel. Sliplogin Configuration As mentioned earlier, there are three files in the /etc/sliphome directory that are part of the configuration for /usr/sbin/sliplogin (see &man.sliplogin.8; for the actual manual page for sliplogin): slip.hosts, which defines the SLIP users & their associated IP addresses; slip.login, which usually just configures the SLIP interface; and (optionally) slip.logout, which undoes slip.login's effects when the serial connection is terminated. <filename>slip.hosts</filename> Configuration /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts contains lines which have at least four items, separated by whitespace: SLIP user's login ID Local address (local to the SLIP server) of the SLIP link Remote address of the SLIP link Network mask The local and remote addresses may be host names (resolved to IP addresses by /etc/hosts or by the domain name service, depending on your specifications in /etc/host.conf), and the network mask may be a name that can be resolved by a lookup into /etc/networks. On a sample system, /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts looks like this: # # login local-addr remote-addr mask opt1 opt2 # (normal,compress,noicmp) # Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmerg 0xfffffc00 autocomp At the end of the line is one or more of the options. — no header compression — compress headers — compress headers if the remote end allows it — disable ICMP packets (so any ping packets will be dropped instead of using up your bandwidth) Note that sliplogin under early releases of FreeBSD 2 ignored the options that FreeBSD 1.x recognized, so the options , , , and had no effect until support was added in FreeBSD 2.2 (unless your slip.login script included code to make use of the flags). SLIP - TCP/IP + TCP/IP networking Your choice of local and remote addresses for your SLIP links depends on whether you are going to dedicate a TCP/IP subnet or if you are going to use proxy ARP on your SLIP server (it is not true proxy ARP, but that is the terminology used in this document to describe it). If you are not sure which method to select or how to assign IP addresses, please refer to the TCP/IP books referenced in the slips-prereqs section and/or consult your IP network manager. gated If you are going to use a separate subnet for your SLIP clients, you will need to allocate the subnet number out of your assigned IP network number and assign each of your SLIP client's IP numbers out of that subnet. Then, you will probably either need to configure a static route to the SLIP subnet via your SLIP server on your nearest IP router, or install gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server and configure it to talk the appropriate routing protocols to your other routers to inform them about your SLIP server's route to the SLIP subnet. Ethernet Otherwise, if you will use the proxy ARP method, you will need to assign your SLIP client's IP addresses out of your SLIP server's Ethernet subnet, and you will also need to adjust your /etc/sliphome/slip.login and /etc/sliphome/slip.logout scripts to use &man.arp.8; to manage the proxy-ARP entries in the SLIP server's ARP table. <filename>slip.login</filename> Configuration The typical /etc/sliphome/slip.login file looks like this: #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.login 5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90 # # generic login file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6 This slip.login file merely ifconfig's the appropriate SLIP interface with the local and remote addresses and network mask of the SLIP interface. If you have decided to use the proxy ARP method (instead of using a separate subnet for your SLIP clients), your /etc/sliphome/slip.login file will need to look something like this: #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.login 5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90 # # generic login file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6 # Answer ARP requests for the SLIP client with our Ethernet addr /usr/sbin/arp -s $5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pub The additional line in this slip.login, arp -s $5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pub, creates an ARP entry in the SLIP server's ARP table. This ARP entry causes the SLIP server to respond with the SLIP server's Ethernet MAC address whenever a another IP node on the Ethernet asks to speak to the SLIP client's IP address. EthernetMAC address When using the example above, be sure to replace the Ethernet MAC address (00:11:22:33:44:55) with the MAC address of your system's Ethernet card, or your proxy ARP will definitely not work! You can discover your SLIP server's Ethernet MAC address by looking at the results of running netstat -i; the second line of the output should look something like: ed0 1500 <Link>0.2.c1.28.5f.4a 191923 0 129457 0 116 This indicates that this particular system's Ethernet MAC address is 00:02:c1:28:5f:4a — the periods in the Ethernet MAC address given by netstat -i must be changed to colons and leading zeros should be added to each single-digit hexadecimal number to convert the address into the form that &man.arp.8; desires; see the manual page on &man.arp.8; for complete information on usage. When you create /etc/sliphome/slip.login and /etc/sliphome/slip.logout, the execute bit (ie, chmod 755 /etc/sliphome/slip.login /etc/sliphome/slip.logout) must be set, or sliplogin will be unable to execute it. <filename>slip.logout</filename> Configuration /etc/sliphome/slip.logout is not strictly needed (unless you are implementing proxy ARP), but if you decide to create it, this is an example of a basic slip.logout script: #!/bin/sh - # # slip.logout # # logout file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 down If you are using proxy ARP, you will want to have /etc/sliphome/slip.logout remove the ARP entry for the SLIP client: #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.logout # # logout file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 down # Quit answering ARP requests for the SLIP client /usr/sbin/arp -d $5 The arp -d $5 removes the ARP entry that the proxy ARP slip.login added when the SLIP client logged in. It bears repeating: make sure /etc/sliphome/slip.logout has the execute bit set for after you create it (ie, chmod 755 /etc/sliphome/slip.logout). Routing Considerations SLIP routing If you are not using the proxy ARP method for routing packets between your SLIP clients and the rest of your network (and perhaps the Internet), you will probably either have to add static routes to your closest default router(s) to route your SLIP client subnet via your SLIP server, or you will probably need to install and configure gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server so that it will tell your routers via appropriate routing protocols about your SLIP subnet. Static Routes static routes Adding static routes to your nearest default routers can be troublesome (or impossible, if you do not have authority to do so...). If you have a multiple-router network in your organization, some routers, such as Cisco and Proteon, may not only need to be configured with the static route to the SLIP subnet, but also need to be told which static routes to tell other routers about, so some expertise and troubleshooting/tweaking may be necessary to get static-route-based routing to work. Running <command>gated</command> gated An alternative to the headaches of static routes is to install gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server and configure it to use the appropriate routing protocols (RIP/OSPF/BGP/EGP) to tell other routers about your SLIP subnet. You can use gated from the ports collection or retrieve and build it yourself from the GateD anonymous FTP site; the current version as of this writing is gated-R3_5Alpha_8.tar.Z, which includes support for FreeBSD out-of-the-box. Complete information and documentation on gated is available on the Web starting at the Merit GateD Consortium. Compile and install it, and then write a /etc/gated.conf file to configure your gated; here is a sample, similar to what the author used on a FreeBSD SLIP server: # # gated configuration file for dc.dsu.edu; for gated version 3.5alpha5 # Only broadcast RIP information for xxx.xxx.yy out the ed Ethernet interface # # # tracing options # traceoptions "/var/tmp/gated.output" replace size 100k files 2 general ; rip yes { interface sl noripout noripin ; interface ed ripin ripout version 1 ; traceoptions route ; } ; # # Turn on a bunch of tracing info for the interface to the kernel: kernel { traceoptions remnants request routes info interface ; } ; # # Propagate the route to xxx.xxx.yy out the Ethernet interface via RIP # export proto rip interface ed { proto direct { xxx.xxx.yy mask 255.255.252.0 metric 1; # SLIP connections } ; } ; # # Accept routes from RIP via ed Ethernet interfaces import proto rip interface ed { all ; } ; RIP The above sample gated.conf file broadcasts routing information regarding the SLIP subnet xxx.xxx.yy via RIP onto the Ethernet; if you are using a different Ethernet driver than the ed driver, you will need to change the references to the ed interface appropriately. This sample file also sets up tracing to /var/tmp/gated.output for debugging gated's activity; you can certainly turn off the tracing options if gated works OK for you. You will need to change the xxx.xxx.yy's into the network address of your own SLIP subnet (be sure to change the net mask in the proto direct clause as well). When you get gated built and installed and create a configuration file for it, you will need to run gated in place of routed on your FreeBSD system; change the routed/gated startup parameters in /etc/netstart as appropriate for your system. Please see the manual page for gated for information on gated's command-line parameters. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml index f35e115083..49137f3fee 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml @@ -1,3039 +1,3043 @@ Security security Much of this chapter has been taken from the &man.security.7; man page, originally written by &a.dillon;. Synopsis The following chapter will provide a basic introduction to system security concepts, some general good rules of thumb, and some advanced topics such as S/Key, OpenSSL, Kerberos, and others. Introduction Security is a function that begins and ends with the system administrator. While all BSD Unix multi-user systems have some inherent security, the job of building and maintaining additional security mechanisms to keep those users honest is probably one of the single largest undertakings of the sysadmin. Machines are only as secure as you make them, and security concerns are ever competing with the human necessity for convenience. Unix systems, in general, are capable of running a huge number of simultaneous processes and many of these processes operate as servers – meaning that external entities can connect and talk to them. As yesterday's mini-computers and mainframes become today's desktops, and as computers become networked and internetworked, security becomes an ever bigger issue. Security is best implemented through a layered onion approach. In a nutshell, what you want to do is to create as many layers of security as are convenient and then carefully monitor the system for intrusions. You do not want to overbuild your security or you will interfere with the detection side, and detection is one of the single most important aspects of any security mechanism. For example, it makes little sense to set the schg flags (see &man.chflags.1;) on every system binary because while this may temporarily protect the binaries, it prevents an attacker who has broken in from making an easily detectable change that may result in your security mechanisms not detecting the attacker at all. System security also pertains to dealing with various forms of attack, including attacks that attempt to crash or otherwise make a system unusable but do not attempt to break root. Security concerns can be split up into several categories: Denial of service attacks. User account compromises. Root compromise through accessible servers. Root compromise via user accounts. Backdoor creation. - DoS attacks + + DoS attacks + Denial of Service (DoS) + security DoS attacks + Denial of Service (DoS) - Denial of Service + Denial of Service (DoS) A denial of service attack is an action that deprives the machine of needed resources. Typically, D.O.S. attacks are brute-force mechanisms that attempt to crash or otherwise make a machine unusable by overwhelming its servers or network stack. Some D.O.S. attacks try to take advantages of bugs in the networking stack to crash a machine with a single packet. The latter can only be fixed by applying a bug fix to the kernel. Attacks on servers can often be fixed by properly specifying options to limit the load the servers incur on the system under adverse conditions. Brute-force network attacks are harder to deal with. A spoofed-packet attack, for example, is nearly impossible to stop short of cutting your system off from the Internet. It may not be able to take your machine down, but it can saturate your Internet connection. security account compromises A user account compromise is even more common than a D.O.S. attack. Many sysadmins still run standard telnetd, rlogind, rshd, and ftpd servers on their machines. These servers, by default, do not operate over encrypted connections. The result is that if you have any moderate-sized user base, one or more of your users logging into your system from a remote location (which is the most common and convenient way to login to a system) will have his or her password sniffed. The attentive system admin will analyze his remote access logs looking for suspicious source addresses even for successful logins. One must always assume that once an attacker has access to a user account, the attacker can break root. However, the reality is that in a well secured and maintained system, access to a user account does not necessarily give the attacker access to root. The distinction is important because without access to root the attacker cannot generally hide his tracks and may, at best, be able to do nothing more than mess with the user's files or crash the machine. User account compromises are very common because users tend not to take the precautions that sysadmins take. security backdoors System administrators must keep in mind that there are potentially many ways to break root on a machine. The attacker may know the root password, the attacker may find a bug in a root-run server and be able to break root over a network connection to that server, or the attacker may know of a bug in an suid-root program that allows the attacker to break root once he has broken into a user's account. If an attacker has found a way to break root on a machine, the attacker may not have a need to install a backdoor. Many of the root holes found and closed to date involve a considerable amount of work by the attacker to cleanup after himself, so most attackers install backdoors. Backdoors provide the attacker with a way to easily regain root access to the system, but it also gives the smart system administrator a convenient way to detect the intrusion. Making it impossible for an attacker to install a backdoor may actually be detrimental to your security because it will not close off the hole the attacker found to break in the first place. Security remedies should always be implemented with a multi-layered onion peel approach and can be categorized as follows: Securing root and staff accounts. Securing root – root-run servers and suid/sgid binaries. Securing user accounts. Securing the password file. Securing the kernel core, raw devices, and filesystems. Quick detection of inappropriate changes made to the system. Paranoia. The next section of this chapter will cover the above bullet items in greater depth. security securing Securing FreeBSD The sections that follow will cover the methods of securing your FreeBSD system that were mentioned in the last section of this chapter. Securing the root account and staff accounts su First off, do not bother securing staff accounts if you have not secured the root account. Most systems have a password assigned to the root account. The first thing you do is assume that the password is always compromised. This does not mean that you should remove the password. The password is almost always necessary for console access to the machine. What it does mean is that you should not make it possible to use the password outside of the console or possibly even with the &man.su.1; command. For example, make sure that your pty's are specified as being unsecure in the /etc/ttys file so that direct root logins via telnet or rlogin are disallowed. If using other login services such as sshd, make sure that direct root logins are disabled there as well. Consider every access method – services such as FTP often fall through the cracks. Direct root logins should only be allowed via the system console. wheel Of course, as a sysadmin you have to be able to get to root, so we open up a few holes. But we make sure these holes require additional password verification to operate. One way to make root accessible is to add appropriate staff accounts to the wheel group (in /etc/group). The staff members placed in the wheel group are allowed to su to root. You should never give staff members native wheel access by putting them in the wheel group in their password entry. Staff accounts should be placed in a staff group, and then added to the wheel group via the /etc/group file. Only those staff members who actually need to have root access should be placed in the wheel group. It is also possible, when using an authentication method such as kerberos, to use kerberos' .k5login file in the root account to allow a &man.ksu.1; to root without having to place anyone at all in the wheel group. This may be the better solution since the wheel mechanism still allows an intruder to break root if the intruder has gotten hold of your password file and can break into a staff account. While having the wheel mechanism is better than having nothing at all, it is not necessarily the safest option. An indirect way to secure staff accounts, and ultimately root access is to use an alternative login access method and do what is known as *'ing out the crypted password for the staff accounts. Using the &man.vipw.8; command, one can replace each instance of a crypted password with a single * character. This command will update the /etc/master.passwd file and user/password database to disable password-authenticated logins. A staff account entry such as: foobar:R9DT/Fa1/LV9U:1000:1000::0:0:Foo Bar:/home/foobar:/usr/local/bin/tcsh Should be changed to this : foobar:*:1000:1000::0:0:Foo Bar:/home/foobar:/usr/local/bin/tcsh This change will prevent normal logins from occurring, since the encrypted password will never match *. With this done, staff members must use another mechanism to authenticate themselves such as &man.kerberos.1; or &man.ssh.1; using a public/private key pair. When using something like kerberos, one generally must secure the machines which run the kerberos servers and your desktop workstation. When using a public/private key pair with ssh, one must generally secure the machine used to login from (typically one's workstation). An additional layer of protection can be added to the key pair by password protecting the key pair when creating it with &man.ssh-keygen.1;. Being able to * out the passwords for staff accounts also guarantees that staff members can only login through secure access methods that you have setup. This forces all staff members to use secure, encrypted connections for all of their sessions which closes an important hole used by many intruders: That of sniffing the network from an unrelated, less secure machine. The more indirect security mechanisms also assume that you are logging in from a more restrictive server to a less restrictive server. For example, if your main box is running all sorts of servers, your workstation should not be running any. In order for your workstation to be reasonably secure you should run as few servers as possible, up to and including no servers at all, and you should run a password-protected screen blanker. Of course, given physical access to a workstation an attacker can break any sort of security you put on it. This is definitely a problem that you should consider but you should also consider the fact that the vast majority of break-ins occur remotely, over a network, from people who do not have physical access to your workstation or servers. Kerberos Using something like kerberos also gives you the ability to disable or change the password for a staff account in one place and have it immediately effect all the machine the staff member may have an account on. If a staff member's account gets compromised, the ability to instantly change his password on all machines should not be underrated. With discrete passwords, changing a password on N machines can be a mess. You can also impose re-passwording restrictions with kerberos: not only can a kerberos ticket be made to timeout after a while, but the kerberos system can require that the user choose a new password after a certain period of time (say, once a month). Securing Root-run Servers and SUID/SGID Binaries ntalk comsat finger sandboxes sshd telnetd rshd rlogind The prudent sysadmin only runs the servers he needs to, no more, no less. Be aware that third party servers are often the most bug-prone. For example, running an old version of imapd or popper is like giving a universal root ticket out to the entire world. Never run a server that you have not checked out carefully. Many servers do not need to be run as root. For example, the ntalk, comsat, and finger daemons can be run in special user sandboxes. A sandbox isn't perfect unless you go to a large amount of trouble, but the onion approach to security still stands: If someone is able to break in through a server running in a sandbox, they still have to break out of the sandbox. The more layers the attacker must break through, the lower the likelihood of his success. Root holes have historically been found in virtually every server ever run as root, including basic system servers. If you are running a machine through which people only login via sshd and never login via telnetd or rshd or rlogind, then turn off those services! FreeBSD now defaults to running ntalkd, comsat, and finger in a sandbox. Another program which may be a candidate for running in a sandbox is &man.named.8;. /etc/defaults/rc.conf includes the arguments necessary to run named in a sandbox in a commented-out form. Depending on whether you are installing a new system or upgrading an existing system, the special user accounts used by these sandboxes may not be installed. The prudent sysadmin would research and implement sandboxes for servers whenever possible. sendmail There are a number of other servers that typically do not run in sandboxes: sendmail, popper, imapd, ftpd, and others. There are alternatives to some of these, but installing them may require more work than you are willing to perform (the convenience factor strikes again). You may have to run these servers as root and rely on other mechanisms to detect break-ins that might occur through them. The other big potential root hole in a system are the suid-root and sgid binaries installed on the system. Most of these binaries, such as rlogin, reside in /bin, /sbin, /usr/bin, or /usr/sbin. While nothing is 100% safe, the system-default suid and sgid binaries can be considered reasonably safe. Still, root holes are occasionally found in these binaries. A root hole was found in Xlib in 1998 that made xterm (which is typically suid) vulnerable. It is better to be safe than sorry and the prudent sysadmin will restrict suid binaries that only staff should run to a special group that only staff can access, and get rid of (chmod 000) any suid binaries that nobody uses. A server with no display generally does not need an xterm binary. Sgid binaries can be almost as dangerous. If an intruder can break an sgid-kmem binary the intruder might be able to read /dev/kmem and thus read the crypted password file, potentially compromising any passworded account. Alternatively an intruder who breaks group kmem can monitor keystrokes sent through pty's, including pty's used by users who login through secure methods. An intruder that breaks the tty group can write to almost any user's tty. If a user is running a terminal program or emulator with a keyboard-simulation feature, the intruder can potentially generate a data stream that causes the user's terminal to echo a command, which is then run as that user. Securing User Accounts User accounts are usually the most difficult to secure. While you can impose Draconian access restrictions on your staff and * out their passwords, you may not be able to do so with any general user accounts you might have. If you do have sufficient control then you may win out and be able to secure the user accounts properly. If not, you simply have to be more vigilant in your monitoring of those accounts. Use of ssh and kerberos for user accounts is more problematic due to the extra administration and technical support required, but still a very good solution compared to a crypted password file. Securing the Password File The only sure fire way is to * out as many passwords as you can and use ssh or kerberos for access to those accounts. Even though the crypted password file (/etc/spwd.db) can only be read by root, it may be possible for an intruder to obtain read access to that file even if the attacker cannot obtain root-write access. Your security scripts should always check for and report changes to the password file (see Checking file integrity below). Securing the Kernel Core, Raw Devices, and Filesystems If an attacker breaks root he can do just about anything, but there are certain conveniences. For example, most modern kernels have a packet sniffing device driver built in. Under FreeBSD it is called the bpf device. An intruder will commonly attempt to run a packet sniffer on a compromised machine. You do not need to give the intruder the capability and most systems should not have the bpf device compiled in. sysctl But even if you turn off the bpf device, you still have /dev/mem and /dev/kmem to worry about. For that matter, the intruder can still write to raw disk devices. Also, there is another kernel feature called the module loader, &man.kldload.8;. An enterprising intruder can use a KLD module to install his own bpf device or other sniffing device on a running kernel. To avoid these problems you have to run the kernel at a higher secure level, at least securelevel 1. The securelevel can be set with a sysctl on the kern.securelevel variable. Once you have set the securelevel to 1, write access to raw devices will be denied and special chflags flags, such as schg, will be enforced. You must also ensure that the schg flag is set on critical startup binaries, directories, and script files – everything that gets run up to the point where the securelevel is set. This might be overdoing it, and upgrading the system is much more difficult when you operate at a higher secure level. You may compromise and run the system at a higher secure level but not set the schg flag for every system file and directory under the sun. Another possibility is to simply mount / and /usr read-only. It should be noted that being too draconian in what you attempt to protect may prevent the all-important detection of an intrusion. Checking File Integrity: Binaries, Configuration Files, Etc. When it comes right down to it, you can only protect your core system configuration and control files so much before the convenience factor rears its ugly head. For example, using chflags to set the schg bit on most of the files in / and /usr is probably counterproductive because while it may protect the files, it also closes a detection window. The last layer of your security onion is perhaps the most important – detection. The rest of your security is pretty much useless (or, worse, presents you with a false sense of safety) if you cannot detect potential incursions. Half the job of the onion is to slow down the attacker rather than stop him in order to give the detection side of the equation a chance to catch him in the act. The best way to detect an incursion is to look for modified, missing, or unexpected files. The best way to look for modified files is from another (often centralized) limited-access system. Writing your security scripts on the extra-secure limited-access system makes them mostly invisible to potential attackers, and this is important. In order to take maximum advantage you generally have to give the limited-access box significant access to the other machines in the business, usually either by doing a read-only NFS export of the other machines to the limited-access box, or by setting up ssh key-pairs to allow the limit-access box to ssh to the other machines. Except for its network traffic, NFS is the least visible method – allowing you to monitor the filesystems on each client box virtually undetected. If your limited-access server is connected to the client boxes through a switch, the NFS method is often the better choice. If your limited-access server is connected to the client boxes through a hub or through several layers of routing, the NFS method may be too insecure (network-wise) and using ssh may be the better choice even with the audit-trail tracks that ssh lays. Once you give a limit-access box at least read access to the client systems it is supposed to monitor, you must write scripts to do the actual monitoring. Given an NFS mount, you can write scripts out of simple system utilities such as &man.find.1; and &man.md5.1;. It is best to physically md5 the client-box files boxes at least once a day, and to test control files such as those found in /etc and /usr/local/etc even more often. When mismatches are found relative to the base md5 information the limited-access machine knows is valid, it should scream at a sysadmin to go check it out. A good security script will also check for inappropriate suid binaries and for new or deleted files on system partitions such as / and /usr. When using ssh rather than NFS, writing the security script is much more difficult. You essentially have to scp the scripts to the client box in order to run them, making them visible, and for safety you also need to scp the binaries (such as find) that those scripts use. The ssh daemon on the client box may already be compromised. All in all, using ssh may be necessary when running over unsecure links, but it's also a lot harder to deal with. A good security script will also check for changes to user and staff members access configuration files: .rhosts, .shosts, .ssh/authorized_keys and so forth… files that might fall outside the purview of the MD5 check. If you have a huge amount of user disk space it may take too long to run through every file on those partitions. In this case, setting mount flags to disallow suid binaries and devices on those partitions is a good idea. The nodev and nosuid options (see &man.mount.8;) are what you want to look into. You should probably scan them anyway at least once a week, since the object of this layer is to detect a break-in whether or not the break-in is effective. Process accounting (see &man.accton.8;) is a relatively low-overhead feature of the operating system which might help as a post-break-in evaluation mechanism. It is especially useful in tracking down how an intruder has actually broken into a system, assuming the file is still intact after the break-in occurs. Finally, security scripts should process the log files and the logs themselves should be generated in as secure a manner as possible – remote syslog can be very useful. An intruder tries to cover his tracks, and log files are critical to the sysadmin trying to track down the time and method of the initial break-in. One way to keep a permanent record of the log files is to run the system console to a serial port and collect the information on a continuing basis through a secure machine monitoring the consoles. Paranoia A little paranoia never hurts. As a rule, a sysadmin can add any number of security features as long as they do not effect convenience, and can add security features that do effect convenience with some added thought. Even more importantly, a security administrator should mix it up a bit – if you use recommendations such as those given by this document verbatim, you give away your methodologies to the prospective attacker who also has access to this document. Denial of Service Attacks - DoS attacks + Denial of Service (DoS) This section covers Denial of Service attacks. A DoS attack is typically a packet attack. While there is not much you can do about modern spoofed packet attacks that saturate your network, you can generally limit the damage by ensuring that the attacks cannot take down your servers. Limiting server forks. Limiting springboard attacks (ICMP response attacks, ping broadcast, etc.). Kernel Route Cache. A common DoS attack is against a forking server that attempts to cause the server to eat processes, file descriptors, and memory until the machine dies. Inetd (see &man.inetd.8;) has several options to limit this sort of attack. It should be noted that while it is possible to prevent a machine from going down it is not generally possible to prevent a service from being disrupted by the attack. Read the inetd manual page carefully and pay specific attention to the , , and options. Note that spoofed-IP attacks will circumvent the option to inetd, so typically a combination of options must be used. Some standalone servers have self-fork-limitation parameters. Sendmail has its option which tends to work much better than trying to use sendmail's load limiting options due to the load lag. You should specify a MaxDaemonChildren parameter when you start sendmail high enough to handle your expected load but no so high that the computer cannot handle that number of sendmails without falling on its face. It is also prudent to run sendmail in queued mode () and to run the daemon (sendmail -bd) separate from the queue-runs (sendmail -q15m). If you still want real-time delivery you can run the queue at a much lower interval, such as , but be sure to specify a reasonable MaxDaemonChildren option for that sendmail to prevent cascade failures. Syslogd can be attacked directly and it is strongly recommended that you use the option whenever possible, and the option otherwise. You should also be fairly careful with connect-back services such as tcpwrapper's reverse-identd, which can be attacked directly. You generally do not want to use the reverse-ident feature of tcpwrappers for this reason. It is a very good idea to protect internal services from external access by firewalling them off at your border routers. The idea here is to prevent saturation attacks from outside your LAN, not so much to protect internal services from network-based root compromise. Always configure an exclusive firewall, i.e., firewall everything except ports A, B, C, D, and M-Z. This way you can firewall off all of your low ports except for certain specific services such as named (if you are primary for a zone), ntalkd, sendmail, and other Internet-accessible services. If you try to configure the firewall the other way – as an inclusive or permissive firewall, there is a good chance that you will forget to close a couple of services or that you will add a new internal service and forget to update the firewall. You can still open up the high-numbered port range on the firewall to allow permissive-like operation without compromising your low ports. Also take note that FreeBSD allows you to control the range of port numbers used for dynamic binding via the various net.inet.ip.portrange sysctl's (sysctl -a | fgrep portrange), which can also ease the complexity of your firewall's configuration. For example, you might use a normal first/last range of 4000 to 5000, and a hiport range of 49152 to 65535, then block everything under 4000 off in your firewall (except for certain specific Internet-accessible ports, of course). ICMP_BANDLIM Another common DoS attack is called a springboard attack – to attack a server in a manner that causes the server to generate responses which then overload the server, the local network, or some other machine. The most common attack of this nature is the ICMP ping broadcast attack. The attacker spoofs ping packets sent to your LAN's broadcast address with the source IP address set to the actual machine they wish to attack. If your border routers are not configured to stomp on ping's to broadcast addresses, your LAN winds up generating sufficient responses to the spoofed source address to saturate the victim, especially when the attacker uses the same trick on several dozen broadcast addresses over several dozen different networks at once. Broadcast attacks of over a hundred and twenty megabits have been measured. A second common springboard attack is against the ICMP error reporting system. By constructing packets that generate ICMP error responses, an attacker can saturate a server's incoming network and cause the server to saturate its outgoing network with ICMP responses. This type of attack can also crash the server by running it out of mbuf's, especially if the server cannot drain the ICMP responses it generates fast enough. The FreeBSD kernel has a new kernel compile option called ICMP_BANDLIM which limits the effectiveness of these sorts of attacks. The last major class of springboard attacks is related to certain internal inetd services such as the udp echo service. An attacker simply spoofs a UDP packet with the source address being server A's echo port, and the destination address being server B's echo port, where server A and B are both on your LAN. The two servers then bounce this one packet back and forth between each other. The attacker can overload both servers and their LANs simply by injecting a few packets in this manner. Similar problems exist with the internal chargen port. A competent sysadmin will turn off all of these inetd-internal test services. Spoofed packet attacks may also be used to overload the kernel route cache. Refer to the net.inet.ip.rtexpire, rtminexpire, and rtmaxcache sysctl parameters. A spoofed packet attack that uses a random source IP will cause the kernel to generate a temporary cached route in the route table, viewable with netstat -rna | fgrep W3. These routes typically timeout in 1600 seconds or so. If the kernel detects that the cached route table has gotten too big it will dynamically reduce the rtexpire but will never decrease it to less than rtminexpire. There are two problems: The kernel does not react quickly enough when a lightly loaded server is suddenly attacked. The rtminexpire is not low enough for the kernel to survive a sustained attack. If your servers are connected to the Internet via a T3 or better it may be prudent to manually override both rtexpire and rtminexpire via &man.sysctl.8;. Never set either parameter to zero (unless you want to crash the machine. Setting both parameters to 2 seconds should be sufficient to protect the route table from attack. Access Issues with Kerberos and SSH ssh Kerberos There are a few issues with both kerberos and ssh that need to be addressed if you intend to use them. Kerberos V is an excellent authentication protocol but there are bugs in the kerberized telnet and rlogin applications that make them unsuitable for dealing with binary streams. Also, by default kerberos does not encrypt a session unless you use the option. ssh encrypts everything by default. ssh works quite well in every respect except that it forwards encryption keys by default. What this means is that if you have a secure workstation holding keys that give you access to the rest of the system, and you ssh to an unsecure machine, your keys becomes exposed. The actual keys themselves are not exposed, but ssh installs a forwarding port for the duration of your login and if a attacker has broken root on the unsecure machine he can utilize that port to use your keys to gain access to any other machine that your keys unlock. We recommend that you use ssh in combination with kerberos whenever possible for staff logins. ssh can be compiled with kerberos support. This reduces your reliance on potentially exposable ssh keys while at the same time protecting passwords via kerberos. ssh keys should only be used for automated tasks from secure machines (something that kerberos is unsuited to). We also recommend that you either turn off key-forwarding in the ssh configuration, or that you make use of the from=IP/DOMAIN option that ssh allows in its authorized_keys file to make the key only usable to entities logging in from specific machines. DES, MD5, and Crypt security crypt crypt DES MD5 Parts rewritten and updated by &a.unfurl;, 21 March 2000. Every user on a Unix system has a password associated with their account. It seems obvious that these passwords need to be known only to the user and the actual operating system. In order to keep these passwords secret, they are encrypted with what is known as a one-way hash, that is, they can only be easily encrypted but not decrypted. In other words, what we told you a moment ago was obvious is not even true: the operating system itself does not really know the password. It only knows the encrypted form of the password. The only way to get the plain-text password is by a brute force search of the space of possible passwords. Unfortunately the only secure way to encrypt passwords when Unix came into being was based on DES, the Data Encryption Standard. This is not such a problem for users that live in the US, but since the source code for DES could not be exported outside the US, FreeBSD had to find a way to both comply with US law and retain compatibility with all the other Unix variants that still use DES. The solution was to divide up the encryption libraries so that US users could install the DES libraries and use DES but international users still had an encryption method that could be exported abroad. This is how FreeBSD came to use MD5 as its default encryption method. MD5 is believed to be more secure than DES, so installing DES is offered primarily for compatibility reasons. Recognizing your crypt mechanism It is pretty easy to identify which encryption method FreeBSD is set up to use. Examining the encrypted passwords in the /etc/master.passwd file is one way. Passwords encrypted with the MD5 hash are longer than those with encrypted with the DES hash and also begin with the characters $1$. DES password strings do not have any particular identifying characteristics, but they are shorter than MD5 passwords, and are coded in a 64-character alphabet which does not include the $ character, so a relatively short string which does not begin with a dollar sign is very likely a DES password. The libraries can identify the passwords this way as well. As a result, the DES libraries are able to identify MD5 passwords, and use MD5 to check passwords that were encrypted that way, and DES for the rest. They are able to do this because the DES libraries also contain MD5. Unfortunately, the reverse is not true, so the MD5 libraries cannot authenticate passwords that were encrypted with DES. Identifying which library is being used by the programs on your system is easy as well. Any program that uses crypt is linked against libcrypt which for each type of library is a symbolic link to the appropriate implementation. For example, on a system using the DES versions: &prompt.user; ls -l /usr/lib/libcrypt* lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 13 Mar 19 06:56 libcrypt.a -> libdescrypt.a lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 18 Mar 19 06:56 libcrypt.so.2.0 -> libdescrypt.so.2.0 lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 15 Mar 19 06:56 libcrypt_p.a -> libdescrypt_p.a On a system using the MD5-based libraries, the same links will be present, but the target will be libscrypt rather than libdescrypt. If you have installed the DES-capable crypt library libdescrypt (e.g. by installing the "crypto" distribution), then which password format will be used for new passwords is controlled by the passwd_format login capability in /etc/login.conf, which takes values of either des or md5. See the &man.login.conf.5; manpage for more information about login capabilities. S/Key S/Key security S/Key S/Key is a one-time password scheme based on a one-way hash function. FreeBSD uses the MD4 hash for compatibility but other systems have used MD5 and DES-MAC. S/Key has been part of the FreeBSD base system since version 1.1.5 and is also used on a growing number of other operating systems. S/Key is a registered trademark of Bell Communications Research, Inc. There are three different sorts of passwords which we will talk about in the discussion below. The first is your usual Unix-style or Kerberos password; we will call this a Unix password. The second sort is the one-time password which is generated by the S/Key key program and accepted by the keyinit program and the login prompt; we will call this a one-time password. The final sort of password is the secret password which you give to the key program (and sometimes the keyinit program) which it uses to generate one-time passwords; we will call it a secret password or just unqualified password. The secret password does not have anything to do with your Unix password; they can be the same but this is not recommended. S/Key secret passwords are not limited to 8 characters like Unix passwords, they can be as long as you like. Passwords of six or seven word long phrases are fairly common. For the most part, the S/Key system operates completely independently of the Unix password system. Besides the password, there are two other pieces of data that are important to S/Key. One is what is known as the seed or key and consists of two letters and five digits. The other is what is called the iteration count and is a number between 1 and 100. S/Key creates the one-time password by concatenating the seed and the secret password, then applying the MD4 hash as many times as specified by the iteration count and turning the result into six short English words. These six English words are your one-time password. The login and su programs keep track of the last one-time password used, and the user is authenticated if the hash of the user-provided password is equal to the previous password. Because a one-way hash is used it is impossible to generate future one-time passwords if a successfully used password is captured; the iteration count is decremented after each successful login to keep the user and the login program in sync. When the iteration count gets down to 1 S/Key must be reinitialized. There are four programs involved in the S/Key system which we will discuss below. The key program accepts an iteration count, a seed, and a secret password, and generates a one-time password. The keyinit program is used to initialized S/Key, and to change passwords, iteration counts, or seeds; it takes either a secret password, or an iteration count, seed, and one-time password. The keyinfo program examines the /etc/skeykeys file and prints out the invoking user's current iteration count and seed. Finally, the login and su programs contain the necessary logic to accept S/Key one-time passwords for authentication. The login program is also capable of disallowing the use of Unix passwords on connections coming from specified addresses. There are four different sorts of operations we will cover. The first is using the keyinit program over a secure connection to set up S/Key for the first time, or to change your password or seed. The second operation is using the keyinit program over an insecure connection, in conjunction with the key program over a secure connection, to do the same. The third is using the key program to log in over an insecure connection. The fourth is using the key program to generate a number of keys which can be written down or printed out to carry with you when going to some location without secure connections to anywhere. Secure connection initialization To initialize S/Key for the first time, change your password, or change your seed while logged in over a secure connection (e.g., on the console of a machine or via ssh), use the keyinit command without any parameters while logged in as yourself: &prompt.user; keyinit Adding unfurl: Reminder - Only use this method if you are directly connected. If you are using telnet or rlogin exit with no password and use keyinit -s. Enter secret password: Again secret password: ID unfurl s/key is 99 to17757 DEFY CLUB PRO NASH LACE SOFT At the Enter secret password: prompt you should enter a password or phrase. Remember, this is not the password that you will use to login with, this is used to generate your one-time login keys. The ID line gives the parameters of your particular S/Key instance; your login name, the iteration count, and seed. When logging in with S/Key, the system will remember these parameters and present them back to you so you do not have to remember them. The last line gives the particular one-time password which corresponds to those parameters and your secret password; if you were to re-login immediately, this one-time password is the one you would use. Insecure connection initialization To initialize S/Key or change your secret password over an insecure connection, you will need to already have a secure connection to some place where you can run the key program; this might be in the form of a desk accessory on a Macintosh, or a shell prompt on a machine you trust. You will also need to make up an iteration count (100 is probably a good value), and you may make up your own seed or use a randomly-generated one. Over on the insecure connection (to the machine you are initializing), use the keyinit -s command: &prompt.user; keyinit -s Updating unfurl: Old key: to17758 Reminder you need the 6 English words from the key command. Enter sequence count from 1 to 9999: 100 Enter new key [default to17759]: s/key 100 to 17759 s/key access password: To accept the default seed (which the keyinit program confusingly calls a key), press return. Then before entering an access password, move over to your secure connection or S/Key desk accessory, and give it the same parameters: &prompt.user; key 100 to17759 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: <secret password> CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GORE Now switch back over to the insecure connection, and copy the one-time password generated by key over to the keyinit program: s/key access password:CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GORE ID unfurl s/key is 100 to17759 CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GORE The rest of the description from the previous section applies here as well. Generating a single one-time password Once you've initialized S/Key, when you login you will be presented with a prompt like this: &prompt.user; telnet example.com Trying 10.0.0.1... Connected to example.com Escape character is '^]'. FreeBSD/i386 (example.com) (ttypa) login: <username> s/key 97 fw13894 Password: As a side note, the S/Key prompt has a useful feature (not shown here): if you press return at the password prompt, the login program will turn echo on, so you can see what you are typing. This can be extremely useful if you are attempting to type in an S/Key by hand, such as from a printout. Also, if this machine were configured to disallow Unix passwords over a connection from the source machine, the prompt would have also included the annotation (s/key required), indicating that only S/Key one-time passwords will be accepted. MS-DOS Windows MacOS At this point you need to generate your one-time password to answer this login prompt. This must be done on a trusted system that you can run the key command on. (There are versions of the key program for MS-DOS, Windows and MacOS as well.) The key program needs both the iteration count and the seed as command line options. You can cut-and-paste these right from the login prompt on the machine that you are logging in to. On the trusted system: &prompt.user; key 97 fw13894 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: WELD LIP ACTS ENDS ME HAAG Now that you have your one-time password you can continue logging in: login: <username> s/key 97 fw13894 Password: <return to enable echo> s/key 97 fw13894 Password [echo on]: WELD LIP ACTS ENDS ME HAAG Last login: Tue Mar 21 11:56:41 from 10.0.0.2 ... This is the easiest mechanism if you have a trusted machine. There is a Java S/Key key applet, The Java OTP Calculator, that you can download and run locally on any Java supporting browser. Generating multiple one-time passwords Sometimes you have to go places where you do not have access to a trusted machine or secure connection. In this case, it is possible to use the key command to generate a number of one-time passwords before hand to be printed out and taken with you. For example: &prompt.user; key -n 5 30 zz99999 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: <secret password> 26: SODA RUDE LEA LIND BUDD SILT 27: JILT SPY DUTY GLOW COWL ROT 28: THEM OW COLA RUNT BONG SCOT 29: COT MASH BARR BRIM NAN FLAG 30: CAN KNEE CAST NAME FOLK BILK The requests five keys in sequence, the specifies what the last iteration number should be. Note that these are printed out in reverse order of eventual use. If you are really paranoid, you might want to write the results down by hand; otherwise you can cut-and-paste into lpr. Note that each line shows both the iteration count and the one-time password; you may still find it handy to scratch off passwords as you use them. Restricting use of Unix passwords Restrictions can be placed on the use of Unix passwords based on the host name, user name, terminal port, or IP address of a login session. These restrictions can be found in the configuration file /etc/skey.access. The &man.skey.access.5; manual page has more info on the complete format of the file and also details some security cautions to be aware of before depending on this file for security. If there is no /etc/skey.access file (this is the FreeBSD default), then all users will be allowed to use Unix passwords. If the file exists, however, then all users will be required to use S/Key unless explicitly permitted to do otherwise by configuration statements in the skey.access file. In all cases, Unix passwords are permitted on the console. Here is a sample configuration file which illustrates the three most common sorts of configuration statements: permit internet 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0 permit user fnord permit port ttyd0 The first line (permit internet) allows users whose IP source address (which is vulnerable to spoofing) matches the specified value and mask, to use Unix passwords. This should not be considered a security mechanism, but rather, a means to remind authorized users that they are using an insecure network and need to use S/Key for authentication. The second line (permit user) allows the specified username, in this case fnord, to use Unix passwords at any time. Generally speaking, this should only be used for people who are either unable to use the key program, like those with dumb terminals, or those who are uneducable. The third line (permit port) allows all users logging in on the specified terminal line to use Unix passwords; this would be used for dial-ups. Kerberos Kerberos Contributed by &a.markm; (based on contribution by &a.md;). Kerberos is a network add-on system/protocol that allows users to authenticate themselves through the services of a secure server. Services such as remote login, remote copy, secure inter-system file copying and other high-risk tasks are made considerably safer and more controllable. The following instructions can be used as a guide on how to set up Kerberos as distributed for FreeBSD. However, you should refer to the relevant manual pages for a complete description. 4.4BSD-Lite In FreeBSD, the Kerberos is not that from the original 4.4BSD-Lite, distribution, but eBones, which had been previously ported to FreeBSD 1.1.5.1, and was sourced from outside the USA/Canada, and was thus available to system owners outside those countries during the era of restrictive export controls on cryptographic code from the USA. Creating the initial database This is done on the Kerberos server only. First make sure that you do not have any old Kerberos databases around. You should change to the directory /etc/kerberosIV and check that only the following files are present: &prompt.root; cd /etc/kerberosIV &prompt.root; ls README krb.conf krb.realms If any additional files (such as principal.* or master_key) exist, then use the kdb_destroy command to destroy the old Kerberos database, of if Kerberos is not running, simply delete the extra files. You should now edit the krb.conf and krb.realms files to define your Kerberos realm. In this case the realm will be GRONDAR.ZA and the server is grunt.grondar.za. We edit or create the krb.conf file: &prompt.root; cat krb.conf GRONDAR.ZA GRONDAR.ZA grunt.grondar.za admin server CS.BERKELEY.EDU okeeffe.berkeley.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-1.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-2.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-3.mit.edu LCS.MIT.EDU kerberos.lcs.mit.edu TELECOM.MIT.EDU bitsy.mit.edu ARC.NASA.GOV trident.arc.nasa.gov In this case, the other realms do not need to be there. They are here as an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple realms. You may wish to not include them for simplicity. The first line names the realm in which this system works. The other lines contain realm/host entries. The first item on a line is a realm, and the second is a host in that realm that is acting as a key distribution center. The words admin server following a hosts name means that host also provides an administrative database server. For further explanation of these terms, please consult the Kerberos man pages. Now we have to add grunt.grondar.za to the GRONDAR.ZA realm and also add an entry to put all hosts in the .grondar.za domain in the GRONDAR.ZA realm. The krb.realms file would be updated as follows: &prompt.root; cat krb.realms grunt.grondar.za GRONDAR.ZA .grondar.za GRONDAR.ZA .berkeley.edu CS.BERKELEY.EDU .MIT.EDU ATHENA.MIT.EDU .mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU Again, the other realms do not need to be there. They are here as an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple realms. You may wish to remove them to simplify things. The first line puts the specific system into the named realm. The rest of the lines show how to default systems of a particular subdomain to a named realm. Now we are ready to create the database. This only needs to run on the Kerberos server (or Key Distribution Center). Issue the kdb_init command to do this: &prompt.root; kdb_init Realm name [default ATHENA.MIT.EDU ]: GRONDAR.ZA You will be prompted for the database Master Password. It is important that you NOT FORGET this password. Enter Kerberos master key: Now we have to save the key so that servers on the local machine can pick it up. Use the kstash command to do this. &prompt.root; kstash Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! This saves the encrypted master password in /etc/kerberosIV/master_key. Making it all run Two principals need to be added to the database for each system that will be secured with Kerberos. Their names are kpasswd and rcmd These two principals are made for each system, with the instance being the name of the individual system. These daemons, kpasswd and rcmd allow other systems to change Kerberos passwords and run commands like rcp, rlogin and rsh. Now let's add these entries: &prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: passwd Instance: grunt <Not found>, Create [y] ? y Principal: passwd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Verifying password New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Random password [y] ? y Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: rcmd Instance: grunt <Not found>, Create [y] ? Principal: rcmd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Verifying password New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Random password [y] ? Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Creating the server file We now have to extract all the instances which define the services on each machine. For this we use the ext_srvtab command. This will create a file which must be copied or moved by secure means to each Kerberos client's /etc/kerberosIV directory. This file must be present on each server and client, and is crucial to the operation of Kerberos. &prompt.root; ext_srvtab grunt Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Generating 'grunt-new-srvtab'.... Now, this command only generates a temporary file which must be renamed to srvtab so that all the server can pick it up. Use the mv command to move it into place on the original system: &prompt.root; mv grunt-new-srvtab srvtab If the file is for a client system, and the network is not deemed safe, then copy the client-new-srvtab to removable media and transport it by secure physical means. Be sure to rename it to srvtab in the client's /etc/kerberosIV directory, and make sure it is mode 600: &prompt.root; mv grumble-new-srvtab srvtab &prompt.root; chmod 600 srvtab Populating the database We now have to add some user entries into the database. First let's create an entry for the user jane. Use the kdb_edit command to do this: &prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: jane Instance: <Not found>, Create [y] ? y Principal: jane, Instance: , kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter a secure password here Verifying password New Password: <---- re-enter the password here Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Testing it all out First we have to start the Kerberos daemons. NOTE that if you have correctly edited your /etc/rc.conf then this will happen automatically when you reboot. This is only necessary on the Kerberos server. Kerberos clients will automagically get what they need from the /etc/kerberosIV directory. &prompt.root; kerberos & Kerberos server starting Sleep forever on error Log file is /var/log/kerberos.log Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Current Kerberos master key version is 1 Local realm: GRONDAR.ZA &prompt.root; kadmind -n & KADM Server KADM0.0A initializing Please do not use 'kill -9' to kill this job, use a regular kill instead Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Now we can try using the kinit command to get a ticket for the id jane that we created above: &prompt.user; kinit jane MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Kerberos Initialization for "jane" Password: Try listing the tokens using klist to see if we really have them: &prompt.user; klist Ticket file: /tmp/tkt245 Principal: jane@GRONDAR.ZA Issued Expires Principal Apr 30 11:23:22 Apr 30 19:23:22 krbtgt.GRONDAR.ZA@GRONDAR.ZA Now try changing the password using passwd to check if the kpasswd daemon can get authorization to the Kerberos database: &prompt.user; passwd realm GRONDAR.ZA Old password for jane: New Password for jane: Verifying password New Password for jane: Password changed. Adding <command>su</command> privileges Kerberos allows us to give each user who needs root privileges their own separate supassword. We could now add an id which is authorized to su to root. This is controlled by having an instance of root associated with a principal. Using kdb_edit we can create the entry jane.root in the Kerberos database: &prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: jane Instance: root <Not found>, Create [y] ? y Principal: jane, Instance: root, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter a SECURE password here Verifying password New Password: <---- re-enter the password here Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? 12 <--- Keep this short! Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Now try getting tokens for it to make sure it works: &prompt.root; kinit jane.root MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Kerberos Initialization for "jane.root" Password: Now we need to add the user to root's .klogin file: &prompt.root; cat /root/.klogin jane.root@GRONDAR.ZA Now try doing the su: &prompt.user; su Password: and take a look at what tokens we have: &prompt.root; klist Ticket file: /tmp/tkt_root_245 Principal: jane.root@GRONDAR.ZA Issued Expires Principal May 2 20:43:12 May 3 04:43:12 krbtgt.GRONDAR.ZA@GRONDAR.ZA Using other commands In an earlier example, we created a principal called jane with an instance root. This was based on a user with the same name as the principal, and this is a Kerberos default; that a <principal>.<instance> of the form <username>.root will allow that <username> to su to root if the necessary entries are in the .klogin file in root's home directory: &prompt.root; cat /root/.klogin jane.root@GRONDAR.ZA Likewise, if a user has in their own home directory lines of the form: &prompt.user; cat ~/.klogin jane@GRONDAR.ZA jack@GRONDAR.ZA This allows anyone in the GRONDAR.ZA realm who has authenticated themselves to jane or jack (via kinit, see above) access to rlogin to jane's account or files on this system (grunt) via rlogin, rsh or rcp. For example, Jane now logs into another system, using Kerberos: &prompt.user; kinit MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Password: &prompt.user; rlogin grunt Last login: Mon May 1 21:14:47 from grumble Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994 The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995 Or Jack logs into Jane's account on the same machine (Jane having set up the .klogin file as above, and the person in charge of Kerberos having set up principal jack with a null instance: &prompt.user; kinit &prompt.user; rlogin grunt -l jane MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Password: Last login: Mon May 1 21:16:55 from grumble Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994 The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995 Firewalls - firewalls + firewall security firewalls Contributed by &a.gpalmer; and Alex Nash. Firewalls are an area of increasing interest for people who are connected to the Internet, and are even finding applications on private networks to provide enhanced security. This section will hopefully explain what firewalls are, how to use them, and how to use the facilities provided in the FreeBSD kernel to implement them. People often think that having a firewall between your internal network and the Big Bad Internet will solve all your security problems. It may help, but a poorly setup firewall system is more of a security risk than not having one at all. A firewall can add another layer of security to your systems, but it cannot stop a really determined cracker from penetrating your internal network. If you let internal security lapse because you believe your firewall to be impenetrable, you have just made the crackers job that much easier. What is a firewall? There are currently two distinct types of firewalls in common use on the Internet today. The first type is more properly called a packet filtering router, where the kernel on a multi-homed machine chooses whether to forward or block packets based on a set of rules. The second type, known as a proxy server, relies on daemons to provide authentication and to forward packets, possibly on a multi-homed machine which has kernel packet forwarding disabled. Sometimes sites combine the two types of firewalls, so that only a certain machine (known as a bastion host) is allowed to send packets through a packet filtering router onto an internal network. Proxy services are run on the bastion host, which are generally more secure than normal authentication mechanisms. FreeBSD comes with a kernel packet filter (known as IPFW), which is what the rest of this section will concentrate on. Proxy servers can be built on FreeBSD from third party software, but there is such a variety of proxy servers available that it would be impossible to cover them in this document. Packet filtering routers A router is a machine which forwards packets between two or more networks. A packet filtering router has an extra piece of code in its kernel which compares each packet to a list of rules before deciding if it should be forwarded or not. Most modern IP routing software has packet filtering code within it that defaults to forwarding all packets. To enable the filters, you need to define a set of rules for the filtering code so it can decide if the packet should be allowed to pass or not. To decide whether a packet should be passed on, the code looks through its set of rules for a rule which matches the contents of this packets headers. Once a match is found, the rule action is obeyed. The rule action could be to drop the packet, to forward the packet, or even to send an ICMP message back to the originator. Only the first match counts, as the rules are searched in order. Hence, the list of rules can be referred to as a rule chain. The packet matching criteria varies depending on the software used, but typically you can specify rules which depend on the source IP address of the packet, the destination IP address, the source port number, the destination port number (for protocols which support ports), or even the packet type (UDP, TCP, ICMP, etc). Proxy servers Proxy servers are machines which have had the normal system daemons (telnetd, ftpd, etc) replaced with special servers. These servers are called proxy servers as they normally only allow onward connections to be made. This enables you to run (for example) a proxy telnet server on your firewall host, and people can telnet in to your firewall from the outside, go through some authentication mechanism, and then gain access to the internal network (alternatively, proxy servers can be used for signals coming from the internal network and heading out). Proxy servers are normally more secure than normal servers, and often have a wider variety of authentication mechanisms available, including one-shot password systems so that even if someone manages to discover what password you used, they will not be able to use it to gain access to your systems as the password instantly expires. As they do not actually give users access to the host machine, it becomes a lot more difficult for someone to install backdoors around your security system. Proxy servers often have ways of restricting access further, so that only certain hosts can gain access to the servers, and often they can be set up so that you can limit which users can talk to which destination machine. Again, what facilities are available depends largely on what proxy software you choose. What does IPFW allow me to do? ipfw IPFW, the software supplied with FreeBSD, is a packet filtering and accounting system which resides in the kernel, and has a user-land control utility, &man.ipfw.8;. Together, they allow you to define and query the rules currently used by the kernel in its routing decisions. There are two related parts to IPFW. The firewall section allows you to perform packet filtering. There is also an IP accounting section which allows you to track usage of your router, based on similar rules to the firewall section. This allows you to see (for example) how much traffic your router is getting from a certain machine, or how much WWW (World Wide Web) traffic it is forwarding. As a result of the way that IPFW is designed, you can use IPFW on non-router machines to perform packet filtering on incoming and outgoing connections. This is a special case of the more general use of IPFW, and the same commands and techniques should be used in this situation. Enabling IPFW on FreeBSD ipfw enabling As the main part of the IPFW system lives in the kernel, you will need to add one or more options to your kernel configuration file, depending on what facilities you want, and recompile your kernel. See reconfiguring the kernel for more details on how to recompile your kernel. There are currently three kernel configuration options relevant to IPFW: options IPFIREWALL Compiles into the kernel the code for packet filtering. options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE Enables code to allow logging of packets through &man.syslogd.8;. Without this option, even if you specify that packets should be logged in the filter rules, nothing will happen. options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT=10 Limits the number of packets logged through &man.syslogd.8; on a per entry basis. You may wish to use this option in hostile environments in which you want to log firewall activity, but do not want to be open to a denial of service attack via syslog flooding. When a chain entry reaches the packet limit specified, logging is turned off for that particular entry. To resume logging, you will need to reset the associated counter using the &man.ipfw.8; utility: &prompt.root; ipfw zero 4500 Where 4500 is the chain entry you wish to continue logging. Previous versions of FreeBSD contained an IPFIREWALL_ACCT option. This is now obsolete as the firewall code automatically includes accounting facilities. Configuring IPFW ipfw configuring The configuration of the IPFW software is done through the &man.ipfw.8; utility. The syntax for this command looks quite complicated, but it is relatively simple once you understand its structure. There are currently four different command categories used by the utility: addition/deletion, listing, flushing, and clearing. Addition/deletion is used to build the rules that control how packets are accepted, rejected, and logged. Listing is used to examine the contents of your rule set (otherwise known as the chain) and packet counters (accounting). Flushing is used to remove all entries from the chain. Clearing is used to zero out one or more accounting entries. Altering the IPFW rules The syntax for this form of the command is: ipfw -N command index action log protocol addresses options There is one valid flag when using this form of the command: -N Resolve addresses and service names in output. The command given can be shortened to the shortest unique form. The valid commands are: add Add an entry to the firewall/accounting rule list delete Delete an entry from the firewall/accounting rule list Previous versions of IPFW used separate firewall and accounting entries. The present version provides packet accounting with each firewall entry. If an index value is supplied, it used to place the entry at a specific point in the chain. Otherwise, the entry is placed at the end of the chain at an index 100 greater than the last chain entry (this does not include the default policy, rule 65535, deny). The log option causes matching rules to be output to the system console if the kernel was compiled with IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE. Valid actions are: reject Drop the packet, and send an ICMP host or port unreachable (as appropriate) packet to the source. allow Pass the packet on as normal. (aliases: pass and accept) deny Drop the packet. The source is not notified via an ICMP message (thus it appears that the packet never arrived at the destination). count Update packet counters but do not allow/deny the packet based on this rule. The search continues with the next chain entry. Each action will be recognized by the shortest unambiguous prefix. The protocols which can be specified are: all Matches any IP packet icmp Matches ICMP packets tcp Matches TCP packets udp Matches UDP packets The address specification is: from address/maskport to address/maskport via interface You can only specify port in conjunction with protocols which support ports (UDP and TCP). The is optional and may specify the IP address or domain name of a local IP interface, or an interface name (e.g. ed0) to match only packets coming through this interface. Interface unit numbers can be specified with an optional wildcard. For example, ppp* would match all kernel PPP interfaces. The syntax used to specify an address/mask is: address or address/mask-bits or address:mask-pattern A valid hostname may be specified in place of the IP address. is a decimal number representing how many bits in the address mask should be set. e.g. specifying 192.216.222.1/24 will create a mask which will allow any address in a class C subnet (in this case, 192.216.222) to be matched. is an IP address which will be logically AND'ed with the address given. The keyword any may be used to specify any IP address. The port numbers to be blocked are specified as: port,port,port… to specify either a single port or a list of ports, or port-port to specify a range of ports. You may also combine a single range with a list, but the range must always be specified first. The options available are: frag Matches if the packet is not the first fragment of the datagram. in Matches if the packet is on the way in. out Matches if the packet is on the way out. ipoptions spec Matches if the IP header contains the comma separated list of options specified in spec. The supported list of IP options are: ssrr (strict source route), lsrr (loose source route), rr (record packet route), and ts (time stamp). The absence of a particular option may be denoted with a leading !. established Matches if the packet is part of an already established TCP connection (i.e. it has the RST or ACK bits set). You can optimize the performance of the firewall by placing established rules early in the chain. setup Matches if the packet is an attempt to establish a TCP connection (the SYN bit set is set but the ACK bit is not). tcpflags flags Matches if the TCP header contains the comma separated list of flags. The supported flags are fin, syn, rst, psh, ack, and urg. The absence of a particular flag may be indicated by a leading !. icmptypes types Matches if the ICMP type is present in the list types. The list may be specified as any combination of ranges and/or individual types separated by commas. Commonly used ICMP types are: 0 echo reply (ping reply), 3 destination unreachable, 5 redirect, 8 echo request (ping request), and 11 time exceeded (used to indicate TTL expiration as with &man.traceroute.8;). Listing the IPFW rules The syntax for this form of the command is: ipfw -a -t -N l There are three valid flags when using this form of the command: -a While listing, show counter values. This option is the only way to see accounting counters. -t Display the last match times for each chain entry. The time listing is incompatible with the input syntax used by the &man.ipfw.8; utility. -N Attempt to resolve given addresses and service names. Flushing the IPFW rules The syntax for flushing the chain is: ipfw flush This causes all entries in the firewall chain to be removed except the fixed default policy enforced by the kernel (index 65535). Use caution when flushing rules, the default deny policy will leave your system cut off from the network until allow entries are added to the chain. Clearing the IPFW packet counters The syntax for clearing one or more packet counters is: ipfw zero index When used without an index argument, all packet counters are cleared. If an index is supplied, the clearing operation only affects a specific chain entry. Example commands for ipfw This command will deny all packets from the host evil.crackers.org to the telnet port of the host nice.people.org: &prompt.root ipfw add deny tcp from evil.crackers.org to nice.people.org 23 The next example denies and logs any TCP traffic from the entire crackers.org network (a class C) to the nice.people.org machine (any port). &prompt.root; ipfw add deny log tcp from evil.crackers.org/24 to nice.people.org If you do not want people sending X sessions to your internal network (a subnet of a class C), the following command will do the necessary filtering: &prompt.root; ipfw add deny tcp from any to my.org/28 6000 setup To see the accounting records: &prompt.root; ipfw -a list or in the short form &prompt.root; ipfw -a l You can also see the last time a chain entry was matched with: &prompt.root; ipfw -at l Building a packet filtering firewall The following suggestions are just that: suggestions. The requirements of each firewall are different and we cannot tell you how to build a firewall to meet your particular requirements. When initially setting up your firewall, unless you have a test bench setup where you can configure your firewall host in a controlled environment, it is strongly recommend you use the logging version of the commands and enable logging in the kernel. This will allow you to quickly identify problem areas and cure them without too much disruption. Even after the initial setup phase is complete, I recommend using the logging for `deny' as it allows tracing of possible attacks and also modification of the firewall rules if your requirements alter. If you use the logging versions of the accept command, it can generate large amounts of log data as one log line will be generated for every packet that passes through the firewall, so large FTP/http transfers, etc, will really slow the system down. It also increases the latencies on those packets as it requires more work to be done by the kernel before the packet can be passed on. syslogd with also start using up a lot more processor time as it logs all the extra data to disk, and it could quite easily fill the partition /var/log is located on. You should enable your firewall from /etc/rc.conf.local or /etc/rc.conf. The associated man page explains which knobs to fiddle and lists some preset firewall configurations. If you do not use a preset configuration, ipfw list will output the current ruleset into a file that you can pass to rc.conf. If you do not use /etc/rc.conf.local or /etc/rc.conf to enable your firewall, it is important to make sure your firewall is enabled before any IP interfaces are configured. The next problem is what your firewall should actually do! This is largely dependent on what access to your network you want to allow from the outside, and how much access to the outside world you want to allow from the inside. Some general rules are: Block all incoming access to ports below 1024 for TCP. This is where most of the security sensitive services are, like finger, SMTP (mail) and telnet. Block all incoming UDP traffic. There are very few useful services that travel over UDP, and what useful traffic there is normally a security threat (e.g. Suns RPC and NFS protocols). This has its disadvantages also, since UDP is a connectionless protocol, denying incoming UDP traffic also blocks the replies to outgoing UDP traffic. This can cause a problem for people (on the inside) using external archie (prospero) servers. If you want to allow access to archie, you'll have to allow packets coming from ports 191 and 1525 to any internal UDP port through the firewall. ntp is another service you may consider allowing through, which comes from port 123. Block traffic to port 6000 from the outside. Port 6000 is the port used for access to X11 servers, and can be a security threat (especially if people are in the habit of doing xhost + on their workstations). X11 can actually use a range of ports starting at 6000, the upper limit being how many X displays you can run on the machine. The upper limit as defined by RFC 1700 (Assigned Numbers) is 6063. Check what ports any internal servers use (e.g. SQL servers, etc). It is probably a good idea to block those as well, as they normally fall outside the 1-1024 range specified above. Another checklist for firewall configuration is available from CERT at http://www.cert.org/tech_tips/packet_filtering.html As stated above, these are only guidelines. You will have to decide what filter rules you want to use on your firewall yourself. We cannot accept ANY responsibility if someone breaks into your network, even if you follow the advice given above. OpenSSL security OpenSSL OpenSSL As of FreeBSD 4.0, the OpenSSL toolkit is a part of the base system. OpenSSL provides a general-purpose cryptography library, as well as the Secure Sockets Layer v2/v3 (SSLv2/SSLv3) and Transport Layer Security v1 (TLSv1) network security protocols. However, one of the algorithms (specifically IDEA) included in OpenSSL is protected by patents in the USA and elsewhere, and is not available for unrestricted use. IDEA is included in the OpenSSL sources in FreeBSD, but it is not built by default. If you wish to use it, and you comply with the license terms, enable the MAKE_IDEA switch in /etc/make.conf and rebuild your sources using 'make world'. Today, the RSA algorithm is free for use in USA and other countries. In the past it was protected by a patent. OpenSSL install Source Code Installations OpenSSL is part of the src-crypto and src-secure cvsup collections. See the Obtaining FreeBSD section for more information about obtaining and updating FreeBSD source code. IPsec IPsec security IPsec Contributed by &a.shin;, 5 March 2000. The IPsec mechanism provides secure communication either for IP layer and socket layer communication. This section should explain how to use them. For implementation details, please refer to The Developers' Handbook. The current IPsec implementation supports both transport mode and tunnel mode. However, tunnel mode comes with some restrictions. http://www.kame.net/newsletter/ has more comprehensive examples. Please be aware that in order to use this functionality, you must have the following options compiled into your kernel: options IPSEC #IP security options IPSEC_ESP #IP security (crypto; define w/IPSEC) Transport mode example with IPv4 Let's setup security association to deploy a secure channel between HOST A (10.2.3.4) and HOST B (10.6.7.8). Here we show a little complicated example. From HOST A to HOST B, only old AH is used. From HOST B to HOST A, new AH and new ESP are combined. Now we should choose algorithm to be used corresponding to "AH"/"new AH"/"ESP"/"new ESP". Please refer to the &man.setkey.8; man page to know algorithm names. Our choice is MD5 for AH, new-HMAC-SHA1 for new AH, and new-DES-expIV with 8 byte IV for new ESP. Key length highly depends on each algorithm. For example, key length must be equal to 16 bytes for MD5, 20 for new-HMAC-SHA1, and 8 for new-DES-expIV. Now we choose "MYSECRETMYSECRET", "KAMEKAMEKAMEKAMEKAME", "PASSWORD", respectively. OK, let's assign SPI (Security Parameter Index) for each protocol. Please note that we need 3 SPIs for this secure channel since three security headers are produced (one for from HOST A to HOST B, two for from HOST B to HOST A). Please also note that SPI MUST be greater than or equal to 256. We choose, 1000, 2000, and 3000, respectively. (1) HOST A ------> HOST B (1)PROTO=AH ALG=MD5(RFC1826) KEY=MYSECRETMYSECRET SPI=1000 (2.1) HOST A <------ HOST B <------ (2.2) (2.1) PROTO=AH ALG=new-HMAC-SHA1(new AH) KEY=KAMEKAMEKAMEKAMEKAME SPI=2000 (2.2) PROTO=ESP ALG=new-DES-expIV(new ESP) IV length = 8 KEY=PASSWORD SPI=3000 Now, let's setup security association. Execute &man.setkey.8; on both HOST A and B: &prompt.root; setkey -c add 10.2.3.4 10.6.7.8 ah-old 1000 -m transport -A keyed-md5 "MYSECRETMYSECRET" ; add 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 ah 2000 -m transport -A hmac-sha1 "KAMEKAMEKAMEKAMEKAME" ; add 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 esp 3000 -m transport -E des-cbc "PASSWORD" ; ^D Actually, IPsec communication doesn't process until security policy entries will be defined. In this case, you must setup each host. At A: &prompt.root; setkey -c spdadd 10.2.3.4 10.6.7.8 any -P out ipsec ah/transport/10.2.3.4-10.6.7.8/require ; ^D At B: &prompt.root; setkey -c spdadd 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 any -P out ipsec esp/transport/10.6.7.8-10.2.3.4/require ; spdadd 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 any -P out ipsec ah/transport/10.6.7.8-10.2.3.4/require ; ^D HOST A --------------------------------------> HOST E 10.2.3.4 10.6.7.8 | | ========== old AH keyed-md5 ==========> <========= new AH hmac-sha1 =========== <========= new ESP des-cbc ============ Transport mode example with IPv6 Another example using IPv6. ESP transport mode is recommended for TCP port number 110 between Host-A and Host-B. ============ ESP ============ | | Host-A Host-B fec0::10 -------------------- fec0::11 Encryption algorithm is blowfish-cbc whose key is "kamekame", and authentication algorithm is hmac-sha1 whose key is "this is the test key". Configuration at Host-A: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd fec0::10[any] fec0::11[110] tcp -P out ipsec esp/transport/fec0::10-fec0::11/use ; spdadd fec0::11[110] fec0::10[any] tcp -P in ipsec esp/transport/fec0::11-fec0::10/use ; add fec0::10 fec0::11 esp 0x10001 -m transport -E blowfish-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0::11 fec0::10 esp 0x10002 -m transport -E blowfish-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; EOF and at Host-B: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd fec0::11[110] fec0::10[any] tcp -P out ipsec esp/transport/fec0::11-fec0::10/use ; spdadd fec0::10[any] fec0::11[110] tcp -P in ipsec esp/transport/fec0::10-fec0::11/use ; add fec0::10 fec0::11 esp 0x10001 -m transport -E blowfish-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0::11 fec0::10 esp 0x10002 -m transport -E blowfish-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; EOF Note the direction of SP. Tunnel mode example with IPv4 Tunnel mode between two security gateways Security protocol is old AH tunnel mode, i.e. specified by RFC1826, with keyed-md5 whose key is "this is the test" as authentication algorithm. ======= AH ======= | | Network-A Gateway-A Gateway-B Network-B 10.0.1.0/24 ---- 172.16.0.1 ----- 172.16.0.2 ---- 10.0.2.0/24 Configuration at Gateway-A: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd 10.0.1.0/24 10.0.2.0/24 any -P out ipsec ah/tunnel/172.16.0.1-172.16.0.2/require ; spdadd 10.0.2.0/24 10.0.1.0/24 any -P in ipsec ah/tunnel/172.16.0.2-172.16.0.1/require ; add 172.16.0.1 172.16.0.2 ah-old 0x10003 -m any -A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ; add 172.16.0.2 172.16.0.1 ah-old 0x10004 -m any -A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ; EOF If port number field is omitted such above then "[any]" is employed. `-m' specifies the mode of SA to be used. "-m any" means wild-card of mode of security protocol. You can use this SA for both tunnel and transport mode. and at Gateway-B: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd 10.0.2.0/24 10.0.1.0/24 any -P out ipsec ah/tunnel/172.16.0.2-172.16.0.1/require ; spdadd 10.0.1.0/24 10.0.2.0/24 any -P in ipsec ah/tunnel/172.16.0.1-172.16.0.2/require ; add 172.16.0.1 172.16.0.2 ah-old 0x10003 -m any -A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ; add 172.16.0.2 172.16.0.1 ah-old 0x10004 -m any -A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ; EOF Making SA bundle between two security gateways AH transport mode and ESP tunnel mode is required between Gateway-A and Gateway-B. In this case, ESP tunnel mode is applied first, and AH transport mode is next. ========== AH ========= | ======= ESP ===== | | | | | Network-A Gateway-A Gateway-B Network-B fec0:0:0:1::/64 --- fec0:0:0:1::1 ---- fec0:0:0:2::1 --- fec0:0:0:2::/64 Tunnel mode example with IPv6 Encryption algorithm is 3des-cbc, and authentication algorithm for ESP is hmac-sha1. Authentication algorithm for AH is hmac-md5. Configuration at Gateway-A: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd fec0:0:0:1::/64 fec0:0:0:2::/64 any -P out ipsec esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::1/require ah/transport/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::1/require ; spdadd fec0:0:0:2::/64 fec0:0:0:1::/64 any -P in ipsec esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:2::1-fec0:0:0:1::1/require ah/transport/fec0:0:0:2::1-fec0:0:0:1::1/require ; add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::1 esp 0x10001 -m tunnel -E 3des-cbc "kamekame12341234kame1234" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::1 ah 0x10001 -m transport -A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ; add fec0:0:0:2::1 fec0:0:0:1::1 esp 0x10001 -m tunnel -E 3des-cbc "kamekame12341234kame1234" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0:0:0:2::1 fec0:0:0:1::1 ah 0x10001 -m transport -A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ; EOF Making SAs with the different end ESP tunnel mode is required between Host-A and Gateway-A. Encryption algorithm is cast128-cbc, and authentication algorithm for ESP is hmac-sha1. ESP transport mode is recommended between Host-A and Host-B. Encryption algorithm is rc5-cbc, and authentication algorithm for ESP is hmac-md5. ================== ESP ================= | ======= ESP ======= | | | | | Host-A Gateway-A Host-B fec0:0:0:1::1 ---- fec0:0:0:2::1 ---- fec0:0:0:2::2 Configuration at Host-A: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd fec0:0:0:1::1[any] fec0:0:0:2::2[80] tcp -P out ipsec esp/transport/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::2/use esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::1/require ; spdadd fec0:0:0:2::1[80] fec0:0:0:1::1[any] tcp -P in ipsec esp/transport/fec0:0:0:2::2-fec0:0:0:l::1/use esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:2::1-fec0:0:0:1::1/require ; add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::2 esp 0x10001 -m transport -E cast128-cbc "12341234" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::1 esp 0x10002 -E rc5-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ; add fec0:0:0:2::2 fec0:0:0:1::1 esp 0x10003 -m transport -E cast128-cbc "12341234" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0:0:0:2::1 fec0:0:0:1::1 esp 0x10004 -E rc5-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ; EOF OpenSSH OpenSSH security OpenSSH Contributed by &a.chern;, April 21, 2001. Secure shell is a set of network connectivity tools used to access remote machines securely. It can be used as a direct replacement for rlogin, rsh, rcp, and telnet. Additionally, any other TCP/IP connections can be tunneled/forwarded securely through ssh. ssh encrypts all traffic to effectively eliminate eavesdropping, connection hijacking, and other network-level attacks. OpenSSH is maintained by the OpenBSD project, and is based upon SSH v1.2.12 with all the recent bug fixes and updates. It is compatible with both SSH protocols 1 and 2. OpenSSH has been in the base system since FreeBSD 4.0. Advantages of using OpenSSH Normally, when using &man.telnet.1; or &man.rlogin.1;, data is sent over the network in an clear, un-encrypted form. Network sniffers anywhere in between the client and server can steal your user/password information or data transferred in your session. OpenSSH offers a variety of authentication and encryption methods to prevent this from happening. Enabling sshd OpenSSH enabling Be sure to make the following additions to your rc.conf file: sshd_enable="YES" This will load the ssh daemon the next time your system initializes. Alternatively, you can simply run the sshd daemon. SSH client OpenSSH client The &man.ssh.1; utility works similarly to &man.rlogin.1;. &prompt.root ssh user@foobardomain.com Host key not found from the list of known hosts. Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no)? yes Host 'foobardomain.com' added to the list of known hosts. user@foobardomain.com's password: ******* The login will continue just as it would have if a session was created using rlogin or telnet. SSH utilizes a key fingerprint system for verifying the authenticity of the server when the client connects. The user is prompted to enter 'yes' only during the first time connecting. Future attempts to login are all verified against the saved fingerprint key. The SSH client will alert you if the saved fingerprint differs from the received fingerprint on future login attempts. The fingerprints are saved in ~/.ssh/known_hosts Secure copy OpenSSH secure copy scp The scp command works similarly to rcp; it copies a file to or from a remote machine, except in a secure fashion. &prompt.root scp user@foobardomain.com:/COPYRIGHT COPYRIGHT user@foobardomain.com's password: COPYRIGHT 100% |*****************************| 4735 00:00 &prompt.root Since the fingerprint was already saved for this host in the previous example, it is verified when using scp here. Configuration OpenSSH configuration The system-wide configuration files for both the OpenSSH daemon and client reside within the /etc/ssh directory. ssh_config configures the client settings, while sshd_config configures the daemon. ssh-keygen Instead of using passwords, &man.ssh-keygen.1; can be used to generate RSA keys to authenticate a user. &prompt.user ssh-keygen Initializing random number generator... Generating p: .++ (distance 66) Generating q: ..............................++ (distance 498) Computing the keys... Key generation complete. Enter file in which to save the key (/home/user/.ssh/identity): Enter passphrase: Enter the same passphrase again: Your identification has been saved in /home/user/.ssh/identity. ... &man.ssh-keygen.1; will create a public and private key pair for use in authentication. The private key is stored in ~/.ssh/identity, whereas the public key is stored in ~/.ssh/identity.pub. The public key must be placed in ~/.ssh/authorized_keys of the remote machine in order for the setup to work. This will allow connection to the remote machine based upon RSA authentication instead of passwords. If a passphrase is used in &man.ssh-keygen.1;, the user will be prompted for a password each time in order to use the private key. &man.ssh-agent.1; and &man.ssh-add.1; are utilities used in managing multiple passworded private keys. SSH Tunneling OpenSSH tunneling OpenSSH has the ability to create a tunnel to encapsulate another protocol in an encrypted session. The following command tells &man.ssh.1; to create a tunnel for telnet. &prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 5023:localhost:23 user@foo.bar.com &prompt.user; -2 this forces &man.ssh.1 to use version 2 of the protocol. (Do not use if you are working with older ssh servers) -N indicates no command, or tunnel only. If omitted, &man.ssh.1; would initiate a normal session. -f forces &man.ssh.1; to run in the background. -L indicates a local tunnel in localport:localhost:remoteport fashion. foo.bar.com is the remote/target SSH server. An SSH tunnel works by creating a listen socket on the specified local host and port. It then forwards any connection to the local host/port via the SSH connection to the remote machine on the specified remote port. In the example, port 5023 on localhost is being forwarded to port 23 on the remote machine. Since 23 is telnet, this would create a secure telnet session through an SSH tunnel. This can be used to wrap any number of insecure TCP protocols such as smtp, pop3, ftp, etc. A typical SSH Tunnel &prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 5025:localhost:25 user@mailserver.foobar.com user@mailserver.foobar.com's password: ***** &prompt.user; telnet localhost 5025 Trying 127.0.0.1... Connected to localhost. Escape character is '^]'. 220 mailserver.foobar.com ESMTP This can be used in conjunction with an &man.ssh-keygen.1; and additional user accounts to create a more seamless/hassle-free SSH tunneling environment. Keys can be used in place of typing a password, and the tunnels can be run as a separate user. Further Reading OpenSSH &man.ssh.1; &man.scp.1; &man.ssh-keygen.1; &man.ssh-agent.1; &man.ssh-add.1; &man.sshd.8; &man.sftp-server.8; diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml index 04280e3ff4..2bc17f0519 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml @@ -1,2767 +1,2767 @@ Serial Communications Synopsis serial communications Unix has always had support for serial communications. In fact, the very first Unix machines relied on serial lines for user input and output. Things have changed a lot from the days when the average terminal consisted of a 10-character-per-second serial printer and a keyboard. This chapter will cover some of the ways in which FreeBSD uses serial communications. Serial Basics Assembled from FAQ. This section should give you some general information about serial ports. If you do not find what you want here, check into the Terminal and Dial-up sections of the handbook. ttyd cuaa The ttydX (or cuaaX) device is the regular device you will want to open for your applications. When a process opens the device, it will have a default set of terminal I/O settings. You can see these settings with the command &prompt.root; stty -a -f /dev/ttyd1 When you change the settings to this device, the settings are in effect until the device is closed. When it is reopened, it goes back to the default set. To make changes to the default set, you can open and adjust the settings of the initial state device. For example, to turn on CLOCAL mode, 8 bits, and XON/XOFF flow control by default for ttyd5, do: &prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyid5 clocal cs8 ixon ixoff rc files rc.serial A good place to do this is in /etc/rc.serial. Now, an application will have these settings by default when it opens ttyd5. It can still change these settings to its liking, though. You can also prevent certain settings from being changed by an application by making adjustments to the lock state device. For example, to lock the speed of ttyd5 to 57600 bps, do &prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyld5 57600 Now, an application that opens ttyd5 and tries to change the speed of the port will be stuck with 57600 bps. MAKEDEV Naturally, you should make the initial state and lock state devices writable only by root. The MAKEDEV script does not do this when it creates the device entries. Terminals terminals Contributed by &a.kelly; 28 July 1996 Terminals provide a convenient and low-cost way to access the power of your FreeBSD system when you are not at the computer's console or on a connected network. This section describes how to use terminals with FreeBSD. Uses and Types of Terminals The original Unix systems did not have consoles. Instead, people logged in and ran programs through terminals that were connected to the computer's serial ports. It is quite similar to using a modem and some terminal software to dial into a remote system to do text-only work. Today's PCs have consoles capable of high quality graphics, but the ability to establish a login session on a serial port still exists in nearly every Unix-style operating system today; FreeBSD is no exception. By using a terminal attached to a unused serial port, you can log in and run any text program that you would normally run on the console or in an xterm window in the X Window System. For the business user, you can attach many terminals to a FreeBSD system and place them on your employees' desktops. For a home user, a spare computer such as an older IBM PC or a Macintosh can be a terminal wired into a more powerful computer running FreeBSD. You can turn what might otherwise be a single-user computer into a powerful multiple user system. For FreeBSD, there are three kinds of terminals: Dumb terminals PCs acting as terminals X terminals The remaining subsections describe each kind. Dumb Terminals Dumb terminals are specialized pieces of hardware that let you connect to computers over serial lines. They are called dumb because they have only enough computational power to display, send, and receive text. You cannot run any programs on them. It is the computer to which you connect them that has all the power to run text editors, compilers, email, games, and so forth. There are hundreds of kinds of dumb terminals made by many manufacturers, including Digital Equipment Corporation's VT-100 and Wyse's WY-75. Just about any kind will work with FreeBSD. Some high-end terminals can even display graphics, but only certain software packages can take advantage of these advanced features. Dumb terminals are popular in work environments where workers do not need access to graphic applications such as those provided by the X Window System. PCs Acting As Terminals If a dumb terminal has just enough ability to display, send, and receive text, then certainly any spare personal computer can be a dumb terminal. All you need is the proper cable and some terminal emulation software to run on the computer. Such a configuration is popular in homes. For example, if your spouse is busy working on your FreeBSD system's console, you can do some text-only work at the same time from a less powerful personal computer hooked up as a terminal to the FreeBSD system. X Terminals X terminals are the most sophisticated kind of terminal available. Instead of connecting to a serial port, they usually connect to a network like Ethernet. Instead of being relegated to text-only applications, they can display any X application. We introduce X terminals just for the sake of completeness. However, this chapter does not cover setup, configuration, or use of X terminals. Cables and Ports To connect a terminal to your FreeBSD system, you need the right kind of cable and a serial port to which to connect it. This section tells you what to do. If you are already familiar with your terminal and the cable it requires, skip to Configuration. Cables Because terminals use serial ports, you need to use serial—also known as RS-232C—cables to connect the terminal to the FreeBSD system. There are a couple of kinds of serial cables. Which one you'll use depends on the terminal you want to connect: null-modem cable If you are connecting a personal computer to act as a terminal, use a null-modem cable. A null-modem cable connects two computers or terminals together. If you have an actual terminal, your best source of information on what cable to use is the documentation that accompanied the terminal. If you do not have the documentation, then try a null-modem cable. If that does not work, then try a standard cable. Also, the serial port on both the terminal and your FreeBSD system must have connectors that will fit the cable you are using. Null-modem cables A null-modem cable passes some signals straight through, like signal ground, but switches other signals. For example, the send data pin on one end goes to the receive data pin on the other end. If you like making your own cables, here is a table showing a recommended way to construct a null-modem cable for use with terminals. This table shows the RS-232C signal names and the pin numbers on a DB-25 connector. Signal Pin # Pin # Signal TxD 2 connects to 3 RxD RxD 3 connects to 2 TxD DTR 20 connects to 6 DSR DSR 6 connects to 20 DTR SG 7 connects to 7 SG DCD 8 connects to 4 RTS RTS 4 5 CTS CTS 5 connects to 8 DCD For DCD to RTS, connect pins 4 to 5 internally in the connector hood, and then to pin 8 in the remote hood. Standard RS-232C Cables RS-232C cables A standard serial cable passes all the RS-232C signals straight-through. That is, the send data pin on one end of the cable goes to the send data pin on the other end. This is the type of cable to connect a modem to your FreeBSD system, and the type of cable needed for some terminals. Ports Serial ports are the devices through which data is transferred between the FreeBSD host computer and the terminal. This section describes the kinds of ports that exist and how they are addressed in FreeBSD. Kinds of Ports Several kinds of serial ports exist. Before you purchase or construct a cable, you need to make sure it will fit the ports on your terminal and on the FreeBSD system. Most terminals will have DB25 ports. Personal computers, including PCs running FreeBSD, will have DB25 or DB9 ports. If you have a multiport serial card for your PC, you may have RJ-12 or RJ-45 ports. See the documentation that accompanied the hardware for specifications on the kind of port in use. A visual inspection of the port often works, too. Port Names In FreeBSD, you access each serial port through an entry in the /dev directory. There are two different kinds of entries: Call-in ports are named /dev/ttydX where X is the port number, starting from zero. Generally, you use the call-in port for terminals. Call-in ports require that the serial line assert the data carrier detect (DCD) signal to work. Call-out ports are named /dev/cuaaX. You usually do not use the call-out port for terminals, just for modems. You may use the call-out port if the serial cable or the terminal does not support the carrier detect signal. See the &man.sio.4; manual page for more information. If you have connected a terminal to the first serial port (COM1 in DOS parlance), then you want to use /dev/ttyd0 to refer to the terminal. If it is on the second serial port (also known as COM2), it is /dev/ttyd1, and so forth. Note that you may have to configure your kernel to support each serial port, especially if you have a multiport serial card. See Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel for more information. Configuration This section describes what you need to configure on your FreeBSD system to enable a login session on a terminal. It assumes you have already configured your kernel to support the serial port to which the terminal is connected—and that you have connected it. In a nutshell, you need to tell the init process, which is responsible for process control and initialization, to start a getty process, which is responsible for reading a login name and starting the login program. To do so, you have to edit the /etc/ttys file. First, use the su command to become root. Then, make the following changes to /etc/ttys: Add an line to /etc/ttys for the entry in the /dev directory for the serial port if it is not already there. Specify that /usr/libexec/getty be run on the port, and specify the appropriate getty type from the /etc/gettytab file. Specify the default terminal type. Set the port to on. Specify whether the port should be secure. Force init to reread the /etc/ttys file. As an optional step, you may wish to create a custom getty type for use in step 2 by making an entry in /etc/gettytab. This document does not explain how to do so; you are encouraged to see the &man.gettytab.5; and the &man.getty.8; manual pages for more information. The remaining sections detail how to do these steps. We will use a running example throughout these sections to illustrate what we need to do. In our example, we will connect two terminals to the system: a Wyse-50 and a old 286 IBM PC running Procomm terminal software emulating a VT-100 terminal. We connect the Wyse to the second serial port and the 286 to the sixth serial port (a port on a multiport serial card). For more information on the /etc/ttys file, see the &man.ttys.5; manual page. Adding an Entry to <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> First, you need to add an entry to the /etc/ttys file, unless one is already there. The /etc/ttys file lists all of the ports on your FreeBSD system where you want to allow logins. For example, the first virtual console ttyv0 has an entry in this file. You can log in on the console using this entry. This file contains entries for the other virtual consoles, serial ports, and pseudo-ttys. For a hardwired terminal, just list the serial port's /dev entry without the /dev part. When you installed your FreeBSD system, the /etc/ttys file included entries for the first four serial ports: ttyd0 through ttyd3. If you are attaching a terminal on one of those ports, you do not need to add an entry. In our example, we attached a Wyse-50 to the second serial port, ttyd1, which is already in the file. We need to add an entry for the 286 PC connected to the sixth serial port. Here is an excerpt of the /etc/ttys file after we add the new entry: ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd5 Specifying the <replaceable>getty</replaceable> Type Next, we need to specify what program will be run to handle the logins on a terminal. For FreeBSD, the standard program to do that is /usr/libexec/getty. It is what provides the login: prompt. The program getty takes one (optional) parameter on its command line, the getty type. A getty type tells about characteristics on the terminal line, like bps rate and parity. The getty program reads these characteristics from the file /etc/gettytab. The file /etc/gettytab contains lots of entries for terminal lines both old and new. In almost all cases, the entries that start with the text std will work for hardwired terminals. These entries ignore parity. There is a std entry for each bps rate from 110 to 115200. Of course, you can add your own entries to this file. The manual page &man.gettytab.5; provides more information. When setting the getty type in the /etc/ttys file, make sure that the communications settings on the terminal match. For our example, the Wyse-50 uses no parity and connects at 38400 bps. The 286 PC uses no parity and connects at 19200 bps. Here is the /etc/ttys file so far (showing just the two terminals in which we are interested): ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" unknown off secure ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" Note that the second field—where we specify what program to run—appears in quotes. This is important, otherwise the type argument to getty might be interpreted as the next field. Specifying the Default Terminal Type The third field in the /etc/ttys file lists the default terminal type for the port. For dial-up ports, you typically put unknown or dialup in this field because users may dial up with practically any kind of terminal or software. For hardwired terminals, the terminal type does not change, so you can put a real terminal type in this field. Users will usually use the tset program in their .login or .profile files to check the terminal type and prompt for one if necessary. By setting a terminal type in the /etc/ttys file, users can forego such prompting. termcap To find out what terminal types FreeBSD supports, see the file /usr/share/misc/termcap. It lists about 600 terminal types. You can add more if you wish. See the &man.termcap.5; manual page for information. In our example, the Wyse-50 is a Wyse-50 type of terminal (although it can emulate others, we will leave it in Wyse-50 mode). The 286 PC is running Procomm which will be set to emulate a VT-100. Here are the pertinent yet unfinished entries from the /etc/ttys file: ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wy50 off secure ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" vt100 Enabling the Port The next field in /etc/ttys, the fourth field, tells whether to enable the port. Putting on here will have the init process start the program in the second field, getty, which will prompt for a login. If you put off in the fourth field, there will be no getty, and hence no logins on the port. So, naturally, you want an on in this field. Here again is the /etc/ttys file. We have turned each port on. ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wy50 on secure ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" vt100 on Specifying Secure Ports We have arrived at the last field (well, almost: there is an optional window specifier, but we will ignore that). The last field tells whether the port is secure. What does secure mean? It means that the root account (or any account with a user ID of 0) may login on the port. Insecure ports do not allow root to login. How do you use secure and insecure ports? By marking a port as insecure, the terminal to which it is connected will not allow root to login. People who know the root password to your FreeBSD system will first have to login using a regular user account. To gain superuser privileges, they will then have to use the su command. Because of this, you will have two records to help track down possible compromises of root privileges: both the login and the su command make records in the system log (and logins are also recorded in the wtmp file). By marking a port as secure, the terminal will allow root in. People who know the root password will just login as root. You will not have the potentially useful login and su command records. Which should you use? Just use insecure. Use insecure even for terminals not in public user areas or behind locked doors. It is quite easy to login and use su if you need superuser privileges. Here finally are the completed entries in the /etc/ttys file, with comments added to describe where the terminals are: ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wy50 on insecure # Kitchen ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" vt100 on insecure # Guest bathroom Force <command>init</command> to Reread <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> When you boot FreeBSD, the first process, init, will read the /etc/ttys file and start the programs listed for each enabled port to prompt for logins. After you edit /etc/ttys, you do not want to have to reboot your system to get init to see the changes. So, init will reread /etc/ttys if it receives a SIGHUP (hangup) signal. So, after you have saved your changes to /etc/ttys, send SIGHUP to init by typing: &prompt.root; kill -HUP 1 (The init process always has process ID 1.) If everything is set up correctly, all cables are in place, and the terminals are powered up, you should see login prompts. Your terminals are ready for their first logins! Debugging your connection Even with the most meticulous attention to detail, something could still go wrong while setting up a terminal. Here is a list of symptoms and some suggested fixes. No login prompt appears Make sure the terminal is plugged in and powered up. If it is a personal computer acting as a terminal, make sure it is running terminal emulation software on the correct serial port. Make sure the cable is connected firmly to both the terminal and the FreeBSD computer. Make sure it is the right kind of cable. Make sure the terminal and FreeBSD agree on the bps rate and parity settings. If you have a video display terminal, make sure the contrast and brightness controls are turned up. If it is a printing terminal, make sure paper and ink are in good supply. Make sure that a getty process is running and serving the terminal. Type &prompt.root; ps -axww|grep getty to get a list of running getty processes. You should see an entry for the terminal. For example, the display 22189 d1 Is+ 0:00.03 /usr/libexec/getty std.38400 ttyd1 shows that a getty is running on the second serial port ttyd1 and is using the std.38400 entry in /etc/gettytab. If no getty process is running, make sure you have enabled the port in /etc/ttys. Make sure you have run kill -HUP 1. Garbage appears instead of a login prompt Make sure the terminal and FreeBSD agree on the bps rate and parity settings. Check the getty processes to make sure the correct getty type is in use. If not, edit /etc/ttys and run kill -HUP 1. Characters appear doubled; the password appears when typed Switch the terminal (or the terminal emulation software) from half duplex or local echo to full duplex. Dial-in Service dial-in service Contributed by &a.ghelmer;. This document provides suggestions for configuring a FreeBSD system to handle dial-up modems. This document is written based on the author's experience with FreeBSD versions 1.0, 1.1, and 1.1.5.1 (and experience with dial-up modems on other Unix-like operating systems); however, this document may not answer all of your questions or provide examples specific enough to your environment. The author cannot be responsible if you damage your system or lose data due to attempting to follow the suggestions here. Prerequisites To begin with, the author assumes you have some basic knowledge of FreeBSD. You need to have FreeBSD installed, know how to edit files in a Unix-like environment, and how to look up manual pages on the system. As discussed below, you will need certain versions of FreeBSD, and knowledge of some terminology & modem and cabling. FreeBSD Version First, it is assumed that you are using FreeBSD version 1.1 or higher (including versions 2.X). FreeBSD version 1.0 included two different serial drivers, which complicates the situation. Also, the serial device driver (sio) has improved in every release of FreeBSD, so more recent versions of FreeBSD are assumed to have better and more efficient drivers than earlier versions. Terminology A quick rundown of terminology: bps - bps + bits-per-second Bits per Second — the rate at which data is transmitted DTE DTE Data Terminal Equipment — for example, your computer DCE DCE Data Communications Equipment — your modem RS-232 - RS-232 + RS-232C cables EIA standard for serial communications via hardware If you need more information about these terms and data communications in general, the author remembers reading that The RS-232 Bible (anybody have an ISBN?) is a good reference. When talking about communications data rates, the author does not use the term baud. Baud refers to the number of electrical state transitions that may be made in a period of time, while bps (bits per second) is the correct term to use (at least it does not seem to bother the curmudgeons quite a much). External v.s. Internal Modems External modems seem to be more convenient for dial-up, because external modems often can be semi-permanently configured via parameters stored in non-volatile RAM and they usually provide lighted indicators that display the state of important RS-232 signals. Blinking lights impress visitors, but lights are also very useful to see whether a modem is operating properly. Internal modems usually lack non-volatile RAM, so their configuration may be limited only to setting DIP switches. If your internal modem has any signal indicator lights, it is probably difficult to view the lights when the system's cover is in place. Modems and Cables A background knowledge of these items is assumed You know how to connect your modem to your computer so that the two can communicate (unless you have an internal modem, which does not need such a cable) You are familiar with your modem's command set, or know where to look up needed commands You know how to configure your modem (probably via a terminal communications program) so you can set the non-volatile RAM parameters The first, connecting your modem, is usually simple — most straight-through serial cables work without any problems. You need to have a cable with appropriate connectors (DB-25 or DB-9, male or female) on each end, and the cable must be a DCE-to-DTE cable with these signals wired: modem commands Transmitted Data (SD) Received Data (RD) Request to Send (RTS) Clear to Send (CTS) Data Set Ready (DSR) Data Terminal Ready (DTR) Carrier Detect (CD) Signal Ground (SG) FreeBSD needs the RTS and CTS signals for flow-control at speeds above 2400bps, the CD signal to detect when a call has been answered or the line has been hung up, and the DTR signal to reset the modem after a session is complete. Some cables are wired without all of the needed signals, so if you have problems, such as a login session not going away when the line hangs up, you may have a problem with your cable. The second prerequisite depends on the modem(s) you use. If you do not know your modem's command set by heart, you will need to have the modem's reference book or user's guide handy. Sample commands for USR Sportster 14,400 external modems will be given, which you may be able to use as a reference for your own modem's commands. Lastly, you will need to know how to setup your modem so that it will work well with FreeBSD. Like other Unix-like operating systems, FreeBSD uses the hardware signals to find out when a call has been answered or a line has been hung up and to hangup and reset the modem after a call. FreeBSD avoids sending commands to the modem or watching for status reports from the modem. If you are familiar with connecting modems to PC-based bulletin board systems, this may seem awkward. Serial Interface Considerations FreeBSD supports NS8250-, NS16450-, NS16550-, and NS16550A-based EIA RS-232C (CCITT V.24) communications interfaces. The 8250 and 16450 devices have single-character buffers. The 16550 device provides a 16-character buffer, which allows for better system performance. (Bugs in plain 16550's prevent the use of the 16-character buffer, so use 16550A's if possible). Because single-character-buffer devices require more work by the operating system than the 16-character-buffer devices, 16550A-based serial interface cards are much preferred. If the system has many active serial ports or will have a heavy load, 16550A-based cards are better for low-error-rate communications. Quick Overview Here is the process that FreeBSD follows to accept dial-up logins. A getty process, spawned by init, patiently waits to open the assigned serial port (/dev/ttyd0, for our example). The command ps ax might show this: 4850 ?? I 0:00.09 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0 When a user dials the modem's line and the modems connect, the CD line is asserted by the modem. The kernel notices that carrier has been detected and completes getty's open of the port. getty sends a login: prompt at the specified initial line speed. getty watches to see if legitimate characters are received, and, in a typical configuration, if it finds junk (probably due to the modem's connection speed being different than getty's speed), getty tries adjusting the line speeds until it receives reasonable characters. /usr/bin/login We hope getty finds the correct speed and the user sees a login: prompt. After the user enters his/her login name, getty executes /usr/bin/login, which completes the login by asking for the user's password and then starting the user's shell. Let's dive into the configuration... Kernel Configuration FreeBSD kernels typically come prepared to search for four serial ports, known in the MS-DOS world as COM1:, COM2:, COM3:, and COM4:. FreeBSD can presently also handle dumb multiport serial interface cards, such as the Boca Board 1008 and 2016 (please see the manual page &man.sio.4; for kernel configuration information if you have a multiport serial card). The default kernel only looks for the standard COM ports, though. To see if your kernel recognizes any of your serial ports, watch for messages while the kernel is booting, or use the /sbin/dmesg command to replay the kernel's boot messages. In particular, look for messages that start with the characters sio. Hint: to view just the messages that have the word sio, use the command: &prompt.root; /sbin/dmesg | grep 'sio' For example, on a system with four serial ports, these are the serial-port specific kernel boot messages: sio0 at 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 on isa sio0: type 16550A sio1 at 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa sio1: type 16550A sio2 at 0x3e8-0x3ef irq 5 on isa sio2: type 16550A sio3 at 0x2e8-0x2ef irq 9 on isa sio3: type 16550A If your kernel does not recognize all of your serial ports, you will probably need to configure a custom FreeBSD kernel for your system. Please see the BSD System Manager's Manual chapter on Building Berkeley Kernels with Config [the source for which is in /usr/src/share/doc/smm] and FreeBSD Configuration Options [in /sys/conf/options and in /sys/arch/conf/options.arch, with arch for example being i386] for more information on configuring and building kernels. You may have to unpack the kernel source distribution if have not installed the system sources already (srcdist/srcsys.?? in FreeBSD 1.1, srcdist/sys.?? in FreeBSD 1.1.5.1, or the entire source distribution in FreeBSD 2.0) to be able to configure and build kernels. Create a kernel configuration file for your system (if you have not already) by cding to /sys/i386/conf. Then, if you are creating a new custom configuration file, copy the file GENERICAH (or GENERICBT, if you have a BusTek SCSI controller on FreeBSD 1.x) to YOURSYS, where YOURSYS is the name of your system, but in upper-case letters. Edit the file, and change the device lines: device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty irq 4 vector siointr device sio1 at isa? port "IO_COM2" tty irq 3 vector siointr device sio2 at isa? port "IO_COM3" tty irq 5 vector siointr device sio3 at isa? port "IO_COM4" tty irq 9 vector siointr You can comment-out or completely remove lines for devices you do not have. If you have a multiport serial board, such as the Boca Board BB2016, please see the &man.sio.4; man page for complete information on how to write configuration lines for multiport boards. Be careful if you are using a configuration file that was previously used for a different version of FreeBSD because the device flags have changed between versions. port "IO_COM1" is a substitution for port 0x3f8, IO_COM2 is 0x2f8, IO_COM3 is 0x3e8, and IO_COM4 is 0x2e8, which are fairly common port addresses for their respective serial ports; interrupts 4, 3, 5, and 9 are fairly common interrupt request lines. Also note that regular serial ports cannot share interrupts on ISA-bus PCs (multiport boards have on-board electronics that allow all the 16550A's on the board to share one or two interrupt request lines). When you are finished adjusting the kernel configuration file, use the program config as documented in Building Berkeley Kernels with Config and the &man.config.8; manual page to prepare a kernel building directory, then build, install, and test the new kernel. Device Special Files Most devices in the kernel are accessed through device special files, which are located in the /dev directory. The sio devices are accessed through the /dev/ttyd? (dial-in) and /dev/cuaa? (call-out) devices. On FreeBSD version 1.1.5 and higher, there are also initialization devices (/dev/ttyid? and /dev/cuai0?) and locking devices (/dev/ttyld? and /dev/cual0?). The initialization devices are used to initialize communications port parameters each time a port is opened, such as crtscts for modems which use CTS/RTS signaling for flow control. The locking devices are used to lock flags on ports to prevent users or programs changing certain parameters; see the manual pages &man.termios.4;, &man.sio.4;, and &man.stty.1; for information on the terminal settings, locking & initializing devices, and setting terminal options, respectively. Making Device Special Files A shell script called MAKEDEV in the /dev directory manages the device special files. (The manual page for &man.MAKEDEV.8; on FreeBSD 1.1.5 is fairly bogus in its discussion of COM ports, so ignore it.) To use MAKEDEV to make dial-up device special files for COM1: (port 0), cd to /dev and issue the command MAKEDEV ttyd0. Likewise, to make dial-up device special files for COM2: (port 1), use MAKEDEV ttyd1. MAKEDEV not only creates the /dev/ttyd? device special files, but also creates the /dev/cuaa? (and all of the initializing and locking special files under FreeBSD 1.1.5 and up) and removes the hardwired terminal special file /dev/tty0?, if it exists. After making new device special files, be sure to check the permissions on the files (especially the /dev/cua* files) to make sure that only users who should have access to those device special files can read & write on them — you probably do not want to allow your average user to use your modems to dial-out. The default permissions on the /dev/cua* files should be sufficient: crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 129 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cuaa1 crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 161 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cuaia1 crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 193 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cuala1 These permissions allow the user uucp and users in the group dialer to use the call-out devices. Configuration Files There are three system configuration files in the /etc directory that you will probably need to edit to allow dial-up access to your FreeBSD system. The first, /etc/gettytab, contains configuration information for the /usr/libexec/getty daemon. Second, /etc/ttys holds information that tells /sbin/init what tty devices should have getty processes running on them. Lastly, you can place port initialization commands in the /etc/rc.serial script if you have FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 or higher; otherwise, you can initialize ports in the /etc/rc.local script. There are two schools of thought regarding dial-up modems on Unix. One group likes to configure their modems and system so that no matter at what speed a remote user dials in, the local computer-to-modem RS-232 interface runs at a locked speed. The benefit of this configuration is that the remote user always sees a system login prompt immediately. The downside is that the system does not know what a user's true data rate is, so full-screen programs like Emacs will not adjust their screen-painting methods to make their response better for slower connections. The other school configures their modems' RS-232 interface to vary its speed based on the remote user's connection speed. For example, V.32bis (14.4 Kbps) connections to the modem might make the modem run its RS-232 interface at 19.2 Kbps, while 2400 bps connections make the modem's RS-232 interface run at 2400 bps. Because getty does not understand any particular modem's connection speed reporting, getty gives a login: message at an initial speed and watches the characters that come back in response. If the user sees junk, it is assumed that they know they should press the <Enter> key until they see a recognizable prompt. If the data rates do not match, getty sees anything the user types as junk, tries going to the next speed and gives the login: prompt again. This procedure can continue ad nauseam, but normally only takes a keystroke or two before the user sees a good prompt. Obviously, this login sequence does not look as clean as the former locked-speed method, but a user on a low-speed connection should receive better interactive response from full-screen programs. The author will try to give balanced configuration information, but is biased towards having the modem's data rate follow the connection rate. <filename>/etc/gettytab</filename> /etc/gettytab /etc/gettytab is a &man.termcap.5;-style file of configuration information for &man.getty.8;. Please see the &man.gettytab.5; manual page for complete information on the format of the file and the list of capabilities. Locked-Speed Config If you are locking your modem's data communications rate at a particular speed, you probably will not need to make any changes to /etc/gettytab. Matching-Speed Config You will need to setup an entry in /etc/gettytab to give getty information about the speeds you wish to use for your modem. If you have a 2400 bps modem, you can probably use the existing D2400 entry. This entry already exists in the FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 gettytab file, so you do not need to add it unless it is missing under your version of FreeBSD: # # Fast dialup terminals, 2400/1200/300 rotary (can start either way) # D2400|d2400|Fast-Dial-2400:\ :nx=D1200:tc=2400-baud: 3|D1200|Fast-Dial-1200:\ :nx=D300:tc=1200-baud: 5|D300|Fast-Dial-300:\ :nx=D2400:tc=300-baud: If you have a higher speed modem, you will probably need to add an entry in /etc/gettytab; here is an entry you could use for a 14.4 Kbps modem with a top interface speed of 19.2 Kbps: # # Additions for a V.32bis Modem # um|V300|High Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\ :nx=V19200:tc=std.300: un|V1200|High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\ :nx=V300:tc=std.1200: uo|V2400|High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\ :nx=V1200:tc=std.2400: up|V9600|High Speed Modem at 9600,8-bit:\ :nx=V2400:tc=std.9600: uq|V19200|High Speed Modem at 19200,8-bit:\ :nx=V9600:tc=std.19200: On FreeBSD 1.1.5 and later, this will result in 8-bit, no parity connections. Under FreeBSD 1.1, add :np: parameters to the std.xxx entries at the top of the file for 8 bits, no parity; otherwise, the default is 7 bits, even parity. The example above starts the communications rate at 19.2 Kbps (for a V.32bis connection), then cycles through 9600 bps (for V.32), 2400 bps, 1200 bps, 300 bps, and back to 19.2 Kbps. Communications rate cycling is implemented with the nx= (next table) capability. Each of the lines uses a tc= (table continuation) entry to pick up the rest of the standard settings for a particular data rate. If you have a 28.8 Kbps modem and/or you want to take advantage of compression on a 14.4 Kbps modem, you need to use a higher communications rate than 19.2 Kbps. Here is an example of a gettytab entry starting a 57.6 Kbps: # # Additions for a V.32bis or V.34 Modem # Starting at 57.6 Kbps # vm|VH300|Very High Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\ :nx=VH57600:tc=std.300: vn|VH1200|Very High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\ :nx=VH300:tc=std.1200: vo|VH2400|Very High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\ :nx=VH1200:tc=std.2400: vp|VH9600|Very High Speed Modem at 9600,8-bit:\ :nx=VH2400:tc=std.9600: vq|VH57600|Very High Speed Modem at 57600,8-bit:\ :nx=VH9600:tc=std.57600: If you have a slow CPU or a heavily loaded system and you do not have 16550A-based serial ports, you may receive sio silo errors at 57.6 Kbps. <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> /etc/ttys /etc/ttys is the list of ttys for init to monitor. /etc/ttys also provides security information to login (user root may only login on ttys marked secure). See the manual page for &man.ttys.5; for more information. You will need to either modify existing lines in /etc/ttys or add new lines to make init run getty processes automatically on your new dial-up ports. The general format of the line will be the same, whether you are using a locked-speed or matching-speed configuration: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty xxx" dialup on The first item in the above line is the device special file for this entry — ttyd0 means /dev/ttyd0 is the file that this getty will be watching. The second item, "/usr/libexec/getty xxx" (xxx will be replaced by the initial gettytab capability) is the process init will run on the device. The third item, dialup, is the default terminal type. The fourth parameter, on, indicates to init that the line is operational. There can be a fifth parameter, secure, but it should only be used for terminals which are physically secure (such as the system console). The default terminal type (dialup in the example above) may depend on local preferences. dialup is the traditional default terminal type on dial-up lines so that users may customize their login scripts to notice when the terminal is dialup and automatically adjust their terminal type. However, the author finds it easier at his site to specify vt102 as the default terminal type, since the users just use VT102 emulation on their remote systems. After you have made changes to /etc/ttys, you may send the init process a HUP signal to re-read the file. You can use the command &prompt.root; kill -HUP 1 to send the signal. If this is your first time setting up the system, though, you may want to wait until your modem(s) are properly configured and connected before signaling init. Locked-Speed Config For a locked-speed configuration, your ttys entry needs to have a fixed-speed entry provided to getty. For a modem whose port speed is locked at 19.2 Kbps, the ttys entry might look like this: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" dialup on If your modem is locked at a different data rate, substitute the appropriate name for the std.speed entry for std.19200 from /etc/gettytab for your modem's data rate. Matching-Speed Config In a matching-speed configuration, your ttys entry needs to reference the appropriate beginning auto-baud (sic) entry in /etc/gettytab. For example, if you added the above suggested entry for a matching-speed modem that starts at 19.2 Kbps (the gettytab entry containing the V19200 starting point), your ttys entry might look like this: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty V19200" dialup on <filename>/etc/rc.serial</filename> or <filename>/etc/rc.local</filename> rc files rc.local rc files rc.serial High-speed modems, like V.32, V.32bis, and V.34 modems, need to use hardware (RTS/CTS) flow control. You can add stty commands to /etc/rc.serial on FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 and up, or /etc/rc.local on FreeBSD 1.1, to set the hardware flow control flag in the FreeBSD kernel for the modem ports. For example, on a sample FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 system, /etc/rc.serial reads: #!/bin/sh # # Serial port initial configuration stty -f /dev/ttyid1 crtscts stty -f /dev/cuai01 crtscts This sets the termios flag crtscts on serial port #1's (COM2:) dial-in and dial-out initialization devices. On an old FreeBSD 1.1 system, these entries were added to /etc/rc.local to set the crtscts flag on the devices: # Set serial ports to use RTS/CTS flow control stty -f /dev/ttyd0 crtscts stty -f /dev/ttyd1 crtscts stty -f /dev/ttyd2 crtscts stty -f /dev/ttyd3 crtscts Since there is no initialization device special file on FreeBSD 1.1, one has to just set the flags on the sole device special file and hope the flags are not cleared by a miscreant. Modem Settings If you have a modem whose parameters may be permanently set in non-volatile RAM, you will need to use a terminal program (such as Telix under MS-DOS or tip under FreeBSD) to set the parameters. Connect to the modem using the same communications speed as the initial speed getty will use and configure the modem's non-volatile RAM to match these requirements: CD asserted when connected DTR asserted for operation; dropping DTR hangs up line & resets modem CTS transmitted data flow control Disable XON/XOFF flow control RTS received data flow control Quiet mode (no result codes) No command echo Please read the documentation for your modem to find out what commands and/or DIP switch settings you need to give it. For example, to set the above parameters on a USRobotics Sportster 14,400 external modem, one could give these commands to the modem: ATZ AT&C1&D2&H1&I0&R2&W You might also want to take this opportunity to adjust other settings in the modem, such as whether it will use V.42bis and/or MNP5 compression. The USR Sportster 14,400 external modem also has some DIP switches that need to be set; for other modems, perhaps you can use these settings as an example: Switch 1: UP — DTR Normal Switch 2: Do not care (Verbal Result Codes/Numeric Result Codes) Switch 3: UP — Suppress Result Codes Switch 4: DOWN — No echo, offline commands Switch 5: UP — Auto Answer Switch 6: UP — Carrier Detect Normal Switch 7: UP — Load NVRAM Defaults Switch 8: Do not care (Smart Mode/Dumb Mode) Result codes should be disabled/suppressed for dial-up modems to avoid problems that can occur if getty mistakenly gives a login: prompt to a modem that is in command mode and the modem echoes the command or returns a result code. I have heard this sequence can result in a extended, silly conversation between getty and the modem. Locked-speed Config For a locked-speed configuration, you will need to configure the modem to maintain a constant modem-to-computer data rate independent of the communications rate. On a USR Sportster 14,400 external modem, these commands will lock the modem-to-computer data rate at the speed used to issue the commands: ATZ AT&B1&W Matching-speed Config For a variable-speed configuration, you will need to configure your modem to adjust its serial port data rate to match the incoming call rate. On a USR Sportster 14,400 external modem, these commands will lock the modem's error-corrected data rate to the speed used to issue the commands, but allow the serial port rate to vary for non-error-corrected connections: ATZ AT&B2&W Checking the Modem's Configuration Most high-speed modems provide commands to view the modem's current operating parameters in a somewhat human-readable fashion. On the USR Sportster 14,400 external modems, the command ATI5 displays the settings that are stored in the non-volatile RAM. To see the true operating parameters of the modem (as influenced by the USR's DIP switch settings), use the commands ATZ and then ATI4. If you have a different brand of modem, check your modem's manual to see how to double-check your modem's configuration parameters. Troubleshooting Here are a few steps you can follow to check out the dial-up modem on your system. Checking out the FreeBSD system Hook up your modem to your FreeBSD system, boot the system, and, if your modem has status indication lights, watch to see whether the modem's DTR indicator lights when the login: prompt appears on the system's console — if it lights up, that should mean that FreeBSD has started a getty process on the appropriate communications port and is waiting for the modem to accept a call. If the DTR indicator doesn't light, login to the FreeBSD system through the console and issue a ps ax to see if FreeBSD is trying to run a getty process on the correct port. You should see a lines like this among the processes displayed: 114 ?? I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0 115 ?? I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd1 If you see something different, like this: 114 d0 I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0 and the modem has not accepted a call yet, this means that getty has completed its open on the communications port. This could indicate a problem with the cabling or a mis-configured modem, because getty should not be able to open the communications port until CD (carrier detect) has been asserted by the modem. If you do not see any getty processes waiting to open the desired ttyd? port, double-check your entries in /etc/ttys to see if there are any mistakes there. Also, check the log file /var/log/messages to see if there are any log messages from init or getty regarding any problems. If there are any messages, triple-check the configuration files /etc/ttys and /etc/gettytab, as well as the appropriate device special files /dev/ttyd?, for any mistakes, missing entries, or missing device special files. Try Dialing In Try dialing into the system; be sure to use 8 bits, no parity, 1 stop bit on the remote system. If you do not get a prompt right away, or get garbage, try pressing <Enter> about once per second. If you still do not see a login: prompt after a while, try sending a BREAK. If you are using a high-speed modem to do the dialing, try dialing again after locking the dialing modem's interface speed (via AT&B1 on a USR Sportster, for example). If you still cannot get a login: prompt, check /etc/gettytab again and double-check that The initial capability name specified in /etc/ttys for the line matches a name of a capability in /etc/gettytab Each nx= entry matches another gettytab capability name Each tc= entry matches another gettytab capability name If you dial but the modem on the FreeBSD system will not answer, make sure that the modem is configured to answer the phone when DTR is asserted. If the modem seems to be configured correctly, verify that the DTR line is asserted by checking the modem's indicator lights (if it has any). If you have gone over everything several times and it still does not work, take a break and come back to it later. If it still does not work, perhaps you can send an electronic mail message to the &a.questions;describing your modem and your problem, and the good folks on the list will try to help. Acknowledgments Thanks to these people for comments and advice: &a.kelly; for a number of good suggestions Dial-out Service dial-out service Information integrated from FAQ. The following are tips to getting your host to be able to connect over the modem to another computer. This is appropriate for establishing a terminal session with a remote host. This is useful to log onto a BBS. This kind of connection can be extremely helpful to get a file on the Internet if you have problems with PPP. If you need to FTP something and PPP is broken, use the terminal session to FTP it. Then use zmodem to transfer it to your machine. Why cannot I run <command>tip</command> or <command>cu</command>? On your system, the programs tip and cu are probably executable only by uucp and group dialer. You can use the group dialer to control who has access to your modem or remote systems. Just add yourself to group dialer. Alternatively, you can let everyone on your system run tip and cu by typing: &prompt.root; chmod 4511 /usr/bin/tip You do not have to run this command for cu, since cu is just a hard link to tip. My stock Hayes modem is not supported, what can I do? Actually, the man page for tip is out of date. There is a generic Hayes dialer already built in. Just use at=hayes in your /etc/remote file. The Hayes driver is not smart enough to recognize some of the advanced features of newer modems—messages like BUSY, NO DIALTONE, or CONNECT 115200 will just confuse it. You should turn those messages off when you use tip (using ATX0&W). Also, the dial timeout for tip is 60 seconds. Your modem should use something less, or else tip will think there is a communication problem. Try ATS7=45&W. Actually, as shipped tip does not yet support it fully. The solution is to edit the file tipconf.h in the directory /usr/src/usr.bin/tip/tip Obviously you need the source distribution to do this. Edit the line #define HAYES 0 to #define HAYES 1. Then make and make install. Everything works nicely after that. How am I expected to enter these AT commands? /etc/remote Make what is called a direct entry in your /etc/remote file. For example, if your modem is hooked up to the first serial port, /dev/cuaa0, then put in the following line: cuaa0:dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#19200:pa=none Use the highest bps rate your modem supports in the br capability. Then, type tip cuaa0 and you will be connected to your modem. If there is no /dev/cuaa0 on your system, do this: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; MAKEDEV cuaa0 Or use cu as root with the following command: &prompt.root; cu -lline -sspeed line is the serial port (e.g./dev/cuaa0) and speed is the speed (e.g.57600). When you are done entering the AT commands hit ~. to exit. The <literal>@</literal> sign for the pn capability does not work! The @ sign in the phone number capability tells tip to look in /etc/phones for a phone number. But the @ sign is also a special character in capability files like /etc/remote. Escape it with a backslash: pn=\@ How can I dial a phone number on the command line? Put what is called a generic entry in your /etc/remote file. For example: tip115200|Dial any phone number at 115200 bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#115200:at=hayes:pa=none:du: tip57600|Dial any phone number at 57600 bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du: Then you can things like: &prompt.root; tip -115200 5551234 If you prefer cu over tip, use a generic cu entry: cu115200|Use cu to dial any number at 115200bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa1:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du: and type: &prompt.root; cu 5551234 -s 115200 Do I have to type in the bps rate every time I do that? Put in an entry for tip1200 or cu1200, but go ahead and use whatever bps rate is appropriate with the br capability. tip thinks a good default is 1200 bps which is why it looks for a tip1200 entry. You do not have to use 1200 bps, though. I access a number of hosts through a terminal server. Rather than waiting until you are connected and typing CONNECT <host> each time, use tip's cm capability. For example, these entries in /etc/remote: pain|pain.deep13.com|Forrester's machine:\ :cm=CONNECT pain\n:tc=deep13: muffin|muffin.deep13.com|Frank's machine:\ :cm=CONNECT muffin\n:tc=deep13: deep13:Gizmonics Institute terminal server:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa2:br#38400:at=hayes:du:pa=none:pn=5551234: will let you type tip pain or tip muffin to connect to the hosts pain or muffin; and tip deep13 to get to the terminal server. Can tip try more than one line for each site? This is often a problem where a university has several modem lines and several thousand students trying to use them... Make an entry for your university in /etc/remote and use @ for the pn capability: big-university:\ :pn=\@:tc=dialout dialout:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa3:br#9600:at=courier:du:pa=none: Then, list the phone numbers for the university in /etc/phones: big-university 5551111 big-university 5551112 big-university 5551113 big-university 5551114 tip will try each one in the listed order, then give up. If you want to keep retrying, run tip in a while loop. Why do I have to hit CTRL+P twice to send CTRL+P once? CTRL+P is the default force character, used to tell tip that the next character is literal data. You can set the force character to any other character with the ~s escape, which means set a variable. Type ~sforce=single-char followed by a newline. single-char is any single character. If you leave out single-char, then the force character is the nul character, which you can get by typing CTRL+2 or CTRL+SPACE. A pretty good value for single-char is SHIFT+CTRL+6, which is only used on some terminal servers. You can have the force character be whatever you want by specifying the following in your $HOME/.tiprc file: force=<single-char> Suddenly everything I type is in UPPER CASE?? You must have pressed CTRL+A, tip's raise character, specially designed for people with broken caps-lock keys. Use ~s as above and set the variable raisechar to something reasonable. In fact, you can set it to the same as the force character, if you never expect to use either of these features. Here is a sample .tiprc file perfect for Emacs users who need to type CTRL+2 and CTRL+A a lot: force=^^ raisechar=^^ The ^^ is SHIFT+CTRL+6. How can I do file transfers with <command>tip</command>? If you are talking to another Unix system, you can send and receive files with ~p (put) and ~t (take). These commands run cat and echo on the remote system to accept and send files. The syntax is: ~p local-file remote-file ~t remote-file local-file There is no error checking, so you probably should use another protocol, like zmodem. How can I run zmodem with <command>tip</command>? To receive files, start the sending program on the remote end. Then, type ~C rz to begin receiving them locally. To send files, start the receiving program on the remote end. Then, type ~C sz files to send them to the remote system. Setting Up the Serial Console serial console &a.yokota; and &a.wpaul;: The text is heavily based on /sys/i386/boot/biosboot/README.serial written by &a.wpaul;. Introduction The FreeBSD/i386 operating system can boot on a system with only a dumb terminal on a serial port as a console. Such a configuration should be useful for two classes of people: system administrators who wish to install FreeBSD on machines that have no keyboard or monitor attached, and developers who want to debug the kernel or device drivers. Starting from version 3.1, FreeBSD/i386 employs a three stage bootstrap. The first two stages are in the boot block code which is stored at the beginning of the FreeBSD slice on the boot disk. The boot block will then load and run the boot loader (/boot/loader) as the third stage code. (See &man.boot.8; and &man.loader.8; for more details on the boot process.) In order to set up the serial console you must configure the boot block code, the boot loader code and the kernel. In FreeBSD version 3.0, the boot loader does not exist and there are only two stages in the bootstrap; the boot blocks directly load the kernel into memory. If you are using FreeBSD 3.0, then you should disregard any reference to the boot loader in this section. You can still use the serial port as a console. FreeBSD versions 2.X are quite different from 3.X, in that the serial port driver, &man.sio.4;, must be configured in a different way. This chapter will not describe the settings for version 2.X systems. If you are using these older versions of FreeBSD, please consult /sys/i386/boot/biosboot/README.serial instead. 6 Steps to Set up the Serial Console Prepare a serial cable. null-modem cable You will need either a null-modem cable or a standard serial cable and a null-modem adapter. See for a discussion on serial cables. Unplug your keyboard. Most PC systems probe for the keyboard during the Power-On Self-Test (POST) and will generate an error if the keyboard is not detected. Some machines complain loudly about the lack of a keyboard and will not continue to boot until it is plugged in. If your computer complains about the error, but boots anyway, then you do not have to do anything special. (Some machines with Phoenix BIOS installed merely say Keyboard failed and continue to boot normally.) If your computer refuses to boot without a keyboard attached then you will have to configure the BIOS so that it ignores this error (if it can). Consult your motherboard's manual for details on how to do this. Setting the keyboard to Not installed in the BIOS setup does not mean that you will not be able to use your keyboard. All this does is tell the BIOS not to probe for a keyboard at power-on so that it will not complain if the keyboard is not plugged in. You can leave the keyboard plugged in even with this flag set to Not installed and the keyboard will still work. If your system has a PS/2 mouse, chances are very good that you may have to unplug your mouse as well as your keyboard. This is because PS/2 mice share some hardware with the keyboard, and leaving the mouse plugged in can fool the keyboard probe into thinking the keyboard is still there. It is said that a Gateway 2000 Pentium 90MHz system with an AMI BIOS that behaves this way. In general this is not a problem since the mouse is not much good without the keyboard anyway. Plug a dumb terminal into COM1: (sio0). If you do not have a dumb terminal, you can use an old PC/XT with a modem program, or the serial port on another Unix box. If you do not have a COM1: (sio0), get one. At this time, there is no way to select a port other than COM1: for the boot blocks without recompiling the boot blocks. If you are already using COM1: for another device, you will have to temporarily remove that device and install a new boot block and kernel once you get FreeBSD up and running. (It is assumed that COM1: will be available on a file/compute/terminal server anyway; if you really need COM1: for something else (and you cannot switch that something else to COM2: (sio1)), then you probably should not even be bothering with all this in the first place.) Make sure the configuration file of your kernel has appropriate flags set for COM1: (sio0). Relevant flags are: 0x10 Enables console support for this unit. The other console flags are ignored unless this is set. Currently, at most one unit can have console support; the first one (in config file order) with this flag set is preferred. This option alone will not make the serial port the console. Set the following flag or use the option described below, together with this flag. 0x20 Forces this unit to be the console (unless there is another higher priority console), regardless of the option discussed below. This flag replaces the COMCONSOLE option in FreeBSD versions 2.X. The flag 0x20 must be used together with the flag. 0x40 Reserves this unit (in conjunction with 0x10) and makes the unit unavailable for normal access. You should not set this flag to the serial port unit which you want to use as the serial console. The only use of this flag is to designate the unit for kernel remote debugging. See The Developer's Handbook for more information on remote debugging. In FreeBSD 4.0-CURRENT or later the semantics of the flag 0x40 are slightly different and there is another flag to specify a serial port for remote debugging. Example: device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty flags 0x10 irq 4 See &man.sio.4; for more details. If the flags were not set, you need to run UserConfig (on a different console) or recompile the kernel. Create boot.config in the root directory of the a partition on the boot drive. This file will instruct the boot block code how you would like to boot the system. In order to activate the serial console, you need one or more of the following options—if you want multiple options, include them all on the same line: Toggles internal and serial consoles. You can use this to switch console devices. For instance, if you boot from the internal (video) console, you can use to direct the boot loader and the kernel to use the serial port as its console device. Alternatively, if you boot from the serial port, you can use the to tell the boot loader and the kernel to use the video display as the console instead. Toggles single and dual console configurations. In the single configuration the console will be either the internal console (video display) or the serial port, depending on the state of the option above. In the dual console configuration, both the video display and the serial port will become the console at the same time, regardless of the state of the option. However, that the dual console configuration takes effect only during the boot block is running. Once the boot loader gets control, the console specified by the option becomes the only console. Makes the boot block probe the keyboard. If no keyboard is found, the and options are automatically set. Due to space constraints in the current version of the boot blocks, the option is capable of detecting extended keyboards only. Keyboards with less than 101 keys (and without F11 and F12 keys) may not be detected. Keyboards on some laptop computers may not be properly found because of this limitation. If this is to be the case with your system, you have to abandon using the option. Unfortunately there is no workaround for this problem. Use either the option to select the console automatically, or the option to activate the serial console. You may include other options described in &man.boot.8; as well. The options, except for , will be passed to the boot loader (/boot/loader). The boot loader will determine which of the internal video or the serial port should become the console by examining the state of the option alone. This means that if you specify the option but not the option in /boot.config, you can use the serial port as the console only during the boot block; the boot loader will use the internal video display as the console. Boot the machine. When you start your FreeBSD box, the boot blocks will echo the contents of /boot.config to the console. For example; /boot.config: -P Keyboard: no The second line appears only if you put in /boot.config and indicates presence/absence of the keyboard. These messages go to either serial or internal console, or both, depending on the option in /boot.config. Options Message goes to none internal console serial console serial and internal consoles serial and internal consoles , keyboard present internal console , keyboard absent serial console After the above messages, there will be a small pause before the boot blocks continue loading the boot loader and before any further messages printed to the console. Under normal circumstances, you do not need to interrupt the boot blocks, but you may want to do so in order to make sure things are set up correctly. Hit any key, other than Enter/Return, at the console to interrupt the boot process. The boot blocks will then prompt you for further action. You should now see something like: >> FreeBSD/i386 BOOT Default: 0:wd(0,a)/boot/loader boot: Verify the above message appears on either the serial or internal console or both, according to the options you put in /boot.config. If the message appears in the correct console, hit Enter/Return to continue the boot process. If you want the serial console but you do not see the prompt on the serial terminal, something is wrong with your settings. In the meantime, you enter and hit Enter/Return (if possible) to tell the boot block (and then the boot loader and the kernel) to choose the serial port for the console. Once the system is up, go back and check what went wrong. After the boot loader is loaded and you are in the third stage of the boot process you can still switch between the internal console and the serial console by setting appropriate environment variables in the boot loader. See . Summary Here is the summary of various settings discussed in this section and the console eventually selected. Case 1: You set the flags to 0x10 for sio0 device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty flags 0x10 irq 4 Options in /boot.config Console during boot blocks Console during boot loader Console in kernel nothing internal internal internal serial serial serial serial and internal internal internal serial and internal serial serial , keyboard present internal internal internal , keyboard absent serial and internal serial serial Case 2: You set the flags to 0x30 for sio0 device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty flags 0x30 irq 4 Options in /boot.config Console during boot blocks Console during boot loader Console in kernel nothing internal internal serial serial serial serial serial and internal internal serial serial and internal serial serial , keyboard present internal internal serial , keyboard absent serial and internal serial serial Tips for the Serial Console Setting A Faster Serial Port Speed By default the serial port settings are set to 9600 baud, 8 bits, no parity, 1 stop bit. If you wish to change the speed, you need to recompile at least the boot blocks. Add the following line to /etc/make.conf and compile new boot blocks: BOOT_COMCONSOLE_SPEED=19200 If the serial console is configured in some other way than by booting with , or if the serial console used by the kernel is different from the one used by the boot blocks, then you must also add the following option to the kernel configuration file and compile a new kernel: options CONSPEED=19200 Using Serial Port Other Than <devicename>sio0</devicename> For The Console Using a port other than sio0 as the console requires some recompiling. If you want to use another serial port for whatever reasons, recompile the boot blocks, the boot loader and the kernel as follows. Get the kernel source. Edit /etc/make.conf and set BOOT_COMCONSOLE_PORT to the address of the port you want to use (0x3F8, 0x2F8, 0x3E8 or 0x2E8). Only sio0 through sio3 (COM1: through COM4:) can be used; multiport serial cards will not work. No interrupt setting is needed. Create a custom kernel configuration file and add appropriate flags for the serial port you want to use. For example, if you want to make sio1 (COM2:) the console: device sio1 at isa? port "IO_COM2" tty flags 0x10 irq 3 or device sio1 at isa? port "IO_COM2" tty flags 0x30 irq 3 The console flags for the other serial ports should not be set. Recompile and install the boot blocks: &prompt.root; cd /sys/boot/i386/boot2 &prompt.root; make &prompt.root; make install Recompile and install the boot loader: &prompt.root; cd /sys/boot/i386/loader &prompt.root; make &prompt.root; make install Rebuild and install the kernel. Write the boot blocks to the boot disk with &man.disklabel.8; and boot from the new kernel. Entering the DDB Debugger from the Serial Line If you wish to drop into the kernel debugger from the serial console (useful for remote diagnostics, but also dangerous if you generate a spurious BREAK on the serial port!) then you should compile your kernel with the following options: options BREAK_TO_DEBUGGER options DDB Getting a Login Prompt on the Serial Console While this is not required, you may wish to get a login prompt over the serial line, now that you can see boot messages and can enter the kernel debugging session through the serial console. Here is how to do it. Open the file /etc/ttys with an editor and locate the lines: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd2 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd3 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd0 through ttyd3 corresponds to COM1 through COM4. Change off to on for the desired port. If you have changed the speed of the serial port, you need to change std.9600 to match the current setting, e.g. std.19200. You may also want to change the terminal type from unknown to the actual type of your serial terminal. After editing the file, you must kill -HUP 1 to make this change take effect. Changing Console from the Boot Loader Previous sections described how to set up the serial console by tweaking the boot block. This section shows that you can specify the console by entering some commands and environment variables in the boot loader. As the boot loader is invoked as the third stage of the boot process, after the boot block, the settings in the boot loader will override the settings in the boot block. Setting Up the Serial Console You can easily specify the boot loader and the kernel to use the serial console by writing just one line in /boot/loader.rc: set console=comconsole This will take effect regardless of the settings in the boot block discussed in the previous section. You had better put the above line as the first line of /boot/loader.rc so as to see boot messages on the serial console as early as possible. Likewise, you can specify the internal console as: set console=vidconsole If you do not set the boot loader environment variable console, the boot loader, and subsequently the kernel, will use whichever console indicated by the option in the boot block. In versions 3.2 or later, you may specify the console in /boot/loader.conf.local or /boot/loader.conf, rather than in /boot/loader.rc. In this method your /boot/loader.rc should look like: include /boot/loader.4th start Then, create /boot/loader.conf.local and put the following line there. console=comconsole or console=vidconsole See &man.loader.conf.5; for more information. At the moment, the boot loader has no option equivalent to the option in the boot block, and there is no provision to automatically select the internal console and the serial console based on the presence of the keyboard. Using Serial Port Other than <devicename>sio0</devicename> for the Console You need to recompile the boot loader to use a serial port other than sio0 for the serial console. Follow the procedure described in . Caveats The idea here is to allow people to set up dedicated servers that require no graphics hardware or attached keyboards. Unfortunately, while (most?) every system will let you boot without a keyboard, there are quite a few that will not let you boot without a graphics adapter. Machines with AMI BIOSes can be configured to boot with no graphics adapter installed simply by changing the `graphics adapter' setting in the CMOS configuration to `Not installed.' However, many machines do not support this option and will refuse to boot if you have no display hardware in the system. With these machines, you'll have to leave some kind of graphics card plugged in, (even if it's just a junky mono board) although you will not have to attach a monitor into it. You might also try installing an AMI BIOS. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/users/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/users/chapter.sgml index 220eaf12e8..4bb8369dfd 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/users/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/users/chapter.sgml @@ -1,850 +1,850 @@ Neils Blakey-Milner Contributed Users and Basic Account Management Synopsis All access to the system is achieved via accounts, and all processes are run by users, so user and account management are of integral importance on FreeBSD systems. There are three main types of accounts; the Superuser, system users, and user accounts. The Superuser account, usually called root, is used to manage the system with no limitations on privileges. System users run services. Finally, user accounts are used by real people, who log on, read mail, and so forth. The Superuser Account accounts superuser (root) The superuser account, usually called root, comes preconfigured to facilitate system administration, and should not be used for day-to-day tasks like sending and receiving mail, general exploration of the system, or programming. This is because the superuser, unlike normal user accounts, can operate without limits, and misuse of the superuser account may result in spectacular disasters. User accounts are unable to destroy the system by mistake, so it is generally best to use normal user accounts whenever possible, unless you especially need the extra privilege. You should always double and triple-check commands you issue as the superuser, since an extra space or missing character can mean irreparable data loss. So, the first thing you should do after reading this chapter, is to create an unprivileged user account for yourself for general usage, if you haven't already. This applies equally whether you're running a multi-user or single-user machine. Later in this chapter, we discuss how to create additional accounts, and how to change between the normal user and superuser. System Accounts accounts system System users are those used to run services such as DNS, mail, web servers, and so forth. The reason for this is security; if all services ran as the superuser, they could act without restriction. accounts daemon accounts operator Examples of system users are daemon, operator, bind (for the Domain Name Service), and news. Often sysadmins create httpd to run web servers they install. accounts nobody nobody is the generic unprivileged system user. However, it's important to keep in mind that the more services that use nobody, the more files and processes that user will become associated with, and hence the more privileged that user becomes. User Accounts accounts user User accounts are the primary means of access for real people to the system, and these accounts insulate the user and the environment, preventing the users from damaging the system or other users, and allowing users to customize their environment without affecting others. Every person accessing your system should have a unique user account. This allows you to find out who is doing what, prevent people from clobbering each others' settings or reading each others' mail, and so forth. Each user can set up their own environment to accommodate their use of the system, by using alternate shells, editors, key bindings, and language. Modifying Accounts accounts modifying pw is a powerful and flexible tool to modify all aspects of user accounts. For most tasks however, adduser and rmuser are recommended to add and remove accounts respectively. chpass allows both the system administrator and normal users to adjust passwords, shells, and personal information. If you are only interested in changing a password then the passwd command is usually quicker. adduser accounts adding adduser /usr/share/skel skeleton directory adduser is a simple program for adding new users. It creates entries in the system passwd and group files. It will also create a home directory for the new user, copy in the default configuration files ("dotfiles") from /usr/share/skel, and can optionally mail the new user a welcome message. To create the initial configuration file, use adduser -s -config_create. The makes adduser default to quiet. We use later when we want to change defaults. Next, we configure adduser defaults, and create our first user account, since using root for normal usage is evil and nasty. Configuring adduser &prompt.root; adduser -v Use option ``-silent'' if you don't want to see all warnings and questions. Check /etc/shells Check /etc/master.passwd Check /etc/group Enter your default shell: csh date no sh tcsh [sh]: zsh Your default shell is: tcsh -> /usr/local/bin/zsh Enter your default HOME partition: [/home]: Copy dotfiles from: /usr/share/skel no [/usr/share/skel]: Send message from file: /etc/adduser.message no [/etc/adduser.message]: no Do not send message Use passwords (y/n) [y]: y Write your changes to /etc/adduser.conf? (y/n) [n]: y Ok, let's go. Don't worry about mistakes. I will give you the chance later to correct any input. Enter username [a-z0-9_-]: jru Enter full name []: J. Random User Enter shell csh date no sh tcsh zsh [zsh]: Enter home directory (full path) [/home/jru]: Uid [1001]: Enter login class: default []: Login group jru [jru]: Login group is ``jru''. Invite jru into other groups: guest no [no]: wheel Enter password []: Enter password again []: Name: jru Password: **** Fullname: J. Random User Uid: 1007 Gid: 1007 (jru) Class: Groups: jru wheel HOME: /home/jru Shell: /usr/local/bin/zsh OK? (y/n) [y]: y Added user ``jru'' Copy files from /usr/share/skel to /home/jru Add another user? (y/n) [y]: n Goodbye! &prompt.root; In summary, we changed the default shell to zsh (an additional shell found in packages), and turned off the sending of a welcome mail to added users. We then saved the configuration, and then created an account for jru, and we made sure jru is in wheel group (which we'll see is important later). The password you type in isn't echoed, nor are asterisks displayed. Make sure you don't mistype the password twice. Just use adduser without arguments from now on, and you won't have to go through changing the defaults. If the program asks you to change the defaults, exit the program, and try the option. <application>rmuser</application> rmuser accounts removing You can use rmuser to completely remove a user from the system. rmuser performs the following steps: Removes the user's &man.crontab.1; entry (if any). Removes any &man.at.1; jobs belonging to the user. Kills all processes owned by the user. Removes the user from the system's local password file. Removes the user's home directory (if it is owned by the user). Removes the incoming mail files belonging to the user from /var/mail. Removes all files owned by the user from temporary file storage areas such as /tmp. Finally, removes the username from all groups to which it belongs in /etc/group. If a group becomes empty and the group name is the same as the username, the group is removed; this complements the per-user unique groups created by &man.adduser.8;. rmuser can't be used to remove superuser accounts, since that is almost always an indication of massive destruction. By default, an interactive mode is used, which attempts to make sure you know what you're doing. rmuser interactive account removal &prompt.root; rmuser jru Matching password entry: jru:*:1000:1000::0:0:J. Random User:/home/jru:/usr/local/bin/tcsh Is this the entry you wish to remove? y Remove user's home directory (/home/jru)? y Updating password file, updating databases, done. Updating group file: trusted (removing group jru -- personal group is empty) done. Removing user's incoming mail file /var/mail/jru: done. Removing files belonging to jru from /tmp: done. Removing files belonging to jru from /var/tmp: done. Removing files belonging to jru from /var/tmp/vi.recover: done. &prompt.root; <application>pw</application> pw pw is a command line utility to create, remove, modify, and display users and groups, and functions as an editor of the system user and group files. This section describes its use for users; the Groups section below describes its use for groups. It is designed to be useful both as a directly executed command and for use from shell scripts. For detailed information, please see &man.pw.8;. <application>chpass</application> chpass chpass changes user database information such as passwords, shells, and personal information. Only system administrators, as the superuser, may change other users' information and passwords with chpass. When passed no options, aside from an optional username, chpass displays an editor containing user information. When the user exists from the editor, the user database is updated with the new information. Interactive chpass by Superuser #Changing user database information for jru. Login: jru Password: * Uid [#]: 1000 Gid [# or name]: 1000 Change [month day year]: Expire [month day year]: Class: Home directory: /home/jru Shell: /usr/local/bin/tcsh Full Name: J. Random User Office Location: Office Phone: Home Phone: Other information: The normal user can change only a small subsection of this information, and only for themselves. Interactive chpass by Normal User #Changing user database information for jru. Shell: /usr/local/bin/tcsh Full Name: J. Random User Office Location: Office Phone: Home Phone: Other information: chfn and chsh are just links to chpass, as are ypchpass, ypchfn, and ypchsh. NIS support is automatic, so specifying the yp before the command is not necessary. passwd passwd accounts changing password passwd is the usual way to change your own password as a user, or another user's password as the superuser. Users must type in their original password before changing their password, to prevent an unauthorized person from changing their password when the user is away from their console. Changing your password &prompt.user; passwd Changing local password for jru. Old password: New password: Retype new password: passwd: updating the database... passwd: done Changing another user's password as the superuser &prompt.root; passwd jru Changing local password for jru. New password: Retype new password: passwd: updating the database... passwd: done yppasswd is just a link to passwd. NIS support is automatic, so specifying the yp before the command is not necessary. Limiting Users limiting users - users - limiting (see limiting users) + accounts + limiting If you run a multi-user system, chances are that you do not trust all of your users not to damage your system. FreeBSD provides a number of ways a system administrator can limit the amount of system resources an individual user can use. These limits are generally divided into two sections: disk quotas, and other resources limits. quotas limiting users quotas disk quotas Disk quotas are a way for the system administrator to tell the filesystem the amount of disk space a user may use; moreover, they provide a way to quickly check on the disk usage of a user without having to calculate it every time. Quotas are discussed in . The other resource limits include ways to limit the amount of CPU, memory, and other resources a user may consume. These are defined using login classes and are discussed here. /etc/login.conf Login classes are defined in /etc/login.conf. The precise semantics are beyond the scope of this section, but are described in detail in the &man.login.conf.5; manual page. It is sufficient to say that each user is assigned to a login class (default by default), and that each login class has a set of login capabilities associated with it. A login capability is a name=value pair, where name is a well-known identifier and value is an arbitrary string processed accordingly depending on the name. Setting up login classes and capabilities is rather straight-forward, and is also described in &man.login.conf.5;. Resource limits are different from plain vanilla login capabilities in two ways. First, for every limit, there is a soft (current) and hard limit. A soft limit may be adjusted by the user or application, but may be no higher than the hard limit. The latter may be lowered by the user, but never raised. Second, most resource limits apply per process to a specific user, not the user as a whole. Note, however, that these differences are mandated by the specific handling of the limits, not by the implementation of the login capability framework (i.e., they are not really a special case of login capabilities). And so, without further ado, below are the most commonly used resource limits (the rest, along with all the other login capabilities, may be found in &man.login.conf.5;). coredumpsize coredumpsize limiting users coredumpsize The limit on the size of a core file generated by a program is, for obvious reasons, subordinate to other limits on disk usage (e.g., filesize, or disk quotas). Nevertheless, it is often used as a less-severe method of controlling disk space consumption: since users do not generate core files themselves, and often do not delete them, setting this may save them from running out of disk space should a large program (e.g., emacs) crash. cputime cputime limiting users cputime This is the maximum amount of CPU time a user's process may consume. Offending processes will be killed by the kernel. This is a limit on CPU time consumed, not percentage of the CPU as displayed in some fields by &man.top.1; and &man.ps.1;. A limit on the latter is, at the time of this writing, not possible, and would be rather useless: a compiler—probably a legitimate task—can easily use almost 100% of a CPU for some time. filesize filesize limiting users filesize This is the maximum size of a file the user may possess. Unlike disk quotas, this limit is enforced on individual files, not the set of all files a user owns. maxproc maxproc limiting users maxproc This is the maximum number of processes a user may be running. This includes foreground and background processes alike. For obvious reasons, this may not be larger than the system limit specified by the kern.maxproc sysctl. Also note that setting this too small may hinder a user's productivity: it is often useful to be logged in multiple times or execute pipelines. Some tasks, such as compiling a large program, also spawn multiple processes (e.g., &man.make.1;, &man.cc.1;, and other intermediate preprocessors). memorylocked memorylocked limiting users memorylocked This is the maximum amount a memory a process may have requested to be locked into main memory (e.g., see &man.mlock.2;). Some system-critical programs, such as &man.amd.8;, do this so that their getting swapped out does not contribute to a system's thrashing in time of trouble. memoryuse memoryuse limiting users memoryuse This is the maximum amount of memory a process may consume at any given time. It includes both core memory and swap usage. This is not a catch-all limit for restricting memory consumption, but it is a good start. openfiles openfiles limiting users openfiles This is the maximum amount of files a process may have open. In FreeBSD, files are also used to represent sockets and IPC channels; thus, be careful not to set this too low. The system-wide limit for this is defined by the kern.maxfiles sysctl. sbsize sbsize limiting users sbsize This is the limit on the amount of network memory, and thus mbufs, a user may consume. This originated as a response to an old DoS attack by creating a lot of sockets, but can be generally used to limit network communications. stacksize stacksize limiting users stacksize This is the maximum size a process' stack may grow to. This alone is not sufficient to limit the amount of memory a program may use; consequently, it should be used in conjunction with other limits. There are a few other things to remember when setting resource limits. Following are some general tips, suggestions, and miscellaneous comments. Processes started at system startup by /etc/rc are assigned to the daemon login class. Although the /etc/login.conf that comes with the system is a good source of reasonable values for most limits, only you, the administrator, can know what is appropriate for your system. Setting a limit too high may open your system up to abuse, while setting it too low may put a strain on productivity. Users of the X Window System (X11) should probably be granted more resources than other users. X11 by itself takes a lot of resources, but it also encourages users to run more programs simultaneously. Remember that many limits apply to individual processes, not the user as a whole. For example, setting openfiles to 50 means that each process the user runs may open up to 50 files. Thus, the gross amount of files a user may open is the value of openfiles multiplied by the value of maxproc. This also applies to memory consumption. For further information on resource limits and login classes and capabilities in general, please consult the relevant manual pages: &man.cap.mkdb.1;, &man.getrlimit.2;, &man.login.conf.5;. Personalizing Users Localization is an environment set up by the system administrator or user to accommodate different languages, character sets, date and time standards, and so on. This is discussed in the localization chapter. Groups groups /etc/groups accounts groups A group is simply a list of users. Groups are identified by their group name and gid (group ID). In FreeBSD (and most other Unix systems), the two factors the kernel uses to decide whether a process is allowed to do something is its user ID and list of groups it belongs to. Unlike a user ID, a process has a list of groups associated with it. You may hear some things refer to the "group ID" of a user or process; most of the time, this just means the first group in the list. The group name to group ID map is in /etc/group. This is a plain text file with four colon-delimited fields. The first fields is the group name, the second is the encrypted password, the third the group ID, and the fourth the comma-delimited list of members. It can safely be edited by hand (assuming, of course, that you don't make any syntax errors!). For a more complete description of the syntax, see the &man.group.5; manual page. If you don't want to edit /etc/group manually, you can use the &man.pw.8; command to add and edit groups. For example, to add a group called teamtwo and then confirm that it exists you can use: Adding a group using &man.pw.8; &prompt.root; pw groupadd teamtwo &prompt.root; pw groupshow teamtwo teamtwo:*:1100: The number 1100 above is the group ID of the group teamtwo. Right now, teamtwo has no members, and is thus rather useless. Let's change that by inviting jru to the teamtwo group. Adding somebody to a group using &man.pw.8; &prompt.root; pw groupmod teamtwo jru &prompt.root; pw groupshow teamtwo teamtwo:*:1100:jru The argument to the option is a comma-delimited list of users who are members of the group. From the preceding sections, we know that the password file also contains a group for each user. The latter (the user) is automatically added to the group list by the system; the user will not show up as a member when using the groupshow command to &man.pw.8;, but will show up when the information is queried via &man.id.1; or similar tool. In other words, &man.pw.8; only manipulates the /etc/group file; it will never attempt to read additionally data from /etc/passwd. Using &man.id.1; to determine group membership &prompt.user; id jru uid=1001(jru) gid=1001(jru) groups=1001(jru), 1100(teamtwo) As you can see, jru is a member of the groups jru and teamtwo. For more information about &man.pw.8;, see its manual page, and for more information on the format of /etc/group, consult the &man.group.5; manual page.