diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml index a584a7417f..52af7c9217 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1492 +1,1492 @@ Bill Lloyd Original work by Jim Mock Rewritten by Electronic Mail Synopsis email electronic mail Electronic Mail, better known as email, is one of the most widely used forms of communication today. This chapter provides a basic introduction to running a mail server on FreeBSD. However, it is not a complete reference and in fact many important considerations are omitted. For more complete coverage of the subject, the reader is referred to the many excellent books listed in . After reading this chapter, you will know: What software components are involved in sending and receiving electronic mail. Where basic sendmail configuration files are located in FreeBSD. How to block spammers from illegally using your mail server as a relay. How to install and configure an alternate mail transfer agent on your system, replacing sendmail. How to troubleshoot common mail server problems. How to configure SMTP Authentication for added security. Before reading this chapter, you should: Properly setup your network connection (). Properly setup the DNS information for your mail host (). Know how to install additional third-party software (). Using Electronic Mail POP IMAP DNS There are five major parts involved in an email exchange. They are: the user program, the server daemon, DNS, a POP or IMAP daemon, and of course, the mailhost itself. The User Program This includes command line programs such as mutt, pine, elm, and mail, and GUI programs such as balsa, xfmail to name a few, and something more sophisticated like a WWW browser. These programs simply pass off the email transactions to the local mailhost, either by calling one of the server daemons available or delivering it over TCP. Mailhost Server Daemon mail server daemons sendmail mail server daemons postfix mail server daemons qmail mail server daemons exim This is usually sendmail (by default with FreeBSD) or one of the other mail server daemons such as qmail, postfix, or exim. There are others, but those are the most widely used. The server daemon usually has two functions—it looks after receiving incoming mail and delivers outgoing mail. It does not allow you to connect to it via POP or IMAP to read your mail. You need an additional daemon for that. Be aware that some older versions of sendmail have some serious security problems, however as long as you run a current version of it you should not have any problems. As always, it is a good idea to stay up-to-date with any software you run. Email and DNS The Domain Name System (DNS) and its daemon named play a large role in the delivery of email. In order to deliver mail from your site to another, the server daemon will look up the site in the DNS to determine the host that will receive mail for the destination. It works the same way when you have mail sent to you. The DNS contains the database mapping hostname to an IP address, and a hostname to mailhost. The IP address is specified in an A record. The MX (Mail eXchanger) record specifies the mailhost that will receive mail for you. If you do not have an MX record for your hostname, the mail will be delivered directly to your host. Receiving Mail email receiving Receiving mail for your domain is done by the mail host. It will collect mail sent to you and store it for reading or pickup. In order to pick the stored mail up, you will need to connect to the mail host. This is done by either using POP or IMAP. If you want to read mail directly on the mail host, then a POP or IMAP server is not needed. POP IMAP If you want to run a POP or IMAP server, there are two things you need to do: Get a POP or IMAP daemon from the ports collection and install it on your system. Modify /etc/inetd.conf to load the POP or IMAP server. The Mail Host mail host The mail host is the name given to a server that is responsible for delivering and receiving mail for your host, and possibly your network. Christopher Shumway Contributed by <application>sendmail</application> Configuration sendmail &man.sendmail.8; is the default Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) in FreeBSD. sendmail's job is to accept mail from Mail User Agents (MUA) and deliver it to the appropriate mailer as defined by its configuration file. sendmail can also accept network connections and deliver mail to local mailboxes or deliver it to another program. sendmail uses the following configuration files: /etc/mail/access /etc/mail/aliases /etc/mail/local-host-names /etc/mail/mailer.conf /etc/mail/mailertable /etc/mail/sendmail.cf /etc/mail/virtusertable Filename Function /etc/mail/access sendmail access database file /etc/mail/aliases Mailbox aliases /etc/mail/local-host-names Lists of hosts sendmail accepts mail for /etc/mail/mailer.conf Mailer program configuration /etc/mail/mailertable Mailer delivery table /etc/mail/sendmail.cf sendmail master configuration file /etc/mail/virtusertable Virtual users and domain tables <filename>/etc/mail/access</filename> The access database defines what host(s) or IP addresses have access to the local mail server and what kind of access they have. Hosts can be listed as , , or simply passed to sendmail's error handling routine with a given mailer error. Hosts that are listed as , which is the default, are allowed to send mail to this host as long as the mail's final destination is the local machine. Hosts that are listed as are rejected for all mail connections. Hosts that have the option for their hostname are allowed to send mail for any destination through this mail server. Configuring the <application>sendmail</application> Access Database cyberspammer.com 550 We don't accept mail from spammers FREE.STEALTH.MAILER@ 550 We don't accept mail from spammers another.source.of.spam REJECT okay.cyberspammer.com OK 128.32 RELAY In this example we have five entries. Mail senders that match the left hand side of the table are affected by the action on the right side of the table. The first two examples give an error code to sendmail's error handling routine. The message is printed to the remote host when a mail matches the left hand side of the table. The next entry rejects mail from a specific host on the Internet, another.source.of.spam. The next entry accepts mail connections from a host okay.cyberspammer.com, which is more exact than the cyberspammer.com line above. More specific matches override less exact matches. The last entry allows relaying of electronic mail from hosts with an IP address that begins with 128.32. These hosts would be able to send mail through this mail server that are destined for other mail servers. When this file is updated, you need to run make in /etc/mail/ to update the database. <filename>/etc/mail/aliases</filename> The aliases database contains a list of virtual mailboxes that are expanded to other user(s), files, programs or other aliases. Here are a few examples that can be used in /etc/mail/aliases: Mail Aliases root: localuser ftp-bugs: joe,eric,paul bit.bucket: /dev/null procmail: "|/usr/local/bin/procmail" The file format is simple; the mailbox name on the left side of the colon is expanded to the target(s) on the right. The first example simply expands the mailbox root to the mailbox localuser, which is then looked up again in the aliases database. If no match is found, then the message is delivered to the local user localuser. The next example shows a mail list. Mail to the mailbox ftp-bugs is expanded to the three local mailboxes joe, eric, and paul. Note that a remote mailbox could be specified as user@example.com. The next example shows writing mail to a file, in this case /dev/null. The last example shows sending mail to a program, in this case the mail message is written to the standard input of /usr/local/bin/procmail through a Unix pipe. When this file is updated, you need to run make in /etc/mail/ to update the database. <filename>/etc/mail/local-host-names</filename> This is a list of hostnames &man.sendmail.8; is to accept as the local host name. Place any domains or hosts that sendmail is to be receiving mail for. For example, if this mail server was to accept mail for the domain example.com and the host mail.example.com, its local-host-names might look something like this: example.com mail.example.com When this file is updated, &man.sendmail.8; needs to be restarted to read the changes. <filename>/etc/mail/sendmail.cf</filename> sendmail's master configuration file, sendmail.cf controls the overall behavior of sendmail, including everything from rewriting e-mail addresses to printing rejection messages to remote mail servers. Naturally, with such a diverse role, this configuration file is quite complex and its details are a bit out of the scope of this section. Fortunately, this file rarely needs to be changed for standard mail servers. The master sendmail configuration file can be built from &man.m4.1; macros that define the features and behavior of sendmail. Please see /usr/src/contrib/sendmail/cf/README for some of the details. When changes to this file are made, sendmail needs to be restarted for the changes to take effect. <filename>/etc/mail/virtusertable</filename> The virtusertable maps mail addresses for virtual domains and mailboxes to real mailboxes. These mailboxes can be local, remote, aliases defined in /etc/mail/aliases or files. Example Virtual Domain Mail Map root@example.com root postmaster@example.com postmaster@noc.example.net @example.com joe In the above example, we have a mapping for a domain example.com. This file is processed in a first match order down the file. The first item maps root@example.com to the local mailbox root. The next entry maps postmaster@example.com to the mailbox postmaster on the host noc.example.net. Finally, if nothing from example.com has matched so far, it will match the last mapping, which matches every other mail message addressed to someone at example.com. This will be mapped to the local mailbox joe. Andrew Boothman Written by Gregory Neil Shapiro Information taken from e-mails written by - Changing your Mail Transfer Agent + Changing Your Mail Transfer Agent email change mta As already mentioned, FreeBSD comes with sendmail already installed as your MTA (Mail Transfer Agent). Therefore by default it is in charge of your outgoing and incoming mail. However, for a variety of reasons, some system administrators want to change their system's MTA. These reasons range from simply wanting to try out another MTA to needing a specific feature or package which relies on another mailer. Fortunately, whatever the reason, FreeBSD makes it easy to make the change. - Install a new MTA + Install a New MTA You have a wide choice of MTAs available. A good starting point is the FreeBSD Ports Collection where you will be able to find many. Of course you are free to use any MTA you want from any location, as long as you can make it run under FreeBSD. Start by installing your new MTA. Once it is installed it gives you a chance to decide if it really fulfills your needs, and also gives you the opportunity to configure your new software before getting it to take over from sendmail. When doing this, you should be sure that installing the new software will not attempt to overwrite system binaries such as /usr/bin/sendmail. Otherwise, your new mail software has essentially been put into service before you have configured it. Please refer to your chosen MTA's documentation for information on how to configure the software you have chosen. Disable <application>sendmail</application> The procedure used to start sendmail changed significantly between 4.5-RELEASE and 4.6-RELEASE. Therefore, the procedure used to disable it is subtly different. - FreeBSD 4.5-STABLE before 2002/4/4 and earlier - (including 4.5-RELEASE and earlier) + FreeBSD 4.5-STABLE before 2002/4/4 and Earlier + (Including 4.5-RELEASE and Earlier) Enter: sendmail_enable="NO" into /etc/rc.conf. This will disable sendmail's incoming mail service, but if /etc/mail/mailer.conf (see below) is not changed, sendmail will still be used to send e-mail. FreeBSD 4.5-STABLE after 2002/4/4 - (including 4.6-RELEASE and later) + (Including 4.6-RELEASE and Later) In order to completely disable sendmail you must use sendmail_enable="NONE" in /etc/rc.conf. If you disable sendmail's outgoing mail service in this way, it is important that you replace it with a fully working alternative mail delivery system. If you choose not to, system functions such as &man.periodic.8; will be unable to deliver their results by e-mail as they would normally expect to. Many parts of your system may expect to have a functional sendmail-compatible system. If applications continue to use sendmail's binaries to try and send e-mail after you have disabled them, mail could go into an inactive sendmail queue, and never be delivered. If you only want to disable sendmail's incoming mail service, you should set sendmail_enable="NO" in /etc/rc.conf. More information on sendmail's startup options is available from the &man.rc.sendmail.8; manual page. - Running your new MTA on boot + Running Your New MTA on Boot You may have a choice of two methods for running your new MTA on boot, again depending on what version of FreeBSD you are running. FreeBSD 4.5-STABLE before 2002/4/11 - (including 4.5-RELEASE and earlier) + (Including 4.5-RELEASE and Earlier) Add a script to /usr/local/etc/rc.d/ that ends in .sh and is executable by root. The script should accept start and stop parameters. At startup time the system scripts will execute the command /usr/local/etc/rc.d/supermailer.sh start which you can also use to manually start the server. At shutdown time, the system scripts will use the stop option, running the command /usr/local/etc/rc.d/supermailer.sh stop which you can also use to manually stop the server while the system is running. FreeBSD 4.5-STABLE after 2002/4/11 - (including 4.6-RELEASE and later) + (Including 4.6-RELEASE and Later) With later versions of FreeBSD, you can use the above method or you can set mta_start_script="filename" in /etc/rc.conf, where filename is the name of some script that you want executed at boot to start your MTA. Replacing <application>sendmail</application> as - the system's default mailer + the System's Default Mailer The program sendmail is so ubiquitous as standard software on Unix systems that some software just assumes it is already installed and configured. For this reason, many alternative MTA's provide their own compatible implementations of the sendmail command-line interface; this facilitates using them as drop-in replacements for sendmail. Therefore, if you are using an alternative mailer, you will need to make sure that software trying to execute standard sendmail binaries such as /usr/bin/sendmail actually executes your chosen mailer instead. Fortunately, FreeBSD provides a system called &man.mailwrapper.8; that does this job for you. When sendmail is operating as installed, you will find something like the following in /etc/mail/mailer.conf: sendmail /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail send-mail /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail mailq /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail newaliases /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail hoststat /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail purgestat /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail This means that when any of these common commands (such as sendmail itself) are run, the system actually invokes a copy of mailwrapper named sendmail, which checks mailer.conf and executes /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail instead. This system makes it easy to change what binaries are actually executed when these default sendmail functions are invoked. Therefore if you wanted /usr/local/supermailer/bin/sendmail-compat to be run instead of sendmail, you could change /etc/mail/mailer.conf to read: sendmail /usr/local/supermailer/bin/sendmail-compat send-mail /usr/local/supermailer/bin/sendmail-compat mailq /usr/local/supermailer/bin/mailq-compat newaliases /usr/local/supermailer/bin/newaliases-compat hoststat /usr/local/supermailer/bin/hoststat-compat purgestat /usr/local/supermailer/bin/purgestat-compat Finishing Once you have everything configured the way you want it, you should either kill the sendmail processes that you no longer need and start the processes belonging to your new software, or simply reboot. Rebooting will also give you the opportunity to ensure that you have correctly configured your system to start your new MTA automatically on boot. Troubleshooting email troubleshooting Why do I have to use the FQDN for hosts on my site? You will probably find that the host is actually in a different domain; for example, if you are in foo.bar.edu and you wish to reach a host called mumble in the bar.edu domain, you will have to refer to it by the fully-qualified domain name, mumble.bar.edu, instead of just mumble. BIND Traditionally, this was allowed by BSD BIND resolvers. However the current version of BIND that ships with FreeBSD no longer provides default abbreviations for non-fully qualified domain names other than the domain you are in. So an unqualified host mumble must either be found as mumble.foo.bar.edu, or it will be searched for in the root domain. This is different from the previous behavior, where the search continued across mumble.bar.edu, and mumble.edu. Have a look at RFC 1535 for why this was considered bad practice, or even a security hole. As a good workaround, you can place the line: search foo.bar.edu bar.edu instead of the previous: domain foo.bar.edu into your /etc/resolv.conf. However, make sure that the search order does not go beyond the boundary between local and public administration, as RFC 1535 calls it. sendmail says mail loops back to myself This is answered in the sendmail FAQ as follows: I am getting Local configuration error messages, such as: 553 relay.domain.net config error: mail loops back to myself 554 <user@domain.net>... Local configuration error How can I solve this problem? You have asked mail to the domain (e.g., domain.net) to be forwarded to a specific host (in this case, relay.domain.net) by using an MX record, but the relay machine does not recognize itself as domain.net. Add domain.net to /etc/mail/local-host-names (if you are using FEATURE(use_cw_file)) or add Cw domain.net to /etc/mail/sendmail.cf. The sendmail FAQ can be found at and is recommended reading if you want to do any tweaking of your mail setup. PPP How can I run a mail server on a dial-up PPP host? You want to connect a FreeBSD box on a LAN to the Internet. The FreeBSD box will be a mail gateway for the LAN. The PPP connection is non-dedicated. UUCP There are at least two ways to do this. One way is to use UUCP. Another way is to get a full-time Internet server to provide secondary MX services for your domain. For example, if your company's domain is example.com and your Internet service provider has set example.net up to provide secondary MX services to your domain: example.com. MX 10 example.com. MX 20 example.net. Only one host should be specified as the final recipient (add Cw example.com in /etc/mail/sendmail.cf on example.com). When the sending sendmail is trying to deliver the mail it will try to connect to you (example.com) over the modem link. It will most likely time out because you are not online. The program sendmail will automatically deliver it to the secondary MX site, i.e. your Internet provider (example.net). The secondary MX site will then periodically try to connect to your host and deliver the mail to the primary MX host (example.com). You might want to use something like this as a login script: #!/bin/sh # Put me in /usr/local/bin/pppmyisp ( sleep 60 ; /usr/sbin/sendmail -q ) & /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pppmyisp If you are going to create a separate login script for a user you could use sendmail -qRexample.com instead in the script above. This will force all mail in your queue for example.com to be processed immediately. A further refinement of the situation is as follows: Message stolen from the &a.isp;. > we provide the secondary MX for a customer. The customer connects to > our services several times a day automatically to get the mails to > his primary MX (We do not call his site when a mail for his domains > arrived). Our sendmail sends the mailqueue every 30 minutes. At the > moment he has to stay 30 minutes online to be sure that all mail is > gone to the primary MX. > > Is there a command that would initiate sendmail to send all the mails > now? The user has not root-privileges on our machine of course. In the privacy flags section of sendmail.cf, there is a definition Opgoaway,restrictqrun Remove restrictqrun to allow non-root users to start the queue processing. You might also like to rearrange the MXs. We are the 1st MX for our customers like this, and we have defined: # If we are the best MX for a host, try directly instead of generating # local config error. OwTrue That way a remote site will deliver straight to you, without trying the customer connection. You then send to your customer. Only works for hosts, so you need to get your customer to name their mail machine customer.com as well as hostname.customer.com in the DNS. Just put an A record in the DNS for customer.com. Why do I keep getting Relaying Denied errors when sending mail from other hosts? In default FreeBSD installations, sendmail is configured to only send mail from the host it is running on. For example, if a POP3 server is installed, then users will be able to check mail from school, work, or other remote locations but they still will not be able to send outgoing emails from outside locations. Typically, a few moments after the attempt, an email will be sent from MAILER-DAEMON with a 5.7 Relaying Denied error message. There are several ways to get around this. The most straightforward solution is to put your ISP's address in a relay-domains file at /etc/mail/relay-domains. A quick way to do this would be: &prompt.root; echo "your.isp.example.com" > /etc/mail/relay-domains After creating or editing this file you must restart sendmail. This works great if you are a server administrator and do not wish to send mail locally, or would like to use a point and click client/system on another machine or even another ISP. It is also very useful if you only have one or two email accounts set up. If there is a large number of addresses to add, you can simply open this file in your favorite text editor and then add the domains, one per line: your.isp.example.com other.isp.example.net users-isp.example.org www.example.org Now any mail sent through your system, by any host in this list (provided the user has an account on your system), will succeed. This is a very nice way to allow users to send mail from your system remotely without allowing people to send SPAM through your system. Advanced Topics The following section covers more involved topics such as mail configuration and setting up mail for your entire domain. Basic Configuration email configuration Out of the box, you should be able to send email to external hosts as long as you have set up /etc/resolv.conf or are running your own name server. If you would like to have mail for your host delivered to the MTA (e.g., sendmail) on your own FreeBSD host, there are two methods: Run your own name server and have your own domain. For example, FreeBSD.org Get mail delivered directly to your host. This is done by delivering mail directly to the current DNS name for your machine. For example, example.FreeBSD.org. SMTP Regardless of which of the above you choose, in order to have mail delivered directly to your host, it must have a permanent static IP address (not a dynamic address, as with most PPP dial-up configurations). If you are behind a firewall, it must pass SMTP traffic on to you. If you want to receive mail directly at your host, you need to be sure of either of two things: MX record Make sure that the (lowest-numbered) MX record in your DNS points to your host's IP address. Make sure there is no MX entry in your DNS for your host. Either of the above will allow you to receive mail directly at your host. Try this: &prompt.root; hostname example.FreeBSD.org &prompt.root; host example.FreeBSD.org example.FreeBSD.org has address 204.216.27.XX If that is what you see, mail directly to yourlogin@example.FreeBSD.org should work without problems (assuming sendmail is running correctly on example.FreeBSD.org). If instead you see something like this: &prompt.root; host example.FreeBSD.org example.FreeBSD.org has address 204.216.27.XX example.FreeBSD.org mail is handled (pri=10) by hub.FreeBSD.org All mail sent to your host (example.FreeBSD.org) will end up being collected on hub under the same username instead of being sent directly to your host. The above information is handled by your DNS server. The DNS record that carries mail routing information is the Mail eXchange entry. If no MX record exists, mail will be delivered directly to the host by way of its IP address. The MX entry for freefall.FreeBSD.org at one time looked like this: freefall MX 30 mail.crl.net freefall MX 40 agora.rdrop.com freefall MX 10 freefall.FreeBSD.org freefall MX 20 who.cdrom.com As you can see, freefall had many MX entries. The lowest MX number is the host that receives mail directly if available; if it's not accessible for some reason, the others (sometimes called backup MXes) accept messages temporarily, and pass it along when a lower-numbered host becomes available, eventually to the lowest-numbered host. Alternate MX sites should have separate Internet connections from your own in order to be most useful. Your ISP or another friendly site should have no problem providing this service for you. Mail for Your Domain In order to set up a mailhost (a.k.a. mail server) you need to have any mail sent to various workstations directed to it. Basically, you want to claim any mail for any hostname in your domain (in this case *.FreeBSD.org) and divert it to your mail server so your users can receive their mail on the master mail server. DNS To make life easiest, a user account with the same username should exist on both machines. Use &man.adduser.8; to do this. The mailhost you will be using must be the designated mail exchanger for each workstation on the network. This is done in your DNS configuration like so: example.FreeBSD.org A 204.216.27.XX ; Workstation MX 10 hub.FreeBSD.org ; Mailhost This will redirect mail for the workstation to the mailhost no matter where the A record points. The mail is sent to the MX host. You cannot do this yourself unless you are running a DNS server. If you are not, or cannot run your own DNS server, talk to your ISP or whoever provides your DNS. If you are doing virtual email hosting, the following information will come in handy. For this example, we will assume you have a customer with his own domain, in this case customer1.org, and you want all the mail for customer1.org sent to your mailhost, mail.myhost.com. The entry in your DNS should look like this: customer1.org MX 10 mail.myhost.com You do not need an A record for customer1.org if you only want to handle email for that domain. Be aware that pinging customer1.org will not work unless an A record exists for it. The last thing that you must do is tell sendmail on your mailhost what domains and/or hostnames it should be accepting mail for. There are a few different ways this can be done. Either of the following will work: Add the hosts to your /etc/mail/local-host-names file if you are using the FEATURE(use_cw_file). If you are using a version of sendmail earlier than 8.10, the file is /etc/sendmail.cw. Add a Cwyour.host.com line to your /etc/sendmail.cf or /etc/mail/sendmail.cf if you are using sendmail 8.10 or higher. SMTP with UUCP The sendmail configuration that ships with FreeBSD is designed for sites that connect directly to the Internet. Sites that wish to exchange their mail via UUCP must install another sendmail configuration file. Tweaking /etc/mail/sendmail.cf manually is an advanced topic. Sendmail version 8 generates config files via &man.m4.1; preprocessing, where the actual configuration occurs on a higher abstraction level. The &man.m4.1 configuration files can be found under /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail/cf. If you did not install your system with full sources, the sendmail config stuff has been broken out into a separate source distribution tarball. Assuming you have your FreeBSD source code CDROM mounted, do: &prompt.root; cd /cdrom/src &prompt.root; cat scontrib.?? | tar xzf - -C /usr/src contrib/sendmail This extracts to only a few hundred kilobytes. The file README in the cf directory can serve as a basic introduction to m4 configuration. The best way to support UUCP delivery is to use the mailertable feature. This creates a database that sendmail can use to make routing decisions. First, you have to create your .mc file. The directory /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail/cf/cf contains a few examples. Assuming you have named your file foo.mc, all you need to do in order to convert it into a valid sendmail.cf is: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail/cf/cf &prompt.root; make foo.cf &prompt.root; cp foo.cf /etc/mail/sendmail.cf A typical .mc file might look like: VERSIONID(`Your version number') OSTYPE(bsd4.4) FEATURE(accept_unresolvable_domains) FEATURE(nocanonify) FEATURE(mailertable, `hash -o /etc/mail/mailertable') define(`UUCP_RELAY', your.uucp.relay) define(`UUCP_MAX_SIZE', 200000) define(`confDONT_PROBE_INTERFACES') MAILER(local) MAILER(smtp) MAILER(uucp) Cw your.alias.host.name Cw youruucpnodename.UUCP The lines containing accept_unresolvable_domains, nocanonify, and confDONT_PROBE_INTERFACES features will prevent any usage of the DNS during mail delivery. The UUCP_RELAY clause is needed to support UUCP delivery. Simply put an Internet hostname there that is able to handle .UUCP pseudo-domain addresses; most likely, you will enter the mail relay of your ISP there. Once you have this, you need an /etc/mail/mailertable file. If you have only one link to the outside that is used for all your mails, the following file will suffice: # # makemap hash /etc/mail/mailertable.db < /etc/mail/mailertable . uucp-dom:your.uucp.relay A more complex example might look like this: # # makemap hash /etc/mail/mailertable.db < /etc/mail/mailertable # horus.interface-business.de uucp-dom:horus .interface-business.de uucp-dom:if-bus interface-business.de uucp-dom:if-bus .heep.sax.de smtp8:%1 horus.UUCP uucp-dom:horus if-bus.UUCP uucp-dom:if-bus . uucp-dom: The first three lines handle special cases where domain-addressed mail should not be sent out to the default route, but instead to some UUCP neighbor in order to shortcut the delivery path. The next line handles mail to the local Ethernet domain that can be delivered using SMTP. Finally, the UUCP neighbors are mentioned in the .UUCP pseudo-domain notation, to allow for a uucp-neighbor !recipient override of the default rules. The last line is always a single dot, matching everything else, with UUCP delivery to a UUCP neighbor that serves as your universal mail gateway to the world. All of the node names behind the uucp-dom: keyword must be valid UUCP neighbors, as you can verify using the command uuname. As a reminder that this file needs to be converted into a DBM database file before use. The command line to accomplish this is best placed as a comment at the top of the mailertable. You always have to execute this command each time you change your mailertable. Final hint: if you are uncertain whether some particular mail routing would work, remember the option to sendmail. It starts sendmail in address test mode; simply enter 3,0, followed by the address you wish to test for the mail routing. The last line tells you the used internal mail agent, the destination host this agent will be called with, and the (possibly translated) address. Leave this mode by typing Control-D. &prompt.user; sendmail -bt ADDRESS TEST MODE (ruleset 3 NOT automatically invoked) Enter <ruleset> <address> > 3,0 foo@example.com canonify input: foo @ example . com ... parse returns: $# uucp-dom $@ your.uucp.relay $: foo < @ example . com . > > ^D Using Mail with a Dialup Connection If you have a static IP address, you should not need to adjust anything from the defaults. Set your host name to your assigned Internet name and sendmail will do the rest. If you have a dynamically assigned IP number and use a dialup PPP connection to the Internet, you will probably have a mailbox on your ISPs mail server. Let's assume your ISP's domain is example.net, and that your user name is user, you have called your machine bsd.home, and your ISP has told you that you may use relay.example.net as a mail relay. In order to retrieve mail from your mailbox, you must install a retrieval agent. Fetchmail is a good choice as it supports many different protocols. Usually, your ISP will provide POP3. If you are using user-PPP, you can automatically fetch your mail when an Internet connection is established with the following entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup: MYADDR: !bg su user -c fetchmail If you are using sendmail (as shown below) to deliver mail to non-local accounts, you probably want to have sendmail process your mailqueue as soon as your Internet connection is established. To do this, put this command after the fetchmail command in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. !bg su user -c "sendmail -q" Assume that you have an account for user on bsd.home. In the home directory of user on bsd.home, create a .fetchmailrc file: poll example.net protocol pop3 fetchall pass MySecret This file should not be readable by anyone except user as it contains the password MySecret. In order to send mail with the correct from: header, you must tell sendmail to use user@example.net rather than user@bsd.home. You may also wish to tell sendmail to send all mail via relay.example.net, allowing quicker mail transmission. The following .mc file should suffice: VERSIONID(`bsd.home.mc version 1.0') OSTYPE(bsd4.4)dnl FEATURE(nouucp)dnl MAILER(local)dnl MAILER(smtp)dnl Cwlocalhost Cwbsd.home MASQUERADE_AS(`example.net')dnl FEATURE(allmasquerade)dnl FEATURE(masquerade_envelope)dnl FEATURE(nocanonify)dnl FEATURE(nodns)dnl define(`SMART_HOST', `relay.example.net') Dmbsd.home define(`confDOMAIN_NAME',`bsd.home')dnl define(`confDELIVERY_MODE',`deferred')dnl Refer to the previous section for details of how to turn this .mc file into a sendmail.cf file. Also, do not forget to restart sendmail after updating sendmail.cf. SMTP Authentication Having SMTP Authentication in place on your mail server has a number of benefits. SMTP Authentication can add another layer of security to sendmail, and has the benefit of giving mobile users who switch hosts the ability to use the same mail server without the need to reconfigure their mail client settings each time. Install security/cyrus-sasl from the ports. You can find this port in security/cyrus-sasl. security/cyrus-sasl has a number of compile time options to choose from and, for the method we will be using here, make sure to select the option. After installing security/cyrus-sasl, edit /usr/local/lib/sasl/Sendmail.conf (or create it if it does not exist) and add the following line: pwcheck_method: passwd This method will enable sendmail to authenticate against your FreeBSD passwd database. This saves the trouble of creating a new set of usernames and passwords for each user that needs to use SMTP authentication, and keeps the login and mail password the same. Now edit /etc/make.conf and add the following lines: SENDMAIL_CFLAGS=-I/usr/local/include/sasl1 -DSASL SENDMAIL_LDFLAGS=-L/usr/local/lib SENDMAIL_LDADD=-lsasl These lines will give sendmail the proper configuration options for linking to cyrus-sasl at compile time. Make sure that cyrus-sasl has been installed before recompiling sendmail. Recompile sendmail by executing the following commands: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail &prompt.root; make cleandir &prompt.root; make obj &prompt.root; make &prompt.root; make install The compile of sendmail should not have any problems if /usr/src has not been changed extensively and the shared libraries it needs are available. After sendmail has been compiled and reinstalled, edit your /etc/mail/freebsd.mc file (or whichever file you use as your .mc file. Many administrators choose to use the output from &man.hostname.1; as the .mc file for uniqueness). Add these lines to it: dnl set SASL options TRUST_AUTH_MECH(`GSSAPI DIGEST-MD5 CRAM-MD5 LOGIN')dnl define(`confAUTH_MECHANISMS', `GSSAPI DIGEST-MD5 CRAM-MD5 LOGIN')dnl define(`confDEF_AUTH_INFO', `/etc/mail/auth-info')dnl These options configure the different methods available to sendmail for authenticating users. If you would like to use a method other than pwcheck, please see the included documentation. Finally, run &man.make.1; while in /etc/mail. That will run your new .mc file and create a .cf file named freebsd.cf (or whatever name you have used for your .mc file). Then use the command make install restart, which will copy the file to sendmail.cf, and will properly restart sendmail. For more information about this process, you should refer to /etc/mail/Makefile. If all has gone correctly, you should be able to enter your login information into the mail client and send a test message. For further investigation, set the of sendmail to 13 and watch /var/log/maillog for any errors. You may wish to add the following lines to /etc/rc.conf so this service will be available after every system boot: sasl_pwcheck_enable="YES" sasl_pwcheck_program="/usr/local/sbin/pwcheck" This will ensure the initialization of SMTP_AUTH upon system boot. For more information, please see the sendmail page regarding SMTP authentication. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mirrors/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mirrors/chapter.sgml index e0392bdf18..8bdcffd6dc 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mirrors/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mirrors/chapter.sgml @@ -1,4715 +1,4715 @@ Obtaining FreeBSD CDROM and DVD Publishers Retail Boxed Products FreeBSD is available as a boxed product (FreeBSD CDs, additional software, and printed documentation) from several retailers:
CompUSA WWW:
Frys Electronics WWW:
CD and DVD Sets FreeBSD CD and DVD sets are available from many online retailers:
Daemon News Mall 560 South State Street, Suite A2 Orem, UT 84058 USA Phone: +1 800 407-5170 Fax: +1 1 801 765-0877 Email: sales@bsdmall.com WWW:
FreeBSD Mall, Inc. 3623 Sanford Street Concord, CA 94520-1405 USA Phone: +1 925 674-0783 Fax: +1 925 674-0821 Email: info@freebsdmall.com WWW:
FreeBSD Services Ltd 11 Lapwing Close Bicester OX26 6XR United Kingdom WWW:
Hinner EDV St. Augustinus-Str. 10 D-81825 München Germany Phone: (089) 428 419 WWW:
Ingram Micro 1600 E. St. Andrew Place Santa Ana, CA 92705-4926 USA Phone: 1 (800) 456-8000 WWW:
JMC Software Ireland Phone: 353 1 6291282 WWW:
The Linux Emporium Hilliard House, Lester Way Wallingford OX10 9TA United Kingdom Phone: +44 1491 837010 Fax: +44 1491 837016 WWW:
Linux System Labs Australia 21 Ray Drive Balwyn North VIC - 3104 Australia Phone: +61 3 9857 5918 Fax: +61 3 9857 8974 WWW:
UNIXDVD.COM LTD 57 Primrose Avenue Sheffield S5 6FS United Kingdom WWW:
Distributors If you are a reseller and want to carry FreeBSD CDROM products, please contact a distributor:
Cylogistics 2672 Bayshore Parkway, Suite 610 Mountain View, CA 94043 USA Phone: +1 650 694-4949 Fax: +1 650 694-4953 Email: sales@cylogistics.com WWW:
FreeBSD Services Ltd 11 Lapwing Close Bicester OX26 6XR United Kingdom WWW:
Kudzu, LLC 7375 Washington Ave. S. Edina, MN 55439 USA Phone: +1 952 947-0822 Fax: +1 952 947-0876 Email: sales@kudzuenterprises.com
Navarre Corp 7400 49th Ave South New Hope, MN 55428 USA Phone: +1 763 535-8333 Fax: +1 763 535-0341 WWW:
FTP Sites The official sources for FreeBSD are available via anonymous FTP from a worldwide set of mirror sites. The site is well connected and allows a large number of connections to it, but you are probably better off finding a closer mirror site (especially if you decide to set up some sort of mirror site). The FreeBSD mirror sites database is more accurate than the mirror listing in the Handbook, as it gets its information from the DNS rather than relying on static lists of hosts. Additionally, FreeBSD is available via anonymous FTP from the following mirror sites. If you choose to obtain FreeBSD via anonymous FTP, please try to use a site near you. Argentina, Australia, Austria, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hong Kong, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Lithuania, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand, UK, Ukraine, USA. Argentina In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@ar.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Australia In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@au.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Austria In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@at.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Brazil In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@br.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Bulgaria In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@bg.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Canada In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@ca.FreeBSD.org for this domain. China In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster phj@cn.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Czech Republic In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@cz.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Contact: calda@dzungle.ms.mff.cuni.cz Denmark In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@dk.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Estonia In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@ee.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Finland In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@fi.FreeBSD.org for this domain. France In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@fr.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Germany In case of problems, please contact the mirror admins de-bsd-hubs@de.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Greece In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@gr.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Hong Kong Hungary In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster mohacsi@ik.bme.hu for this domain. Iceland In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@is.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Ireland In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@ie.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Italy In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@it.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Japan In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@jp.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Korea In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@kr.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Lithuania In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@lt.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Netherlands In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@nl.FreeBSD.org for this domain. New Zealand In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@nz.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Norway In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@no.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Poland In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@pl.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Portugal In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@pt.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Romania In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@ro.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Russia In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@ru.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Saudi Arabia In case of problems, please contact ftpadmin@isu.net.sa Singapore In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@sg.FreeBSD.org for this domain. South Africa In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@za.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Slovak Republic In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@sk.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Slovenia In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@si.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Spain In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@es.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Sweden In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@se.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Switzerland In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@ch.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Taiwan In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@tw.FreeBSD.org for this domain. Thailand Contact: ftpadmin@ftp.nectec.or.th. Ukraine Contact: freebsd-mnt@lucky.net. UK In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@uk.FreeBSD.org for this domain. USA In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@FreeBSD.org for this domain. Anonymous CVS <anchor id="anoncvs-intro">Introduction Anonymous CVS (or, as it is otherwise known, anoncvs) is a feature provided by the CVS utilities bundled with FreeBSD for synchronizing with a remote CVS repository. Among other things, it allows users of FreeBSD to perform, with no special privileges, read-only CVS operations against one of the FreeBSD project's official anoncvs servers. To use it, one simply sets the CVSROOT environment variable to point at the appropriate anoncvs server, provides the well-known password anoncvs with the cvs login command, and then uses the &man.cvs.1; command to access it like any local repository. The cvs login command, stores the passwords that are used for authenticating to the CVS server in a file called .cvspass in your HOME directory. If this file does not exist, you might get an error when trying to use cvs login for the first time. Just make an empty .cvspass file, and retry to login. While it can also be said that the CVSup and anoncvs services both perform essentially the same function, there are various trade-offs which can influence the user's choice of synchronization methods. In a nutshell, CVSup is much more efficient in its usage of network resources and is by far the most technically sophisticated of the two, but at a price. To use CVSup, a special client must first be installed and configured before any bits can be grabbed, and then only in the fairly large chunks which CVSup calls collections. Anoncvs, by contrast, can be used to examine anything from an individual file to a specific program (like ls or grep) by referencing the CVS module name. Of course, anoncvs is also only good for read-only operations on the CVS repository, so if it is your intention to support local development in one repository shared with the FreeBSD project bits then CVSup is really your only option. <anchor id="anoncvs-usage">Using Anonymous CVS Configuring &man.cvs.1; to use an Anonymous CVS repository is a simple matter of setting the CVSROOT environment variable to point to one of the FreeBSD project's anoncvs servers. At the time of this writing, the following servers are available: USA: :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs (Use cvs login and enter the password anoncvs when prompted.) Germany: :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.de.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs (Use cvs login and enter the password anoncvs when prompted.) Germany: :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs2.de.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs (rsh, pserver, ssh, ssh/2022) Japan: :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.jp.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs (Use cvs login and enter the password anoncvs when prompted.) Since CVS allows one to check out virtually any version of the FreeBSD sources that ever existed (or, in some cases, will exist), you need to be familiar with the revision () flag to &man.cvs.1; and what some of the permissible values for it in the FreeBSD Project repository are. There are two kinds of tags, revision tags and branch tags. A revision tag refers to a specific revision. Its meaning stays the same from day to day. A branch tag, on the other hand, refers to the latest revision on a given line of development, at any given time. Because a branch tag does not refer to a specific revision, it may mean something different tomorrow than it means today. contains revision tags that users might be interested in. Again, none of these are valid for the ports collection since the ports collection does not have multiple revisions. When you specify a branch tag, you normally receive the latest versions of the files on that line of development. If you wish to receive some past version, you can do so by specifying a date with the flag. See the &man.cvs.1; manual page for more details. Examples While it really is recommended that you read the manual page for &man.cvs.1; thoroughly before doing anything, here are some quick examples which essentially show how to use Anonymous CVS: Checking Out Something from -CURRENT (&man.ls.1;) and Deleting It Again: &prompt.user; setenv CVSROOT :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs &prompt.user; cvs login At the prompt, enter the password anoncvs. &prompt.user; cvs co ls &prompt.user; cvs release -d ls &prompt.user; cvs logout Checking Out the Version of &man.ls.1; in the 3.X-STABLE Branch: &prompt.user; setenv CVSROOT :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs &prompt.user; cvs login At the prompt, enter the password anoncvs. &prompt.user; cvs co -rRELENG_3 ls &prompt.user; cvs release -d ls &prompt.user; cvs logout - Creating a List of Changes (as unified diffs) to &man.ls.1; + Creating a List of Changes (as Unified Diffs) to &man.ls.1; &prompt.user; setenv CVSROOT :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs &prompt.user; cvs login At the prompt, enter the password anoncvs. &prompt.user; cvs rdiff -u -rRELENG_3_0_0_RELEASE -rRELENG_3_4_0_RELEASE ls &prompt.user; cvs logout Finding Out What Other Module Names Can Be Used: &prompt.user; setenv CVSROOT :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs &prompt.user; cvs login At the prompt, enter the password anoncvs. &prompt.user; cvs co modules &prompt.user; more modules/modules &prompt.user; cvs release -d modules &prompt.user; cvs logout Other Resources The following additional resources may be helpful in learning CVS: CVS Tutorial from Cal Poly. CVS Home, the CVS development and support community. CVSweb is the FreeBSD Project web interface for CVS. Using CTM CTM is a method for keeping a remote directory tree in sync with a central one. It has been developed for usage with FreeBSD's source trees, though other people may find it useful for other purposes as time goes by. Little, if any, documentation currently exists at this time on the process of creating deltas, so talk to &a.phk; for more information should you wish to use CTM for other things. Why Should I Use <application>CTM</application>? CTM will give you a local copy of the FreeBSD source trees. There are a number of flavors of the tree available. Whether you wish to track the entire CVS tree or just one of the branches, CTM can provide you the information. If you are an active developer on FreeBSD, but have lousy or non-existent TCP/IP connectivity, or simply wish to have the changes automatically sent to you, CTM was made for you. You will need to obtain up to three deltas per day for the most active branches. However, you should consider having them sent by automatic email. The sizes of the updates are always kept as small as possible. This is typically less than 5K, with an occasional (one in ten) being 10-50K and every now and then a large 100K+ or more coming around. You will also need to make yourself aware of the various caveats related to working directly from the development sources rather than a pre-packaged release. This is particularly true if you choose the current sources. It is recommended that you read Staying current with FreeBSD. What Do I Need to Use <application>CTM</application>? You will need two things: The CTM program, and the initial deltas to feed it (to get up to current levels). The CTM program has been part of FreeBSD ever since version 2.0 was released, and lives in /usr/src/usr.sbin/ctm if you have a copy of the source available. If you are running a pre-2.0 version of FreeBSD, you can fetch the current CTM sources directly from: The deltas you feed CTM can be had two ways, FTP or email. If you have general FTP access to the Internet then the following FTP sites support access to CTM: or see section mirrors. FTP the relevant directory and fetch the README file, starting from there. If you wish to get your deltas via email: Subscribe to one of the CTM distribution lists. &a.ctm-cvs-cur.name; supports the entire CVS tree. &a.ctm-src-cur.name; supports the head of the development branch. &a.ctm-src-4.name; supports the 4.X release branch, etc.. (If you do not know how to subscribe yourself to a list, click on the list name above or go to &a.mailman.lists.link; and click on the list that you wish to subscribe to. The list page should contain all of the necessary subscription instructions.) When you begin receiving your CTM updates in the mail, you may use the ctm_rmail program to unpack and apply them. You can actually use the ctm_rmail program directly from a entry in /etc/aliases if you want to have the process run in a fully automated fashion. Check the ctm_rmail manual page for more details. No matter what method you use to get the CTM deltas, you should subscribe to the &a.ctm-announce.name; mailing list. In the future, this will be the only place where announcements concerning the operations of the CTM system will be posted. Click on the list name above and follow the instructions to subscribe to the list. Using <application>CTM</application> for the First Time Before you can start using CTM deltas, you will need to get to a starting point for the deltas produced subsequently to it. First you should determine what you already have. Everyone can start from an empty directory. You must use an initial Empty delta to start off your CTM supported tree. At some point it is intended that one of these started deltas be distributed on the CD for your convenience, however, this does not currently happen. Since the trees are many tens of megabytes, you should prefer to start from something already at hand. If you have a -RELEASE CD, you can copy or extract an initial source from it. This will save a significant transfer of data. You can recognize these starter deltas by the X appended to the number (src-cur.3210XEmpty.gz for instance). The designation following the X corresponds to the origin of your initial seed. Empty is an empty directory. As a rule a base transition from Empty is produced every 100 deltas. By the way, they are large! 70 to 80 Megabytes of gzip'd data is common for the XEmpty deltas. Once you have picked a base delta to start from, you will also need all deltas with higher numbers following it. Using <application>CTM</application> in Your Daily Life To apply the deltas, simply say: &prompt.root; cd /where/ever/you/want/the/stuff &prompt.root; ctm -v -v /where/you/store/your/deltas/src-xxx.* CTM understands deltas which have been put through gzip, so you do not need to gunzip them first, this saves disk space. Unless it feels very secure about the entire process, CTM will not touch your tree. To verify a delta you can also use the flag and CTM will not actually touch your tree; it will merely verify the integrity of the delta and see if it would apply cleanly to your current tree. There are other options to CTM as well, see the manual pages or look in the sources for more information. That is really all there is to it. Every time you get a new delta, just run it through CTM to keep your sources up to date. Do not remove the deltas if they are hard to download again. You just might want to keep them around in case something bad happens. Even if you only have floppy disks, consider using fdwrite to make a copy. Keeping Your Local Changes As a developer one would like to experiment with and change files in the source tree. CTM supports local modifications in a limited way: before checking for the presence of a file foo, it first looks for foo.ctm. If this file exists, CTM will operate on it instead of foo. This behavior gives us a simple way to maintain local changes: simply copy the files you plan to modify to the corresponding file names with a .ctm suffix. Then you can freely hack the code, while CTM keeps the .ctm file up-to-date. Other Interesting <application>CTM</application> Options Finding Out Exactly What Would Be Touched by an Update You can determine the list of changes that CTM will make on your source repository using the option to CTM. This is useful if you would like to keep logs of the changes, pre- or post- process the modified files in any manner, or just are feeling a tad paranoid. Making Backups Before Updating Sometimes you may want to backup all the files that would be changed by a CTM update. Specifying the option causes CTM to backup all files that would be touched by a given CTM delta to backup-file. Restricting the Files Touched by an Update Sometimes you would be interested in restricting the scope of a given CTM update, or may be interested in extracting just a few files from a sequence of deltas. You can control the list of files that CTM would operate on by specifying filtering regular expressions using the and options. For example, to extract an up-to-date copy of lib/libc/Makefile from your collection of saved CTM deltas, run the commands: &prompt.root; cd /where/ever/you/want/to/extract/it/ &prompt.root; ctm -e '^lib/libc/Makefile' ~ctm/src-xxx.* For every file specified in a CTM delta, the and options are applied in the order given on the command line. The file is processed by CTM only if it is marked as eligible after all the and options are applied to it. Future Plans for <application>CTM</application> Tons of them: Use some kind of authentication into the CTM system, so as to allow detection of spoofed CTM updates. Clean up the options to CTM, they became confusing and counter intuitive. Miscellaneous Stuff There is a sequence of deltas for the ports collection too, but interest has not been all that high yet. CTM Mirrors CTM/FreeBSD is available via anonymous FTP from the following mirror sites. If you choose to obtain CTM via anonymous FTP, please try to use a site near you. In case of problems, please contact &a.phk;. California, Bay Area, official source South Africa, backup server for old deltas Taiwan/R.O.C. If you did not find a mirror near to you or the mirror is incomplete, try to use a search engine such as alltheweb. Using CVSup Introduction CVSup is a software package for distributing and updating source trees from a master CVS repository on a remote server host. The FreeBSD sources are maintained in a CVS repository on a central development machine in California. With CVSup, FreeBSD users can easily keep their own source trees up to date. CVSup uses the so-called pull model of updating. Under the pull model, each client asks the server for updates, if and when they are wanted. The server waits passively for update requests from its clients. Thus all updates are instigated by the client. The server never sends unsolicited updates. Users must either run the CVSup client manually to get an update, or they must set up a cron job to run it automatically on a regular basis. The term CVSup, capitalized just so, refers to the entire software package. Its main components are the client cvsup which runs on each user's machine, and the server cvsupd which runs at each of the FreeBSD mirror sites. As you read the FreeBSD documentation and mailing lists, you may see references to sup. Sup was the predecessor of CVSup, and it served a similar purpose. CVSup is used much in the same way as sup and, in fact, uses configuration files which are backward-compatible with sup's. Sup is no longer used in the FreeBSD project, because CVSup is both faster and more flexible. Installation The easiest way to install CVSup is to use the precompiled net/cvsup package from the FreeBSD packages collection. If you prefer to build CVSup from source, you can use the net/cvsup port instead. But be forewarned: the net/cvsup port depends on the Modula-3 system, which takes a substantial amount of time and disk space to download and build. If you are going to be using CVSup on a machine which will not have XFree86 installed, such as a server, be sure to use the port which does not include the CVSup GUI, net/cvsup-without-gui. If you do not know anything about CVSup at all and want a single package which will install it, set up the configuration file and start the transfer via a pointy-clicky type of interface, then get the net/cvsupit package. Just hand it to &man.pkg.add.1; and it will lead you through the configuration process in a menu-oriented fashion. CVSup Configuration CVSup's operation is controlled by a configuration file called the supfile. There are some sample supfiles in the directory /usr/share/examples/cvsup/. The information in a supfile answers the following questions for CVSup: Which files do you want to receive? Which versions of them do you want? Where do you want to get them from? Where do you want to put them on your own machine? Where do you want to put your status files? In the following sections, we will construct a typical supfile by answering each of these questions in turn. First, we describe the overall structure of a supfile. A supfile is a text file. Comments begin with # and extend to the end of the line. Lines that are blank and lines that contain only comments are ignored. Each remaining line describes a set of files that the user wishes to receive. The line begins with the name of a collection, a logical grouping of files defined by the server. The name of the collection tells the server which files you want. After the collection name come zero or more fields, separated by white space. These fields answer the questions listed above. There are two types of fields: flag fields and value fields. A flag field consists of a keyword standing alone, e.g., delete or compress. A value field also begins with a keyword, but the keyword is followed without intervening white space by = and a second word. For example, release=cvs is a value field. A supfile typically specifies more than one collection to receive. One way to structure a supfile is to specify all of the relevant fields explicitly for each collection. However, that tends to make the supfile lines quite long, and it is inconvenient because most fields are the same for all of the collections in a supfile. CVSup provides a defaulting mechanism to avoid these problems. Lines beginning with the special pseudo-collection name *default can be used to set flags and values which will be used as defaults for the subsequent collections in the supfile. A default value can be overridden for an individual collection, by specifying a different value with the collection itself. Defaults can also be changed or augmented in mid-supfile by additional *default lines. With this background, we will now proceed to construct a supfile for receiving and updating the main source tree of FreeBSD-CURRENT. Which files do you want to receive? The files available via CVSup are organized into named groups called collections. The collections that are available are described in the following section. In this example, we wish to receive the entire main source tree for the FreeBSD system. There is a single large collection src-all which will give us all of that. As a first step toward constructing our supfile, we simply list the collections, one per line (in this case, only one line): src-all Which version(s) of them do you want? With CVSup, you can receive virtually any version of the sources that ever existed. That is possible because the cvsupd server works directly from the CVS repository, which contains all of the versions. You specify which one of them you want using the tag= and value fields. Be very careful to specify any tag= fields correctly. Some tags are valid only for certain collections of files. If you specify an incorrect or misspelled tag, CVSup will delete files which you probably do not want deleted. In particular, use only tag=. for the ports-* collections. The tag= field names a symbolic tag in the repository. There are two kinds of tags, revision tags and branch tags. A revision tag refers to a specific revision. Its meaning stays the same from day to day. A branch tag, on the other hand, refers to the latest revision on a given line of development, at any given time. Because a branch tag does not refer to a specific revision, it may mean something different tomorrow than it means today. contains branch tags that users might be interested in. When specifying a tag in CVSup's configuration file, it must be preceded with tag= (RELENG_4 will become tag=RELENG_4). Keep in mind that only the tag=. is relevant for the ports collection. Be very careful to type the tag name exactly as shown. CVSup cannot distinguish between valid and invalid tags. If you misspell the tag, CVSup will behave as though you had specified a valid tag which happens to refer to no files at all. It will delete your existing sources in that case. When you specify a branch tag, you normally receive the latest versions of the files on that line of development. If you wish to receive some past version, you can do so by specifying a date with the value field. The &man.cvsup.1; manual page explains how to do that. For our example, we wish to receive FreeBSD-CURRENT. We add this line at the beginning of our supfile: *default tag=. There is an important special case that comes into play if you specify neither a tag= field nor a date= field. In that case, you receive the actual RCS files directly from the server's CVS repository, rather than receiving a particular version. Developers generally prefer this mode of operation. By maintaining a copy of the repository itself on their systems, they gain the ability to browse the revision histories and examine past versions of files. This gain is achieved at a large cost in terms of disk space, however. Where do you want to get them from? We use the host= field to tell cvsup where to obtain its updates. Any of the CVSup mirror sites will do, though you should try to select one that is close to you in cyberspace. In this example we will use a fictional FreeBSD distribution site, cvsup666.FreeBSD.org: *default host=cvsup666.FreeBSD.org You will need to change the host to one that actually exists before running CVSup. On any particular run of cvsup, you can override the host setting on the command line, with . Where do you want to put them on your own machine? The prefix= field tells cvsup where to put the files it receives. In this example, we will put the source files directly into our main source tree, /usr/src. The src directory is already implicit in the collections we have chosen to receive, so this is the correct specification: *default prefix=/usr Where should cvsup maintain its status files? The CVSup client maintains certain status files in what is called the base directory. These files help CVSup to work more efficiently, by keeping track of which updates you have already received. We will use the standard base directory, /usr/local/etc/cvsup: *default base=/usr/local/etc/cvsup This setting is used by default if it is not specified in the supfile, so we actually do not need the above line. If your base directory does not already exist, now would be a good time to create it. The cvsup client will refuse to run if the base directory does not exist. Miscellaneous supfile settings: There is one more line of boiler plate that normally needs to be present in the supfile: *default release=cvs delete use-rel-suffix compress release=cvs indicates that the server should get its information out of the main FreeBSD CVS repository. This is virtually always the case, but there are other possibilities which are beyond the scope of this discussion. delete gives CVSup permission to delete files. You should always specify this, so that CVSup can keep your source tree fully up-to-date. CVSup is careful to delete only those files for which it is responsible. Any extra files you happen to have will be left strictly alone. use-rel-suffix is ... arcane. If you really want to know about it, see the &man.cvsup.1; manual page. Otherwise, just specify it and do not worry about it. compress enables the use of gzip-style compression on the communication channel. If your network link is T1 speed or faster, you probably should not use compression. Otherwise, it helps substantially. Putting it all together: Here is the entire supfile for our example: *default tag=. *default host=cvsup666.FreeBSD.org *default prefix=/usr *default base=/usr/local/etc/cvsup *default release=cvs delete use-rel-suffix compress src-all The <filename>refuse</filename> File As mentioned above, CVSup uses a pull method. Basically, this means that you connect to the CVSup server, and it says, Here is what you can download from me..., and your client responds OK, I will take this, this, this, and this. In the default configuration, the CVSup client will take every file associated with the collection and tag you chose in the configuration file. However, this is not always what you want, especially if you are synching the doc, ports, or www trees — most people cannot read four or five languages, and therefore they do not need to download the language-specific files. If you are CVSuping the ports collection, you can get around this by specifying each collection individually (e.g., ports-astrology, ports-biology, etc instead of simply saying ports-all). However, since the doc and www trees do not have language-specific collections, you must use one of CVSup's many nifty features: the refuse file. The refuse file essentially tells CVSup that it should not take every single file from a collection; in other words, it tells the client to refuse certain files from the server. The refuse file can be found (or, if you do not yet have one, should be placed) in base/sup/. base is defined in your supfile; by default, base is /usr/local/etc/cvsup, which means that by default the refuse file is /usr/local/etc/cvsup/sup/refuse. The refuse file has a very simple format; it simply contains the names of files or directories that you do not wish to download. For example, if you cannot speak any languages other than English and some German, and you do not feel the need to use the German applications (or applications for any other languages, except for English), you can put the following in your refuse file: ports/chinese ports/french ports/german ports/hebrew ports/hungarian ports/japanese ports/korean ports/portuguese ports/russian ports/ukrainian ports/vietnamese doc/da_* doc/de_* doc/el_* doc/es_* doc/fr_* doc/it_* doc/ja_* doc/nl_* doc/no_* doc/pl_* doc/pt_* doc/ru_* doc/sr_* doc/zh_* and so forth for the other languages (you can find the full list by browsing the FreeBSD FTP server). With this very useful feature, those users who are on slow links or pay by the minute for their Internet connection will be able to save valuable time as they will no longer need to download files that they will never use. For more information on refuse files and other neat features of CVSup, please view its manual page. Running <application>CVSup</application> You are now ready to try an update. The command line for doing this is quite simple: &prompt.root; cvsup supfile where supfile is of course the name of the supfile you have just created. Assuming you are running under X11, cvsup will display a GUI window with some buttons to do the usual things. Press the go button, and watch it run. Since you are updating your actual /usr/src tree in this example, you will need to run the program as root so that cvsup has the permissions it needs to update your files. Having just created your configuration file, and having never used this program before, that might understandably make you nervous. There is an easy way to do a trial run without touching your precious files. Just create an empty directory somewhere convenient, and name it as an extra argument on the command line: &prompt.root; mkdir /var/tmp/dest &prompt.root; cvsup supfile /var/tmp/dest The directory you specify will be used as the destination directory for all file updates. CVSup will examine your usual files in /usr/src, but it will not modify or delete any of them. Any file updates will instead land in /var/tmp/dest/usr/src. CVSup will also leave its base directory status files untouched when run this way. The new versions of those files will be written into the specified directory. As long as you have read access to /usr/src, you do not even need to be root to perform this kind of trial run. If you are not running X11 or if you just do not like GUIs, you should add a couple of options to the command line when you run cvsup: &prompt.root; cvsup -g -L 2 supfile The tells CVSup not to use its GUI. This is automatic if you are not running X11, but otherwise you have to specify it. The tells CVSup to print out the details of all the file updates it is doing. There are three levels of verbosity, from to . The default is 0, which means total silence except for error messages. There are plenty of other options available. For a brief list of them, type cvsup -H. For more detailed descriptions, see the manual page. Once you are satisfied with the way updates are working, you can arrange for regular runs of CVSup using &man.cron.8;. Obviously, you should not let CVSup use its GUI when running it from &man.cron.8;. <application>CVSup</application> File Collections The file collections available via CVSup are organized hierarchically. There are a few large collections, and they are divided into smaller sub-collections. Receiving a large collection is equivalent to receiving each of its sub-collections. The hierarchical relationships among collections are reflected by the use of indentation in the list below. The most commonly used collections are src-all, and ports-all. The other collections are used only by small groups of people for specialized purposes, and some mirror sites may not carry all of them. cvs-all release=cvs The main FreeBSD CVS repository, including the cryptography code. distrib release=cvs Files related to the distribution and mirroring of FreeBSD. doc-all release=cvs Sources for the FreeBSD Handbook and other documentation. This does not include files for the FreeBSD web site. ports-all release=cvs The FreeBSD Ports Collection. If you do not want to update the whole of ports-all (the whole ports tree), but use one of the subcollections listed below, make sure that you always update the ports-base subcollection! Whenever something changes in the ports build infrastructure represented by ports-base, it is virtually certain that those changes will be used by real ports real soon. Thus, if you only update the real ports and they use some of the new features, there is a very high chance that their build will fail with some mysterious error message. The very first thing to do in this case is to make sure that your ports-base subcollection is up to date. ports-archivers release=cvs Archiving tools. ports-astro release=cvs Astronomical ports. ports-audio release=cvs Sound support. ports-base release=cvs The Ports Collection build infrastructure - various files located in the Mk/ and Tools/ subdirectories of /usr/ports. Please see the important warning above: you should always update this subcollection, whenever you update any part of the FreeBSD Ports Collection! ports-benchmarks release=cvs Benchmarks. ports-biology release=cvs Biology. ports-cad release=cvs Computer aided design tools. ports-chinese release=cvs Chinese language support. ports-comms release=cvs Communication software. ports-converters release=cvs character code converters. ports-databases release=cvs Databases. ports-deskutils release=cvs Things that used to be on the desktop before computers were invented. ports-devel release=cvs Development utilities. ports-editors release=cvs Editors. ports-emulators release=cvs Emulators for other operating systems. ports-finance release=cvs Monetary, financial and related applications. ports-ftp release=cvs FTP client and server utilities. ports-games release=cvs Games. ports-german release=cvs German language support. ports-graphics release=cvs Graphics utilities. ports-hungarian release=cvs Hungarian language support. ports-irc release=cvs Internet Relay Chat utilities. ports-japanese release=cvs Japanese language support. ports-java release=cvs Java utilities. ports-korean release=cvs Korean language support. ports-lang release=cvs Programming languages. ports-mail release=cvs Mail software. ports-math release=cvs Numerical computation software. ports-mbone release=cvs MBone applications. ports-misc release=cvs Miscellaneous utilities. ports-multimedia release=cvs Multimedia software. ports-net release=cvs Networking software. ports-news release=cvs USENET news software. ports-palm release=cvs Software support for Palm series. ports-portuguese release=cvs Portuguese language support. ports-print release=cvs Printing software. ports-russian release=cvs Russian language support. ports-security release=cvs Security utilities. ports-shells release=cvs Command line shells. ports-sysutils release=cvs System utilities. ports-textproc release=cvs text processing utilities (does not include desktop publishing). ports-vietnamese release=cvs Vietnamese language support. ports-www release=cvs Software related to the World Wide Web. ports-x11 release=cvs Ports to support the X window system. ports-x11-clocks release=cvs X11 clocks. ports-x11-fm release=cvs X11 file managers. ports-x11-fonts release=cvs X11 fonts and font utilities. ports-x11-toolkits release=cvs X11 toolkits. ports-x11-servers X11 servers. ports-x11-wm X11 window managers. src-all release=cvs The main FreeBSD sources, including the cryptography code. src-base release=cvs Miscellaneous files at the top of /usr/src. src-bin release=cvs User utilities that may be needed in single-user mode (/usr/src/bin). src-contrib release=cvs Utilities and libraries from outside the FreeBSD project, used relatively unmodified (/usr/src/contrib). src-crypto release=cvs Cryptography utilities and libraries from outside the FreeBSD project, used relatively unmodified (/usr/src/crypto). src-eBones release=cvs Kerberos and DES (/usr/src/eBones). Not used in current releases of FreeBSD. src-etc release=cvs System configuration files (/usr/src/etc). src-games release=cvs Games (/usr/src/games). src-gnu release=cvs Utilities covered by the GNU Public License (/usr/src/gnu). src-include release=cvs Header files (/usr/src/include). src-kerberos5 release=cvs Kerberos5 security package (/usr/src/kerberos5). src-kerberosIV release=cvs KerberosIV security package (/usr/src/kerberosIV). src-lib release=cvs Libraries (/usr/src/lib). src-libexec release=cvs System programs normally executed by other programs (/usr/src/libexec). src-release release=cvs Files required to produce a FreeBSD release (/usr/src/release). src-sbin release=cvs System utilities for single-user mode (/usr/src/sbin). src-secure release=cvs Cryptographic libraries and commands (/usr/src/secure). src-share release=cvs Files that can be shared across multiple systems (/usr/src/share). src-sys release=cvs The kernel (/usr/src/sys). src-sys-crypto release=cvs Kernel cryptography code (/usr/src/sys/crypto). src-tools release=cvs Various tools for the maintenance of FreeBSD (/usr/src/tools). src-usrbin release=cvs User utilities (/usr/src/usr.bin). src-usrsbin release=cvs System utilities (/usr/src/usr.sbin). www release=cvs The sources for the FreeBSD WWW site. distrib release=self The CVSup server's own configuration files. Used by CVSup mirror sites. gnats release=current The GNATS bug-tracking database. mail-archive release=current FreeBSD mailing list archive. www release=current The pre-processed FreeBSD WWW site files (not the source files). Used by WWW mirror sites. For More Information For the CVSup FAQ and other information about CVSup, see The CVSup Home Page. Most FreeBSD-related discussion of CVSup takes place on the &a.hackers;. New versions of the software are announced there, as well as on the &a.announce;. Questions and bug reports should be addressed to the author of the program at cvsup-bugs@polstra.com. CVSup Sites CVSup servers for FreeBSD are running at the following sites: Argentina cvsup.ar.FreeBSD.org (maintainer msagre@cactus.fi.uba.ar) Australia cvsup.au.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cvsup@ntt.net.au) cvsup2.au.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cvsup@isp.net.au) cvsup3.au.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cvsup@speednet.com.au) cvsup4.au.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cvsup@ideal.net.au) cvsup5.au.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cvsup@netlead.com.au) Austria cvsup.at.FreeBSD.org (maintainer postmaster@wu-wien.ac.at) cvsup2.at.FreeBSD.org (maintainer ftp-admin.zid@univie.ac.at) Brazil cvsup.br.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cvsup@cvsup.br.FreeBSD.org) cvsup2.br.FreeBSD.org (maintainer tps@ti.sk) cvsup3.br.FreeBSD.org (maintainer camposr@matrix.com.br) cvsup4.br.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cvsup@tcoip.com.br) cvsup5.br.FreeBSD.org (maintainer hostmaster@br.FreeBSD.org) Bulgaria cvsup.bg.FreeBSD.org (maintainer hostmaster@bg.FreeBSD.org) Canada cvsup.ca.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cvsup@cvsup.ca.FreeBSD.org) China cvsup.cn.FreeBSD.org (maintainer phj@cn.FreeBSD.org) Czech Republic cvsup.cz.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cejkar@fit.vutbr.cz) Denmark cvsup.dk.FreeBSD.org (maintainer jesper@FreeBSD.org) Estonia cvsup.ee.FreeBSD.org (maintainer taavi@uninet.ee) Finland cvsup.fi.FreeBSD.org (maintainer count@key.sms.fi) cvsup2.fi.FreeBSD.org (maintainer count@key.sms.fi) France cvsup.fr.FreeBSD.org (maintainer hostmaster@fr.FreeBSD.org) cvsup2.fr.FreeBSD.org (maintainer ftpmaint@uvsq.fr) cvsup3.fr.FreeBSD.org (maintainer ftpmaint@enst.fr) cvsup4.fr.FreeBSD.org (maintainer ftpmaster@t-online.fr) cvsup5.fr.FreeBSD.org (maintainer freebsdcvsup@teaser.net) cvsup8.fr.FreeBSD.org (maintainer ftpmaint@crc.u-strasbg.fr) Germany cvsup.de.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cvsup@cosmo-project.de) cvsup2.de.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cvsup@apfel.de) cvsup3.de.FreeBSD.org (maintainer ag@leo.org) cvsup4.de.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cvsup@cosmo-project.de) cvsup5.de.FreeBSD.org (maintainer &a.rse;) cvsup6.de.FreeBSD.org (maintainer adminmail@heitec.net) cvsup7.de.FreeBSD.org (maintainer karsten@rohrbach.de) Greece cvsup.gr.FreeBSD.org (maintainer ftpadm@duth.gr) cvsup2.gr.FreeBSD.org (maintainer paschos@cs.uoi.gr) Hungary cvsup.hu.FreeBSD.org (maintainer janos.mohacsi@bsd.hu) Iceland cvsup.is.FreeBSD.org (maintainer hostmaster@is.FreeBSD.org) Ireland cvsup.ie.FreeBSD.org (maintainer dwmalone@maths.tcd.ie), Trinity College, Dublin. Japan cvsup.jp.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cvsupadm@jp.FreeBSD.org) cvsup2.jp.FreeBSD.org (maintainer &a.max;) cvsup3.jp.FreeBSD.org (maintainer shige@cin.nihon-u.ac.jp) cvsup4.jp.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cvsup-admin@ftp.media.kyoto-u.ac.jp) cvsup5.jp.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cvsup@imasy.or.jp) cvsup6.jp.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cvsupadm@jp.FreeBSD.org) Korea cvsup.kr.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cjh@kr.FreeBSD.org) cvsup2.kr.FreeBSD.org (maintainer holywar@mail.holywar.net) cvsup3.kr.FreeBSD.org (maintainer leo@florida.sarang.net) Kuwait cvsup1.kw.FreeBSD.org (maintainer sysadmin@kems.net) Latvia cvsup.lv.FreeBSD.org (maintainer system@soft.lv) Lithuania cvsup.lt.FreeBSD.org (maintainer domas.mituzas@delfi.lt) cvsup2.lt.FreeBSD.org (maintainer vaidas.damosevicius@if.lt) New Zealand cvsup.nz.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cvsup@langille.org) Netherlands cvsup.nl.FreeBSD.org (maintainer xaa@xaa.iae.nl) cvsup2.nl.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cvsup@nl.uu.net) cvsup3.nl.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cvsup@vuurwerk.nl) cvsup4.nl.FreeBSD.org (maintainer hostmaster@cvsup4.nl.FreeBSD.org) cvsup5.nl.FreeBSD.org (maintainer vincent@nlisp.nl) Norway cvsup.no.FreeBSD.org (maintainer Per.Hove@math.ntnu.no) Poland cvsup.pl.FreeBSD.org (maintainer Mariusz@kam.pl) cvsup2.pl.FreeBSD.org (maintainer hostmaster@cvsup2.pl.FreeBSD.org) cvsup3.pl.FreeBSD.org (maintainer hostmaster@cvsup3.pl.FreeBSD.org) Portugal cvsup.pt.FreeBSD.org (maintainer jpedras@webvolution.net) Romania cvsup.ro.FreeBSD.org (maintainer razor@ldc.ro) cvsup2.ro.FreeBSD.org (maintainer hostmaster@rofug.ro) cvsup3.ro.FreeBSD.org (maintainer veedee@c7.campus.utcluj.ro) Russia cvsup.ru.FreeBSD.org (maintainer ache@nagual.pp.ru) cvsup2.ru.FreeBSD.org (maintainer dv@dv.ru) cvsup3.ru.FreeBSD.org (maintainer fjoe@iclub.nsu.ru) cvsup4.ru.FreeBSD.org (maintainer maxim@macomnet.ru) cvsup5.ru.FreeBSD.org (maintainer maxim@macomnet.ru) cvsup6.ru.FreeBSD.org (maintainer pvr@corbina.net) San Marino cvsup.sm.FreeBSD.org (maintainer sysadmin@alexdupre.com) Singapore cvsup.sg.FreeBSD.org (maintainer mirror-maintainer@mirror.averse.net) Slovak Republic cvsup.sk.FreeBSD.org (maintainer scorp@scorp.sk) cvsup2.sk.FreeBSD.org (maintainer scorp@scorp.sk) Slovenia cvsup.si.FreeBSD.org (maintainer blaz@si.FreeBSD.org) cvsup2.si.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cuk@cuk.nu) South Africa cvsup.za.FreeBSD.org (maintainer &a.markm;) cvsup2.za.FreeBSD.org (maintainer &a.markm;) Spain cvsup.es.FreeBSD.org (maintainer &a.jesusr;) cvsup2.es.FreeBSD.org (maintainer &a.jesusr;) cvsup3.es.FreeBSD.org (maintainer jose@we.lc.ehu.es) Sweden cvsup.se.FreeBSD.org (maintainer pantzer@ludd.luth.se) cvsup2.se.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cvsup@dataphone.net) Taiwan cvsup.tw.FreeBSD.org (maintainer ijliao@FreeBSD.org) cvsup3.tw.FreeBSD.org (maintainer foxfair@FreeBSD.org) cvsup4.tw.FreeBSD.org (maintainer einstein@NHCTC.edu.tw) cvsup5.tw.FreeBSD.org (maintainer einstein@NHCTC.edu.tw) cvsup6.tw.FreeBSD.org (maintainer jason@tw.FreeBSD.org) cvsup7.tw.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cvsup@abpe.org) cvsup8.tw.FreeBSD.org (maintainer heboy@FreeBSD.tku.edu.tw) cvsup9.tw.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cs871256@csie.ncu.edu.tw) cvsup10.tw.FreeBSD.org (maintainer rafan@infor.org) cvsup11.tw.FreeBSD.org (maintainer vanilla@FreeBSD.org) cvsup12.tw.FreeBSD.org (maintainer GEO.bbs@birdnest.twbbs.org) cvsup13.tw.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cdsheen@tw.FreeBSD.org) Turkey cvsup.tr.FreeBSD.org (maintainer roots@enderunix.org) Ukraine cvsup2.ua.FreeBSD.org (maintainer freebsd-mnt@lucky.net) cvsup3.ua.FreeBSD.org (maintainer ftpmaster@ukr.net), Kiev cvsup4.ua.FreeBSD.org (maintainer phantom@cris.net) cvsup5.ua.FreeBSD.org (maintainer never@nevermind.kiev.ua) cvsup6.ua.FreeBSD.org (maintainer freebsd-cvs@colocall.net) cvsup7.ua.FreeBSD.org (maintainer never@nevermind.kiev.ua) United Kingdom cvsup.uk.FreeBSD.org (maintainer ftp-admin@plig.net) cvsup2.uk.FreeBSD.org (maintainer &a.brian;) cvsup3.uk.FreeBSD.org (maintainer ejb@leguin.org.uk) cvsup4.uk.FreeBSD.org (maintainer mirror@teleglobe.net) USA cvsup1.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cwt@networks.cwu.edu), Washington state cvsup2.FreeBSD.org (maintainers djs@secure.net and &a.nectar;), Virginia cvsup3.FreeBSD.org (maintainer &a.wollman;), Massachusetts cvsup5.FreeBSD.org (maintainer mjr@blackened.com), Arizona cvsup6.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cvsup@cvsup.adelphiacom.net), Illinois cvsup7.FreeBSD.org (maintainer &a.jdp;), Washington state cvsup8.FreeBSD.org (maintainer hostmaster@bigmirror.com), Washington state cvsup9.FreeBSD.org (maintainer &a.jdp;), Minnesota cvsup10.FreeBSD.org (maintainer &a.jdp;), California cvsup11.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cvsup@research.uu.net), Virginia cvsup12.FreeBSD.org (maintainer &a.will;), Indiana cvsup13.FreeBSD.org (maintainer dima@valueclick.com), California cvsup14.FreeBSD.org (maintainer freebsd-cvsup@mfnx.net), California cvsup15.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cvsup@math.uic.edu), Illinois cvsup16.FreeBSD.org (maintainer pth3k@virginia.edu), Virginia cvsup17.FreeBSD.org (maintainer cvsup@mirrortree.com), Washington state CVS Tags When obtaining or updating sources from cvs and CVSup a revision tag (reference to a date in time) must be specified. A revision tag refers to either a particular line of FreeBSD development, or a specific point in time. The first type are called branch tags, the second type are called release tags. - Branch tags + Branch Tags All of these, with the exception of HEAD (which is always a valid tag), only apply to the src/ tree. The ports/, doc/, and www/ trees are not branched. - Branch tags + Branch Tags HEAD Symbolic name for the main line, or FreeBSD-CURRENT. Also the default when no revision is specified. In CVSup, this tag is represented by a . (not punctuation, but a literal . character). In CVS, this is the default when no revision tag is specified. It is usually not a good idea to checkout or update to CURRENT sources on a STABLE machine, unless that is your intent. RELENG_5_1 The release branch for FreeBSD-5.1, used only for security advisories and other seriously critical fixes. RELENG_5_0 The release branch for FreeBSD-5.0, used only for security advisories and other seriously critical fixes. RELENG_4 The line of development for FreeBSD-4.X, also known as FreeBSD-STABLE. RELENG_4_8 The release branch for FreeBSD-4.8, used only for security advisories and other seriously critical fixes. RELENG_4_7 The release branch for FreeBSD-4.7, used only for security advisories and other seriously critical fixes. RELENG_4_6 The release branch for FreeBSD-4.6 and FreeBSD-4.6.2, used only for security advisories and other seriously critical fixes. RELENG_4_5 The release branch for FreeBSD-4.5, used only for security advisories and other seriously critical fixes. RELENG_4_4 The release branch for FreeBSD-4.4, used only for security advisories and other seriously critical fixes. RELENG_4_3 The release branch for FreeBSD-4.3, used only for security advisories and other seriously critical fixes. RELENG_3 The line of development for FreeBSD-3.X, also known as 3.X-STABLE. RELENG_2_2 The line of development for FreeBSD-2.2.X, also known as 2.2-STABLE. This branch is mostly obsolete. - Release tags + Release Tags These tags correspond to the FreeBSD src/ tree (and ports/, doc/, and www/ trees) at a specific point in time, when a particular version of FreeBSD was released. RELENG_5_1_0_RELEASE FreeBSD 5.1 RELENG_4_8_0_RELEASE FreeBSD 4.8 RELENG_5_0_0_RELEASE FreeBSD 5.0 RELENG_4_7_0_RELEASE FreeBSD 4.7 RELENG_4_6_2_RELEASE FreeBSD 4.6.2 RELENG_4_6_1_RELEASE FreeBSD 4.6.1 RELENG_4_6_0_RELEASE FreeBSD 4.6 RELENG_4_5_0_RELEASE FreeBSD 4.5. RELENG_4_4_0_RELEASE FreeBSD 4.4. RELENG_4_3_0_RELEASE FreeBSD 4.3. RELENG_4_2_0_RELEASE FreeBSD 4.2. RELENG_4_1_1_RELEASE FreeBSD 4.1.1. RELENG_4_1_0_RELEASE FreeBSD 4.1. RELENG_4_0_0_RELEASE FreeBSD 4.0. RELENG_3_5_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.5. RELENG_3_4_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.4. RELENG_3_3_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.3. RELENG_3_2_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.2. RELENG_3_1_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.1. RELENG_3_0_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.0. RELENG_2_2_8_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.8. RELENG_2_2_7_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.7. RELENG_2_2_6_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.6. RELENG_2_2_5_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.5. RELENG_2_2_2_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.2. RELENG_2_2_1_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.1. RELENG_2_2_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.0. AFS Sites AFS servers for FreeBSD are running at the following sites: Sweden The path to the files are: /afs/stacken.kth.se/ftp/pub/FreeBSD/ stacken.kth.se # Stacken Computer Club, KTH, Sweden 130.237.234.43 #hot.stacken.kth.se 130.237.237.230 #fishburger.stacken.kth.se 130.237.234.3 #milko.stacken.kth.se Maintainer ftp@stacken.kth.se - rsync sites + rsync Sites The following sites make FreeBSD available through the rsync protocol. The rsync utility works in much the same way as the &man.rcp.1; command, but has more options and uses the rsync remote-update protocol which transfers only the differences between two sets of files, thus greatly speeding up the synchronization over the network. This is most useful if you are a mirror site for the FreeBSD FTP server, or the CVS repository. The rsync suite is available for many operating systems, on FreeBSD, see the net/rsync port or use the package. Czech Republic rsync://ftp.cz.FreeBSD.org/ Available collections: ftp: A partial mirror of the FreeBSD FTP server. FreeBSD: A full mirror of the FreeBSD FTP server. Germany rsync://grappa.unix-ag.uni-kl.de/ Available collections: freebsd-cvs: The full FreeBSD CVS repository. This machine also mirrors the CVS repositories of the NetBSD and the OpenBSD projects, among others. Netherlands rsync://ftp.nl.FreeBSD.org/ Available collections: vol/3/freebsd-core: A full mirror of the FreeBSD FTP server. United Kingdom rsync://rsync.mirror.ac.uk/ Available collections: ftp.freebsd.org: A full mirror of the FreeBSD FTP server. United States of America rsync://ftp-master.FreeBSD.org/ This server may only be used by FreeBSD primary mirror sites. Available collections: FreeBSD: The master archive of the FreeBSD FTP server. acl: The FreeBSD master ACL list. rsync://ftp13.FreeBSD.org/ Available collections: FreeBSD: A full mirror of the FreeBSD FTP server. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.sgml index 350ccf6b72..88c84c0749 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1416 +1,1416 @@ Ross Lippert Edited by Multimedia Synopsis FreeBSD supports a wide variety of sound cards, allowing you to enjoy high fidelity output from your computer. This includes the ability to record and playback audio in the MPEG Audio Layer 3 (MP3), WAV, and Ogg Vorbis formats as well as many other formats. The FreeBSD Ports Collection also contains applications allowing you to edit your recorded audio, add sound effects, and control attached MIDI devices. With some willingness to experiment, FreeBSD can support playback of video files and DVD's. The number of applications to encode, convert, and playback various video media is more limited than the number of sound applications. For example as of this writing, there is no good re-encoding application in the FreeBSD Ports Collection, which could be use to convert between formats, as there is with audio/sox. However, the software landscape in this area is changing rapidly. This chapter will describe the necessary steps to configure your sound card. The configuration and installation of XFree86 () has already taken care of the hardware issues for your video card, though there may be some tweaks to apply for better playback. After reading this chapter, you will know: How to configure your system so that your sound card is recognized. Methods to test that your card is working using sample applications. How to troubleshoot your sound setup. How to playback and encode MP3s and other audio. How video is supported by XFree86. Some video player/encoder ports which give good results. How to playback DVD's, .mpg and .avi files. How to rip CD and DVD information into files. Before reading this chapter, you should: Know how to configure and install a new kernel (). For the video sections, it is assumed that XFree86 4.X (x11/XFree86-4) has been installed. XFree86 3.X may work, but it has not been tested with what is described in this chapter. If you find that something described here does work with XFree86 3.X please let us know. Trying to mount an audio CD or a video DVD with the &man.mount.8; command will result in an error, at least, and a kernel panic, at worst. These media have specialized encodings which differ from the usual ISO-filesystem. Moses Moore Contributed by - Setting Up The Sound Card + Setting Up the Sound Card Locating the Correct Device PCI ISA sound cards Before you begin, you should know the model of the card you have, the chip it uses, and whether it is a PCI or ISA card. FreeBSD supports a wide variety of both PCI and ISA cards. If you do not see your card in the following list, check the &man.pcm.4; manual page. This is not a complete list; however, it does list some of the most common cards. Crystal 4237, 4236, 4232, 4231 Yamaha OPL-SAx OPTi931 Ensoniq AudioPCI 1370/1371 ESS Solo-1/1E NeoMagic 256AV/ZX Sound Blaster Pro, 16, 32, AWE64, AWE128, Live Creative ViBRA16 Advanced Asound 100, 110, and Logic ALS120 ES 1868, 1869, 1879, 1888 Gravis UltraSound Aureal Vortex 1 or 2 kernel configuration To use your sound device, you will need to load the proper device driver. This may be accomplished in one of two ways. The easiest way is to simply load a kernel module for your sound card with &man.kldload.8;. Alternatively, you may statically compile in support for your sound card in your kernel. The sections below provide the information you need to add support for your hardware in this manner. For more information about recompiling your kernel, please see . Creative, Advance, and ESS Sound Cards If you have one of the above cards, you will need to add: device pcm to your kernel configuration file. If you have a PnP ISA card, you will also need to add: device sbc For a non-PnP ISA card, add: device pcm device sbc0 at isa? port 0x220 irq 5 drq 1 flags 0x15 to your kernel configuration file. The settings shown above are the defaults. You may need to change the IRQ or the other settings to match your card. See the &man.sbc.4; manual page for more information. The Sound Blaster Live is not supported under FreeBSD 4.0 without a patch, which this section will not cover. It is recommended that you update to the latest -STABLE before trying to use this card. Gravis UltraSound Cards For a PnP ISA card, you will need to add: device pcm device gusc to your kernel configuration file. If you have a non-PnP ISA card, you will need to add: device pcm device gus0 at isa? port 0x220 irq 5 drq 1 flags 0x13 to your kernel configuration file. You may need to change the IRQ or the other settings to match your card. See the &man.gusc.4; manual page for more information. Crystal Sound Cards For Crystal cards, you will need to add: device pcm device csa to your kernel configuration file. Generic Support For PnP ISA or PCI cards, you will need to add: device pcm to your kernel configuration file. If you have a non-PnP ISA sound card that does not have a bridge driver, you will need to add: device pcm0 at isa? irq 10 drq 1 flags 0x0 to your kernel configuration file. You may need to change the IRQ or the other settings to match your card. Onboard Sound Some systems with built-in motherboard sound devices may require the following option in your kernel configuration: options PNPBIOS Creating and Testing the Device Nodes device nodes After you reboot, log in and check for the device in the /var/run/dmesg.boot file, as shown below: &prompt.root; grep pcm /var/run/dmesg.boot pcm0: <SB16 DSP 4.11> on sbc0 The output from your system may look different. If no pcm devices show up, something went wrong earlier. If that happens, go through your kernel configuration file again and make sure you chose the correct device. Common problems are listed in . If you are running FreeBSD 5.0 or later, you can safely skip the rest of this section. These versions use &man.devfs.5; to automatically create devices nodes. If the previous command returned pcm0, you will have to run the following as root: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV snd0 If the command returned pcm1, follow the same steps as shown above, replacing snd0 with snd1. The above commands will not create a /dev/snd device! MAKEDEV will create a group of device nodes, including: Device Description /dev/audio SPARC-compatible audio device /dev/dsp Digitized voice device /dev/dspW Like /dev/dsp, but 16 bits per sample /dev/midi Raw midi access device /dev/mixer Control port mixer device /dev/music Level 2 sequencer interface /dev/sequencer Sequencer device /dev/pss Programmable device interface If all goes well, you should now have a functioning sound card. If your CD-ROM or DVD-ROM drive is properly coupled to your sound card, you can put a CD in the drive and play it with &man.cdcontrol.1;: &prompt.user; cdcontrol -f /dev/acd0c play 1 Various applications, such as audio/workman offer a better interface. You may want to install an application such as audio/mpg123 to listen to MP3 audio files. Common Problems Error Solution device nodes unsupported subdevice XX One or more of the device nodes was not created correctly. Repeat the steps above. I/O port sb_dspwr(XX) timed out The I/O port is not set correctly. IRQ bad irq XX The IRQ is set incorrectly. Make sure that the set IRQ and the sound IRQ are the same. xxx: gus pcm not attached, out of memory There is not enough available memory to use the device. DSP xxx: can't open /dev/dsp! Check with fstat | grep dsp if another application is holding the device open. Noteworthy troublemakers are esound and KDE's sound support. Munish Chopra Contributed by Utilizing Multiple Sound Sources It is often desirable to have multiple sources of sound that are able to play simultaneously, such as when esound or artsd do not support sharing of the sound device with a certain application. FreeBSD lets you do this through Virtual Sound Channels, which can be set with the &man.sysctl.8; facility. Virtual channels allow you to multiplex your sound card's playback channels by mixing sound in the kernel. To set the number of virtual channels, there are two sysctl knobs which, if you are the root user, can be set like this: &prompt.root; sysctl hw.snd.pcm0.vchans=4 &prompt.root; sysctl hw.snd.maxautovchans=4 The above example allocates four virtual channels, which is a practical number for everyday use. hw.snd.pcm0.vchans is the number of virtual channels pcm0 has, and is configurable once a device has been attached. hw.snd.maxautovchans is the number of virtual channels a new audio device is given when it is attached using &man.kldload.8;. Since the pcm module can be loaded independently of the hardware drivers, hw.snd.maxautovchans can store how many virtual channels any devices which are attached later will be given. If you are not using &man.devfs.5;, you will have to point your applications at /dev/dsp0.x, where x is 0 to 3 if hw.snd.pcm.0.vchans is set to 4 as in the above example. On a system using &man.devfs.5;, the above will automatically be allocated transparently to the user. Chern Lee Contributed by MP3 Audio MP3 (MPEG Layer 3 Audio) accomplishes near CD-quality sound, leaving no reason to let your FreeBSD workstation fall short of its offerings. MP3 Players By far, the most popular XFree86 MP3 player is XMMS (X Multimedia System). Winamp skins can be used with XMMS since the GUI is almost identical to that of Nullsoft's Winamp. XMMS also has native plug-in support. XMMS can be installed from the multimedia/xmms port or package. XMMS' interface is intuitive, with a playlist, graphic equalizer, and more. Those familiar with Winamp will find XMMS simple to use. The audio/mpg123 port is an alternative, command-line MP3 player. mpg123 can be run by specifying the sound device and the MP3 file on the command line, as shown below: &prompt.root; mpg123 -a /dev/dsp1.0 Foobar-GreatestHits.mp3 High Performance MPEG 1.0/2.0/2.5 Audio Player for Layer 1, 2 and 3. Version 0.59r (1999/Jun/15). Written and copyrights by Michael Hipp. Uses code from various people. See 'README' for more! THIS SOFTWARE COMES WITH ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY! USE AT YOUR OWN RISK! Playing MPEG stream from BT - Foobar-GreastHits.mp3 ... MPEG 1.0 layer III, 128 kbit/s, 44100 Hz joint-stereo /dev/dsp1.0 should be replaced with the dsp device entry on your system. Ripping CD Audio Tracks Before encoding a CD or CD track to MP3, the audio data on the CD must be ripped onto the hard drive. This is done by copying the raw CDDA (CD Digital Audio) data to WAV files. The cdda2wav tool, which is a part of the sysutils/cdrtools suite, is used for ripping audio information from CDs and the information associated with them. With the audio CD in the drive, the following command can be issued (as root) to rip an entire CD into individual (per track) WAV files: &prompt.root; cdda2wav -D 0,1,0 -B cdda2wav will support ATAPI (IDE) CDROM drives. To rip from an IDE drive, specify the device name in place of the SCSI unit numbers. For example, to rip track 7 from an IDE drive: &prompt.root; cdda2wav -D /dev/acd0a -t 7 The indicates the SCSI device 0,1,0, which corresponds to the output of cdrecord -scanbus. To rip individual tracks, make use of the option as shown: &prompt.root; cdda2wav -D 0,1,0 -t 7 This example rips track seven of the audio CDROM. To rip a range of tracks, for example, track one to seven, specify a range: &prompt.root; cdda2wav -D 0,1,0 -t 1+7 The utility &man.dd.1; can also be used to extract audio tracks on ATAPI drives, read for more information on that possibility. Encoding MP3s Nowadays, the mp3 encoder of choice is lame. Lame can be found at audio/lame in the ports tree. Using the ripped WAV files, the following command will convert audio01.wav to audio01.mp3: &prompt.root; lame -h -b 128 \ --tt "Foo Song Title" \ --ta "FooBar Artist" \ --tl "FooBar Album" \ --ty "2001" \ --tc "Ripped and encoded by Foo" \ --tg "Genre" \ audio01.wav audio01.mp3 128 kbits seems to be the standard MP3 bitrate in use. Many enjoy the higher quality 160, or 192. The higher the bitrate, the more disk space the resulting MP3 will consume--but the quality will be higher. The option turns on the higher quality but a little slower mode. The options beginning with indicate ID3 tags, which usually contain song information, to be embedded within the MP3 file. Additional encoding options can be found by consulting the lame man page. Decoding MP3s In order to burn an audio CD from MP3s, they must be converted to a non-compressed WAV format. Both XMMS and mpg123 support the output of MP3 to an uncompressed file format. Writing to Disk in XMMS: Launch XMMS. Right-click on the window to bring up the XMMS menu. Select Preference under Options. Change the Output Plugin to Disk Writer Plugin. Press Configure. Enter (or choose browse) a directory to write the uncompressed files to. Load the MP3 file into XMMS as usual, with volume at 100% and EQ settings turned off. Press Play — XMMS will appear as if it is playing the MP3, but no music will be heard. It is actually playing the MP3 to a file. Be sure to set the default Output Plugin back to what it was before in order to listen to MP3s again. Writing to stdout in mpg123: Run mpg123 -s audio01.mp3 > audio01.pcm XMMS writes a file in the WAV format, while mpg123 converts the MP3 into raw PCM audio data. Both of these formats can be used with cdrecord to create audio CDs. You have to use raw PCM with &man.burncd.8;. If you use WAV files, you will notice a small tick sound at the beginning of each track, this sound is the header of the WAV file. You can simply remove the header of a WAV file with the utility SoX (it can be installed from the audio/sox port or package): &prompt.user; sox -t wav -r 44100 -s -w -c 2 track.wav track.raw Read for more information on using a CD burner in FreeBSD. Ross Lippert Contributed by Video Playback Video playback is a very new and rapidly developing application area. Be patient. Not everything is going to work as smoothly as it did with sound. Before you begin, you should know the model of the video card you have and the chip it uses. While XFree86 supports a wide variety of video cards, fewer give good playback performance. To obtain a list of extensions supported by the X server using your card use the command &man.xdpyinfo.1; while X11 is running. It is a good idea to have a short MPEG file which can be treated as a test file for evaluating various players and options. Since some DVD players will look for DVD media in /dev/dvd by default, or have this device name hardcoded in them, you might find it useful to make symbolic links to the proper devices: &prompt.root; ln -sf /dev/acd0c /dev/dvd &prompt.root; ln -sf /dev/racd0c /dev/rdvd On FreeBSD 5.X, which uses &man.devfs.5; there is a slightly different set of recommended links: &prompt.root; ln -sf /dev/acd0c /dev/dvd &prompt.root; ln -sf /dev/acd0c /dev/rdvd Additionally, DVD decryption, which requires invoking special DVD-ROM functions, requires write permission on the DVD devices. kernel options options CPU_ENABLE_SSE kernel options options USER_LDT Some of the ports discussed rely on the following kernel options to build correctly. Before attempting to build, add these options to the kernel configuration file, build a new kernel, and reboot: option CPU_ENABLE_SSE option USER_LDT To enhance the shared memory X11 interface, it is recommended that the values of some &man.sysctl.8; variables should be increased: kern.ipc.shmmax=67108864 kern.ipc.shmall=32768 - Determining Video capabilities + Determining Video Capabilities XVideo SDL DGA There are several possible ways to display video under X11. What will really work is largely hardware dependent. Each method described below will have varying quality across different hardware. Secondly, the rendering of video in X11 is a topic receiving a lot of attention lately, and with each version of XFree86 there may be significant improvement. A list of common video interfaces: X11: normal X11 output using shared memory. XVideo: an extension to the X11 interface which supports video in any X11 drawable. SDL: the Simple Directmedia Layer. DGA: the Direct Graphics Access. SVGAlib: low level console graphics layer. XVideo XFree86 4.X has an extension called XVideo (aka Xvideo, aka Xv, aka xv) which allows video to be directly displayed in drawable objects through a special acceleration. This extension provides very good quality playback even on low-end machines (for example my PIII 400 Mhz laptop). Unfortunately, the list of cards in which this feature is supported out of the box is currently: 3DFX Voodoo 3 Intel i810 and i815 some S3 chips (such as Savage/IX and Savage/MX) If your card is not one of these, do not be disappointed yet. XFree86 4.X adds new xv capabilities with each release A popular familiar graphics card with generally very good XFree86 performance, nVidia, has yet to release the specifications on their XVideo support to the XFree86 team. It may be some time before XFree86 fully support XVideo for these cards. . To check whether the extension is running, use xvinfo: &prompt.user; xvinfo XVideo is supported for your card if the result looks like: X-Video Extension version 2.2 screen #0 Adaptor #0: "Savage Streams Engine" number of ports: 1 port base: 43 operations supported: PutImage supported visuals: depth 16, visualID 0x22 depth 16, visualID 0x23 number of attributes: 5 "XV_COLORKEY" (range 0 to 16777215) client settable attribute client gettable attribute (current value is 2110) "XV_BRIGHTNESS" (range -128 to 127) client settable attribute client gettable attribute (current value is 0) "XV_CONTRAST" (range 0 to 255) client settable attribute client gettable attribute (current value is 128) "XV_SATURATION" (range 0 to 255) client settable attribute client gettable attribute (current value is 128) "XV_HUE" (range -180 to 180) client settable attribute client gettable attribute (current value is 0) maximum XvImage size: 1024 x 1024 Number of image formats: 7 id: 0x32595559 (YUY2) guid: 59555932-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71 bits per pixel: 16 number of planes: 1 type: YUV (packed) id: 0x32315659 (YV12) guid: 59563132-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71 bits per pixel: 12 number of planes: 3 type: YUV (planar) id: 0x30323449 (I420) guid: 49343230-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71 bits per pixel: 12 number of planes: 3 type: YUV (planar) id: 0x36315652 (RV16) guid: 52563135-0000-0000-0000-000000000000 bits per pixel: 16 number of planes: 1 type: RGB (packed) depth: 0 red, green, blue masks: 0x1f, 0x3e0, 0x7c00 id: 0x35315652 (RV15) guid: 52563136-0000-0000-0000-000000000000 bits per pixel: 16 number of planes: 1 type: RGB (packed) depth: 0 red, green, blue masks: 0x1f, 0x7e0, 0xf800 id: 0x31313259 (Y211) guid: 59323131-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71 bits per pixel: 6 number of planes: 3 type: YUV (packed) id: 0x0 guid: 00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000 bits per pixel: 0 number of planes: 0 type: RGB (packed) depth: 1 red, green, blue masks: 0x0, 0x0, 0x0 Also note that the formats listed (YUV2, YUV12, etc) are not present with every implementation of XVideo and their absence may hinder some players. If the result looks like: X-Video Extension version 2.2 screen #0 no adaptors present Then XVideo is probably not supported for your card. If XVideo is not supported for your card, this only means that it will be more difficult for your display to meet the computational demands of rendering video. Depending on your video card and processor, though, you might still be able to have a satisfying experience. You should probably read about ways of improving performance in the advanced reading . Simple Directmedia Layer The Simple Directmedia Layer, SDL, was intended to be a porting layers between Microsoft Windows, BeOS, and Unix, allowing cross-platform applications to be developed which made efficient use of sound and graphics. The SDL layer provides a low-level abstraction to the hardware which can sometimes be more efficient than the X11 interface. The SDL can be found at devel/sdl12 Direct Graphics Access Direct Graphics Access is an XFree86 extension which allows a program to bypass the X server and directly alter the framebuffer. Because it relies on a low level memory mapping to effect this sharing, programs using it must must be run as root. The DGA extension can be tested and benchmarked by &man.dga.1;. When dga is running, it changes the colors of the display whenever a key is pressed. To quit, use q. Ports and Packages Dealing with Video video ports video packages This section discusses the software available from the FreeBSD Ports Collection which can be used for video playback. Video playback is a very active area of software development, and the capabilities of various applications are bound to diverge somewhat from the descriptions given here. Firstly, it is important to know that most of the video applications which run on FreeBSD were developed as Linux applications, originating in the past year. For this reason, they are both very experimental and riddled with Linux-isms which might prevent them from working at full efficiency on FreeBSD. By experimental, I mean that you should expect re-encoders, players, and DVD decrypters to have some major bugs, or interoperability problems with other programs. Here is a short list of the sort of things I mean: An application cannot playback a file which another application produced. An application cannot playback a file which the application itself produced. The same application on two different machines, rebuilt on each machine for that machine, plays back the same file differently. A seemingly trivial filter like rescaling of the image size results in very bad artifacts from a buggy rescaling routine. An application always dumping core. Documentation is not installed with the port and can be found either on the web or under PORTPATH/work/ . By Linux-isms, I mean that there are some issues resulting from the way some standard libraries are implemented in the Linux distributions, or some features of the Linux kernel which have been assumed by the authors of the applications, because that is where the authors are primarily developing. These issues may not be noticed and worked around by the port maintainers which can lead to some problems like these: The use of /proc/cpuinfo to detect processor characteristics. A misuse of threads which causes a program to hang upon completion instead of truly terminating. Software not yet in the FreeBSD Ports Collection which is commonly used in conjunction with the application. So far, these application developers have been cooperative with port maintainers to minimize the work-arounds needed for port-ing. MPlayer MPlayer is a recently developed and rapidly developing video player. The goals of the MPlayer team are speed and flexibility on Linux and other Unices. The project was started when the team founder got fed up with bad playback performance on then available players. Some would say that interface has been sacrificed for streamlined design, but once you get used to the command line options and the key-stroke controls, it works very well. Building MPlayer MPlayer making MPlayer resides in multimedia/mplayer. MPlayer performs a variety of hardware checks during the build process, resulting in a binary which will not be portable from one system to another. Therefore, it is important to build it from ports and not to use a binary package. Additionally, a number of options can be specified in the make which echo at the start of the build. &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/multimedia/mplayer &prompt.root; make You can enable additional compilation optimizations by defining WITH_OPTIMIZED_CFLAGS You can enable GTK GUI by defining WITH_GUI. You can enable DVD support by defining WITH_DVD. You can enable SVGALIB support by defining WITH_SVGALIB. You can enable VORBIS sound support by defining WITH_VORBIS. You can enable XAnim DLL support by defining WITH_XANIM. If you have x11-toolkits/gtk12 installed, then you might as well enable the GUI. Otherwise, it is not worth the effort. If you intend to play (possibly CSS encoded) DVD's with MPlayer you must enable the DVD support option here Unauthorized DVD playback is a serious criminal act in some countries. Check local laws before enabling this option. . Some reasonable options are: &prompt.root; make WITH_DVD=yes WITH_SVGALIB=yes As of this writing, the MPlayer port will build its HTML documentation and one executable, mplayer. It can also be made to build an encoder, mencoder, which is a tool for re-encoding video. A modification to the Makefile can enable it. It may be enabled by default in subsequent versions of the port. The HTML documentation to MPlayer is very informative. If the reader finds the information on video hardware and interfaces in the chapter lacking, the MPlayer documentation is a very thorough alternative. You should definitely take the time to read the documentation of MPlayer, if you are looking for information about video support in Unix. Using MPlayer MPlayer use Any user of MPlayer must set up a .mplayer subdirectory directory of her home directory. To create this necessary subdirectory, you can do the following: &prompt.user; cd /usr/ports/multimedia/mplayer &prompt.user; make install-user The command options for mplayer are listed in the manual page. For even more detail there is HTML documentation. In this section, we will give some of the common use cases. To play from file, such as testfile.avi through one of the various video interfaces set the : &prompt.user; mplayer -vo xv testfile.avi &prompt.user; mplayer -vo sdl testfile.avi &prompt.user; mplayer -vo x11 testfile.avi &prompt.root; mplayer -vo dga testfile.avi &prompt.root; mplayer -vo 'sdl:dga' testfile.avi It is worth trying all of these options, as their relative performance depends on many factors and will vary significantly with hardware. To play from a DVD, replace the testfile.avi with where <N> is the title number to play and DEVICE is the device node for the DVD-ROM. For example, to play title 3 from /dev/dvd: &prompt.root; mplayer -vo dga -dvd 2 /dev/dvd To stop, pause, advance and so on, consult the keybindings, which are output by running mplayer -h or read the manual page. Additional important options for playback are: which engages the fullscreen mode and which helps performance. In order for the mplayer command line to not become too large, the user can create a file .mplayer/config and set default options there: vo=xv fs=yes zoom=yes Finally, mplayer can be used to rip a DVD title into a .vob file. To dump out title 2 from a DVD: &prompt.root; mplayer -dumpstream -dumpfile out.vob -dvd 2 /dev/dvd The output file, out.vob, will be MPEG and can be manipulated by the other packages described in this section. mencoder mencoder If you opt to install mencoder when you build, be forewarned that it is still quite experimental. To use mencoder it is a good idea to familiarize yourself with the options from the HTML documentation. There is a manual page, but it is not very useful without the HTML. There are innumerable ways to improve quality, lower bitrate, and change formats, and some of these tricks may make the difference between good or bad performance. Here are a couple of examples to get you going. First a simple copy: &prompt.user; mencoder input.avi -oac copy -ovc copy -o output.avi It is easy to find examples where the output is unplayable even by mplayer. Thus, if you just want to rip to a file, stick to the in mplayer. To convert input.avi to the MPEG4 codec with MPEG3 audio encoding (audio/lame is required): &prompt.user; mencoder input.avi -oac mp3lame -lameopts br=192 \ -ovc lavc -lavcopts vcodec=mpeg4:vhq -o output.avi This has produced output playable by mplayer and xine. input.avi can be replaced with and run as root to re-encode a DVD title directly. Since you are likely to be dissatisfied with your results the first time around, it is recommended you dump the title to a file and work on the file. The xine Video Player The xine video player is a project of wide scope aiming not only at being an all in one video solution, but also in producing a reusable base library and a modular executable which can be extended with plugins. It comes both as a package and as a port, multimedia/xine. The good news is that the above is pretty much true. The xine player is still very rough around the edges, but it is clearly off to a good start. In practice, xine requires either a fast CPU with a fast video card, or support for the XVideo extension. The GUI is usable, but a bit clumsy. As of this writing, there is no input module shipped with xine which will play CSS encoded DVD's. There are third party builds which do have modules for this built in them, but none of these are in the FreeBSD Ports Collection. Compared to MPlayer, xine does more for the user, but at the same time, takes some of the more fine-grained control away from the user. The xine video player also may perform much worse on the non-XVideo interfaces and has very few good alternatives to it. The xine FAQ highly recommends that you have a video card which supports it. The xine player can be started by itself: &prompt.user; xine The menus can then be used to open a file, or it can be started to play a file immediately without the GUI with the command: &prompt.user; xine -g -p mymovie.avi - The transcode utilities + The transcode Utilities The software transcode is not a player, but a suite of tools for re-encoding .avi and .mpg files. With transcode, one has the ability to merge video files, repair broken files, using command line tools with stdin/stdout stream interfaces. Like MPlayer, transcode is very experimental software which must be build from the port graphics/transcode. Using a great many options to the make command. I recommend: &prompt.root; make WITH_LIBMPEG2=yes If you plan to install multimedia/avifile, then add the WITH_AVIFILE option to your make command line, as shown here: &prompt.root; make WITH_AVIFILE=yes WITH_LIBMPEG2=yes Here are two examples of using transcode for video conversion which produce rescaled output. The first encodes the output to an openDIVX AVI file, while the second encodes to the much more portable MPEG format. &prompt.user; transcode -i input.vob -x vob -V -Z 320x240 \ -y opendivx -N 0x55 -o output.avi &prompt.user; transcode -i input.vob -x vob -V -Z 320x240 \ -y mpeg -N 0x55 -o output.tmp &prompt.user; tcmplex -o output.mpg -i output.tmp.m1v -p output.tmp.mpa -m 1 There is a manual page for transcode, but for the various tc* utilities (such as tcmplex) which are also installed, there is only a curt output. In comparison, transcode runs significantly slower than mencoder, but it has a better chance of producing a more widely playable file. I can play transcode MPEGs on older copies of Windows Media Player and Apple's Quicktime, for example. Further Reading I have no doubt that within a year, much that is in this chapter will be out of date. Video will probably be much less problematic to get working well and a port will be in the collection which turns a FreeBSD system into a DVD-playing, PVR, and virtual A/V studio. Until that day arrives, those who want to get the very most out of FreeBSD's A/V capabilities will have to cobble together knowledge from several FAQs and tutorials and use a few different applications. This section exists to give the reader some links to learn more in case this chapter was just helpful enough. The MPlayer documentation is very technically informative. These documents should probably be consulted by anyone wishing to obtain a high level of expertise with Unix video. The MPlayer mailing list is hostile to anyone who has not bothered to read the documentation, so if you plan on making bug reports to them, RTFM. The xine HOWTO contains a chapter on performance improvement which is general to all players. Finally, there are some other promising applications which the reader may try: Avifile which is also a port multimedia/avifile. Ogle which is also a port multimedia/ogle. Xtheater diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ports/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ports/chapter.sgml index f32b1fce85..b4bf656324 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ports/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ports/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1230 +1,1230 @@ Installing Applications: Packages and Ports Synopsis ports packages FreeBSD is bundled with a rich collection of system tools as part of the base system. However, there is only so much one can do before needing to install an additional third-party application to get real work done. FreeBSD provides two complementary technologies for installing third party software on your system: the FreeBSD Ports Collection, and binary software packages. Either system may be used to install the newest version of your favorite applications from local media or straight off the network. After reading this chapter, you will know: How to install third-party binary software packages. How to build third-party software from the ports collection. How to remove previously installed packages or ports. How to override the default values that the ports collection uses. How to upgrade your ports. Overview of Software Installation If you have used a Unix system before you will know that the typical procedure for installing third party software goes something like this: Download the software, which might be distributed in source code format, or as a binary. Unpack the software from its distribution format (typically a tarball compressed with &man.compress.1;, &man.gzip.1;, or &man.bzip2.1;). Locate the documentation (perhaps an INSTALL or README file, or some files in a doc/ subdirectory) and read up on how to install the software. If the software was distributed in source format, compile it. This may involve editing a Makefile, or running a configure script, and other work. Test and install the software. And that is only if everything goes well. If you are installing a software package that was not deliberately ported to FreeBSD you may even have to go in and edit the code to make it work properly. Should you want to, you can continue to install software the traditional way with FreeBSD. However, FreeBSD provides two technologies which can save you a lot of effort: packages and ports. At the time of writing, over &os.numports; third party applications have been made available in this way. For any given application, the FreeBSD package for that application is a single file which you must download. The package contains pre-compiled copies of all the commands for the application, as well as any configuration files or documentation. A downloaded package file can be manipulated with FreeBSD package management commands, such as &man.pkg.add.1;, &man.pkg.delete.1;, &man.pkg.info.1;, and so on. Installing a new application can be carried out with a single command. A FreeBSD port for an application is a collection of files designed to automate the process of compiling an application from source code. Remember that there are a number of steps you would normally carry out if you compiled a program yourself (downloading, unpacking, patching, compiling, installing). The files that make up a port contain all the necessary information to allow the system to do this for you. You run a handful of simple commands and the source code for the application is automatically downloaded, extracted, patched, compiled, and installed for you. In fact, the ports system can also be used to generate packages which can later be manipulated with pkg_add and the other package management commands that will be introduced shortly. Both packages and ports understand dependencies. Suppose you want to install an application that depends on a specific library being installed. Both the application and the library have been made available as FreeBSD ports and packages. If you use the pkg_add command or the ports system to add the application, both will notice that the library has not been installed, and automatically install the library first. Given that the two technologies are quite similar, you might be wondering why FreeBSD bothers with both. Packages and ports both have their own strengths, and which one you use will depend on your own preference. Package Benefits A compressed package tarball is typically smaller than the compressed tarball containing the source code for the application. Packages do not require any additional compilation. For large applications, such as Mozilla, KDE, or GNOME this can be important, particularly if you are on a slow system. Packages do not require any understanding of the process involved in compiling software on FreeBSD. Ports Benefits Packages are normally compiled with conservative options, because they have to run on the maximum number of systems. By installing from the port, you can tweak the compilation options to (for example) generate code that is specific to a Pentium III or Athlon processor. Some applications have compile time options relating to what they can and cannot do. For example, Apache can be configured with a wide variety of different built-in options. By building from the port you do not have to accept the default options, and can set them yourself. In some cases, multiple packages will exist for the same application to specify certain settings. For example, Ghostscript is available as a ghostscript package and a ghostscript-nox11 package, depending on whether or not you have installed an X11 server. This sort of rough tweaking is possible with packages, but rapidly becomes impossible if an application has more than one or two different compile time options. The licensing conditions of some software distributions forbid binary distribution. They must be distributed as source code. Some people do not trust binary distributions. At least with source code, you can (in theory) read through it and look for potential problems yourself. If you have local patches, you will need the source in order to apply them. Some people like having code around, so they can read it if they get bored, hack it, borrow from it (license permitting, of course), and so on. To keep track of updated ports, subscribe to the &a.ports; and the &a.ports-bugs;. The remainder of this chapter will explain how to use packages and ports to install and manage third party software on FreeBSD. Finding Your Application Before you can install any applications you need to know what you want, and what the application is called. FreeBSD's list of available applications is growing all the time. Fortunately, there are a number of ways to find what you want: The FreeBSD web site maintains an up-to-date searchable list of all the available applications, at http://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/. The ports are divided into categories, and you may either search for an application by name (if you know it), or see all the applications available in a category. FreshPorts Dan Langille maintains FreshPorts, at . FreshPorts tracks changes to the applications in the ports tree as they happen, allows you to watch one or more ports, and can send you email when they are updated. FreshMeat If you do not know the name of the application you want, try using a site like FreshMeat () to find an application, then check back at the FreeBSD site to see if the application has been ported yet. Chern Lee Contributed by Using the Packages System Installing a Package packages installing pkg_add You can use the &man.pkg.add.1; utility to install a FreeBSD software package from a local file or from a server on the network. - Downloading a Package Manually and then Installing It Locally + Downloading a Package Manually and Installing It Locally &prompt.root; ftp -a ftp2.FreeBSD.org Connected to ftp2.FreeBSD.org. 220 ftp2.FreeBSD.org FTP server (Version 6.00LS) ready. 331 Guest login ok, send your email address as password. 230- 230- This machine is in Vienna, VA, USA, hosted by Verio. 230- Questions? E-mail freebsd@vienna.verio.net. 230- 230- 230 Guest login ok, access restrictions apply. Remote system type is UNIX. Using binary mode to transfer files. ftp> cd /pub/FreeBSD/ports/packages/sysutils/ 250 CWD command successful. ftp> get lsof-4.56.4.tgz local: lsof-4.56.4.tgz remote: lsof-4.56.4.tgz 200 PORT command successful. 150 Opening BINARY mode data connection for 'lsof-4.56.4.tgz' (92375 bytes). 100% |**************************************************| 92375 00:00 ETA 226 Transfer complete. 92375 bytes received in 5.60 seconds (16.11 KB/s) ftp> exit &prompt.root; pkg_add lsof-4.56.4.tgz If you do not have a source of local packages (such as a FreeBSD CD-ROM set) then it will probably be easier to use the option to &man.pkg.add.1;. This will cause the utility to automatically determine the correct object format and release and then fetch and install the package from an FTP site. pkg_add &prompt.root; pkg_add -r lsof The example above would download the correct package and add it without any further user intervention. &man.pkg.add.1; uses &man.fetch.3; to download the files, which honors various environment variables, including FTP_PASSIVE_MODE, FTP_PROXY, and FTP_PASSWORD. You may need to set one or more of these if you are behind a firewall, or need to use an FTP/HTTP proxy. See &man.fetch.3; for the complete list. Note that in the example above lsof is used instead of lsof-4.56.4. When the remote fetching feature is used, the version number of the package must be removed. &man.pkg.add.1; will automatically fetch the latest version of the application. Package files are distributed in .tgz format. You can find them at , or on the FreeBSD CD-ROM distribution. Every CD on the FreeBSD 4-CD set (and the PowerPak, etc.) contains packages in the /packages directory. The layout of the packages is similar to that of the /usr/ports tree. Each category has its own directory, and every package can be found within the All directory. The directory structure of the package system matches the ports layout; they work with each other to form the entire package/port system. Managing Packages packages managing &man.pkg.info.1; is a utility that lists and describes the various packages installed. pkg_info &prompt.root; pkg_info cvsup-16.1 A general network file distribution system optimized for CV docbook-1.2 Meta-port for the different versions of the DocBook DTD ... &man.pkg.version.1; is a utility that summarizes the versions of all installed packages. It compares the package version to the current version found in the ports tree. pkg_version &prompt.root; pkg_version cvsup = docbook = ... The symbols in the second column indicate the relative age of the installed version and the version available in the local ports tree. Symbol Meaning = The version of the installed package matches the one found in the local ports tree. < The installed version is older than the one available in the ports tree. >The installed version is newer than the one found in the local ports tree. (The local ports tree is probably out of date.) ?The installed package cannot be found in the ports index. (This can happen, for instance, if an installed port is removed from the ports collection or renamed.) *There are multiple versions of the package. Deleting a Package pkg_delete packages deleting To remove a previously installed software package, use the &man.pkg.delete.1; utility. &prompt.root; pkg_delete xchat-1.7.1 Miscellaneous All package information is stored within the /var/db/pkg directory. The installed file list and descriptions of each package can be found within files in this directory. Using the Ports Collection The following sections provide basic instructions on using the ports collection to install or remove programs from your system. Obtaining the Ports Collection Before you can install ports, you must first obtain the ports collection—which is essentially a set of Makefiles, patches, and description files placed in /usr/ports. When installing your FreeBSD system, Sysinstall asked if you would like to install the ports collection. If you chose no, you can follow these instructions to obtain the ports collection: Sysinstall Method This method involves using sysinstall again to manually install the ports collection. As root, run /stand/sysinstall as shown below: &prompt.root; /stand/sysinstall Scroll down and select Configure, press Enter. Scroll down and select Distributions, press Enter. Scroll down to ports, press Space. Scroll up to Exit, press Enter. Select your desired installation media, such as CDROM, FTP, and so on. Scroll up to Exit and press Enter. Press X to exit sysinstall. The alternative method to obtain and keep your ports collection up to date is by using CVSup. Look at the ports CVSup file, /usr/share/examples/cvsup/ports-supfile. See Using CVSup () for more information on using CVSup and this file. CVSup Method This is a quick method for getting the ports collection using CVSup. If you want to keep your ports tree up to date, or learn more about CVSup, read the previously mentioned sections. Install the net/cvsup port. See CVSup Installation () for more details. As root, copy /usr/share/examples/cvsup/ports-supfile to a new location, such as /root or your home directory. Edit ports-supfile. Change CHANGE_THIS.FreeBSD.org to a CVSup server near you. See CVSup Mirrors () for a complete listing of mirror sites. Run cvsup: &prompt.root; cvsup -g -L 2 /root/ports-supfile Running this command later will download and apply all the recent changes to your ports collection, except actually rebuilding the ports for your own system. Installing Ports ports installing The first thing that should be explained when it comes to the ports collection is what is actually meant by a skeleton. In a nutshell, a port skeleton is a minimal set of files that tell your FreeBSD system how to cleanly compile and install a program. Each port skeleton includes: A Makefile. The Makefile contains various statements that specify how the application should be compiled and where it should be installed on your system. A distinfo file. This file contains information about the files that must be downloaded to build the port and their checksums, to verify that files have not been corrupted during the download using &man.md5.1;. A files directory. This directory contains patches to make the program compile and install on your FreeBSD system. Patches are basically small files that specify changes to particular files. They are in plain text format, and basically say Remove line 10 or Change line 26 to this .... Patches are also known as diffs because they are generated by the &man.diff.1; program. This directory may also contain other files used to build the port. A pkg-descr file. This is a more detailed, often multiple-line, description of the program. A pkg-plist file. This is a list of all the files that will be installed by the port. It also tells the ports system what files to remove upon deinstallation. Some ports have other files, such as pkg-message. The ports system uses these files to handle special situations. If you want more details on these files, and on ports in general, check out the FreeBSD Porter's Handbook. Now that you have enough background information to know what the ports collection is used for, you are ready to install your first port. There are two ways this can be done, and each is explained below. Before we get into that, however, you will need to choose a port to install. There are a few ways to do this, with the easiest method being the ports listing on the FreeBSD web site. You can browse through the ports listed there or use the search function on the site. Each port also includes a description so you can read a bit about each port before deciding to install it. Another method is to use the &man.whereis.1; command. Simply type whereis file, where file is the program you want to install. If it is found on your system, you will be told where it is, as follows: &prompt.root; whereis lsof lsof: /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof This tells us that lsof (a system utility) can be found in the /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof directory. Yet another way to find a particular port is by using the ports collection's built-in search mechanism. To use the search feature, you will need to be in the /usr/ports directory. Once in that directory, run make search name=program-name where program-name is the name of the program you want to find. For example, if you were looking for lsof: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; make search name=lsof Port: lsof-4.56.4 Path: /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof Info: Lists information about open files (similar to fstat(1)) Maint: obrien@FreeBSD.org Index: sysutils B-deps: R-deps: The part of the output you want to pay particular attention to is the Path: line, since that tells you where to find the port. The other information provided is not needed in order to install the port, so it will not be covered here. For more in-depth searching you can also use make search key=string where string is some text to search for. This searches port names, comments, descriptions and dependencies and can be used to find ports which relate to a particular subject if you don't know the name of the program you are looking for. In both of these cases, the search string is case-insensitive. Searching for LSOF will yield the same results as searching for lsof. You must be logged in as root to install ports. Now that you have found a port you would like to install, you are ready to do the actual installation. The port includes instructions on how to build source code, but not the actual source code. You can get the source code from a CD-ROM or from the Internet. Source code is distributed in whatever manner the software author desires. Frequently this is a tarred and gzipped file, but it might be compressed with some other tool or even uncompressed. The program source code, whatever form it comes in, is called a distfile. You can get the distfile from a CD-ROM or from the Internet. Installing Ports from a CD-ROM ports installing from CD-ROM The FreeBSD Project's official CD-ROM images no longer include distfiles. They take up a lot of room that is better used for precompiled packages. CD-ROM products such as the FreeBSD PowerPak do include distfiles, and you can order these sets from a vendor such as the FreeBSD Mall. This section assumes you have such a FreeBSD CD-ROM set. Place your FreeBSD CD-ROM in the drive. Mount it on /cdrom. (If you use a different mount point, the install will not work.) To begin, change to the directory for the port you want to install: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof Once inside the lsof directory, you will see the port skeleton. The next step is to compile, or build, the port. This is done by simply typing make at the prompt. Once you have done so, you should see something like this: &prompt.root; make >> lsof_4.57D.freebsd.tar.gz doesn't seem to exist in /usr/ports/distfiles/. >> Attempting to fetch from file:/cdrom/ports/distfiles/. ===> Extracting for lsof-4.57 ... [extraction output snipped] ... >> Checksum OK for lsof_4.57D.freebsd.tar.gz. ===> Patching for lsof-4.57 ===> Applying FreeBSD patches for lsof-4.57 ===> Configuring for lsof-4.57 ... [configure output snipped] ... ===> Building for lsof-4.57 ... [compilation output snipped] ... &prompt.root; Notice that once the compile is complete you are returned to your prompt. The next step is to install the port. In order to install it, you simply need to tack one word onto the make command, and that word is install: &prompt.root; make install ===> Installing for lsof-4.57 ... [installation output snipped] ... ===> Generating temporary packing list ===> Compressing manual pages for lsof-4.57 ===> Registering installation for lsof-4.57 ===> SECURITY NOTE: This port has installed the following binaries which execute with increased privileges. &prompt.root; Once you are returned to your prompt, you should be able to run the application you just installed. Since lsof is a program that runs with increased privileges, a security warning is shown. During the building and installation of ports, you should take heed of any other warnings that may appear. You can save an extra step by just running make install instead of make and make install as two separate steps. Some shells keep a cache of the commands that are available in the directories listed in the PATH environment variable, to speed up lookup operations for the executable file of these commands. If you are using one of these shells, you might have to use the rehash command after installing a port, before the newly installed commands can be used. This is true for both shells that are part of the base-system (such as tcsh) and shells that are available as ports (for instance, shells/zsh). Please be aware that the licenses of a few ports do not allow for inclusion on the CD-ROM. This could be because a registration form needs to be filled out before downloading or redistribution is not allowed, or for another reason. If you wish to install a port not included on the CD-ROM, you will need to be online in order to do so (see the next section). Installing Ports from the Internet As with the last section, this section makes an assumption that you have a working Internet connection. If you do not, you will need to perform the CD-ROM installation, or put a copy of the distfile into /usr/ports/distfiles manually. Installing a port from the Internet is done exactly the same way as it would be if you were installing from a CD-ROM. The only difference between the two is that the distfile is downloaded from the Internet instead of read from the CD-ROM. The steps involved are identical: &prompt.root; make install >> lsof_4.57D.freebsd.tar.gz doesn't seem to exist in /usr/ports/distfiles/. >> Attempting to fetch from ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/distfiles/. Receiving lsof_4.57D.freebsd.tar.gz (439860 bytes): 100% 439860 bytes transferred in 18.0 seconds (23.90 kBps) ===> Extracting for lsof-4.57 ... [extraction output snipped] ... >> Checksum OK for lsof_4.57D.freebsd.tar.gz. ===> Patching for lsof-4.57 ===> Applying FreeBSD patches for lsof-4.57 ===> Configuring for lsof-4.57 ... [configure output snipped] ... ===> Building for lsof-4.57 ... [compilation output snipped] ... ===> Installing for lsof-4.57 ... [installation output snipped] ... ===> Generating temporary packing list ===> Compressing manual pages for lsof-4.57 ===> Registering installation for lsof-4.57 ===> SECURITY NOTE: This port has installed the following binaries which execute with increased privileges. &prompt.root; As you can see, the only difference is the line that tells you where the system is fetching the port distfile from. The ports system uses &man.fetch.1; to download the files, which honors various environment variables, including FTP_PASSIVE_MODE, FTP_PROXY, and FTP_PASSWORD. You may need to set one or more of these if you are behind a firewall, or need to use an FTP/HTTP proxy. See &man.fetch.3; for the complete list. For users which cannot be connected all the time, the make fetch option is provided. Just run this command at the top level directory (/usr/ports) and the required files will be downloaded for you. This command will also work in the lower level categories, for example: /usr/ports/net. Note that if a port depends on libraries or other ports this will not fetch the distfiles of those ports too. Replace fetch with fetch-recursive if you want to fetch all the dependencies of a port too. You can build all the ports in a category or as a whole by running make in the top level directory, just like the aforementioned make fetch method. This is dangerous, however, as some ports cannot co-exist. In other cases, some ports can install two different files with the same filename. In some rare cases, users may need to acquire the tarballs from a site other than the MASTER_SITES (the location where files are downloaded from). You can override the MASTER_SITES option with the following command: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/directory &prompt.root; make MASTER_SITE_OVERRIDE= \ ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/distfiles/ fetch In this example we change the MASTER_SITES option to ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/distfiles/. Some ports allow (or even require) you to provide build options which can enable/disable parts of the application which are unneeded, certain security options, and other customizations. A few which come to mind are net/mozilla, security/gpgme, and mail/sylpheed-claws. A message will be displayed when options such as these are available. Overriding the Default Ports Directories Sometimes it is useful (or mandatory) to use a different distfiles and ports directory. The PORTSDIR and PREFIX variables can override the default directories. For example: &prompt.root; make PORTSDIR=/usr/home/example/ports install will compile the port in /usr/home/example/ports and install everything under /usr/local. &prompt.root; make PREFIX=/usr/home/example/local install will compile it in /usr/ports and install it in /usr/home/example/local. And of course, &prompt.root; make PORTSDIR=../ports PREFIX=../local install will combine the two (it is too long to completely write on this page, but it should give you the general idea). Alternatively, these variables can also be set as part of your environment. Read the manual page for your shell for instructions on doing so. Dealing with <command>imake</command> Some ports that use imake (a part of the X Windows System) do not work well with PREFIX, and will insist on installing under /usr/X11R6. Similarly, some Perl ports ignore PREFIX and install in the Perl tree. Making these ports respect PREFIX is a difficult or impossible job. Removing Installed Ports ports removing Now that you know how to install ports, you are probably wondering how to remove them, just in case you install one and later on decide that you installed the wrong port. We will remove our previous example (which was lsof for those of you not paying attention). As with installing ports, the first thing you must do is change to the port directory, /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof. After you change directories, you are ready to uninstall lsof. This is done with the make deinstall command: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof &prompt.root; make deinstall ===> Deinstalling for lsof-4.57 That was easy enough. You have removed lsof from your system. If you would like to reinstall it, you can do so by running make reinstall from the /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof directory. The make deinstall and make reinstall sequence does not work once you have run make clean. If you want to deinstall a port after cleaning, use &man.pkg.delete.1; as discussed in the Packages section of the Handbook. Ports and Disk Space ports disk-space Using the ports collection can defiantly eat up your disk space. For this reason you should always remember to clean up the work directories using the make clean option. This will remove the work directory after a port has been built, and installed. You can also remove the tar files from the distfiles directory, and remove the installed ports when their use has delimited. Some users choose to limit the port categories by placing an entry in the refuse file. This way when they run the CVSup application, it will not download the files in that category. Upgrading Ports portupgrade ports upgrading Keeping your ports up to date can be a tedious job. For instance, to upgrade a port you would go to the ports directory, build the port, deinstall the old port, install the new port, and then cleaning up after the build. Imagine doing that for five ports, tedious right? This was a large problem for system administrators to deal with, and now we have utilities which do this for us. For instance the sysutils/portupgrade utility will do everything for you! Just install it like you would any other port, using the make install clean command. Now create a database with the pkgdb -F command. This will read the list of installed ports and create a database file in the /var/db/pkg directory. Now when you run portupgrade -a, it will read this and the ports INDEX file. Finally, portupgrade will begin to download, build, backup, install, and clean the ports which have been updated. Other utilities exist which will do this, check out the ports/sysutils directory and see what you come up with. - Post-installation activities + Post-installation Activities After installing a new application you will normally want to read any documentation it may have included, edit any configuration files that are required, ensure that the application starts at boot time (if it is a daemon), and so on. The exact steps you need to take to configure each application will obviously be different. However, if you have just installed a new application and are wondering What now? these tips might help: Use &man.pkg.info.1; to find out which files were installed, and where. For example, if you have just installed FooPackage version 1.0.0, then this command &prompt.root; pkg_info -L foopackage-1.0.0 | less will show all the files installed by the package. Pay special attention to files in man/ directories, which will be manual pages, etc/ directories, which will be configuration files, and doc/, which will be more comprehensive documentation. If you are not sure which version of the application was just installed, a command like this &prompt.root; pkg_info | grep -i foopackage will find all the installed packages that have foopackage in the package name. Replace foopackage in your command line as necessary. Once you have identified where the application's manual pages have been installed, review them using &man.man.1;. Similarly, look over the sample configuration files, and any additional documentation that may have been provided. If the application has a web site, check it for additional documentation, frequently asked questions, and so forth. If you are not sure of the web site address it may be listed in the output from &prompt.root; pkg_info foopackage-1.0.0 A WWW: line, if present, should provide a URL for the application's web site. Ports that should start at boot (such as Internet servers) will usually install a sample script in /usr/local/etc/rc.d. You should review this script for correctness and edit or rename it if needed. See Starting Services for more information. Dealing with Broken Ports If you come across a port that does not work for you, there are a few things you can do, including: Fix it! The Porter's Handbook includes detailed information on the Ports infrastructure so that you can fix the occasional broken port or even submit your own! Gripe—by email only! Send email to the maintainer of the port first. Type make maintainer or read the Makefile to find the maintainer's email address. Remember to include the name and version of the port (send the $FreeBSD: line from the Makefile) and the output leading up to the error when you email the maintainer. If you do not get a response from the maintainer, you can use &man.send-pr.1; to submit a bug report. Grab the package from an FTP site near you. The master package collection is on ftp.FreeBSD.org in the packages directory, but be sure to check your local mirror first! These are more likely to work than trying to compile from source and are a lot faster as well. Use the &man.pkg.add.1; program to install the package on your system. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml index 6682b53f0d..a7adce3710 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml @@ -1,3273 +1,3273 @@ Jim Mock Restructured, reorganized, and updated by PPP and SLIP Synopsis PPP SLIP FreeBSD has a number of ways to link one computer to another. To establish a network or Internet connection through a dial-up modem, or to allow others to do so through you, requires the use of PPP or SLIP. This chapter describes setting up these modem-based communication services in detail. After reading this chapter, you will know: How to setup User PPP. How to setup Kernel PPP. How to setup PPPoE (PPP over Ethernet). How to setup PPPoA (PPP over ATM). How to configure and setup a SLIP client and server. PPP user PPP PPP kernel PPP PPP over Ethernet Before reading this chapter, you should: Be familiar with basic network terminology. Understand the basics and purpose of a dialup connection and PPP and/or SLIP. You may be wondering what the main difference is between User PPP and kernel PPP. The answer is simple; user PPP processes the inbound and outbound data in userland rather than in the kernel. This is expensive in terms of copying the data between the kernel and userland, but allows a far more feature-rich ppp implementation. User PPP uses the tun device to communicate with the outside world whereas kernel-ppp uses the ppp device. Throughout in this chapter, user ppp will simply be referred to as ppp unless a distinction needs to be made between it and any other PPP software such as pppd. Unless otherwise stated, all of the commands explained in this section should be executed as root. Tom Rhodes Updated and enhanced by Brian Somers Originally contributed by Nik Clayton With input from Dirk Frömberg Peter Childs Using User PPP User PPP Assumptions This document assumes you have the following: ISP PPP An account with an Internet Service Provider (ISP) which you connect to using PPP. You have a modem or other device connected to your system and configured correctly which allows you to connect to your ISP. The dial-up number(s) of your ISP. PAP CHAP Unix login name password Your login name and password. (Either a regular Unix-style login and password pair, or a PAP or CHAP login and password pair.) nameserver The IP address of one or more name servers. Normally, you will be given two IP addresses by your ISP to use for this. If they have not given you at least one, then you can use the enable dns command in ppp.conf and ppp will set the name servers for you. This feature depends on your ISPs PPP implementation supporting DNS negotiation. The following information may be supplied by your ISP, but is not completely necessary: The IP address of your ISP's gateway. The gateway is the machine to which you will connect and will be set up as your default route. If you do not have this information, we can make one up and your ISP's PPP server will tell us the correct value when we connect. This IP number is referred to as HISADDR by ppp. The netmask you should use. If your ISP has not provided you with one, you can safely use 255.255.255.255. static IP address If your ISP provides you with a static IP address and hostname, you can enter it. Otherwise, we simply let the peer assign whatever IP address it sees fit. If you do not have any of the required information, contact your ISP. Throughout this section, many of the examples showing the contents of configuration files are numbered by line. These numbers serve to aid in the presentation and discussion only and are not meant to be placed in the actual file. Proper indentation with tab and space characters is also important. Creating PPP Device Nodes PPPcreating device nodes Under normal circumstances, most users will only need one tun device (/dev/tun0). References to tun0 below may be changed to tunN where N is any unit number corresponding to your system. For FreeBSD installations that do not have &man.devfs.5; enabled (FreeBSD 4.X and earlier), the existence of the tun0 device should be verified (this is not necessary if &man.devfs.5; is enabled as device nodes will be created on demand). The easiest way to make sure that the tun0 device is configured correctly is to remake the device. To remake the device, do the following: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV tun0 If you need 16 tunnel devices in your kernel, you will need to create them. This can be done by executing the following commands: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV tun15 Automatic <application>PPP</application> Configuration PPPconfiguration Both ppp and pppd (the kernel level implementation of PPP) use the configuration files located in the /etc/ppp directory. Examples for user ppp can be found in /usr/share/examples/ppp/. Configuring ppp requires that you edit a number of files, depending on your requirements. What you put in them depends to some extent on whether your ISP allocates IP addresses statically (i.e., you get given one IP address, and always use that one) or dynamically (i.e., your IP address changes each time you connect to your ISP). PPP and Static IP Addresses PPPwith static IP addresses You will need to edit the /etc/ppp/ppp.conf configuration file. It should look similar to the example below. Lines that end in a : start in the first column (beginning of the line)— all other lines should be indented as shown using spaces or tabs. 1 default: 2 set log Phase Chat LCP IPCP CCP tun command 3 ident user-ppp VERSION (built COMPILATIONDATE) 4 set device /dev/cuaa0 5 set speed 115200 6 set dial "ABORT BUSY ABORT NO\\sCARRIER TIMEOUT 5 \ 7 \"\" AT OK-AT-OK ATE1Q0 OK \\dATDT\\T TIMEOUT 40 CONNECT" 8 set timeout 180 9 enable dns 10 11 provider: 12 set phone "(123) 456 7890" 13 set authname foo 14 set authkey bar 15 set login "TIMEOUT 10 \"\" \"\" gin:--gin: \\U word: \\P col: ppp" 16 set timeout 300 17 set ifaddr x.x.x.x y.y.y.y 255.255.255.255 0.0.0.0 18 add default HISADDR Line 1: Identifies the default entry. Commands in this entry are executed automatically when ppp is run. Line 2: Enables logging parameters. When the configuration is working satisfactorily, this line should be reduced to saying set log phase tun in order to avoid excessive log file sizes. Line 3: Tells PPP how to identify itself to the peer. PPP identifies itself to the peer if it has any trouble negotiating and setting up the link, providing information that the peers administrator may find useful when investigating such problems. Line 4: Identifies the device to which the modem is connected. COM1 is /dev/cuaa0 and COM2 is /dev/cuaa1. Line 5: Sets the speed you want to connect at. If 115200 does not work (it should with any reasonably new modem), try 38400 instead. Line 6 & 7: PPPuser PPP The dial string. User PPP uses an expect-send syntax similar to the &man.chat.8; program. Refer to the manual page for information on the features of this language. Note that this command continues onto the next line for readability. Any command in ppp.conf may do this if the last character on the line is a ``\'' character. Line 8: Sets the idle timeout for the link. 180 seconds is the default, so this line is purely cosmetic. Line 9: Tells PPP to ask the peer to confirm the local resolver settings. If you run a local name server, this line should be commented out or removed. Line 10: A blank line for readability. Blank lines are ignored by PPP. Line 11: Identifies an entry for a provider called provider. This could be changed to the name of your ISP so that later you can use the to start the connection. Line 12: Sets the phone number for this provider. Multiple phone numbers may be specified using the colon (:) or pipe character (|)as a separator. The difference between the two separators is described in &man.ppp.8;. To summarize, if you want to rotate through the numbers, use a colon. If you want to always attempt to dial the first number first and only use the other numbers if the first number fails, use the pipe character. Always quote the entire set of phone numbers as shown. You must enclose the phone number in quotation marks (") if there is any intention on using spaces in the phone number. This can cause a simple, yet subtle error. Line 13 & 14: Identifies the user name and password. When connecting using a Unix-style login prompt, these values are referred to by the set login command using the \U and \P variables. When connecting using PAP or CHAP, these values are used at authentication time. Line 15: PAP CHAP If you are using PAP or CHAP, there will be no login at this point, and this line should be commented out or removed. See PAP and CHAP authentication for further details. The login string is of the same chat-like syntax as the dial string. In this example, the string works for a service whose login session looks like this: J. Random Provider login: foo password: bar protocol: ppp You will need to alter this script to suit your own needs. When you write this script for the first time, you should ensure that you have enabled chat logging so you can determine if the conversation is going as expected. Line 16: timeout Sets the default idle timeout (in seconds) for the connection. Here, the connection will be closed automatically after 300 seconds of inactivity. If you never want to timeout, set this value to zero or use the command line switch. Line 17: ISP Sets the interface addresses. The string x.x.x.x should be replaced by the IP address that your provider has allocated to you. The string y.y.y.y should be replaced by the IP address that your ISP indicated for their gateway (the machine to which you connect). If your ISP has not given you a gateway address, use 10.0.0.2/0. If you need to use a guessed address, make sure that you create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup as per the instructions for PPP and Dynamic IP addresses. If this line is omitted, ppp cannot run in mode. Line 18: Adds a default route to your ISP's gateway. The special word HISADDR is replaced with the gateway address specified on line 9. It is important that this line appears after line 9, otherwise HISADDR will not yet be initialized. If you do not wish to run ppp in , this line should be moved to the ppp.linkup file. It is not necessary to add an entry to ppp.linkup when you have a static IP address and are running ppp in mode as your routing table entries are already correct before you connect. You may however wish to create an entry to invoke programs after connection. This is explained later with the sendmail example. Example configuration files can be found in the /usr/share/examples/ppp/ directory. PPP and Dynamic IP Addresses PPPwith dynamic IP addresses IPCP If your service provider does not assign static IP addresses, ppp can be configured to negotiate the local and remote addresses. This is done by guessing an IP address and allowing ppp to set it up correctly using the IP Configuration Protocol (IPCP) after connecting. The ppp.conf configuration is the same as PPP and Static IP Addresses, with the following change: 17 set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0 255.255.255.255 Again, do not include the line number, it is just for reference. Indentation of at least one space is required. Line 17: The number after the / character is the number of bits of the address that ppp will insist on. You may wish to use IP numbers more appropriate to your circumstances, but the above example will always work. The last argument (0.0.0.0) tells PPP to start negotiations using address 0.0.0.0 rather than 10.0.0.1 and is necessary for some ISPs. Do not use 0.0.0.0 as the first argument to set ifaddr as it prevents PPP from setting up an initial route in mode. If you are not running in mode, you will need to create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. ppp.linkup is used after a connection has been established. At this point, ppp will have assigned the interface addresses and it will now be possible to add the routing table entries: 1 provider: 2 add default HISADDR Line 1: On establishing a connection, ppp will look for an entry in ppp.linkup according to the following rules: First, try to match the same label as we used in ppp.conf. If that fails, look for an entry for the IP address of our gateway. This entry is a four-octet IP style label. If we still have not found an entry, look for the MYADDR entry. Line 2: This line tells ppp to add a default route that points to HISADDR. HISADDR will be replaced with the IP number of the gateway as negotiated by the IPCP. See the pmdemand entry in the files /usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.conf.sample and /usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.linkup.sample for a detailed example. Receiving Incoming Calls PPPreceiving incoming calls When you configure ppp to receive incoming calls on a machine connected to a LAN, you must decide if you wish to forward packets to the LAN. If you do, you should allocate the peer an IP number from your LAN's subnet, and use the command enable proxy in your /etc/ppp/ppp.conf file. You should also confirm that the /etc/rc.conf file contains the following: gateway_enable="YES" Which getty? Configuring FreeBSD for Dial-up Services provides a good description on enabling dial-up services using &man.getty.8;. An alternative to getty is mgetty, a smarter version of getty designed with dial-up lines in mind. The advantages of using mgetty is that it actively talks to modems, meaning if port is turned off in /etc/ttys then your modem will not answer the phone. Later versions of mgetty (from 0.99beta onwards) also support the automatic detection of PPP streams, allowing your clients script-less access to your server. Refer to Mgetty and AutoPPP for more information on mgetty. <application>PPP</application> Permissions The ppp command must normally be run as the root user. If however, you wish to allow ppp to run in server mode as a normal user by executing ppp as described below, that user must be given permission to run ppp by adding them to the network group in /etc/group. You will also need to give them access to one or more sections of the configuration file using the allow command: allow users fred mary If this command is used in the default section, it gives the specified users access to everything. PPP Shells for Dynamic-IP Users PPP shells Create a file called /etc/ppp/ppp-shell containing the following: #!/bin/sh IDENT=`echo $0 | sed -e 's/^.*-\(.*\)$/\1/'` CALLEDAS="$IDENT" TTY=`tty` if [ x$IDENT = xdialup ]; then IDENT=`basename $TTY` fi echo "PPP for $CALLEDAS on $TTY" echo "Starting PPP for $IDENT" exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct $IDENT This script should be executable. Now make a symbolic link called ppp-dialup to this script using the following commands: &prompt.root; ln -s ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-dialup You should use this script as the shell for all of your dialup users. This is an example from /etc/password for a dialup PPP user with username pchilds (remember do not directly edit the password file, use vipw). pchilds:*:1011:300:Peter Childs PPP:/home/ppp:/etc/ppp/ppp-dialup Create a /home/ppp directory that is world readable containing the following 0 byte files: -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27 02:23 .hushlogin -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27 02:22 .rhosts which prevents /etc/motd from being displayed. PPP Shells for Static-IP Users PPP shells Create the ppp-shell file as above, and for each account with statically assigned IPs create a symbolic link to ppp-shell. For example, if you have three dialup customers, fred, sam, and mary, that you route class C networks for, you would type the following: &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-fred &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-sam &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-mary Each of these users dialup accounts should have their shell set to the symbolic link created above (for example, mary's shell should be /etc/ppp/ppp-mary). - Setting up <filename>ppp.conf</filename> for Dynamic-IP Users + Setting Up <filename>ppp.conf</filename> for Dynamic-IP Users The /etc/ppp/ppp.conf file should contain something along the lines of: default: set debug phase lcp chat set timeout 0 ttyd0: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20 255.255.255.255 enable proxy ttyd1: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.21 255.255.255.255 enable proxy The indenting is important. The default: section is loaded for each session. For each dialup line enabled in /etc/ttys create an entry similar to the one for ttyd0: above. Each line should get a unique IP address from your pool of IP addresses for dynamic users. - Setting up <filename>ppp.conf</filename> for Static-IP + <title>Setting Up <filename>ppp.conf</filename> for Static-IP Users Along with the contents of the sample /usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.conf above you should add a section for each of the statically assigned dialup users. We will continue with our fred, sam, and mary example. fred: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.101.1 255.255.255.255 sam: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.102.1 255.255.255.255 mary: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.103.1 255.255.255.255 The file /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup should also contain routing information for each static IP user if required. The line below would add a route for the 203.14.101.0 class C via the client's ppp link. fred: add 203.14.101.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR sam: add 203.14.102.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR mary: add 203.14.103.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR <command>mgetty</command> and AutoPPP mgetty AutoPPP LCP Configuring and compiling mgetty with the AUTO_PPP option enabled allows mgetty to detect the LCP phase of PPP connections and automatically spawn off a ppp shell. However, since the default login/password sequence does not occur it is necessary to authenticate users using either PAP or CHAP. This section assumes the user has successfully configured, compiled, and installed a version of mgetty with the AUTO_PPP option (v0.99beta or later). Make sure your /usr/local/etc/mgetty+sendfax/login.config file has the following in it: /AutoPPP/ - - /etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup This will tell mgetty to run the ppp-pap-dialup script for detected PPP connections. Create a file called /etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup containing the following (the file should be executable): #!/bin/sh exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pap$IDENT For each dialup line enabled in /etc/ttys, create a corresponding entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. This will happily co-exist with the definitions we created above. pap: enable pap set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20-203.14.100.40 enable proxy Each user logging in with this method will need to have a username/password in /etc/ppp/ppp.secret file, or alternatively add the following option to authenticate users via PAP from /etc/password file. enable passwdauth If you wish to assign some users a static IP number, you can specify the number as the third argument in /etc/ppp/ppp.secret. See /usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.secret.sample for examples. MS Extensions DNS NetBIOS PPPMicrosoft extensions It is possible to configure PPP to supply DNS and NetBIOS nameserver addresses on demand. To enable these extensions with PPP version 1.x, the following lines might be added to the relevant section of /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. enable msext set ns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2 set nbns 203.14.100.5 And for PPP version 2 and above: accept dns set dns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2 set nbns 203.14.100.5 This will tell the clients the primary and secondary name server addresses, and a NetBIOS nameserver host. In version 2 and above, if the set dns line is omitted, PPP will use the values found in /etc/resolv.conf. PAP and CHAP Authentication PAP CHAP Some ISPs set their system up so that the authentication part of your connection is done using either of the PAP or CHAP authentication mechanisms. If this is the case, your ISP will not give a login: prompt when you connect, but will start talking PPP immediately. PAP is less secure than CHAP, but security is not normally an issue here as passwords, although being sent as plain text with PAP, are being transmitted down a serial line only. There is not much room for crackers to eavesdrop. Referring back to the PPP and Static IP addresses or PPP and Dynamic IP addresses sections, the following alterations must be made: 7 set login … 12 set authname MyUserName 13 set authkey MyPassword Line 7: Your ISP will not normally require that you log into the server if you are using PAP or CHAP. You must therefore disable your set login string. Line 12: This line specifies your PAP/CHAP user name. You will need to insert the correct value for MyUserName. Line 13: password This line specifies your PAP/CHAP password. You will need to insert the correct value for MyPassword. You may want to add an additional line, such as: 15 accept PAP or 15 accept CHAP to make it obvious that this is the intention, but PAP and CHAP are both accepted by default. Changing Your <command>ppp</command> Configuration on the Fly It is possible to talk to the ppp program while it is running in the background, but only if a suitable diagnostic port has been set up. To do this, add the following line to your configuration: set server /var/run/ppp-tun%d DiagnosticPassword 0177 This will tell PPP to listen to the specified Unix-domain socket, asking clients for the specified password before allowing access. The %d in the name is replaced with the tun device number that is in use. Once a socket has been set up, the &man.pppctl.8; program may be used in scripts that wish to manipulate the running program. Using PPP Network Address Translation Capability PPPNAT PPP has ability to use internal NAT without kernel diverting capabilities. This functionality may be enabled by the following line in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf: nat enable yes Alternatively, PPP NAT may be enabled by command-line option -nat. There is also /etc/rc.conf knob named ppp_nat, which is enabled by default. If you use this feature, you may also find useful the following /etc/ppp/ppp.conf options to enable incoming connections forwarding: nat port tcp 10.0.0.2:ftp ftp nat port tcp 10.0.0.2:http http or do not trust the outside at all nat deny_incoming yes Final System Configuration PPPconfiguration You now have ppp configured, but there are a few more things to do before it is ready to work. They all involve editing the /etc/rc.conf file. Working from the top down in this file, make sure the hostname= line is set, e.g.: hostname="foo.example.com" If your ISP has supplied you with a static IP address and name, it is probably best that you use this name as your host name. Look for the network_interfaces variable. If you want to configure your system to dial your ISP on demand, make sure the tun0 device is added to the list, otherwise remove it. network_interfaces="lo0 tun0" ifconfig_tun0= The ifconfig_tun0 variable should be empty, and a file called /etc/start_if.tun0 should be created. This file should contain the line: ppp -auto mysystem This script is executed at network configuration time, starting your ppp daemon in automatic mode. If you have a LAN for which this machine is a gateway, you may also wish to use the switch. Refer to the manual page for further details. Set the router program to NO with following line in your /etc/rc.conf: router_enable="NO" routed It is important that the routed daemon is not started (it is started by default), as routed tends to delete the default routing table entries created by ppp. It is probably worth your while ensuring that the sendmail_flags line does not include the option, otherwise sendmail will attempt to do a network lookup every now and then, possibly causing your machine to dial out. You may try: sendmail_flags="-bd" sendmail The downside of this is that you must force sendmail to re-examine the mail queue whenever the ppp link is up by typing: &prompt.root; /usr/sbin/sendmail -q You may wish to use the !bg command in ppp.linkup to do this automatically: 1 provider: 2 delete ALL 3 add 0 0 HISADDR 4 !bg sendmail -bd -q30m SMTP If you do not like this, it is possible to set up a dfilter to block SMTP traffic. Refer to the sample files for further details. Now the only thing left to do is reboot the machine. All that is left is to reboot the machine. After rebooting, you can now either type: &prompt.root; ppp and then dial provider to start the PPP session, or, if you want ppp to establish sessions automatically when there is outbound traffic (and you have not created the start_if.tun0 script), type: &prompt.root; ppp -auto provider Summary To recap, the following steps are necessary when setting up ppp for the first time: Client side: Ensure that the tun device is built into your kernel. Ensure that the tunN device file is available in the /dev directory. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The pmdemand example should suffice for most ISPs. If you have a dynamic IP address, create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. Update your /etc/rc.conf file. Create a start_if.tun0 script if you require demand dialing. Server side: Ensure that the tun device is built into your kernel. Ensure that the tunN device file is available in the /dev directory. Create an entry in /etc/passwd (using the &man.vipw.8; program). Create a profile in this users home directory that runs ppp -direct direct-server or similar. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The direct-server example should suffice. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. Update your /etc/rc.conf file. Gennady B. Sorokopud Parts originally contributed by Robert Huff Using Kernel PPP - Setting up Kernel PPP + Setting Up Kernel PPP PPPkernel PPP Before you start setting up PPP on your machine, make sure that pppd is located in /usr/sbin and the directory /etc/ppp exists. pppd can work in two modes: As a client — you want to connect your machine to the outside world via a PPP serial connection or modem line. PPPserver As a server — your machine is located on the network, and is used to connect other computers using PPP. In both cases you will need to set up an options file (/etc/ppp/options or ~/.ppprc if you have more than one user on your machine that uses PPP). You will also need some modem/serial software (preferably kermit), so you can dial and establish a connection with the remote host. Trev Roydhouse Based on information provided by Using <command>pppd</command> as a Client PPPclient Cisco The following /etc/ppp/options might be used to connect to a Cisco terminal server PPP line. crtscts # enable hardware flow control modem # modem control line noipdefault # remote PPP server must supply your IP address. # if the remote host does not send your IP during IPCP # negotiation, remove this option passive # wait for LCP packets domain ppp.foo.com # put your domain name here :<remote_ip> # put the IP of remote PPP host here # it will be used to route packets via PPP link # if you didn't specified the noipdefault option # change this line to <local_ip>:<remote_ip> defaultroute # put this if you want that PPP server will be your # default router To connect: kermit modem Dial to the remote host using kermit (or some other modem program), and enter your user name and password (or whatever is needed to enable PPP on the remote host). Exit kermit (without hanging up the line). Enter the following: &prompt.root; /usr/src/usr.sbin/pppd.new/pppd /dev/tty01 19200 Be sure to use the appropriate speed and device name. Now your computer is connected with PPP. If the connection fails, you can add the option to the /etc/ppp/options file, and check console messages to track the problem. Following /etc/ppp/pppup script will make all 3 stages automatic: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.dial pppd /dev/tty01 19200 kermit /etc/ppp/kermit.dial is a kermit script that dials and makes all necessary authorization on the remote host (an example of such a script is attached to the end of this document). Use the following /etc/ppp/pppdown script to disconnect the PPP line: #!/bin/sh pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill -TERM ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi /sbin/ifconfig ppp0 down /sbin/ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.hup /etc/ppp/ppptest Check to see if PPP is still running by executing /usr/etc/ppp/ppptest, which should look like this: #!/bin/sh pid=`ps ax| grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then echo 'pppd running: PID=' ${pid-NONE} else echo 'No pppd running.' fi set -x netstat -n -I ppp0 ifconfig ppp0 To hang up the modem, execute /etc/ppp/kermit.hup, which should contain: set line /dev/tty01 ; put your modem device here set speed 19200 set file type binary set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none pau 1 out +++ inp 5 OK out ATH0\13 echo \13 exit Here is an alternate method using chat instead of kermit. The following two files are sufficient to accomplish a pppd connection. /etc/ppp/options: /dev/cuaa1 115200 crtscts # enable hardware flow control modem # modem control line connect "/usr/bin/chat -f /etc/ppp/login.chat.script" noipdefault # remote PPP serve must supply your IP address. # if the remote host doesn't send your IP during # IPCP negotiation, remove this option passive # wait for LCP packets domain <your.domain> # put your domain name here : # put the IP of remote PPP host here # it will be used to route packets via PPP link # if you didn't specified the noipdefault option # change this line to <local_ip>:<remote_ip> defaultroute # put this if you want that PPP server will be # your default router /etc/ppp/login.chat.script: The following should go on a single line. ABORT BUSY ABORT 'NO CARRIER' "" AT OK ATDT<phone.number> CONNECT "" TIMEOUT 10 ogin:-\\r-ogin: <login-id> TIMEOUT 5 sword: <password> Once these are installed and modified correctly, all you need to do is run pppd, like so: &prompt.root; pppd Using <command>pppd</command> as a Server /etc/ppp/options should contain something similar to the following: crtscts # Hardware flow control netmask 255.255.255.0 # netmask ( not required ) 192.114.208.20:192.114.208.165 # ip's of local and remote hosts # local ip must be different from one # you assigned to the ethernet ( or other ) # interface on your machine. # remote IP is ip address that will be # assigned to the remote machine domain ppp.foo.com # your domain passive # wait for LCP modem # modem line The following /etc/ppp/pppserv script will enable tell pppd to behave as a server: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi # reset ppp interface ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete # enable autoanswer mode kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.ans # run ppp pppd /dev/tty01 19200 Use this /etc/ppp/pppservdown script to stop the server: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.noans The following kermit script (/etc/ppp/kermit.ans) will enable/disable autoanswer mode on your modem. It should look like this: set line /dev/tty01 set speed 19200 set file type binary set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none pau 1 out +++ inp 5 OK out ATH0\13 inp 5 OK echo \13 out ATS0=1\13 ; change this to out ATS0=0\13 if you want to disable ; autoanswer mod inp 5 OK echo \13 exit A script named /etc/ppp/kermit.dial is used for dialing and authenticating on the remote host. You will need to customize it for your needs. Put your login and password in this script; you will also need to change the input statement depending on responses from your modem and remote host. ; ; put the com line attached to the modem here: ; set line /dev/tty01 ; ; put the modem speed here: ; set speed 19200 set file type binary ; full 8 bit file xfer set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none set modem hayes set dial hangup off set carrier auto ; Then SET CARRIER if necessary, set dial display on ; Then SET DIAL if necessary, set input echo on set input timeout proceed set input case ignore def \%x 0 ; login prompt counter goto slhup :slcmd ; put the modem in command mode echo Put the modem in command mode. clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer pause 1 output +++ ; hayes escape sequence input 1 OK\13\10 ; wait for OK if success goto slhup output \13 pause 1 output at\13 input 1 OK\13\10 if fail goto slcmd ; if modem doesn't answer OK, try again :slhup ; hang up the phone clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer pause 1 echo Hanging up the phone. output ath0\13 ; hayes command for on hook input 2 OK\13\10 if fail goto slcmd ; if no OK answer, put modem in command mode :sldial ; dial the number pause 1 echo Dialing. output atdt9,550311\13\10 ; put phone number here assign \%x 0 ; zero the time counter :look clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer increment \%x ; Count the seconds input 1 {CONNECT } if success goto sllogin reinput 1 {NO CARRIER\13\10} if success goto sldial reinput 1 {NO DIALTONE\13\10} if success goto slnodial reinput 1 {\255} if success goto slhup reinput 1 {\127} if success goto slhup if < \%x 60 goto look else goto slhup :sllogin ; login assign \%x 0 ; zero the time counter pause 1 echo Looking for login prompt. :slloop increment \%x ; Count the seconds clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer output \13 ; ; put your expected login prompt here: ; input 1 {Username: } if success goto sluid reinput 1 {\255} if success goto slhup reinput 1 {\127} if success goto slhup if < \%x 10 goto slloop ; try 10 times to get a login prompt else goto slhup ; hang up and start again if 10 failures :sluid ; ; put your userid here: ; output ppp-login\13 input 1 {Password: } ; ; put your password here: ; output ppp-password\13 input 1 {Entering SLIP mode.} echo quit :slnodial echo \7No dialtone. Check the telephone line!\7 exit 1 ; local variables: ; mode: csh ; comment-start: "; " ; comment-start-skip: "; " ; end: Tom Rhodes Contributed by Troubleshooting <acronym>PPP</acronym> Connections PPPtroubleshooting This section covers a few issues which may arise when using PPP over a modem connection. For instance, perhaps you need to know exactly what prompts the system you are dialing into will present. Some ISPs present the ssword prompt, and others will present password; if the ppp script is not written accordingly, the login attempt will fail. The most common way to debug ppp connections is by connecting manually. The following information will walk you through a manual connection step by step. Check the Device Nodes If you reconfigured your kernel then you recall the sio device. If you did not configure your kernel, there is no reason to worry. Just check the dmesg output for the modem device with: &prompt.root;dmesg | grep sio You should get some pertinent output about the sio devices. These are the COM ports we need. If your modem acts like a standard serial port then you should see it listed on sio1, or COM2. If so, you are not required to rebuild the kernel, you just need to make the serial device. You can do this by changing your directory to /dev and running the MAKEDEV script like above. Now make the serial devices with: &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV cuaa0 cuaa1 cuaa2 cuaa3 which will create the serial devices for your system. When matching up sio modem is on sio1 or COM2 if you are in DOS, then your modem device would be /dev/cuaa1. Connecting Manually Connecting to the Internet by manually controlling ppp is quick, easy, and a great way to debug a connection or just get information on how your ISP treats ppp client connections. Lets start PPP from the command line. Note that in all of our examples we will use example as the hostname of the machine running PPP. You start ppp by just typing ppp: &prompt.root; ppp We have now started ppp. ppp ON example> set device /dev/cuaa1 We set our modem device, in this case it is cuaa1. ppp ON example> set speed 115200 Set the connection speed, in this case we are using 115,200 kbps. ppp ON example> enable dns Tell ppp to configure our resolver and add the nameserver lines to /etc/resolv.conf. If ppp cannot determine our hostname, we can set one manually later. ppp ON example> term Switch to terminal mode so that we can manually control the modem. deflink: Entering terminal mode on /dev/cuaa1 type '~h' for help at OK atdt123456789 Use at to initialize the modem, then use atdt and the number for your ISP to begin the dial in process. CONNECT Confirmation of the connection, if we are going to have any connection problems, unrelated to hardware, here is where we will attempt to resolve them. ISP Login:myusername Here you are prompted for a username, return the prompt with the username that was provided by the ISP. ISP Pass:mypassword This time we are prompted for a password, just reply with the password that was provided by the ISP. Just like logging into &os;, the password will not echo. Shell or PPP:ppp Depending on your ISP this prompt may never appear. Here we are being asked if we wish to use a shell on the provider, or to start ppp. In this example, we have chosen to use ppp as we want an Internet connection. Ppp ON example> Notice that in this example the first has been capitalized. This shows that we have successfully connected to the ISP. PPp ON example> We have successfully authenticated with our ISP and are waiting for the assigned IP address. PPP ON example> We have made an agreement on an IP address and successfully completed our connection. PPP ON example>add default HISADDR Here we add our default route, we need to do this before we can talk to the outside world as currently the only established connection is with the peer. If this fails due to existing routes you can put a bang character ! in front of the . Alternatively, you can set this before making the actual connection and it will negotiate a new route accordingly. If everything went good we should now have an active connection to the Internet, which could be thrown into the background using CTRL z If you notice the PPP return to ppp then we have lost our connection. This is good to know because it shows our connection status. Capital P's show that we have a connection to the ISP and lowercase p's show that the connection has been lost for whatever reason. ppp only has these 2 states. Debugging If you have a direct line and cannot seem to make a connection, then turn hardware flow CTS/RTS to off with the . This is mainly the case if you are connected to some PPP capable terminal servers, where PPP hangs when it tries to write data to your communication link, so it would be waiting for a CTS, or Clear To Send signal which may never come. If you use this option however, you should also use the option, which may be required to defeat hardware dependent on passing certain characters from end to end, most of the time XON/XOFF. See the &man.ppp.8; manual page for more information on this option, and how it is used. If you have an older modem, you may need to use the . Parity is set at none be default, but is used for error checking (with a large increase in traffic) on older modems and some ISPs. You may need this option for the Compuserve ISP. PPP may not return to the command mode, which is usually a negotiation error where the ISP is waiting for your side to start negotiating. At this point, using the ~p command will force ppp to start sending the configuration information. If you never obtain a login prompt, then most likely you need to use PAP or CHAP authentication instead of the Unix-style in the example above. To use PAP or CHAP just add the following options to PPP before going into terminal mode: ppp ON example> set authname myusername Where myusername should be replaced with the username that was assigned by the ISP. ppp ON example> set authkey mypassword Where mypassword should be replaced with the password that was assigned by the ISP. If you connect fine, but cannot seem to find any domain name, try to use &man.ping.8; with an IP address and see if you can get any return information. If you experience 100 percent (100%) packet loss, then its most likely that you were not assigned a default route. Double check that the option was set during the connection. If you can connect to a remote IP address then it is possible that a resolver address has not been added to the /etc/resolv.conf. This file should look like: domain example.com nameserver x.x.x.x nameserver y.y.y.y Where x.x.x.x and y.y.y.y should be replaced with the IP address of your ISP's DNS servers. This information may or may not have been provided when you signed up, but a quick call to your ISP should remedy that. You could also have &man.syslog.3; provide a logging function for your PPP connection. Just add: !ppp *.* /var/log/ppp.log to /etc/syslog.conf. In most cases, this functionality already exists. Jim Mock Contributed (from http://node.to/freebsd/how-tos/how-to-freebsd-pppoe.html) by Using <application>PPP</application> over Ethernet (PPPoE) PPPover Ethernet PPPoE PPP, over Ethernet This section describes how to set up PPP over Ethernet (PPPoE). - Configuring the kernel + Configuring the Kernel No kernel configuration is necessary for PPPoE any longer. If the necessary netgraph support is not built into the kernel, it will be dynamically loaded by ppp. - Setting up <filename>ppp.conf</filename> + Setting Up <filename>ppp.conf</filename> Here is an example of a working ppp.conf: default: set log Phase tun command # you can add more detailed logging if you wish set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0 name_of_service_provider: set device PPPoE:xl1 # replace xl1 with your ethernet device set authname YOURLOGINNAME set authkey YOURPASSWORD set dial set login add default HISADDR Running <application>PPP</application> As root, you can run: &prompt.root; ppp -ddial name_of_service_provider Starting <application>PPP</application> at Boot Add the following to your /etc/rc.conf file: ppp_enable="YES" ppp_mode="ddial" ppp_nat="YES" # if you want to enable nat for your local network, otherwise NO ppp_profile="name_of_service_provider" - Using a PPPoE Service tag + Using a PPPoE Service Tag Sometimes it will be necessary to use a service tag to establish your connection. Service tags are used to distinguish between different PPPoE servers attached to a given network. You should have been given any required service tag information in the documentation provided by your ISP. If you cannot locate it there, ask your ISP's tech support personnel. As a last resort, you could try the method suggested by the Roaring Penguin PPPoE program which can be found in the ports collection. Bear in mind however, this may de-program your modem and render it useless, so think twice before doing it. Simply install the program shipped with the modem by your provider. Then, access the System menu from the program. The name of your profile should be listed there. It is usually ISP. The profile name (service tag) will be used in the PPPoE configuration entry in ppp.conf as the provider part of the set device command (see the &man.ppp.8; manual page for full details). It should look like this: set device PPPoE:xl1:ISP Do not forget to change xl1 to the proper device for your Ethernet card. Do not forget to change ISP to the profile you have just found above. For additional information, see: Cheaper Broadband with FreeBSD on DSL by Renaud Waldura. Nutzung von T-DSL und T-Online mit FreeBSD by Udo Erdelhoff (in German). PPPoE with a 3Com HomeConnect ADSL Modem Dual Link This modem does not follow RFC 2516 (A Method for transmitting PPP over Ethernet (PPPoE), written by L. Mamakos, K. Lidl, J. Evarts, D. Carrel, D. Simone, and R. Wheeler). Instead, different packet type codes have been used for the Ethernet frames. Please complain to 3Com if you think it should comply with the PPPoE specification. In order to make FreeBSD capable of communicating with this device, a sysctl must be set. This can be done automatically at boot time by updating /etc/sysctl.conf: net.graph.nonstandard_pppoe=1 or can be done for immediate effect with the command sysctl net.graph.nonstandard_pppoe=1. Unfortunately, because this is a system-wide setting, it is not possible to talk to a normal PPPoE client or server and a 3Com HomeConnect ADSL Modem at the same time. Using <application>PPP</application> over ATM (PPPoA) PPPover ATM PPPoA PPP, over ATM The following describes how to set up PPP over ATM (PPPoA). PPPoA is a popular choice among European DSL providers. Using PPPoA with the Alcatel SpeedTouch USB PPPoA support for this device is supplied as a port in FreeBSD because the firmware is distributed under Alcatel's license agreement and can not be redistributed freely with the base system of FreeBSD. To install the software, simply use the ports collection. Install the net/pppoa port and follow the instructions provided with it. Like many USB devices, the Alcatel SpeedTouch USB needs to download firmware from the host computer to operate properly. It is possible to automate this process in &os; so that this transfer takes place whenever the device is plugged into a USB port. The following information can be added to the /etc/usbd.conf file to enable this automatic firmware transfer. This file must be edited as the root user. device "Alcatel SpeedTouch USB" devname "ugen[0-9]+" vendor 0x06b9 product 0x4061 attach "/usr/local/sbin/modem_run -f /usr/local/libdata/mgmt.o" To enable the USB daemon, usbd, put the following the line into /etc/rc.conf: usbd_enable="YES" It is also possible to set up PPP to dial up at startup. To do this add the following lines to /etc/rc.conf. Again, for this procedure you will need to be logged in as the root user. ppp_enable="YES" ppp_mode="ddial" ppp_profile="adsl" For this to work correctly you will need to have used the sample ppp.conf which is supplied with the net/pppoa port. Using mpd You can use mpd to connect to a variety of services, in particular PPTP services. You can find mpd in the ports collection, net/mpd. Many ADSL modems require that a PPTP tunnel is created between the modem and computer, one such modem is the Alcatel SpeedTouch Home. First you must install the port, and then you can configure mpd to suit your requirements and provider settings. The port places a set of sample configuration files which are well documented in PREFIX/etc/mpd/. Note here that PREFIX means the directory into which your ports are installed, this defaults to /usr/local/. A complete guide to configuring mpd is available in HTML format once the port has been installed. It is placed in PREFIX/share/mpd/. Here is a sample configuration for connecting to an ADSL service with mpd. The configuration is spread over two files, first the mpd.conf. default: load adsl adsl: new -i ng0 adsl adsl set bundle authname username set bundle password password set bundle disable multilink set link no pap acfcomp protocomp set link disable chap set link accept chap set link keep-alive 30 10 set ipcp no vjcomp set ipcp ranges 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0 set iface route default set iface disable on-demand set iface enable proxy-arp set iface idle 0 open The username used to authenticate with your ISP. The password used to authenticate with your ISP. The mpd.links file contains information about the link, or links, you wish to establish. An example mpd.links to accompany the above example is given beneath. adsl: set link type pptp set pptp mode active set pptp enable originate incoming outcall set pptp self 10.0.0.1 set pptp peer 10.0.0.138 The IP address of your &os; computer which you will be using mpd from. The IP address of your ADSL modem. For the Alcatel SpeedTouch Home this address defaults to 10.0.0.138. It is possible to initialize the connection easily by issuing the following command as root. &prompt.root; mpd -b adsl You can see the status of the connection with the following command. &prompt.user; ifconfig ng0 ng0: flags=88d1<UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,NOARP,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 inet 216.136.204.117 --> 204.152.186.171 netmask 0xffffffff Using mpd is the recommended way to connect to an ADSL service with &os;. Using pptpclient It is also possible to use FreeBSD to connect to other PPPoA services using net/pptpclient. To use net/pptpclient to connect to a DSL service, install the port or package and edit your /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. You will need to be root to perform both of these operations. An example section of ppp.conf is given below. For further information on ppp.conf options consult the ppp manual page, &man.ppp.8;. adsl: set log phase chat lcp ipcp ccp tun command set timeout 0 enable dns set authname username set authkey password set ifaddr 0 0 add default HISADDR The username of your account with the DSL provider. The password for your account. Because you must put your account's password in the ppp.conf file in plain text form you should make sure than nobody can read the contents of this file. The following series of commands will make sure the file is only readable by the root account. Refer to the manuals pages for &man.chmod.1; and &man.chown.8; for further information. &prompt.root; chown root:wheel /etc/ppp/ppp.conf &prompt.root; chmod 600 /etc/ppp/ppp.conf This will open a tunnel for a PPP session to your DSL router. Ethernet DSL modems have a preconfigured LAN IP address which you connect to. In the case of the Alcatel SpeedTouch Home this address is 10.0.0.138. Your routers documentation should tell you which address your device uses. To open the tunnel and start a ppp session execute the following command. &prompt.root; pptp address isp You may wish to add an ampersand (&) to the end of the previous command because pptp will not return your prompt to you otherwise. A tun virtual tunnel device will be created for interaction between the pptp and ppp processes. Once you have been returned to your prompt, or the pptp process has confirmed a connection you can examine the tunnel like so. &prompt.user; ifconfig tun0 tun0: flags=8051<UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 inet 216.136.204.21 --> 204.152.186.171 netmask 0xffffff00 Opened by PID 918 If you are unable to connect, check the configuration of your router, which is usually accessible via telnet or with a web browser. If you still cannot connect you should examine the output of the pptp command and the contents of the ppp log file, /var/log/ppp.log for clues. Satoshi Asami Originally contributed by Guy Helmer With input from Piero Serini Using SLIP SLIP - Setting up a SLIP Client + Setting Up a SLIP Client SLIPclient The following is one way to set up a FreeBSD machine for SLIP on a static host network. For dynamic hostname assignments (your address changes each time you dial up), you probably need to have a more complex setup. First, determine which serial port your modem is connected to. Many people setup a symbolic link, such as /dev/modem, to point to the real device name, /dev/cuaaN. This allows you to abstract the actual device name should you ever need to move the modem to a different port. It can become quite cumbersome when you need to fix a bunch of files in /etc and .kermrc files all over the system! /dev/cuaa0 is COM1, cuaa1 is COM2, etc. Make sure you have the following in your kernel configuration file: pseudo-device sl 1 It is included in the GENERIC kernel, so this should not be a problem unless you have deleted it. Things You Have to Do Only Once Add your home machine, the gateway and nameservers to your /etc/hosts file. Mine looks like this: 127.0.0.1 localhost loghost 136.152.64.181 water.CS.Example.EDU water.CS water 136.152.64.1 inr-3.CS.Example.EDU inr-3 slip-gateway 128.32.136.9 ns1.Example.EDU ns1 128.32.136.12 ns2.Example.EDU ns2 Make sure you have before in your /etc/host.conf on FreeBSD versions prior to 5.0. Since FreeBSD 5.0, the system uses the file /etc/nsswitch.conf instead, make sure you have before in the line of this file. Without these parameters funny things may happen. Edit the /etc/rc.conf file. Set your hostname by editing the line that says: hostname="myname.my.domain" Your machine's full Internet hostname should be placed here. Add sl0 to the list of network interfaces by changing the line that says: network_interfaces="lo0" to: network_interfaces="lo0 sl0" Set the startup flags of sl0 by adding a line: ifconfig_sl0="inet ${hostname} slip-gateway netmask 0xffffff00 up" default route Designate the default router by changing the line: defaultrouter="NO" to: defaultrouter="slip-gateway" Make a file /etc/resolv.conf which contains: domain CS.Example.EDU nameserver 128.32.136.9 nameserver 128.32.136.12 nameserver domain name As you can see, these set up the nameserver hosts. Of course, the actual domain names and addresses depend on your environment. Set the password for root and toor (and any other accounts that do not have a password). Reboot your machine and make sure it comes up with the correct hostname. Making a SLIP Connection SLIPconnecting with Dial up, type slip at the prompt, enter your machine name and password. What is required to be entered depends on your environment. If you use kermit, you can try a script like this: # kermit setup set modem hayes set line /dev/modem set speed 115200 set parity none set flow rts/cts set terminal bytesize 8 set file type binary # The next macro will dial up and login define slip dial 643-9600, input 10 =>, if failure stop, - output slip\x0d, input 10 Username:, if failure stop, - output silvia\x0d, input 10 Password:, if failure stop, - output ***\x0d, echo \x0aCONNECTED\x0a Of course, you have to change the hostname and password to fit yours. After doing so, you can just type slip from the kermit prompt to connect. Leaving your password in plain text anywhere in the filesystem is generally a bad idea. Do it at your own risk. Leave the kermit there (you can suspend it by Ctrl z ) and as root, type: &prompt.root; slattach -h -c -s 115200 /dev/modem If you are able to ping hosts on the other side of the router, you are connected! If it does not work, you might want to try instead of as an argument to slattach. How to Shutdown the Connection Do the following: &prompt.root; kill -INT `cat /var/run/slattach.modem.pid` to kill slattach. Keep in mind you must be root to do the above. Then go back to kermit (by running fg if you suspended it) and exit from it (q). The slattach manual page says you have to use ifconfig sl0 down to mark the interface down, but this does not seem to make any difference for me. (ifconfig sl0 reports the same thing.) Some times, your modem might refuse to drop the carrier (mine often does). In that case, simply start kermit and quit it again. It usually goes out on the second try. Troubleshooting If it does not work, feel free to ask me. The things that people tripped over so far: Not using or in slattach (This should not be fatal, but some users have reported that this solves their problems.) Using instead of (might be hard to see the difference on some fonts). Try ifconfig sl0 to see your interface status. For example, you might get: &prompt.root; ifconfig sl0 sl0: flags=10<POINTOPOINT> inet 136.152.64.181 --> 136.152.64.1 netmask ffffff00 If you get no route to host messages from ping, there may be a problem with your routing table. You can use the netstat -r command to display the current routes : &prompt.root; netstat -r Routing tables Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use IfaceMTU Rtt Netmasks: (root node) (root node) Route Tree for Protocol Family inet: (root node) => default inr-3.Example.EDU UG 8 224515 sl0 - - localhost.Exampl localhost.Example. UH 5 42127 lo0 - 0.438 inr-3.Example.ED water.CS.Example.E UH 1 0 sl0 - - water.CS.Example localhost.Example. UGH 34 47641234 lo0 - 0.438 (root node) The preceding examples are from a relatively busy system. The numbers on your system will vary depending on network activity. - Setting up a SLIP Server + Setting Up a SLIP Server SLIPserver This document provides suggestions for setting up SLIP Server services on a FreeBSD system, which typically means configuring your system to automatically startup connections upon login for remote SLIP clients. Prerequisites TCP/IP networking This section is very technical in nature, so background knowledge is required. It is assumed that you are familiar with the TCP/IP network protocol, and in particular, network and node addressing, network address masks, subnetting, routing, and routing protocols, such as RIP. Configuring SLIP services on a dial-up server requires a knowledge of these concepts, and if you are not familiar with them, please read a copy of either Craig Hunt's TCP/IP Network Administration published by O'Reilly & Associates, Inc. (ISBN Number 0-937175-82-X), or Douglas Comer's books on the TCP/IP protocol. modem It is further assumed that you have already setup your modem(s) and configured the appropriate system files to allow logins through your modems. If you have not prepared your system for this yet, please see the tutorial for configuring dialup services; if you have a World-Wide Web browser available, browse the list of tutorials at http://www.FreeBSD.org/. You may also want to check the manual pages for &man.sio.4; for information on the serial port device driver and &man.ttys.5;, &man.gettytab.5;, &man.getty.8;, & &man.init.8; for information relevant to configuring the system to accept logins on modems, and perhaps &man.stty.1; for information on setting serial port parameters (such as clocal for directly-connected serial interfaces). Quick Overview In its typical configuration, using FreeBSD as a SLIP server works as follows: a SLIP user dials up your FreeBSD SLIP Server system and logs in with a special SLIP login ID that uses /usr/sbin/sliplogin as the special user's shell. The sliplogin program browses the file /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts to find a matching line for the special user, and if it finds a match, connects the serial line to an available SLIP interface and then runs the shell script /etc/sliphome/slip.login to configure the SLIP interface. An Example of a SLIP Server Login For example, if a SLIP user ID were Shelmerg, Shelmerg's entry in /etc/master.passwd would look something like this: Shelmerg:password:1964:89::0:0:Guy Helmer - SLIP:/usr/users/Shelmerg:/usr/sbin/sliplogin When Shelmerg logs in, sliplogin will search /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts for a line that had a matching user ID; for example, there may be a line in /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts that reads: Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmer 0xfffffc00 autocomp sliplogin will find that matching line, hook the serial line into the next available SLIP interface, and then execute /etc/sliphome/slip.login like this: /etc/sliphome/slip.login 0 19200 Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmer 0xfffffc00 autocomp If all goes well, /etc/sliphome/slip.login will issue an ifconfig for the SLIP interface to which sliplogin attached itself (slip interface 0, in the above example, which was the first parameter in the list given to slip.login) to set the local IP address (dc-slip), remote IP address (sl-helmer), network mask for the SLIP interface (0xfffffc00), and any additional flags (autocomp). If something goes wrong, sliplogin usually logs good informational messages via the daemon syslog facility, which usually logs to /var/log/messages (see the manual pages for &man.syslogd.8; and &man.syslog.conf.5; and perhaps check /etc/syslog.conf to see to what syslogd is logging and where it is logging to. OK, enough of the examples — let us dive into setting up the system. Kernel Configuration kernelconfiguration FreeBSD's default kernels usually come with two SLIP interfaces defined (sl0 and sl1); you can use netstat -i to see whether these interfaces are defined in your kernel. Sample output from netstat -i: Name Mtu Network Address Ipkts Ierrs Opkts Oerrs Coll ed0 1500 <Link>0.0.c0.2c.5f.4a 291311 0 174209 0 133 ed0 1500 138.247.224 ivory 291311 0 174209 0 133 lo0 65535 <Link> 79 0 79 0 0 lo0 65535 loop localhost 79 0 79 0 0 sl0* 296 <Link> 0 0 0 0 0 sl1* 296 <Link> 0 0 0 0 0 The sl0 and sl1 interfaces shown from netstat -i indicate that there are two SLIP interfaces built into the kernel. (The asterisks after the sl0 and sl1 indicate that the interfaces are down.) However, FreeBSD's default kernel does not come configured to forward packets (by default, your FreeBSD machine will not act as a router) due to Internet RFC requirements for Internet hosts (see RFCs 1009 [Requirements for Internet Gateways], 1122 [Requirements for Internet Hosts — Communication Layers], and perhaps 1127 [A Perspective on the Host Requirements RFCs]). If you want your FreeBSD SLIP Server to act as a router, you will have to edit the /etc/rc.conf file and change the setting of the gateway_enable variable to . You will then need to reboot for the new settings to take effect. You will notice that near the end of the default kernel configuration file (/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC) is a line that reads: pseudo-device sl 2 SLIP This is the line that defines the number of SLIP devices available in the kernel; the number at the end of the line is the maximum number of SLIP connections that may be operating simultaneously. Please refer to on Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel for help in reconfiguring your kernel. Sliplogin Configuration As mentioned earlier, there are three files in the /etc/sliphome directory that are part of the configuration for /usr/sbin/sliplogin (see &man.sliplogin.8; for the actual manual page for sliplogin): slip.hosts, which defines the SLIP users and their associated IP addresses; slip.login, which usually just configures the SLIP interface; and (optionally) slip.logout, which undoes slip.login's effects when the serial connection is terminated. <filename>slip.hosts</filename> Configuration /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts contains lines which have at least four items separated by whitespace: SLIP user's login ID Local address (local to the SLIP server) of the SLIP link Remote address of the SLIP link Network mask The local and remote addresses may be host names (resolved to IP addresses by /etc/hosts or by the domain name service, depending on your specifications in the file /etc/nsswitch.conf on FreeBSD 5.X, in /etc/host.conf if you use FreeBSD 4.X), and the network mask may be a name that can be resolved by a lookup into /etc/networks. On a sample system, /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts looks like this: # # login local-addr remote-addr mask opt1 opt2 # (normal,compress,noicmp) # Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmerg 0xfffffc00 autocomp At the end of the line is one or more of the options. — no header compression — compress headers — compress headers if the remote end allows it — disable ICMP packets (so any ping packets will be dropped instead of using up your bandwidth) SLIP TCP/IP networking Your choice of local and remote addresses for your SLIP links depends on whether you are going to dedicate a TCP/IP subnet or if you are going to use proxy ARP on your SLIP server (it is not true proxy ARP, but that is the terminology used in this section to describe it). If you are not sure which method to select or how to assign IP addresses, please refer to the TCP/IP books referenced in the SLIP Prerequisites () and/or consult your IP network manager. If you are going to use a separate subnet for your SLIP clients, you will need to allocate the subnet number out of your assigned IP network number and assign each of your SLIP client's IP numbers out of that subnet. Then, you will probably need to configure a static route to the SLIP subnet via your SLIP server on your nearest IP router. Ethernet Otherwise, if you will use the proxy ARP method, you will need to assign your SLIP client's IP addresses out of your SLIP server's Ethernet subnet, and you will also need to adjust your /etc/sliphome/slip.login and /etc/sliphome/slip.logout scripts to use &man.arp.8; to manage the proxy-ARP entries in the SLIP server's ARP table. <filename>slip.login</filename> Configuration The typical /etc/sliphome/slip.login file looks like this: #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.login 5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90 # # generic login file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6 This slip.login file merely runs ifconfig for the appropriate SLIP interface with the local and remote addresses and network mask of the SLIP interface. If you have decided to use the proxy ARP method (instead of using a separate subnet for your SLIP clients), your /etc/sliphome/slip.login file will need to look something like this: #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.login 5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90 # # generic login file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6 # Answer ARP requests for the SLIP client with our Ethernet addr /usr/sbin/arp -s $5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pub The additional line in this slip.login, arp -s $5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pub, creates an ARP entry in the SLIP server's ARP table. This ARP entry causes the SLIP server to respond with the SLIP server's Ethernet MAC address whenever another IP node on the Ethernet asks to speak to the SLIP client's IP address. EthernetMAC address When using the example above, be sure to replace the Ethernet MAC address (00:11:22:33:44:55) with the MAC address of your system's Ethernet card, or your proxy ARP will definitely not work! You can discover your SLIP server's Ethernet MAC address by looking at the results of running netstat -i; the second line of the output should look something like: ed0 1500 <Link>0.2.c1.28.5f.4a 191923 0 129457 0 116 This indicates that this particular system's Ethernet MAC address is 00:02:c1:28:5f:4a — the periods in the Ethernet MAC address given by netstat -i must be changed to colons and leading zeros should be added to each single-digit hexadecimal number to convert the address into the form that &man.arp.8; desires; see the manual page on &man.arp.8; for complete information on usage. When you create /etc/sliphome/slip.login and /etc/sliphome/slip.logout, the execute bit (chmod 755 /etc/sliphome/slip.login /etc/sliphome/slip.logout) must be set, or sliplogin will be unable to execute it. <filename>slip.logout</filename> Configuration /etc/sliphome/slip.logout is not strictly needed (unless you are implementing proxy ARP), but if you decide to create it, this is an example of a basic slip.logout script: #!/bin/sh - # # slip.logout # # logout file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 down If you are using proxy ARP, you will want to have /etc/sliphome/slip.logout remove the ARP entry for the SLIP client: #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.logout # # logout file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 down # Quit answering ARP requests for the SLIP client /usr/sbin/arp -d $5 The arp -d $5 removes the ARP entry that the proxy ARP slip.login added when the SLIP client logged in. It bears repeating: make sure /etc/sliphome/slip.logout has the execute bit set after you create it (ie, chmod 755 /etc/sliphome/slip.logout). Routing Considerations SLIP routing If you are not using the proxy ARP method for routing packets between your SLIP clients and the rest of your network (and perhaps the Internet), you will probably have to add static routes to your closest default router(s) to route your SLIP client subnet via your SLIP server. Static Routes static routes Adding static routes to your nearest default routers can be troublesome (or impossible if you do not have authority to do so...). If you have a multiple-router network in your organization, some routers, such as those made by Cisco and Proteon, may not only need to be configured with the static route to the SLIP subnet, but also need to be told which static routes to tell other routers about, so some expertise and troubleshooting/tweaking may be necessary to get static-route-based routing to work. Running <command>gated</command> gated gated is proprietary software now and will not be available as source code to the public anymore (more info on the gated website). This section only exists to ensure backwards compatibility for those that are still using an older version. An alternative to the headaches of static routes is to install gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server and configure it to use the appropriate routing protocols (RIP/OSPF/BGP/EGP) to tell other routers about your SLIP subnet. You'll need to write a /etc/gated.conf file to configure your gated; here is a sample, similar to what the author used on a FreeBSD SLIP server: # # gated configuration file for dc.dsu.edu; for gated version 3.5alpha5 # Only broadcast RIP information for xxx.xxx.yy out the ed Ethernet interface # # # tracing options # traceoptions "/var/tmp/gated.output" replace size 100k files 2 general ; rip yes { interface sl noripout noripin ; interface ed ripin ripout version 1 ; traceoptions route ; } ; # # Turn on a bunch of tracing info for the interface to the kernel: kernel { traceoptions remnants request routes info interface ; } ; # # Propagate the route to xxx.xxx.yy out the Ethernet interface via RIP # export proto rip interface ed { proto direct { xxx.xxx.yy mask 255.255.252.0 metric 1; # SLIP connections } ; } ; # # Accept routes from RIP via ed Ethernet interfaces import proto rip interface ed { all ; } ; RIP The above sample gated.conf file broadcasts routing information regarding the SLIP subnet xxx.xxx.yy via RIP onto the Ethernet; if you are using a different Ethernet driver than the ed driver, you will need to change the references to the ed interface appropriately. This sample file also sets up tracing to /var/tmp/gated.output for debugging gated's activity; you can certainly turn off the tracing options if gated works OK for you. You will need to change the xxx.xxx.yy's into the network address of your own SLIP subnet (be sure to change the net mask in the proto direct clause as well). Once you have installed and configured gated on your system, you will need to tell the FreeBSD startup scripts to run gated in place of routed. The easiest way to accomplish this is to set the router and router_flags variables in /etc/rc.conf. Please see the manual page for gated for information on command-line parameters. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/printing/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/printing/chapter.sgml index ec16fe4447..3be4b71fba 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/printing/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/printing/chapter.sgml @@ -1,4891 +1,4891 @@ Sean Kelly Contributed by Jim Mock Restructured and updated by Printing Synopsis LPD spooling system printing FreeBSD can be used to print to a wide variety of printers, from the oldest impact printer to the latest laser printers, and everything in between, allowing you to produce high quality printed output from the applications you run. FreeBSD can also be configured to act as a print server on a network; in this capacity FreeBSD can receive print jobs from a variety of other computers, including other FreeBSD computers, Windows and MacOS hosts. FreeBSD will ensure that one job at a time is printed, and can keep statistics on which users and machines are doing the most printing, produce banner pages showing who's printout is who's, and more. After reading this chapter, you will know: How to configure the FreeBSD print spooler. How to install print filters, to handle special print jobs differently, including converting incoming documents to print formats that your printers understand. How to enable header, or banner pages on your printout. How to print to printers connected to other computers. How to print to printers connected directly to the network. How to control printer restrictions, including limiting the size of print jobs, and preventing certain users from printing. How to keep printer statistics, and account for printer usage. How to troubleshoot printing problems. Before reading this chapter, you should: Know how to configure and install a new kernel (). Introduction In order to use printers with FreeBSD, you will need to set them up to work with the Berkeley line printer spooling system, also known as the LPD spooling system. It is the standard printer control system in FreeBSD. This chapter introduces the LPD spooling system, often simply called LPD, and will guide you through its configuration. If you are already familiar with LPD or another printer spooling system, you may wish to skip to section Setting up the spooling system. LPD controls everything about a host's printers. It is responsible for a number of things: It controls access to attached printers and printers attached to other hosts on the network. print jobs It enables users to submit files to be printed; these submissions are known as jobs. It prevents multiple users from accessing a printer at the same time by maintaining a queue for each printer. It can print header pages (also known as banner or burst pages) so users can easily find jobs they have printed in a stack of printouts. It takes care of communications parameters for printers connected on serial ports. It can send jobs over the network to a LPD spooler on another host. It can run special filters to format jobs to be printed for various printer languages or printer capabilities. It can account for printer usage. Through a configuration file (/etc/printcap), and by providing the special filter programs, you can enable the LPD system to do all or some subset of the above for a great variety of printer hardware. Why You Should Use the Spooler If you are the sole user of your system, you may be wondering why you should bother with the spooler when you do not need access control, header pages, or printer accounting. While it is possible to enable direct access to a printer, you should use the spooler anyway since: LPD prints jobs in the background; you do not have to wait for data to be copied to the printer. TeX LPD can conveniently run a job to be printed through filters to add date/time headers or convert a special file format (such as a TeX DVI file) into a format the printer will understand. You will not have to do these steps manually. Many free and commercial programs that provide a print feature usually expect to talk to the spooler on your system. By setting up the spooling system, you will more easily support other software you may later add or already have. Basic Setup To use printers with the LPD spooling system, you will need to set up both your printer hardware and the LPD software. This document describes two levels of setup: See section Simple Printer Setup to learn how to connect a printer, tell LPD how to communicate with it, and print plain text files to the printer. See section Advanced Printer Setup to find out how to print a variety of special file formats, to print header pages, to print across a network, to control access to printers, and to do printer accounting. Simple Printer Setup This section tells how to configure printer hardware and the LPD software to use the printer. It teaches the basics: Section Hardware Setup gives some hints on connecting the printer to a port on your computer. Section Software Setup shows how to setup the LPD spooler configuration file (/etc/printcap). If you are setting up a printer that uses a network protocol to accept data to print instead of a serial or parallel interface, see Printers With Networked Data Stream Interfaces. Although this section is called Simple Printer Setup, it is actually fairly complex. Getting the printer to work with your computer and the LPD spooler is the hardest part. The advanced options like header pages and accounting are fairly easy once you get the printer working. Hardware Setup This section tells about the various ways you can connect a printer to your PC. It talks about the kinds of ports and cables, and also the kernel configuration you may need to enable FreeBSD to speak to the printer. If you have already connected your printer and have successfully printed with it under another operating system, you can probably skip to section Software Setup. Ports and Cables Nearly all printers you can get for a PC today support one or both of the following interfaces: printers serial Serial interfaces use a serial port on your computer to send data to the printer. Serial interfaces are common in the computer industry and cables are readily available and also easy to construct. Serial interfaces sometimes need special cables and might require you to configure somewhat complex communications options. printers parallel Parallel interfaces use a parallel port on your computer to send data to the printer. Parallel interfaces are common in the PC market. Cables are readily available but more difficult to construct by hand. There are usually no communications options with parallel interfaces, making their configuration exceedingly simple. centronics parallel printers Parallel interfaces are sometimes known as Centronics interfaces, named after the connector type on the printer. In general, serial interfaces are slower than parallel interfaces. Parallel interfaces usually offer just one-way communication (computer to printer) while serial gives you two-way. Many newer parallel ports and printers can communicate in both directions under FreeBSD when a IEEE1284 compliant cable is used. PostScript Usually, the only time you need two-way communication with the printer is if the printer speaks PostScript. PostScript printers can be very verbose. In fact, PostScript jobs are actually programs sent to the printer; they need not produce paper at all and may return results directly to the computer. PostScript also uses two-way communication to tell the computer about problems, such as errors in the PostScript program or paper jams. Your users may be appreciative of such information. Furthermore, the best way to do effective accounting with a PostScript printer requires two-way communication: you ask the printer for its page count (how many pages it has printed in its lifetime), then send the user's job, then ask again for its page count. Subtract the two values and you know how much paper to charge the user. Parallel Ports To hook up a printer using a parallel interface, connect the Centronics cable between the printer and the computer. The instructions that came with the printer, the computer, or both should give you complete guidance. Remember which parallel port you used on the computer. The first parallel port is /dev/ppc0 to FreeBSD; the second is /dev/ppc1, and so on. The printer device name uses the same scheme: /dev/lpt0 for the printer on the first parallel ports etc. Serial Ports To hook up a printer using a serial interface, connect the proper serial cable between the printer and the computer. The instructions that came with the printer, the computer, or both should give you complete guidance. If you are unsure what the proper serial cable is, you may wish to try one of the following alternatives: A modem cable connects each pin of the connector on one end of the cable straight through to its corresponding pin of the connector on the other end. This type of cable is also known as a DTE-to-DCE cable. null-modem cable A null-modem cable connects some pins straight through, swaps others (send data to receive data, for example), and shorts some internally in each connector hood. This type of cable is also known as a DTE-to-DTE cable. A serial printer cable, required for some unusual printers, is like the null-modem cable, but sends some signals to their counterparts instead of being internally shorted. baud rate parity flow control protocol You should also set up the communications parameters for the printer, usually through front-panel controls or DIP switches on the printer. Choose the highest bps (bits per second, sometimes baud rate) rate that both your computer and the printer can support. Choose 7 or 8 data bits; none, even, or odd parity; and 1 or 2 stop bits. Also choose a flow control protocol: either none, or XON/XOFF (also known as in-band or software) flow control. Remember these settings for the software configuration that follows. Software Setup This section describes the software setup necessary to print with the LPD spooling system in FreeBSD. Here is an outline of the steps involved: Configure your kernel, if necessary, for the port you are using for the printer; section Kernel Configuration tells you what you need to do. Set the communications mode for the parallel port, if you are using a parallel port; section Setting the Communication Mode for the Parallel Port gives details. Test if the operating system can send data to the printer. Section Checking Printer Communications gives some suggestions on how to do this. Set up LPD for the printer by modifying the file /etc/printcap. You will find out how to do this later in this chapter. Kernel Configuration The operating system kernel is compiled to work with a specific set of devices. The serial or parallel interface for your printer is a part of that set. Therefore, it might be necessary to add support for an additional serial or parallel port if your kernel is not already configured for one. To find out if the kernel you are currently using supports a serial interface, type: &prompt.root; grep sioN /var/run/dmesg.boot Where N is the number of the serial port, starting from zero. If you see output similar to the following: sio2 at port 0x3e8-0x3ef irq 5 on isa sio2: type 16550A then the kernel supports the port. To find out if the kernel supports a parallel interface, type: &prompt.root; grep ppcN /var/run/dmesg.boot Where N is the number of the parallel port, starting from zero. If you see output similar to the following: ppc0: <Parallel port> at port 0x378-0x37f irq 7 on isa0 ppc0: SMC-like chipset (ECP/EPP/PS2/NIBBLE) in COMPATIBLE mode ppc0: FIFO with 16/16/8 bytes threshold then the kernel supports the port. You might have to reconfigure your kernel in order for the operating system to recognize and use the parallel or serial port you are using for the printer. To add support for a serial port, see the section on kernel configuration. To add support for a parallel port, see that section and the section that follows. Adding <filename>/dev</filename> Entries for the Ports FreeBSD 5.0 includes the devfs filesystem which automatically creates device nodes as needed. If you are running a version of FreeBSD with devfs enabled then you can safely skip this section. Even though the kernel may support communication along a serial or parallel port, you will still need a software interface through which programs running on the system can send and receive data. That is what entries in the /dev directory are for. To add a /dev entry for a port: Become root with the &man.su.1; command. Enter the root password when prompted. Change to the /dev directory: &prompt.root; cd /dev Type: &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV port Where port is the device entry for the port you want to make. Use lpt0 for the printer on the first parallel port, lpt1 for the printer on the second port, and so on; use ttyd0 for the first serial port, ttyd1 for the second, and so on. Type: &prompt.root; ls -l port to make sure the device entry got created. Setting the Communication Mode for the Parallel Port When you are using the parallel interface, you can choose whether FreeBSD should use interrupt-driven or polled communication with the printer. The generic printer device driver (&man.lpt.4;) on FreeBSD 4.X and 5.X uses the &man.ppbus.4; system, which controls the port chipset with the &man.ppc.4; driver. The interrupt-driven method is the default with the GENERIC kernel. With this method, the operating system uses an IRQ line to determine when the printer is ready for data. The polled method directs the operating system to repeatedly ask the printer if it is ready for more data. When it responds ready, the kernel sends more data. The interrupt-driven method is usually somewhat faster but uses up a precious IRQ line. Some newer HP printers are claimed not to work correctly in interrupt mode, apparently due to some (not yet exactly understood) timing problem. These printers need polled mode. You should use whichever one works. Some printers will work in both modes, but are painfully slow in interrupt mode. You can set the communications mode in two ways: by configuring the kernel or by using the &man.lptcontrol.8; program. To set the communications mode by configuring the kernel: Edit your kernel configuration file. Look for an ppc0 entry. If you are setting up the second parallel port, use ppc1 instead. Use ppc2 for the third port, and so on. If you want interrupt-driven mode, for FreeBSD 4.X add the irq specifier: device ppc0 at isa? irq N Where N is the IRQ number for your computer's parallel port. For FreeBSD 5.X, edit the following line: hint.ppc.0.irq="N" in the /boot/device.hints file and replace N with the right IRQ number. The kernel configuration file must also contain the &man.ppc.4; driver: device ppc If you want polled mode, do not add the irq specifier: For FreeBSD 4.X, use the following line in your kernel configuration file: device ppc0 at isa? For FreeBSD 5.X, simply remove in your /boot/device.hints file, the following line: hint.ppc.0.irq="N" In some cases, this is not enough to put the port in polled mode under FreeBSD 5.X. Most of time it comes from &man.acpi.4; driver, this latter is able to probe and attach devices, and therefore, control the access mode to the printer port. You should check your &man.acpi.4; configuration to correct this problem. Save the file. Then configure, build, and install the kernel, then reboot. See kernel configuration for more details. To set the communications mode with &man.lptcontrol.8;: Type: &prompt.root; lptcontrol -i -d /dev/lptN to set interrupt-driven mode for lptN. Type: &prompt.root; lptcontrol -p -d /dev/lptN to set polled-mode for lptN. You could put these commands in your /etc/rc.local file to set the mode each time your system boots. See &man.lptcontrol.8; for more information. Checking Printer Communications Before proceeding to configure the spooling system, you should make sure the operating system can successfully send data to your printer. It is a lot easier to debug printer communication and the spooling system separately. To test the printer, we will send some text to it. For printers that can immediately print characters sent to them, the program &man.lptest.1; is perfect: it generates all 96 printable ASCII characters in 96 lines. PostScript For a PostScript (or other language-based) printer, we will need a more sophisticated test. A small PostScript program, such as the following, will suffice: %!PS 100 100 moveto 300 300 lineto stroke 310 310 moveto /Helvetica findfont 12 scalefont setfont (Is this thing working?) show showpage The above PostScript code can be placed into a file and used as shown in the examples appearing in the following sections. PCL When this document refers to a printer language, it is assuming a language like PostScript, and not Hewlett Packard's PCL. Although PCL has great functionality, you can intermingle plain text with its escape sequences. PostScript cannot directly print plain text, and that is the kind of printer language for which we must make special accommodations. Checking a Parallel Printer printers parallel This section tells you how to check if FreeBSD can communicate with a printer connected to a parallel port. To test a printer on a parallel port: Become root with &man.su.1;. Send data to the printer. If the printer can print plain text, then use &man.lptest.1;. Type: &prompt.root; lptest > /dev/lptN Where N is the number of the parallel port, starting from zero. If the printer understands PostScript or other printer language, then send a small program to the printer. Type: &prompt.root; cat > /dev/lptN Then, line by line, type the program carefully as you cannot edit a line once you have pressed RETURN or ENTER. When you have finished entering the program, press CONTROL+D, or whatever your end of file key is. Alternatively, you can put the program in a file and type: &prompt.root; cat file > /dev/lptN Where file is the name of the file containing the program you want to send to the printer. You should see something print. Do not worry if the text does not look right; we will fix such things later. Checking a Serial Printer printers serial This section tells you how to check if FreeBSD can communicate with a printer on a serial port. To test a printer on a serial port: Become root with &man.su.1;. Edit the file /etc/remote. Add the following entry: printer:dv=/dev/port:br#bps-rate:pa=parity bits-per-second serial port parity Where port is the device entry for the serial port (ttyd0, ttyd1, etc.), bps-rate is the bits-per-second rate at which the printer communicates, and parity is the parity required by the printer (either even, odd, none, or zero). Here is a sample entry for a printer connected via a serial line to the third serial port at 19200 bps with no parity: printer:dv=/dev/ttyd2:br#19200:pa=none Connect to the printer with &man.tip.1;. Type: &prompt.root; tip printer If this step does not work, edit the file /etc/remote again and try using /dev/cuaaN instead of /dev/ttydN. Send data to the printer. If the printer can print plain text, then use &man.lptest.1;. Type: &prompt.user; $lptest If the printer understands PostScript or other printer language, then send a small program to the printer. Type the program, line by line, very carefully as backspacing or other editing keys may be significant to the printer. You may also need to type a special end-of-file key for the printer so it knows it received the whole program. For PostScript printers, press CONTROL+D. Alternatively, you can put the program in a file and type: &prompt.user; >file Where file is the name of the file containing the program. After &man.tip.1; sends the file, press any required end-of-file key. You should see something print. Do not worry if the text does not look right; we will fix that later. - Enabling the Spooler: The <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> + <title>Enabling the Spooler: the <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> File At this point, your printer should be hooked up, your kernel configured to communicate with it (if necessary), and you have been able to send some simple data to the printer. Now, we are ready to configure LPD to control access to your printer. You configure LPD by editing the file /etc/printcap. The LPD spooling system reads this file each time the spooler is used, so updates to the file take immediate effect. printers capabilities The format of the &man.printcap.5; file is straightforward. Use your favorite text editor to make changes to /etc/printcap. The format is identical to other capability files like /usr/share/misc/termcap and /etc/remote. For complete information about the format, see the &man.cgetent.3;. The simple spooler configuration consists of the following steps: Pick a name (and a few convenient aliases) for the printer, and put them in the /etc/printcap file; see the Naming the Printer section for more information on naming. header pages Turn off header pages (which are on by default) by inserting the sh capability; see the Suppressing Header Pages section for more information. Make a spooling directory, and specify its location with the sd capability; see the Making the Spooling Directory section for more information. Set the /dev entry to use for the printer, and note it in /etc/printcap with the lp capability; see the Identifying the Printer Device for more information. Also, if the printer is on a serial port, set up the communication parameters with the ms# capability which is discussed in the Configuring Spooler Communications Parameters section. Install a plain text input filter; see the Installing the Text Filter section for details. Test the setup by printing something with the &man.lpr.1; command. More details are available in the Trying It Out and Troubleshooting sections. Language-based printers, such as PostScript printers, cannot directly print plain text. The simple setup outlined above and described in the following sections assumes that if you are installing such a printer you will print only files that the printer can understand. Users often expect that they can print plain text to any of the printers installed on your system. Programs that interface to LPD to do their printing usually make the same assumption. If you are installing such a printer and want to be able to print jobs in the printer language and print plain text jobs, you are strongly urged to add an additional step to the simple setup outlined above: install an automatic plain-text-to-PostScript (or other printer language) conversion program. The section entitled Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers tells how to do this. Naming the Printer The first (easy) step is to pick a name for your printer It really does not matter whether you choose functional or whimsical names since you can also provide a number of aliases for the printer. At least one of the printers specified in the /etc/printcap should have the alias lp. This is the default printer's name. If users do not have the PRINTER environment variable nor specify a printer name on the command line of any of the LPD commands, then lp will be the default printer they get to use. Also, it is common practice to make the last alias for a printer be a full description of the printer, including make and model. Once you have picked a name and some common aliases, put them in the /etc/printcap file. The name of the printer should start in the leftmost column. Separate each alias with a vertical bar and put a colon after the last alias. In the following example, we start with a skeletal /etc/printcap that defines two printers (a Diablo 630 line printer and a Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript laser printer): # # /etc/printcap for host rose # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4: In this example, the first printer is named rattan and has as aliases line, diablo, lp, and Diablo 630 Line Printer. Since it has the alias lp, it is also the default printer. The second is named bamboo, and has as aliases ps, PS, S, panasonic, and Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4. Suppressing Header Pages printing header pages The LPD spooling system will by default print a header page for each job. The header page contains the user name who requested the job, the host from which the job came, and the name of the job, in nice large letters. Unfortunately, all this extra text gets in the way of debugging the simple printer setup, so we will suppress header pages. To suppress header pages, add the sh capability to the entry for the printer in /etc/printcap. Here is an example /etc/printcap with sh added: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - no header pages anywhere # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh: Note how we used the correct format: the first line starts in the leftmost column, and subsequent lines are indented with a single TAB. Every line in an entry except the last ends in a backslash character. Making the Spooling Directory printer spool print jobs The next step in the simple spooler setup is to make a spooling directory, a directory where print jobs reside until they are printed, and where a number of other spooler support files live. Because of the variable nature of spooling directories, it is customary to put these directories under /var/spool. It is not necessary to backup the contents of spooling directories, either. Recreating them is as simple as running &man.mkdir.1;. It is also customary to make the directory with a name that is identical to the name of the printer, as shown below: &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/printer-name However, if you have a lot of printers on your network, you might want to put the spooling directories under a single directory that you reserve just for printing with LPD. We will do this for our two example printers rattan and bamboo: &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/lpd &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/lpd/rattan &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/lpd/bamboo If you are concerned about the privacy of jobs that users print, you might want to protect the spooling directory so it is not publicly accessible. Spooling directories should be owned and be readable, writable, and searchable by user daemon and group daemon, and no one else. We will do this for our example printers: &prompt.root; chown daemon:daemon /var/spool/lpd/rattan &prompt.root; chown daemon:daemon /var/spool/lpd/bamboo &prompt.root; chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/rattan &prompt.root; chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/bamboo Finally, you need to tell LPD about these directories using the /etc/printcap file. You specify the pathname of the spooling directory with the sd capability: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - added spooling directories # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo: Note that the name of the printer starts in the first column but all other entries describing the printer should be indented with a tab and each line escaped with a backslash. If you do not specify a spooling directory with sd, the spooling system will use /var/spool/lpd as a default. Identifying the Printer Device In the Adding /dev Entries for the Ports section, we identified which entry in the /dev directory FreeBSD will use to communicate with the printer. Now, we tell LPD that information. When the spooling system has a job to print, it will open the specified device on behalf of the filter program (which is responsible for passing data to the printer). List the /dev entry pathname in the /etc/printcap file using the lp capability. In our running example, let us assume that rattan is on the first parallel port, and bamboo is on a sixth serial port; here are the additions to /etc/printcap: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - identified what devices to use # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5: If you do not specify the lp capability for a printer in your /etc/printcap file, LPD uses /dev/lp as a default. /dev/lp currently does not exist in FreeBSD. If the printer you are installing is connected to a parallel port, skip to the section entitled, Installing the Text Filter. Otherwise, be sure to follow the instructions in the next section. Configuring Spooler Communication Parameters printers serial For printers on serial ports, LPD can set up the bps rate, parity, and other serial communication parameters on behalf of the filter program that sends data to the printer. This is advantageous since: It lets you try different communication parameters by simply editing the /etc/printcap file; you do not have to recompile the filter program. It enables the spooling system to use the same filter program for multiple printers which may have different serial communication settings. The following /etc/printcap capabilities control serial communication parameters of the device listed in the lp capability: br#bps-rate Sets the communications speed of the device to bps-rate, where bps-rate can be 50, 75, 110, 134, 150, 200, 300, 600, 1200, 1800, 2400, 4800, 9600, 19200, 38400, 57600, or 115200 bits-per-second. ms#stty-mode Sets the options for the terminal device after opening the device. &man.stty.1; explains the available options. When LPD opens the device specified by the lp capability, it sets the characteristics of the device to those specified with the ms# capability. Of particular interest will be the parenb, parodd, cs5, cs6, cs7, cs8, cstopb, crtscts, and ixon modes, which are explained in the &man.stty.1; manual page. Let us add to our example printer on the sixth serial port. We will set the bps rate to 38400. For the mode, we will set no parity with -parenb, 8-bit characters with cs8, no modem control with clocal and hardware flow control with crtscts: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:ms#-parenb cs8 clocal crtscts: Installing the Text Filter printing filters We are now ready to tell LPD what text filter to use to send jobs to the printer. A text filter, also known as an input filter, is a program that LPD runs when it has a job to print. When LPD runs the text filter for a printer, it sets the filter's standard input to the job to print, and its standard output to the printer device specified with the lp capability. The filter is expected to read the job from standard input, perform any necessary translation for the printer, and write the results to standard output, which will get printed. For more information on the text filter, see the Filters section. For our simple printer setup, the text filter can be a small shell script that just executes /bin/cat to send the job to the printer. FreeBSD comes with another filter called lpf that handles backspacing and underlining for printers that might not deal with such character streams well. And, of course, you can use any other filter program you want. The filter lpf is described in detail in section entitled lpf: a Text Filter. First, let us make the shell script /usr/local/libexec/if-simple be a simple text filter. Put the following text into that file with your favorite text editor: #!/bin/sh # # if-simple - Simple text input filter for lpd # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/if-simple # # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. /bin/cat && exit 0 exit 2 Make the file executable: &prompt.root; chmod 555 /usr/local/libexec/if-simple And then tell LPD to use it by specifying it with the if capability in /etc/printcap. We will add it to the two printers we have so far in the example /etc/printcap: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - added text filter # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:ms#-parenb cs8 clocal crtscts:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: Turn on <application>LPD</application> &man.lpd.8; is run from /etc/rc, controlled by the lpd_enable variable. This variable defaults to NO. If you have not done so already, add the line: lpd_enable="YES" to /etc/rc.conf, and then either restart your machine, or just run &man.lpd.8;. &prompt.root; lpd Trying It Out You have reached the end of the simple LPD setup. Unfortunately, congratulations are not quite yet in order, since we still have to test the setup and correct any problems. To test the setup, try printing something. To print with the LPD system, you use the command &man.lpr.1;, which submits a job for printing. You can combine &man.lpr.1; with the &man.lptest.1; program, introduced in section Checking Printer Communications to generate some test text. To test the simple LPD setup: Type: &prompt.root; lptest 20 5 | lpr -Pprinter-name Where printer-name is a the name of a printer (or an alias) specified in /etc/printcap. To test the default printer, type &man.lpr.1; without any argument. Again, if you are testing a printer that expects PostScript, send a PostScript program in that language instead of using &man.lptest.1;. You can do so by putting the program in a file and typing lpr file. For a PostScript printer, you should get the results of the program. If you are using &man.lptest.1;, then your results should look like the following: !"#$%&'()*+,-./01234 "#$%&'()*+,-./012345 #$%&'()*+,-./0123456 $%&'()*+,-./01234567 %&'()*+,-./012345678 To further test the printer, try downloading larger programs (for language-based printers) or running &man.lptest.1; with different arguments. For example, lptest 80 60 will produce 60 lines of 80 characters each. If the printer did not work, see the Troubleshooting section. Advanced Printer Setup This section describes filters for printing specially formatted files, header pages, printing across networks, and restricting and accounting for printer usage. Filters printing filters Although LPD handles network protocols, queuing, access control, and other aspects of printing, most of the real work happens in the filters. Filters are programs that communicate with the printer and handle its device dependencies and special requirements. In the simple printer setup, we installed a plain text filter—an extremely simple one that should work with most printers (section Installing the Text Filter). However, in order to take advantage of format conversion, printer accounting, specific printer quirks, and so on, you should understand how filters work. It will ultimately be the filter's responsibility to handle these aspects. And the bad news is that most of the time you have to provide filters yourself. The good news is that many are generally available; when they are not, they are usually easy to write. Also, FreeBSD comes with one, /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf, that works with many printers that can print plain text. (It handles backspacing and tabs in the file, and does accounting, but that is about all it does.) There are also several filters and filter components in the FreeBSD Ports Collection. Here is what you will find in this section: Section How Filters Work, tries to give an overview of a filter's role in the printing process. You should read this section to get an understanding of what is happening under the hood when LPD uses filters. This knowledge could help you anticipate and debug problems you might encounter as you install more and more filters on each of your printers. LPD expects every printer to be able to print plain text by default. This presents a problem for PostScript (or other language-based printers) which cannot directly print plain text. Section Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers tells you what you should do to overcome this problem. You should read this section if you have a PostScript printer. PostScript is a popular output format for many programs. Even some people (myself included) write PostScript code directly. But PostScript printers are expensive. Section Simulating PostScript on Non-PostScript Printers tells how you can further modify a printer's text filter to accept and print PostScript data on a non-PostScript printer. You should read this section if you do not have a PostScript printer. Section Conversion Filters tells about a way you can automate the conversion of specific file formats, such as graphic or typesetting data, into formats your printer can understand. After reading this section, you should be able to set up your printers such that users can type lpr -t to print troff data, or lpr -d to print TeX DVI data, or lpr -v to print raster image data, and so forth. I recommend reading this section. Section Output Filters tells all about a not often used feature of LPD: output filters. Unless you are printing header pages (see Header Pages), you can probably skip that section altogether. Section lpf: a Text Filter describes lpf, a fairly complete if simple text filter for line printers (and laser printers that act like line printers) that comes with FreeBSD. If you need a quick way to get printer accounting working for plain text, or if you have a printer which emits smoke when it sees backspace characters, you should definitely consider lpf. How Filters Work As mentioned before, a filter is an executable program started by LPD to handle the device-dependent part of communicating with the printer. When LPD wants to print a file in a job, it starts a filter program. It sets the filter's standard input to the file to print, its standard output to the printer, and its standard error to the error logging file (specified in the lf capability in /etc/printcap, or /dev/console by default). troff Which filter LPD starts and the filter's arguments depend on what is listed in the /etc/printcap file and what arguments the user specified for the job on the &man.lpr.1; command line. For example, if the user typed lpr -t, LPD would start the troff filter, listed in the tf capability for the destination printer. If the user wanted to print plain text, it would start the if filter (this is mostly true: see Output Filters for details). There are three kinds of filters you can specify in /etc/printcap: The text filter, confusingly called the input filter in LPD documentation, handles regular text printing. Think of it as the default filter. LPD expects every printer to be able to print plain text by default, and it is the text filter's job to make sure backspaces, tabs, or other special characters do not confuse the printer. If you are in an environment where you have to account for printer usage, the text filter must also account for pages printed, usually by counting the number of lines printed and comparing that to the number of lines per page the printer supports. The text filter is started with the following argument list: filter-name -c -wwidth -llength -iindent -n login -h host acct-file where appears if the job is submitted with lpr -l width is the value from the pw (page width) capability specified in /etc/printcap, default 132 length is the value from the pl (page length) capability, default 66 indent is the amount of the indentation from lpr -i, default 0 login is the account name of the user printing the file host is the host name from which the job was submitted acct-file is the name of the accounting file from the af capability. printing filters A conversion filter converts a specific file format into one the printer can render onto paper. For example, ditroff typesetting data cannot be directly printed, but you can install a conversion filter for ditroff files to convert the ditroff data into a form the printer can digest and print. Section Conversion Filters tells all about them. Conversion filters also need to do accounting, if you need printer accounting. Conversion filters are started with the following arguments: filter-name -xpixel-width -ypixel-height -n login -h host acct-file where pixel-width is the value from the px capability (default 0) and pixel-height is the value from the py capability (default 0). The output filter is used only if there is no text filter, or if header pages are enabled. In my experience, output filters are rarely used. Section Output Filters describe them. There are only two arguments to an output filter: filter-name -wwidth -llength which are identical to the text filters and arguments. Filters should also exit with the following exit status: exit 0 If the filter printed the file successfully. exit 1 If the filter failed to print the file but wants LPD to try to print the file again. LPD will restart a filter if it exits with this status. exit 2 If the filter failed to print the file and does not want LPD to try again. LPD will throw out the file. The text filter that comes with the FreeBSD release, /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf, takes advantage of the page width and length arguments to determine when to send a form feed and how to account for printer usage. It uses the login, host, and accounting file arguments to make the accounting entries. If you are shopping for filters, see if they are LPD-compatible. If they are, they must support the argument lists described above. If you plan on writing filters for general use, then have them support the same argument lists and exit codes. Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers print jobs If you are the only user of your computer and PostScript (or other language-based) printer, and you promise to never send plain text to your printer and to never use features of various programs that will want to send plain text to your printer, then you do not need to worry about this section at all. But, if you would like to send both PostScript and plain text jobs to the printer, then you are urged to augment your printer setup. To do so, we have the text filter detect if the arriving job is plain text or PostScript. All PostScript jobs must start with %! (for other printer languages, see your printer documentation). If those are the first two characters in the job, we have PostScript, and can pass the rest of the job directly. If those are not the first two characters in the file, then the filter will convert the text into PostScript and print the result. How do we do this? printers serial If you have got a serial printer, a great way to do it is to install lprps. lprps is a PostScript printer filter which performs two-way communication with the printer. It updates the printer's status file with verbose information from the printer, so users and administrators can see exactly what the state of the printer is (such as toner low or paper jam). But more importantly, it includes a program called psif which detects whether the incoming job is plain text and calls textps (another program that comes with lprps) to convert it to PostScript. It then uses lprps to send the job to the printer. lprps is part of the FreeBSD Ports Collection (see The Ports Collection). You can fetch, build and install it yourself, of course. After installing lprps, just specify the pathname to the psif program that is part of lprps. If you installed lprps from the ports collection, use the following in the serial PostScript printer's entry in /etc/printcap: :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif: You should also specify the rw capability; that tells LPD to open the printer in read-write mode. If you have a parallel PostScript printer (and therefore cannot use two-way communication with the printer, which lprps needs), you can use the following shell script as the text filter: #!/bin/sh # # psif - Print PostScript or plain text on a PostScript printer # Script version; NOT the version that comes with lprps # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psif # IFS="" read -r first_line first_two_chars=`expr "$first_line" : '\(..\)'` if [ "$first_two_chars" = "%!" ]; then # # PostScript job, print it. # echo "$first_line" && cat && printf "\004" && exit 0 exit 2 else # # Plain text, convert it, then print it. # ( echo "$first_line"; cat ) | /usr/local/bin/textps && printf "\004" && exit 0 exit 2 fi In the above script, textps is a program we installed separately to convert plain text to PostScript. You can use any text-to-PostScript program you wish. The FreeBSD Ports Collection (see The Ports Collection) includes a full featured text-to-PostScript program called a2ps that you might want to investigate. Simulating PostScript on Non-PostScript Printers PostScript emulating Ghostscript PostScript is the de facto standard for high quality typesetting and printing. PostScript is, however, an expensive standard. Thankfully, Aladdin Enterprises has a free PostScript work-alike called Ghostscript that runs with FreeBSD. Ghostscript can read most PostScript files and can render their pages onto a variety of devices, including many brands of non-PostScript printers. By installing Ghostscript and using a special text filter for your printer, you can make your non-PostScript printer act like a real PostScript printer. Ghostscript is in the FreeBSD Ports Collection, if you would like to install it from there. You can fetch, build, and install it quite easily yourself, as well. To simulate PostScript, we have the text filter detect if it is printing a PostScript file. If it is not, then the filter will pass the file directly to the printer; otherwise, it will use Ghostscript to first convert the file into a format the printer will understand. Here is an example: the following script is a text filter for Hewlett Packard DeskJet 500 printers. For other printers, substitute the argument to the gs (Ghostscript) command. (Type gs -h to get a list of devices the current installation of Ghostscript supports.) #!/bin/sh # # ifhp - Print Ghostscript-simulated PostScript on a DeskJet 500 # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/ifhp # # Treat LF as CR+LF: # printf "\033&k2G" || exit 2 # # Read first two characters of the file # IFS="" read -r first_line first_two_chars=`expr "$first_line" : '\(..\)'` if [ "$first_two_chars" = "%!" ]; then # # It is PostScript; use Ghostscript to scan-convert and print it. # # Note that PostScript files are actually interpreted programs, # and those programs are allowed to write to stdout, which will # mess up the printed output. So, we redirect stdout to stderr # and then make descriptor 3 go to stdout, and have Ghostscript # write its output there. Exercise for the clever reader: # capture the stderr output from Ghostscript and mail it back to # the user originating the print job. # exec 3>&1 1>&2 /usr/local/bin/gs -dSAFER -dNOPAUSE -q -sDEVICE=djet500 \ -sOutputFile=/dev/fd/3 - && exit 0 else # # Plain text or HP/PCL, so just print it directly; print a form feed # at the end to eject the last page. # echo "$first_line" && cat && printf "\033&l0H" && exit 0 fi exit 2 Finally, you need to notify LPD of the filter via the if capability: :if=/usr/local/libexec/ifhp: That is it. You can type lpr plain.text and lpr whatever.ps and both should print successfully. Conversion Filters After completing the simple setup described in Simple Printer Setup, the first thing you will probably want to do is install conversion filters for your favorite file formats (besides plain ASCII text). Why Install Conversion Filters? TeX printing dvi files Conversion filters make printing various kinds of files easy. As an example, suppose we do a lot of work with the TeX typesetting system, and we have a PostScript printer. Every time we generate a DVI file from TeX, we cannot print it directly until we convert the DVI file into PostScript. The command sequence goes like this: &prompt.user; dvips seaweed-analysis.dvi &prompt.user; lpr seaweed-analysis.ps By installing a conversion filter for DVI files, we can skip the hand conversion step each time by having LPD do it for us. Now, each time we get a DVI file, we are just one step away from printing it: &prompt.user; lpr -d seaweed-analysis.dvi We got LPD to do the DVI file conversion for us by specifying the option. Section Formatting and Conversion Options lists the conversion options. For each of the conversion options you want a printer to support, install a conversion filter and specify its pathname in /etc/printcap. A conversion filter is like the text filter for the simple printer setup (see section Installing the Text Filter) except that instead of printing plain text, the filter converts the file into a format the printer can understand. Which Conversions Filters Should I Install? You should install the conversion filters you expect to use. If you print a lot of DVI data, then a DVI conversion filter is in order. If you have got plenty of troff to print out, then you probably want a troff filter. The following table summarizes the filters that LPD works with, their capability entries for the /etc/printcap file, and how to invoke them with the lpr command: File type /etc/printcap capability lpr option cifplot cf DVI df plot gf ditroff nf FORTRAN text rf troff rf raster vf plain text if none, , or In our example, using lpr -d means the printer needs a df capability in its entry in /etc/printcap. FORTRAN Despite what others might contend, formats like FORTRAN text and plot are probably obsolete. At your site, you can give new meanings to these or any of the formatting options just by installing custom filters. For example, suppose you would like to directly print Printerleaf files (files from the Interleaf desktop publishing program), but will never print plot files. You could install a Printerleaf conversion filter under the gf capability and then educate your users that lpr -g mean print Printerleaf files. Installing Conversion Filters Since conversion filters are programs you install outside of the base FreeBSD installation, they should probably go under /usr/local. The directory /usr/local/libexec is a popular location, since they are specialized programs that only LPD will run; regular users should not ever need to run them. To enable a conversion filter, specify its pathname under the appropriate capability for the destination printer in /etc/printcap. In our example, we will add the DVI conversion filter to the entry for the printer named bamboo. Here is the example /etc/printcap file again, with the new df capability for the printer bamboo. # # /etc/printcap for host rose - added df filter for bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:ms#-parenb cs8 clocal crtscts:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: The DVI filter is a shell script named /usr/local/libexec/psdf. Here is that script: #!/bin/sh # # psdf - DVI to PostScript printer filter # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psdf # # Invoked by lpd when user runs lpr -d # exec /usr/local/bin/dvips -f | /usr/local/libexec/lprps "$@" This script runs dvips in filter mode (the argument) on standard input, which is the job to print. It then starts the PostScript printer filter lprps (see section Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers) with the arguments LPD passed to this script. lprps will use those arguments to account for the pages printed. More Conversion Filter Examples Since there is no fixed set of steps to install conversion filters, let me instead provide more examples. Use these as guidance to making your own filters. Use them directly, if appropriate. This example script is a raster (well, GIF file, actually) conversion filter for a Hewlett Packard LaserJet III-Si printer: #!/bin/sh # # hpvf - Convert GIF files into HP/PCL, then print # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpvf PATH=/usr/X11R6/bin:$PATH; export PATH giftopnm | ppmtopgm | pgmtopbm | pbmtolj -resolution 300 \ && exit 0 \ || exit 2 It works by converting the GIF file into a portable anymap, converting that into a portable graymap, converting that into a portable bitmap, and converting that into LaserJet/PCL-compatible data. Here is the /etc/printcap file with an entry for a printer using the above filter: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/hpvf: The following script is a conversion filter for troff data from the groff typesetting system for the PostScript printer named bamboo: #!/bin/sh # # pstf - Convert groff's troff data into PS, then print. # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/pstf # exec grops | /usr/local/libexec/lprps "$@" The above script makes use of lprps again to handle the communication with the printer. If the printer were on a parallel port, we would use this script instead: #!/bin/sh # # pstf - Convert groff's troff data into PS, then print. # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/pstf # exec grops That is it. Here is the entry we need to add to /etc/printcap to enable the filter: :tf=/usr/local/libexec/pstf: Here is an example that might make old hands at FORTRAN blush. It is a FORTRAN-text filter for any printer that can directly print plain text. We will install it for the printer teak: #!/bin/sh # # hprf - FORTRAN text filter for LaserJet 3si: # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hprf # printf "\033&k2G" && fpr && printf "\033&l0H" && exit 0 exit 2 And we will add this line to the /etc/printcap for the printer teak to enable this filter: :rf=/usr/local/libexec/hprf: Here is one final, somewhat complex example. We will add a DVI filter to the LaserJet printer teak introduced earlier. First, the easy part: updating /etc/printcap with the location of the DVI filter: :df=/usr/local/libexec/hpdf: Now, for the hard part: making the filter. For that, we need a DVI-to-LaserJet/PCL conversion program. The FreeBSD Ports Collection (see The Ports Collection) has one: dvi2xx is the name of the package. Installing this package gives us the program we need, dvilj2p, which converts DVI into LaserJet IIp, LaserJet III, and LaserJet 2000 compatible codes. dvilj2p makes the filter hpdf quite complex since dvilj2p cannot read from standard input. It wants to work with a filename. What is worse, the filename has to end in .dvi so using /dev/fd/0 for standard input is problematic. We can get around that problem by linking (symbolically) a temporary file name (one that ends in .dvi) to /dev/fd/0, thereby forcing dvilj2p to read from standard input. The only other fly in the ointment is the fact that we cannot use /tmp for the temporary link. Symbolic links are owned by user and group bin. The filter runs as user daemon. And the /tmp directory has the sticky bit set. The filter can create the link, but it will not be able clean up when done and remove it since the link will belong to a different user. Instead, the filter will make the symbolic link in the current working directory, which is the spooling directory (specified by the sd capability in /etc/printcap). This is a perfect place for filters to do their work, especially since there is (sometimes) more free disk space in the spooling directory than under /tmp. Here, finally, is the filter: #!/bin/sh # # hpdf - Print DVI data on HP/PCL printer # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpdf PATH=/usr/local/bin:$PATH; export PATH # # Define a function to clean up our temporary files. These exist # in the current directory, which will be the spooling directory # for the printer. # cleanup() { rm -f hpdf$$.dvi } # # Define a function to handle fatal errors: print the given message # and exit 2. Exiting with 2 tells LPD to do not try to reprint the # job. # fatal() { echo "$@" 1>&2 cleanup exit 2 } # # If user removes the job, LPD will send SIGINT, so trap SIGINT # (and a few other signals) to clean up after ourselves. # trap cleanup 1 2 15 # # Make sure we are not colliding with any existing files. # cleanup # # Link the DVI input file to standard input (the file to print). # ln -s /dev/fd/0 hpdf$$.dvi || fatal "Cannot symlink /dev/fd/0" # # Make LF = CR+LF # printf "\033&k2G" || fatal "Cannot initialize printer" # # Convert and print. Return value from dvilj2p does not seem to be # reliable, so we ignore it. # dvilj2p -M1 -q -e- dfhp$$.dvi # # Clean up and exit # cleanup exit 0 - Automated Conversion: An Alternative To Conversion + <title>Automated Conversion: an Alternative to Conversion Filters All these conversion filters accomplish a lot for your printing environment, but at the cost forcing the user to specify (on the &man.lpr.1; command line) which one to use. If your users are not particularly computer literate, having to specify a filter option will become annoying. What is worse, though, is that an incorrectly specified filter option may run a filter on the wrong type of file and cause your printer to spew out hundreds of sheets of paper. Rather than install conversion filters at all, you might want to try having the text filter (since it is the default filter) detect the type of file it has been asked to print and then automatically run the right conversion filter. Tools such as file can be of help here. Of course, it will be hard to determine the differences between some file types—and, of course, you can still provide conversion filters just for them. apsfilter printing filters apsfilter The FreeBSD Ports Collection has a text filter that performs automatic conversion called apsfilter. It can detect plain text, PostScript, and DVI files, run the proper conversions, and print. Output Filters The LPD spooling system supports one other type of filter that we have not yet explored: an output filter. An output filter is intended for printing plain text only, like the text filter, but with many simplifications. If you are using an output filter but no text filter, then: LPD starts an output filter once for the entire job instead of once for each file in the job. LPD does not make any provision to identify the start or the end of files within the job for the output filter. LPD does not pass the user's login or host to the filter, so it is not intended to do accounting. In fact, it gets only two arguments: filter-name -wwidth -llength Where width is from the pw capability and length is from the pl capability for the printer in question. Do not be seduced by an output filter's simplicity. If you would like each file in a job to start on a different page an output filter will not work. Use a text filter (also known as an input filter); see section Installing the Text Filter. Furthermore, an output filter is actually more complex in that it has to examine the byte stream being sent to it for special flag characters and must send signals to itself on behalf of LPD. However, an output filter is necessary if you want header pages and need to send escape sequences or other initialization strings to be able to print the header page. (But it is also futile if you want to charge header pages to the requesting user's account, since LPD does not give any user or host information to the output filter.) On a single printer, LPD allows both an output filter and text or other filters. In such cases, LPD will start the output filter to print the header page (see section Header Pages) only. LPD then expects the output filter to stop itself by sending two bytes to the filter: ASCII 031 followed by ASCII 001. When an output filter sees these two bytes (031, 001), it should stop by sending SIGSTOP to itself. When LPD's done running other filters, it will restart the output filter by sending SIGCONT to it. If there is an output filter but no text filter and LPD is working on a plain text job, LPD uses the output filter to do the job. As stated before, the output filter will print each file of the job in sequence with no intervening form feeds or other paper advancement, and this is probably not what you want. In almost all cases, you need a text filter. The program lpf, which we introduced earlier as a text filter, can also run as an output filter. If you need a quick-and-dirty output filter but do not want to write the byte detection and signal sending code, try lpf. You can also wrap lpf in a shell script to handle any initialization codes the printer might require. <command>lpf</command>: a Text Filter The program /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf that comes with FreeBSD binary distribution is a text filter (input filter) that can indent output (job submitted with lpr -i), allow literal characters to pass (job submitted with lpr -l), adjust the printing position for backspaces and tabs in the job, and account for pages printed. It can also act like an output filter. lpf is suitable for many printing environments. And although it has no capability to send initialization sequences to a printer, it is easy to write a shell script to do the needed initialization and then execute lpf. page accounting accounting printer In order for lpf to do page accounting correctly, it needs correct values filled in for the pw and pl capabilities in the /etc/printcap file. It uses these values to determine how much text can fit on a page and how many pages were in a user's job. For more information on printer accounting, see Accounting for Printer Usage. Header Pages If you have lots of users, all of them using various printers, then you probably want to consider header pages as a necessary evil. banner pages header pages header pages Header pages, also known as banner or burst pages identify to whom jobs belong after they are printed. They are usually printed in large, bold letters, perhaps with decorative borders, so that in a stack of printouts they stand out from the real documents that comprise users' jobs. They enable users to locate their jobs quickly. The obvious drawback to a header page is that it is yet one more sheet that has to be printed for every job, their ephemeral usefulness lasting not more than a few minutes, ultimately finding themselves in a recycling bin or rubbish heap. (Note that header pages go with each job, not each file in a job, so the paper waste might not be that bad.) The LPD system can provide header pages automatically for your printouts if your printer can directly print plain text. If you have a PostScript printer, you will need an external program to generate the header page; see Header Pages on PostScript Printers. Enabling Header Pages In the Simple Printer Setup section, we turned off header pages by specifying sh (meaning suppress header) in the /etc/printcap file. To enable header pages for a printer, just remove the sh capability. Sounds too easy, right? You are right. You might have to provide an output filter to send initialization strings to the printer. Here is an example output filter for Hewlett Packard PCL-compatible printers: #!/bin/sh # # hpof - Output filter for Hewlett Packard PCL-compatible printers # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpof printf "\033&k2G" || exit 2 exec /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf Specify the path to the output filter in the of capability. See the Output Filters section for more information. Here is an example /etc/printcap file for the printer teak that we introduced earlier; we enabled header pages and added the above output filter: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/hpvf:\ :of=/usr/local/libexec/hpof: Now, when users print jobs to teak, they get a header page with each job. If users want to spend time searching for their printouts, they can suppress header pages by submitting the job with lpr -h; see the Header Page Options section for more &man.lpr.1; options. LPD prints a form feed character after the header page. If your printer uses a different character or sequence of characters to eject a page, specify them with the ff capability in /etc/printcap. Controlling Header Pages By enabling header pages, LPD will produce a long header, a full page of large letters identifying the user, host, and job. Here is an example (kelly printed the job named outline from host rose): k ll ll k l l k l l k k eeee l l y y k k e e l l y y k k eeeeee l l y y kk k e l l y y k k e e l l y yy k k eeee lll lll yyy y y y y yyyy ll t l i t l oooo u u ttttt l ii n nnn eeee o o u u t l i nn n e e o o u u t l i n n eeeeee o o u u t l i n n e o o u uu t t l i n n e e oooo uuu u tt lll iii n n eeee r rrr oooo ssss eeee rr r o o s s e e r o o ss eeeeee r o o ss e r o o s s e e r oooo ssss eeee Job: outline Date: Sun Sep 17 11:04:58 1995 LPD appends a form feed after this text so the job starts on a new page (unless you have sf (suppress form feeds) in the destination printer's entry in /etc/printcap). If you prefer, LPD can make a short header; specify sb (short banner) in the /etc/printcap file. The header page will look like this: rose:kelly Job: outline Date: Sun Sep 17 11:07:51 1995 Also by default, LPD prints the header page first, then the job. To reverse that, specify hl (header last) in /etc/printcap. Accounting for Header Pages Using LPD's built-in header pages enforces a particular paradigm when it comes to printer accounting: header pages must be free of charge. Why? Because the output filter is the only external program that will have control when the header page is printed that could do accounting, and it is not provided with any user or host information or an accounting file, so it has no idea whom to charge for printer use. It is also not enough to just add one page to the text filter or any of the conversion filters (which do have user and host information) since users can suppress header pages with lpr -h. They could still be charged for header pages they did not print. Basically, lpr -h will be the preferred option of environmentally-minded users, but you cannot offer any incentive to use it. It is still not enough to have each of the filters generate their own header pages (thereby being able to charge for them). If users wanted the option of suppressing the header pages with lpr -h, they will still get them and be charged for them since LPD does not pass any knowledge of the option to any of the filters. So, what are your options? You can: Accept LPD's paradigm and make header pages free. Install an alternative to LPD, such as LPRng. Section Alternatives to the Standard Spooler tells more about other spooling software you can substitute for LPD. Write a smart output filter. Normally, an output filter is not meant to do anything more than initialize a printer or do some simple character conversion. It is suited for header pages and plain text jobs (when there is no text (input) filter). But, if there is a text filter for the plain text jobs, then LPD will start the output filter only for the header pages. And the output filter can parse the header page text that LPD generates to determine what user and host to charge for the header page. The only other problem with this method is that the output filter still does not know what accounting file to use (it is not passed the name of the file from the af capability), but if you have a well-known accounting file, you can hard-code that into the output filter. To facilitate the parsing step, use the sh (short header) capability in /etc/printcap. Then again, all that might be too much trouble, and users will certainly appreciate the more generous system administrator who makes header pages free. Header Pages on PostScript Printers As described above, LPD can generate a plain text header page suitable for many printers. Of course, PostScript cannot directly print plain text, so the header page feature of LPD is useless—or mostly so. One obvious way to get header pages is to have every conversion filter and the text filter generate the header page. The filters should use the user and host arguments to generate a suitable header page. The drawback of this method is that users will always get a header page, even if they submit jobs with lpr -h. Let us explore this method. The following script takes three arguments (user login name, host name, and job name) and makes a simple PostScript header page: #!/bin/sh # # make-ps-header - make a PostScript header page on stdout # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/make-ps-header # # # These are PostScript units (72 to the inch). Modify for A4 or # whatever size paper you are using: # page_width=612 page_height=792 border=72 # # Check arguments # if [ $# -ne 3 ]; then echo "Usage: `basename $0` <user> <host> <job>" 1>&2 exit 1 fi # # Save these, mostly for readability in the PostScript, below. # user=$1 host=$2 job=$3 date=`date` # # Send the PostScript code to stdout. # exec cat <<EOF %!PS % % Make sure we do not interfere with user's job that will follow % save % % Make a thick, unpleasant border around the edge of the paper. % $border $border moveto $page_width $border 2 mul sub 0 rlineto 0 $page_height $border 2 mul sub rlineto currentscreen 3 -1 roll pop 100 3 1 roll setscreen $border 2 mul $page_width sub 0 rlineto closepath 0.8 setgray 10 setlinewidth stroke 0 setgray % % Display user's login name, nice and large and prominent % /Helvetica-Bold findfont 64 scalefont setfont $page_width ($user) stringwidth pop sub 2 div $page_height 200 sub moveto ($user) show % % Now show the boring particulars % /Helvetica findfont 14 scalefont setfont /y 200 def [ (Job:) (Host:) (Date:) ] { 200 y moveto show /y y 18 sub def } forall /Helvetica-Bold findfont 14 scalefont setfont /y 200 def [ ($job) ($host) ($date) ] { 270 y moveto show /y y 18 sub def } forall % % That is it % restore showpage EOF Now, each of the conversion filters and the text filter can call this script to first generate the header page, and then print the user's job. Here is the DVI conversion filter from earlier in this document, modified to make a header page: #!/bin/sh # # psdf - DVI to PostScript printer filter # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psdf # # Invoked by lpd when user runs lpr -d # orig_args="$@" fail() { echo "$@" 1>&2 exit 2 } while getopts "x:y:n:h:" option; do case $option in x|y) ;; # Ignore n) login=$OPTARG ;; h) host=$OPTARG ;; *) echo "LPD started `basename $0` wrong." 1>&2 exit 2 ;; esac done [ "$login" ] || fail "No login name" [ "$host" ] || fail "No host name" ( /usr/local/libexec/make-ps-header $login $host "DVI File" /usr/local/bin/dvips -f ) | eval /usr/local/libexec/lprps $orig_args Notice how the filter has to parse the argument list in order to determine the user and host name. The parsing for the other conversion filters is identical. The text filter takes a slightly different set of arguments, though (see section How Filters Work). As we have mentioned before, the above scheme, though fairly simple, disables the suppress header page option (the option) to lpr. If users wanted to save a tree (or a few pennies, if you charge for header pages), they would not be able to do so, since every filter's going to print a header page with every job. To allow users to shut off header pages on a per-job basis, you will need to use the trick introduced in section Accounting for Header Pages: write an output filter that parses the LPD-generated header page and produces a PostScript version. If the user submits the job with lpr -h, then LPD will not generate a header page, and neither will your output filter. Otherwise, your output filter will read the text from LPD and send the appropriate header page PostScript code to the printer. If you have a PostScript printer on a serial line, you can make use of lprps, which comes with an output filter, psof, which does the above. Note that psof does not charge for header pages. Networked Printing printers network network printing FreeBSD supports networked printing: sending jobs to remote printers. Networked printing generally refers to two different things: Accessing a printer attached to a remote host. You install a printer that has a conventional serial or parallel interface on one host. Then, you set up LPD to enable access to the printer from other hosts on the network. Section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts tells how to do this. Accessing a printer attached directly to a network. The printer has a network interface in addition (or in place of) a more conventional serial or parallel interface. Such a printer might work as follows: It might understand the LPD protocol and can even queue jobs from remote hosts. In this case, it acts just like a regular host running LPD. Follow the same procedure in section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts to set up such a printer. It might support a data stream network connection. In this case, you attach the printer to one host on the network by making that host responsible for spooling jobs and sending them to the printer. Section Printers with Networked Data Stream Interfaces gives some suggestions on installing such printers. Printers Installed on Remote Hosts The LPD spooling system has built-in support for sending jobs to other hosts also running LPD (or are compatible with LPD). This feature enables you to install a printer on one host and make it accessible from other hosts. It also works with printers that have network interfaces that understand the LPD protocol. To enable this kind of remote printing, first install a printer on one host, the printer host, using the simple printer setup described in the Simple Printer Setup section. Do any advanced setup in Advanced Printer Setup that you need. Make sure to test the printer and see if it works with the features of LPD you have enabled. Also ensure that the local host has authorization to use the LPD service in the remote host (see Restricting Jobs from Remote Printers). printers network network printing If you are using a printer with a network interface that is compatible with LPD, then the printer host in the discussion below is the printer itself, and the printer name is the name you configured for the printer. See the documentation that accompanied your printer and/or printer-network interface. If you are using a Hewlett Packard Laserjet then the printer name text will automatically perform the LF to CRLF conversion for you, so you will not require the hpif script. Then, on the other hosts you want to have access to the printer, make an entry in their /etc/printcap files with the following: Name the entry anything you want. For simplicity, though, you probably want to use the same name and aliases as on the printer host. Leave the lp capability blank, explicitly (:lp=:). Make a spooling directory and specify its location in the sd capability. LPD will store jobs here before they get sent to the printer host. Place the name of the printer host in the rm capability. Place the printer name on the printer host in the rp capability. That is it. You do not need to list conversion filters, page dimensions, or anything else in the /etc/printcap file. Here is an example. The host rose has two printers, bamboo and rattan. We will enable users on the host orchid to print to those printers. Here is the /etc/printcap file for orchid (back from section Enabling Header Pages). It already had the entry for the printer teak; we have added entries for the two printers on the host rose: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid - added (remote) printers on rose # # # teak is local; it is connected directly to orchid: # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/ifhp:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/vfhp:\ :of=/usr/local/libexec/ofhp: # # rattan is connected to rose; send jobs for rattan to rose: # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=rattan:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: # # bamboo is connected to rose as well: # bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=bamboo:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo: Then, we just need to make spooling directories on orchid: &prompt.root; mkdir -p /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo &prompt.root; chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo &prompt.root; chown daemon:daemon /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo Now, users on orchid can print to rattan and bamboo. If, for example, a user on orchid typed &prompt.user; lpr -P bamboo -d sushi-review.dvi the LPD system on orchid would copy the job to the spooling directory /var/spool/lpd/bamboo and note that it was a DVI job. As soon as the host rose has room in its bamboo spooling directory, the two LPDs would transfer the file to rose. The file would wait in rose's queue until it was finally printed. It would be converted from DVI to PostScript (since bamboo is a PostScript printer) on rose. Printers with Networked Data Stream Interfaces Often, when you buy a network interface card for a printer, you can get two versions: one which emulates a spooler (the more expensive version), or one which just lets you send data to it as if you were using a serial or parallel port (the cheaper version). This section tells how to use the cheaper version. For the more expensive one, see the previous section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts. The format of the /etc/printcap file lets you specify what serial or parallel interface to use, and (if you are using a serial interface), what baud rate, whether to use flow control, delays for tabs, conversion of newlines, and more. But there is no way to specify a connection to a printer that is listening on a TCP/IP or other network port. To send data to a networked printer, you need to develop a communications program that can be called by the text and conversion filters. Here is one such example: the script netprint takes all data on standard input and sends it to a network-attached printer. We specify the hostname of the printer as the first argument and the port number to which to connect as the second argument to netprint. Note that this supports one-way communication only (FreeBSD to printer); many network printers support two-way communication, and you might want to take advantage of that (to get printer status, perform accounting, etc.). #!/usr/bin/perl # # netprint - Text filter for printer attached to network # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/netprint # $#ARGV eq 1 || die "Usage: $0 <printer-hostname> <port-number>"; $printer_host = $ARGV[0]; $printer_port = $ARGV[1]; require 'sys/socket.ph'; ($ignore, $ignore, $protocol) = getprotobyname('tcp'); ($ignore, $ignore, $ignore, $ignore, $address) = gethostbyname($printer_host); $sockaddr = pack('S n a4 x8', &AF_INET, $printer_port, $address); socket(PRINTER, &PF_INET, &SOCK_STREAM, $protocol) || die "Can't create TCP/IP stream socket: $!"; connect(PRINTER, $sockaddr) || die "Can't contact $printer_host: $!"; while (<STDIN>) { print PRINTER; } exit 0; We can then use this script in various filters. Suppose we had a Diablo 750-N line printer connected to the network. The printer accepts data to print on port number 5100. The host name of the printer is scrivener. Here is the text filter for the printer: #!/bin/sh # # diablo-if-net - Text filter for Diablo printer `scrivener' listening # on port 5100. Installed in /usr/local/libexec/diablo-if-net # exec /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf "$@" | /usr/local/libexec/netprint scrivener 5100 Restricting Printer Usage printers restricting access to This section gives information on restricting printer usage. The LPD system lets you control who can access a printer, both locally or remotely, whether they can print multiple copies, how large their jobs can be, and how large the printer queues can get. Restricting Multiple Copies The LPD system makes it easy for users to print multiple copies of a file. Users can print jobs with lpr -#5 (for example) and get five copies of each file in the job. Whether this is a good thing is up to you. If you feel multiple copies cause unnecessary wear and tear on your printers, you can disable the option to &man.lpr.1; by adding the sc capability to the /etc/printcap file. When users submit jobs with the option, they will see: lpr: multiple copies are not allowed Note that if you have set up access to a printer remotely (see section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts), you need the sc capability on the remote /etc/printcap files as well, or else users will still be able to submit multiple-copy jobs by using another host. Here is an example. This is the /etc/printcap file for the host rose. The printer rattan is quite hearty, so we will allow multiple copies, but the laser printer bamboo is a bit more delicate, so we will disable multiple copies by adding the sc capability: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - restrict multiple copies on bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:ms#-parenb cs8 clocal crtscts:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: Now, we also need to add the sc capability on the host orchid's /etc/printcap (and while we are at it, let us disable multiple copies for the printer teak): # # /etc/printcap for host orchid - no multiple copies for local # printer teak or remote printer bamboo teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:sc:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/ifhp:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/vfhp:\ :of=/usr/local/libexec/ofhp: rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=rattan:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=bamboo:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc: By using the sc capability, we prevent the use of lpr -#, but that still does not prevent users from running &man.lpr.1; multiple times, or from submitting the same file multiple times in one job like this: &prompt.user; lpr forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign There are many ways to prevent this abuse (including ignoring it) which you are free to explore. - Restricting Access To Printers + Restricting Access to Printers You can control who can print to what printers by using the Unix group mechanism and the rg capability in /etc/printcap. Just place the users you want to have access to a printer in a certain group, and then name that group in the rg capability. Users outside the group (including root) will be greeted with lpr: Not a member of the restricted group if they try to print to the controlled printer. As with the sc (suppress multiple copies) capability, you need to specify rg on remote hosts that also have access to your printers, if you feel it is appropriate (see section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts). For example, we will let anyone access the printer rattan, but only those in group artists can use bamboo. Here is the familiar /etc/printcap for host rose: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - restricted group for bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:ms#-parenb cs8 clocal crtscts:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: Let us leave the other example /etc/printcap file (for the host orchid) alone. Of course, anyone on orchid can print to bamboo. It might be the case that we only allow certain logins on orchid anyway, and want them to have access to the printer. Or not. There can be only one restricted group per printer. Controlling Sizes of Jobs Submitted print jobs If you have many users accessing the printers, you probably need to put an upper limit on the sizes of the files users can submit to print. After all, there is only so much free space on the filesystem that houses the spooling directories, and you also need to make sure there is room for the jobs of other users. print jobs controlling LPD enables you to limit the maximum byte size a file in a job can be with the mx capability. The units are in BUFSIZ blocks, which are 1024 bytes. If you put a zero for this capability, there will be no limit on file size; however, if no mx capability is specified, then a default limit of 1000 blocks will be used. The limit applies to files in a job, and not the total job size. LPD will not refuse a file that is larger than the limit you place on a printer. Instead, it will queue as much of the file up to the limit, which will then get printed. The rest will be discarded. Whether this is correct behavior is up for debate. Let us add limits to our example printers rattan and bamboo. Since those artists' PostScript files tend to be large, we will limit them to five megabytes. We will put no limit on the plain text line printer: # # /etc/printcap for host rose # # # No limit on job size: # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:mx#0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: # # Limit of five megabytes: # bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:mx#5000:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:ms#-parenb cs8 clocal crtscts:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: Again, the limits apply to the local users only. If you have set up access to your printers remotely, remote users will not get those limits. You will need to specify the mx capability in the remote /etc/printcap files as well. See section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts for more information on remote printing. There is another specialized way to limit job sizes from remote printers; see section Restricting Jobs from Remote Printers. Restricting Jobs from Remote Printers The LPD spooling system provides several ways to restrict print jobs submitted from remote hosts: Host restrictions You can control from which remote hosts a local LPD accepts requests with the files /etc/hosts.equiv and /etc/hosts.lpd. LPD checks to see if an incoming request is from a host listed in either one of these files. If not, LPD refuses the request. The format of these files is simple: one host name per line. Note that the file /etc/hosts.equiv is also used by the &man.ruserok.3; protocol, and affects programs like &man.rsh.1; and &man.rcp.1;, so be careful. For example, here is the /etc/hosts.lpd file on the host rose: orchid violet madrigal.fishbaum.de This means rose will accept requests from the hosts orchid, violet, and madrigal.fishbaum.de. If any other host tries to access rose's LPD, the job will be refused. Size restrictions You can control how much free space there needs to remain on the filesystem where a spooling directory resides. Make a file called minfree in the spooling directory for the local printer. Insert in that file a number representing how many disk blocks (512 bytes) of free space there has to be for a remote job to be accepted. This lets you insure that remote users will not fill your filesystem. You can also use it to give a certain priority to local users: they will be able to queue jobs long after the free disk space has fallen below the amount specified in the minfree file. For example, let us add a minfree file for the printer bamboo. We examine /etc/printcap to find the spooling directory for this printer; here is bamboo's entry: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:mx#5000:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:ms#-parenb cs8 clocal crtscts:rw:mx#5000:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: The spooling directory is given in the sd capability. We will make three megabytes (which is 6144 disk blocks) the amount of free disk space that must exist on the filesystem for LPD to accept remote jobs: &prompt.root; echo 6144 > /var/spool/lpd/bamboo/minfree User restrictions You can control which remote users can print to local printers by specifying the rs capability in /etc/printcap. When rs appears in the entry for a locally-attached printer, LPD will accept jobs from remote hosts if the user submitting the job also has an account of the same login name on the local host. Otherwise, LPD refuses the job. This capability is particularly useful in an environment where there are (for example) different departments sharing a network, and some users transcend departmental boundaries. By giving them accounts on your systems, they can use your printers from their own departmental systems. If you would rather allow them to use only your printers and not your computer resources, you can give them token accounts, with no home directory and a useless shell like /usr/bin/false. Accounting for Printer Usage accounting printer So, you need to charge for printouts. And why not? Paper and ink cost money. And then there are maintenance costs—printers are loaded with moving parts and tend to break down. You have examined your printers, usage patterns, and maintenance fees and have come up with a per-page (or per-foot, per-meter, or per-whatever) cost. Now, how do you actually start accounting for printouts? Well, the bad news is the LPD spooling system does not provide much help in this department. Accounting is highly dependent on the kind of printer in use, the formats being printed, and your requirements in charging for printer usage. To implement accounting, you have to modify a printer's text filter (to charge for plain text jobs) and the conversion filters (to charge for other file formats), to count pages or query the printer for pages printed. You cannot get away with using the simple output filter, since it cannot do accounting. See section Filters. Generally, there are two ways to do accounting: Periodic accounting is the more common way, possibly because it is easier. Whenever someone prints a job, the filter logs the user, host, and number of pages to an accounting file. Every month, semester, year, or whatever time period you prefer, you collect the accounting files for the various printers, tally up the pages printed by users, and charge for usage. Then you truncate all the logging files, starting with a clean slate for the next period. Timely accounting is less common, probably because it is more difficult. This method has the filters charge users for printouts as soon as they use the printers. Like disk quotas, the accounting is immediate. You can prevent users from printing when their account goes in the red, and might provide a way for users to check and adjust their print quotas. But this method requires some database code to track users and their quotas. The LPD spooling system supports both methods easily: since you have to provide the filters (well, most of the time), you also have to provide the accounting code. But there is a bright side: you have enormous flexibility in your accounting methods. For example, you choose whether to use periodic or timely accounting. You choose what information to log: user names, host names, job types, pages printed, square footage of paper used, how long the job took to print, and so forth. And you do so by modifying the filters to save this information. Quick and Dirty Printer Accounting FreeBSD comes with two programs that can get you set up with simple periodic accounting right away. They are the text filter lpf, described in section lpf: a Text Filter, and &man.pac.8;, a program to gather and total entries from printer accounting files. As mentioned in the section on filters (Filters), LPD starts the text and the conversion filters with the name of the accounting file to use on the filter command line. The filters can use this argument to know where to write an accounting file entry. The name of this file comes from the af capability in /etc/printcap, and if not specified as an absolute path, is relative to the spooling directory. LPD starts lpf with page width and length arguments (from the pw and pl capabilities). lpf uses these arguments to determine how much paper will be used. After sending the file to the printer, it then writes an accounting entry in the accounting file. The entries look like this: 2.00 rose:andy 3.00 rose:kelly 3.00 orchid:mary 5.00 orchid:mary 2.00 orchid:zhang You should use a separate accounting file for each printer, as lpf has no file locking logic built into it, and two lpfs might corrupt each other's entries if they were to write to the same file at the same time. An easy way to insure a separate accounting file for each printer is to use af=acct in /etc/printcap. Then, each accounting file will be in the spooling directory for a printer, in a file named acct. When you are ready to charge users for printouts, run the &man.pac.8; program. Just change to the spooling directory for the printer you want to collect on and type pac. You will get a dollar-centric summary like the following: Login pages/feet runs price orchid:kelly 5.00 1 $ 0.10 orchid:mary 31.00 3 $ 0.62 orchid:zhang 9.00 1 $ 0.18 rose:andy 2.00 1 $ 0.04 rose:kelly 177.00 104 $ 3.54 rose:mary 87.00 32 $ 1.74 rose:root 26.00 12 $ 0.52 total 337.00 154 $ 6.74 These are the arguments &man.pac.8; expects: Which printer to summarize. This option works only if there is an absolute path in the af capability in /etc/printcap. Sort the output by cost instead of alphabetically by user name. Ignore host name in the accounting files. With this option, user smith on host alpha is the same user smith on host gamma. Without, they are different users. Compute charges with price dollars per page or per foot instead of the price from the pc capability in /etc/printcap, or two cents (the default). You can specify price as a floating point number. Reverse the sort order. Make an accounting summary file and truncate the accounting file. name … Print accounting information for the given user names only. In the default summary that &man.pac.8; produces, you see the number of pages printed by each user from various hosts. If, at your site, host does not matter (because users can use any host), run pac -m, to produce the following summary: Login pages/feet runs price andy 2.00 1 $ 0.04 kelly 182.00 105 $ 3.64 mary 118.00 35 $ 2.36 root 26.00 12 $ 0.52 zhang 9.00 1 $ 0.18 total 337.00 154 $ 6.74 To compute the dollar amount due, &man.pac.8; uses the pc capability in the /etc/printcap file (default of 200, or 2 cents per page). Specify, in hundredths of cents, the price per page or per foot you want to charge for printouts in this capability. You can override this value when you run &man.pac.8; with the option. The units for the option are in dollars, though, not hundredths of cents. For example, &prompt.root; pac -p1.50 makes each page cost one dollar and fifty cents. You can really rake in the profits by using this option. Finally, running pac -s will save the summary information in a summary accounting file, which is named the same as the printer's accounting file, but with _sum appended to the name. It then truncates the accounting file. When you run &man.pac.8; again, it rereads the summary file to get starting totals, then adds information from the regular accounting file. How Can You Count Pages Printed? In order to perform even remotely accurate accounting, you need to be able to determine how much paper a job uses. This is the essential problem of printer accounting. For plain text jobs, the problem is not that hard to solve: you count how many lines are in a job and compare it to how many lines per page your printer supports. Do not forget to take into account backspaces in the file which overprint lines, or long logical lines that wrap onto one or more additional physical lines. The text filter lpf (introduced in lpf: a Text Filter) takes into account these things when it does accounting. If you are writing a text filter which needs to do accounting, you might want to examine lpf's source code. How do you handle other file formats, though? Well, for DVI-to-LaserJet or DVI-to-PostScript conversion, you can have your filter parse the diagnostic output of dvilj or dvips and look to see how many pages were converted. You might be able to do similar things with other file formats and conversion programs. But these methods suffer from the fact that the printer may not actually print all those pages. For example, it could jam, run out of toner, or explode—and the user would still get charged. So, what can you do? There is only one sure way to do accurate accounting. Get a printer that can tell you how much paper it uses, and attach it via a serial line or a network connection. Nearly all PostScript printers support this notion. Other makes and models do as well (networked Imagen laser printers, for example). Modify the filters for these printers to get the page usage after they print each job and have them log accounting information based on that value only. There is no line counting nor error-prone file examination required. Of course, you can always be generous and make all printouts free. Using Printers printers usage This section tells you how to use printers you have setup with FreeBSD. Here is an overview of the user-level commands: &man.lpr.1; Print jobs &man.lpq.1; Check printer queues &man.lprm.1; Remove jobs from a printer's queue There is also an administrative command, &man.lpc.8;, described in the section Administering the LPD Spooler, used to control printers and their queues. All three of the commands &man.lpr.1;, &man.lprm.1;, and &man.lpq.1; accept an option to specify on which printer/queue to operate, as listed in the /etc/printcap file. This enables you to submit, remove, and check on jobs for various printers. If you do not use the option, then these commands use the printer specified in the PRINTER environment variable. Finally, if you do not have a PRINTER environment variable, these commands default to the printer named lp. Hereafter, the terminology default printer means the printer named in the PRINTER environment variable, or the printer named lp when there is no PRINTER environment variable. Printing Jobs To print files, type: &prompt.user; lpr filename ... printing This prints each of the listed files to the default printer. If you list no files, &man.lpr.1; reads data to print from standard input. For example, this command prints some important system files: &prompt.user; lpr /etc/host.conf /etc/hosts.equiv To select a specific printer, type: &prompt.user; lpr -P printer-name filename ... This example prints a long listing of the current directory to the printer named rattan: &prompt.user; ls -l | lpr -P rattan Because no files were listed for the &man.lpr.1; command, lpr read the data to print from standard input, which was the output of the ls -l command. The &man.lpr.1; command can also accept a wide variety of options to control formatting, apply file conversions, generate multiple copies, and so forth. For more information, see the section Printing Options. Checking Jobs print jobs When you print with &man.lpr.1;, the data you wish to print is put together in a package called a print job, which is sent to the LPD spooling system. Each printer has a queue of jobs, and your job waits in that queue along with other jobs from yourself and from other users. The printer prints those jobs in a first-come, first-served order. To display the queue for the default printer, type &man.lpq.1;. For a specific printer, use the option. For example, the command &prompt.user; lpq -P bamboo shows the queue for the printer named bamboo. Here is an example of the output of the lpq command: bamboo is ready and printing Rank Owner Job Files Total Size active kelly 9 /etc/host.conf, /etc/hosts.equiv 88 bytes 2nd kelly 10 (standard input) 1635 bytes 3rd mary 11 ... 78519 bytes This shows three jobs in the queue for bamboo. The first job, submitted by user kelly, got assigned job number 9. Every job for a printer gets a unique job number. Most of the time you can ignore the job number, but you will need it if you want to cancel the job; see section Removing Jobs for details. Job number nine consists of two files; multiple files given on the &man.lpr.1; command line are treated as part of a single job. It is the currently active job (note the word active under the Rank column), which means the printer should be currently printing that job. The second job consists of data passed as the standard input to the &man.lpr.1; command. The third job came from user mary; it is a much larger job. The pathname of the file she is trying to print is too long to fit, so the &man.lpq.1; command just shows three dots. The very first line of the output from &man.lpq.1; is also useful: it tells what the printer is currently doing (or at least what LPD thinks the printer is doing). The &man.lpq.1; command also support a option to generate a detailed long listing. Here is an example of lpq -l: waiting for bamboo to become ready (offline ?) kelly: 1st [job 009rose] /etc/host.conf 73 bytes /etc/hosts.equiv 15 bytes kelly: 2nd [job 010rose] (standard input) 1635 bytes mary: 3rd [job 011rose] /home/orchid/mary/research/venus/alpha-regio/mapping 78519 bytes Removing Jobs If you change your mind about printing a job, you can remove the job from the queue with the &man.lprm.1; command. Often, you can even use &man.lprm.1; to remove an active job, but some or all of the job might still get printed. To remove a job from the default printer, first use &man.lpq.1; to find the job number. Then type: &prompt.user; lprm job-number To remove the job from a specific printer, add the option. The following command removes job number 10 from the queue for the printer bamboo: &prompt.user; lprm -P bamboo 10 The &man.lprm.1; command has a few shortcuts: lprm - Removes all jobs (for the default printer) belonging to you. lprm user Removes all jobs (for the default printer) belonging to user. The superuser can remove other users' jobs; you can remove only your own jobs. lprm With no job number, user name, or appearing on the command line, &man.lprm.1; removes the currently active job on the default printer, if it belongs to you. The superuser can remove any active job. Just use the option with the above shortcuts to operate on a specific printer instead of the default. For example, the following command removes all jobs for the current user in the queue for the printer named rattan: &prompt.user; lprm -P rattan - If you are working in a networked environment, &man.lprm.1; will let you remove jobs only from the host from which the jobs were submitted, even if the same printer is available from other hosts. The following command sequence demonstrates this: &prompt.user; lpr -P rattan myfile &prompt.user; rlogin orchid &prompt.user; lpq -P rattan Rank Owner Job Files Total Size active seeyan 12 ... 49123 bytes 2nd kelly 13 myfile 12 bytes &prompt.user; lprm -P rattan 13 rose: Permission denied &prompt.user; logout &prompt.user; lprm -P rattan 13 dfA013rose dequeued cfA013rose dequeued Beyond Plain Text: Printing Options The &man.lpr.1; command supports a number of options that control formatting text, converting graphic and other file formats, producing multiple copies, handling of the job, and more. This section describes the options. Formatting and Conversion Options The following &man.lpr.1; options control formatting of the files in the job. Use these options if the job does not contain plain text or if you want plain text formatted through the &man.pr.1; utility. TeX For example, the following command prints a DVI file (from the TeX typesetting system) named fish-report.dvi to the printer named bamboo: &prompt.user; lpr -P bamboo -d fish-report.dvi These options apply to every file in the job, so you cannot mix (say) DVI and ditroff files together in a job. Instead, submit the files as separate jobs, using a different conversion option for each job. All of these options except and require conversion filters installed for the destination printer. For example, the option requires the DVI conversion filter. Section Conversion Filters gives details. Print cifplot files. Print DVI files. Print FORTRAN text files. Print plot data. Indent the output by number columns; if you omit number, indent by 8 columns. This option works only with certain conversion filters. Do not put any space between the and the number. Print literal text data, including control characters. Print ditroff (device independent troff) data. -p Format plain text with &man.pr.1; before printing. See &man.pr.1; for more information. Use title on the &man.pr.1; header instead of the file name. This option has effect only when used with the option. Print troff data. Print raster data. Here is an example: this command prints a nicely formatted version of the &man.ls.1; manual page on the default printer: &prompt.user; zcat /usr/share/man/man1/ls.1.gz | troff -t -man | lpr -t The &man.zcat.1; command uncompresses the source of the &man.ls.1; manual page and passes it to the &man.troff.1; command, which formats that source and makes GNU troff output and passes it to &man.lpr.1;, which submits the job to the LPD spooler. Because we used the option to &man.lpr.1;, the spooler will convert the GNU troff output into a format the default printer can understand when it prints the job. Job Handling Options The following options to &man.lpr.1; tell LPD to handle the job specially: -# copies Produce a number of copies of each file in the job instead of just one copy. An administrator may disable this option to reduce printer wear-and-tear and encourage photocopier usage. See section Restricting Multiple Copies. This example prints three copies of parser.c followed by three copies of parser.h to the default printer: &prompt.user; lpr -#3 parser.c parser.h -m Send mail after completing the print job. With this option, the LPD system will send mail to your account when it finishes handling your job. In its message, it will tell you if the job completed successfully or if there was an error, and (often) what the error was. -s Do not copy the files to the spooling directory, but make symbolic links to them instead. If you are printing a large job, you probably want to use this option. It saves space in the spooling directory (your job might overflow the free space on the filesystem where the spooling directory resides). It saves time as well since LPD will not have to copy each and every byte of your job to the spooling directory. There is a drawback, though: since LPD will refer to the original files directly, you cannot modify or remove them until they have been printed. If you are printing to a remote printer, LPD will eventually have to copy files from the local host to the remote host, so the option will save space only on the local spooling directory, not the remote. It is still useful, though. -r Remove the files in the job after copying them to the spooling directory, or after printing them with the option. Be careful with this option! Header Page Options These options to &man.lpr.1; adjust the text that normally appears on a job's header page. If header pages are suppressed for the destination printer, these options have no effect. See section Header Pages for information about setting up header pages. -C text Replace the hostname on the header page with text. The hostname is normally the name of the host from which the job was submitted. -J text Replace the job name on the header page with text. The job name is normally the name of the first file of the job, or stdin if you are printing standard input. -h Do not print any header page. At some sites, this option may have no effect due to the way header pages are generated. See Header Pages for details. Administering Printers As an administrator for your printers, you have had to install, set up, and test them. Using the &man.lpc.8; command, you can interact with your printers in yet more ways. With &man.lpc.8;, you can Start and stop the printers Enable and disable their queues Rearrange the order of the jobs in each queue. First, a note about terminology: if a printer is stopped, it will not print anything in its queue. Users can still submit jobs, which will wait in the queue until the printer is started or the queue is cleared. If a queue is disabled, no user (except root) can submit jobs for the printer. An enabled queue allows jobs to be submitted. A printer can be started for a disabled queue, in which case it will continue to print jobs in the queue until the queue is empty. In general, you have to have root privileges to use the &man.lpc.8; command. Ordinary users can use the &man.lpc.8; command to get printer status and to restart a hung printer only. Here is a summary of the &man.lpc.8; commands. Most of the commands take a printer-name argument to tell on which printer to operate. You can use all for the printer-name to mean all printers listed in /etc/printcap. abort printer-name Cancel the current job and stop the printer. Users can still submit jobs if the queue is enabled. clean printer-name Remove old files from the printer's spooling directory. Occasionally, the files that make up a job are not properly removed by LPD, particularly if there have been errors during printing or a lot of administrative activity. This command finds files that do not belong in the spooling directory and removes them. disable printer-name Disable queuing of new jobs. If the printer is running, it will continue to print any jobs remaining in the queue. The superuser (root) can always submit jobs, even to a disabled queue. This command is useful while you are testing a new printer or filter installation: disable the queue and submit jobs as root. Other users will not be able to submit jobs until you complete your testing and re-enable the queue with the enable command. down printer-name message Take a printer down. Equivalent to disable followed by stop. The message appears as the printer's status whenever a user checks the printer's queue with &man.lpq.1; or status with lpc status. enable printer-name Enable the queue for a printer. Users can submit jobs but the printer will not print anything until it is started. help command-name Print help on the command command-name. With no command-name, print a summary of the commands available. restart printer-name Start the printer. Ordinary users can use this command if some extraordinary circumstance hangs LPD, but they cannot start a printer stopped with either the stop or down commands. The restart command is equivalent to abort followed by start. start printer-name Start the printer. The printer will print jobs in its queue. stop printer-name Stop the printer. The printer will finish the current job and will not print anything else in its queue. Even though the printer is stopped, users can still submit jobs to an enabled queue. topq printer-name job-or-username Rearrange the queue for printer-name by placing the jobs with the listed job numbers or the jobs belonging to username at the top of the queue. For this command, you cannot use all as the printer-name. up printer-name Bring a printer up; the opposite of the down command. Equivalent to start followed by enable. &man.lpc.8; accepts the above commands on the command line. If you do not enter any commands, &man.lpc.8; enters an interactive mode, where you can enter commands until you type exit, quit, or end-of-file. Alternatives to the Standard Spooler If you have been reading straight through this manual, by now you have learned just about everything there is to know about the LPD spooling system that comes with FreeBSD. You can probably appreciate many of its shortcomings, which naturally leads to the question: What other spooling systems are out there (and work with FreeBSD)? LPRng LPRng LPRng, which purportedly means LPR: the Next Generation is a complete rewrite of PLP. Patrick Powell and Justin Mason (the principal maintainer of PLP) collaborated to make LPRng. The main site for LPRng is . Troubleshooting After performing the simple test with &man.lptest.1;, you might have gotten one of the following results instead of the correct printout: It worked, after awhile; or, it did not eject a full sheet. The printer printed the above, but it sat for awhile and did nothing. In fact, you might have needed to press a PRINT REMAINING or FORM FEED button on the printer to get any results to appear. If this is the case, the printer was probably waiting to see if there was any more data for your job before it printed anything. To fix this problem, you can have the text filter send a FORM FEED character (or whatever is necessary) to the printer. This is usually sufficient to have the printer immediately print any text remaining in its internal buffer. It is also useful to make sure each print job ends on a full sheet, so the next job does not start somewhere on the middle of the last page of the previous job. The following replacement for the shell script /usr/local/libexec/if-simple prints a form feed after it sends the job to the printer: #!/bin/sh # # if-simple - Simple text input filter for lpd # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/if-simple # # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. # Writes a form feed character (\f) after printing job. /bin/cat && printf "\f" && exit 0 exit 2 It produced the staircase effect. You got the following on paper: !"#$%&'()*+,-./01234 "#$%&'()*+,-./012345 #$%&'()*+,-./0123456 MS-DOS OS/2 ASCII You have become another victim of the staircase effect, caused by conflicting interpretations of what characters should indicate a new line. Unix-style operating systems use a single character: ASCII code 10, the line feed (LF). MS-DOS, OS/2, and others uses a pair of characters, ASCII code 10 and ASCII code 13 (the carriage return or CR). Many printers use the MS-DOS convention for representing new-lines. When you print with FreeBSD, your text used just the line feed character. The printer, upon seeing a line feed character, advanced the paper one line, but maintained the same horizontal position on the page for the next character to print. That is what the carriage return is for: to move the location of the next character to print to the left edge of the paper. Here is what FreeBSD wants your printer to do: Printer received CR Printer prints CR Printer received LF Printer prints CR + LF Here are some ways to achieve this: Use the printer's configuration switches or control panel to alter its interpretation of these characters. Check your printer's manual to find out how to do this. If you boot your system into other operating systems besides FreeBSD, you may have to reconfigure the printer to use a an interpretation for CR and LF characters that those other operating systems use. You might prefer one of the other solutions, below. Have FreeBSD's serial line driver automatically convert LF to CR+LF. Of course, this works with printers on serial ports only. To enable this feature, use the ms# capability and set the onlcr mode in the /etc/printcap file for the printer. Send an escape code to the printer to have it temporarily treat LF characters differently. Consult your printer's manual for escape codes that your printer might support. When you find the proper escape code, modify the text filter to send the code first, then send the print job. PCL Here is an example text filter for printers that understand the Hewlett-Packard PCL escape codes. This filter makes the printer treat LF characters as a LF and CR; then it sends the job; then it sends a form feed to eject the last page of the job. It should work with nearly all Hewlett Packard printers. #!/bin/sh # # hpif - Simple text input filter for lpd for HP-PCL based printers # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpif # # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. # Tells printer to treat LF as CR+LF. Ejects the page when done. printf "\033&k2G" && cat && printf "\033&l0H" && exit 0 exit 2 Here is an example /etc/printcap from a host called orchid. It has a single printer attached to its first parallel port, a Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si named teak. It is using the above script as its text filter: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif: It overprinted each line. The printer never advanced a line. All of the lines of text were printed on top of each other on one line. This problem is the opposite of the staircase effect, described above, and is much rarer. Somewhere, the LF characters that FreeBSD uses to end a line are being treated as CR characters to return the print location to the left edge of the paper, but not also down a line. Use the printer's configuration switches or control panel to enforce the following interpretation of LF and CR characters: Printer receives Printer prints CR CR LF CR + LF The printer lost characters. While printing, the printer did not print a few characters in each line. The problem might have gotten worse as the printer ran, losing more and more characters. The problem is that the printer cannot keep up with the speed at which the computer sends data over a serial line (this problem should not occur with printers on parallel ports). There are two ways to overcome the problem: If the printer supports XON/XOFF flow control, have FreeBSD use it by specifying the ixon mode in the ms# capability. If the printer supports carrier flow control, specify the crtscts mode in the ms# capability. Make sure the cable connecting the printer to the computer is correctly wired for carrier flow control. It printed garbage. The printer printed what appeared to be random garbage, but not the desired text. This is usually another symptom of incorrect communications parameters with a serial printer. Double-check the bps rate in the br capability, and the parity setting in the ms# capability; make sure the printer is using the same settings as specified in the /etc/printcap file. Nothing happened. If nothing happened, the problem is probably within FreeBSD and not the hardware. Add the log file (lf) capability to the entry for the printer you are debugging in the /etc/printcap file. For example, here is the entry for rattan, with the lf capability: rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple:\ :lf=/var/log/rattan.log Then, try printing again. Check the log file (in our example, /var/log/rattan.log) to see any error messages that might appear. Based on the messages you see, try to correct the problem. If you do not specify a lf capability, LPD uses /dev/console as a default. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml index 0f925d9748..95c96d5d08 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml @@ -1,3958 +1,3958 @@ Matthew Dillon Much of this chapter has been taken from the security(7) manual page by Security security Synopsis This chapter will provide a basic introduction to system security concepts, some general good rules of thumb, and some advanced topics under FreeBSD. A lot of the topics covered here can be applied to system and Internet security in general as well. The Internet is no longer a friendly place in which everyone wants to be your kind neighbor. Securing your system is imperative to protect your data, intellectual property, time, and much more from the hands of hackers and the like. FreeBSD provides an array of utilities and mechanisms to ensure the integrity and security of your system and network. After reading this chapter, you will know: Basic system security concepts, in respect to FreeBSD. About the various crypt mechanisms available in FreeBSD, such as DES and MD5. How to setup one-time password authentication. How to setup Kerberos, another alternative authentication system. How to create firewalls using IPFW. How to configure IPsec. How to configure and use OpenSSH, FreeBSD's SSH implementation. How to configure and load access control extension modules using the TrustedBSD MAC Framework. What file system ACLs are and how to use them. Before reading this chapter, you should: Understand basic FreeBSD and Internet concepts. Introduction Security is a function that begins and ends with the system administrator. While all BSD Unix multi-user systems have some inherent security, the job of building and maintaining additional security mechanisms to keep those users honest is probably one of the single largest undertakings of the sysadmin. Machines are only as secure as you make them, and security concerns are ever competing with the human necessity for convenience. Unix systems, in general, are capable of running a huge number of simultaneous processes and many of these processes operate as servers – meaning that external entities can connect and talk to them. As yesterday's mini-computers and mainframes become today's desktops, and as computers become networked and internetworked, security becomes an even bigger issue. Security is best implemented through a layered onion approach. In a nutshell, what you want to do is to create as many layers of security as are convenient and then carefully monitor the system for intrusions. You do not want to overbuild your security or you will interfere with the detection side, and detection is one of the single most important aspects of any security mechanism. For example, it makes little sense to set the schg flags (see &man.chflags.1;) on every system binary because while this may temporarily protect the binaries, it prevents an attacker who has broken in from making an easily detectable change that may result in your security mechanisms not detecting the attacker at all. System security also pertains to dealing with various forms of attack, including attacks that attempt to crash, or otherwise make a system unusable, but do not attempt to compromise the root account (break root). Security concerns can be split up into several categories: Denial of service attacks. User account compromises. Root compromise through accessible servers. Root compromise via user accounts. Backdoor creation. DoS attacks Denial of Service (DoS) security DoS attacks Denial of Service (DoS) Denial of Service (DoS) A denial of service attack is an action that deprives the machine of needed resources. Typically, DoS attacks are brute-force mechanisms that attempt to crash or otherwise make a machine unusable by overwhelming its servers or network stack. Some DoS attacks try to take advantage of bugs in the networking stack to crash a machine with a single packet. The latter can only be fixed by applying a bug fix to the kernel. Attacks on servers can often be fixed by properly specifying options to limit the load the servers incur on the system under adverse conditions. Brute-force network attacks are harder to deal with. A spoofed-packet attack, for example, is nearly impossible to stop, short of cutting your system off from the Internet. It may not be able to take your machine down, but it can saturate your Internet connection. security account compromises A user account compromise is even more common than a DoS attack. Many sysadmins still run standard telnetd, rlogind, rshd, and ftpd servers on their machines. These servers, by default, do not operate over encrypted connections. The result is that if you have any moderate-sized user base, one or more of your users logging into your system from a remote location (which is the most common and convenient way to login to a system) will have his or her password sniffed. The attentive system admin will analyze his remote access logs looking for suspicious source addresses even for successful logins. One must always assume that once an attacker has access to a user account, the attacker can break root. However, the reality is that in a well secured and maintained system, access to a user account does not necessarily give the attacker access to root. The distinction is important because without access to root the attacker cannot generally hide his tracks and may, at best, be able to do nothing more than mess with the user's files, or crash the machine. User account compromises are very common because users tend not to take the precautions that sysadmins take. security backdoors System administrators must keep in mind that there are potentially many ways to break root on a machine. The attacker may know the root password, the attacker may find a bug in a root-run server and be able to break root over a network connection to that server, or the attacker may know of a bug in a suid-root program that allows the attacker to break root once he has broken into a user's account. If an attacker has found a way to break root on a machine, the attacker may not have a need to install a backdoor. Many of the root holes found and closed to date involve a considerable amount of work by the attacker to cleanup after himself, so most attackers install backdoors. A backdoor provides the attacker with a way to easily regain root access to the system, but it also gives the smart system administrator a convenient way to detect the intrusion. Making it impossible for an attacker to install a backdoor may actually be detrimental to your security, because it will not close off the hole the attacker found to break in the first place. Security remedies should always be implemented with a multi-layered onion peel approach and can be categorized as follows: Securing root and staff accounts. Securing root – root-run servers and suid/sgid binaries. Securing user accounts. Securing the password file. Securing the kernel core, raw devices, and filesystems. Quick detection of inappropriate changes made to the system. Paranoia. The next section of this chapter will cover the above bullet items in greater depth. Securing FreeBSD security securing FreeBSD Command vs. Protocol Throughout this document, we will use bold text to refer to a command or application. This is used for instances such as ssh, since it is a protocol as well as command. The sections that follow will cover the methods of securing your FreeBSD system that were mentioned in the last section of this chapter. Securing the <username>root</username> Account and Staff Accounts su First off, do not bother securing staff accounts if you have not secured the root account. Most systems have a password assigned to the root account. The first thing you do is assume that the password is always compromised. This does not mean that you should remove the password. The password is almost always necessary for console access to the machine. What it does mean is that you should not make it possible to use the password outside of the console or possibly even with the &man.su.1; command. For example, make sure that your pty's are specified as being insecure in the /etc/ttys file so that direct root logins via telnet or rlogin are disallowed. If using other login services such as sshd, make sure that direct root logins are disabled there as well. You can do this by editing your /etc/ssh/sshd_config file, and making sure that PermitRootLogin is set to NO. Consider every access method – services such as FTP often fall through the cracks. Direct root logins should only be allowed via the system console. wheel Of course, as a sysadmin you have to be able to get to root, so we open up a few holes. But we make sure these holes require additional password verification to operate. One way to make root accessible is to add appropriate staff accounts to the wheel group (in /etc/group). The staff members placed in the wheel group are allowed to su to root. You should never give staff members native wheel access by putting them in the wheel group in their password entry. Staff accounts should be placed in a staff group, and then added to the wheel group via the /etc/group file. Only those staff members who actually need to have root access should be placed in the wheel group. It is also possible, when using an authentication method such as Kerberos, to use Kerberos' .k5login file in the root account to allow a &man.ksu.1; to root without having to place anyone at all in the wheel group. This may be the better solution since the wheel mechanism still allows an intruder to break root if the intruder has gotten hold of your password file and can break into a staff account. While having the wheel mechanism is better than having nothing at all, it is not necessarily the safest option. An indirect way to secure staff accounts, and ultimately root access is to use an alternative login access method and do what is known as starring out the encrypted password for the staff accounts. Using the &man.vipw.8; command, one can replace each instance of an encrypted password with a single * character. This command will update the /etc/master.passwd file and user/password database to disable password-authenticated logins. A staff account entry such as: foobar:R9DT/Fa1/LV9U:1000:1000::0:0:Foo Bar:/home/foobar:/usr/local/bin/tcsh Should be changed to this: foobar:*:1000:1000::0:0:Foo Bar:/home/foobar:/usr/local/bin/tcsh This change will prevent normal logins from occurring, since the encrypted password will never match *. With this done, staff members must use another mechanism to authenticate themselves such as &man.kerberos.1; or &man.ssh.1; using a public/private key pair. When using something like Kerberos, one generally must secure the machines which run the Kerberos servers and your desktop workstation. When using a public/private key pair with ssh, one must generally secure the machine used to login from (typically one's workstation). An additional layer of protection can be added to the key pair by password protecting the key pair when creating it with &man.ssh-keygen.1;. Being able to star out the passwords for staff accounts also guarantees that staff members can only login through secure access methods that you have setup. This forces all staff members to use secure, encrypted connections for all of their sessions, which closes an important hole used by many intruders: sniffing the network from an unrelated, less secure machine. The more indirect security mechanisms also assume that you are logging in from a more restrictive server to a less restrictive server. For example, if your main box is running all sorts of servers, your workstation should not be running any. In order for your workstation to be reasonably secure you should run as few servers as possible, up to and including no servers at all, and you should run a password-protected screen blanker. Of course, given physical access to a workstation an attacker can break any sort of security you put on it. This is definitely a problem that you should consider, but you should also consider the fact that the vast majority of break-ins occur remotely, over a network, from people who do not have physical access to your workstation or servers. Kerberos Using something like Kerberos also gives you the ability to disable or change the password for a staff account in one place, and have it immediately effect all the machines on which the staff member may have an account. If a staff member's account gets compromised, the ability to instantly change his password on all machines should not be underrated. With discrete passwords, changing a password on N machines can be a mess. You can also impose re-passwording restrictions with Kerberos: not only can a Kerberos ticket be made to timeout after a while, but the Kerberos system can require that the user choose a new password after a certain period of time (say, once a month). Securing Root-run Servers and SUID/SGID Binaries ntalk comsat finger sandboxes sshd telnetd rshd rlogind The prudent sysadmin only runs the servers he needs to, no more, no less. Be aware that third party servers are often the most bug-prone. For example, running an old version of imapd or popper is like giving a universal root ticket out to the entire world. Never run a server that you have not checked out carefully. Many servers do not need to be run as root. For example, the ntalk, comsat, and finger daemons can be run in special user sandboxes. A sandbox is not perfect, unless you go through a large amount of trouble, but the onion approach to security still stands: If someone is able to break in through a server running in a sandbox, they still have to break out of the sandbox. The more layers the attacker must break through, the lower the likelihood of his success. Root holes have historically been found in virtually every server ever run as root, including basic system servers. If you are running a machine through which people only login via sshd and never login via telnetd or rshd or rlogind, then turn off those services! FreeBSD now defaults to running ntalkd, comsat, and finger in a sandbox. Another program which may be a candidate for running in a sandbox is &man.named.8;. /etc/defaults/rc.conf includes the arguments necessary to run named in a sandbox in a commented-out form. Depending on whether you are installing a new system or upgrading an existing system, the special user accounts used by these sandboxes may not be installed. The prudent sysadmin would research and implement sandboxes for servers whenever possible. sendmail There are a number of other servers that typically do not run in sandboxes: sendmail, popper, imapd, ftpd, and others. There are alternatives to some of these, but installing them may require more work than you are willing to perform (the convenience factor strikes again). You may have to run these servers as root and rely on other mechanisms to detect break-ins that might occur through them. The other big potential root holes in a system are the suid-root and sgid binaries installed on the system. Most of these binaries, such as rlogin, reside in /bin, /sbin, /usr/bin, or /usr/sbin. While nothing is 100% safe, the system-default suid and sgid binaries can be considered reasonably safe. Still, root holes are occasionally found in these binaries. A root hole was found in Xlib in 1998 that made xterm (which is typically suid) vulnerable. It is better to be safe than sorry and the prudent sysadmin will restrict suid binaries, that only staff should run, to a special group that only staff can access, and get rid of (chmod 000) any suid binaries that nobody uses. A server with no display generally does not need an xterm binary. Sgid binaries can be almost as dangerous. If an intruder can break an sgid-kmem binary, the intruder might be able to read /dev/kmem and thus read the encrypted password file, potentially compromising any passworded account. Alternatively an intruder who breaks group kmem can monitor keystrokes sent through pty's, including pty's used by users who login through secure methods. An intruder that breaks the tty group can write to almost any user's tty. If a user is running a terminal program or emulator with a keyboard-simulation feature, the intruder can potentially generate a data stream that causes the user's terminal to echo a command, which is then run as that user. Securing User Accounts User accounts are usually the most difficult to secure. While you can impose Draconian access restrictions on your staff and star out their passwords, you may not be able to do so with any general user accounts you might have. If you do have sufficient control, then you may win out and be able to secure the user accounts properly. If not, you simply have to be more vigilant in your monitoring of those accounts. Use of ssh and Kerberos for user accounts is more problematic, due to the extra administration and technical support required, but still a very good solution compared to a crypted password file. Securing the Password File The only sure fire way is to * out as many passwords as you can and use ssh or Kerberos for access to those accounts. Even though the encrypted password file (/etc/spwd.db) can only be read by root, it may be possible for an intruder to obtain read access to that file even if the attacker cannot obtain root-write access. Your security scripts should always check for and report changes to the password file (see the Checking file integrity section below). Securing the Kernel Core, Raw Devices, and Filesystems If an attacker breaks root he can do just about anything, but there are certain conveniences. For example, most modern kernels have a packet sniffing device driver built in. Under FreeBSD it is called the bpf device. An intruder will commonly attempt to run a packet sniffer on a compromised machine. You do not need to give the intruder the capability and most systems do not have the need for the bpf device compiled in. sysctl But even if you turn off the bpf device, you still have /dev/mem and /dev/kmem to worry about. For that matter, the intruder can still write to raw disk devices. Also, there is another kernel feature called the module loader, &man.kldload.8;. An enterprising intruder can use a KLD module to install his own bpf device, or other sniffing device, on a running kernel. To avoid these problems you have to run the kernel at a higher secure level, at least securelevel 1. The securelevel can be set with a sysctl on the kern.securelevel variable. Once you have set the securelevel to 1, write access to raw devices will be denied and special chflags flags, such as schg, will be enforced. You must also ensure that the schg flag is set on critical startup binaries, directories, and script files – everything that gets run up to the point where the securelevel is set. This might be overdoing it, and upgrading the system is much more difficult when you operate at a higher secure level. You may compromise and run the system at a higher secure level but not set the schg flag for every system file and directory under the sun. Another possibility is to simply mount / and /usr read-only. It should be noted that being too Draconian in what you attempt to protect may prevent the all-important detection of an intrusion. Checking File Integrity: Binaries, Configuration Files, Etc. When it comes right down to it, you can only protect your core system configuration and control files so much before the convenience factor rears its ugly head. For example, using chflags to set the schg bit on most of the files in / and /usr is probably counterproductive, because while it may protect the files, it also closes a detection window. The last layer of your security onion is perhaps the most important – detection. The rest of your security is pretty much useless (or, worse, presents you with a false sense of safety) if you cannot detect potential incursions. Half the job of the onion is to slow down the attacker, rather than stop him, in order to give the detection side of the equation a chance to catch him in the act. The best way to detect an incursion is to look for modified, missing, or unexpected files. The best way to look for modified files is from another (often centralized) limited-access system. Writing your security scripts on the extra-secure limited-access system makes them mostly invisible to potential attackers, and this is important. In order to take maximum advantage you generally have to give the limited-access box significant access to the other machines in the business, usually either by doing a read-only NFS export of the other machines to the limited-access box, or by setting up ssh key-pairs to allow the limited-access box to ssh to the other machines. Except for its network traffic, NFS is the least visible method – allowing you to monitor the filesystems on each client box virtually undetected. If your limited-access server is connected to the client boxes through a switch, the NFS method is often the better choice. If your limited-access server is connected to the client boxes through a hub, or through several layers of routing, the NFS method may be too insecure (network-wise) and using ssh may be the better choice even with the audit-trail tracks that ssh lays. Once you give a limited-access box, at least read access to the client systems it is supposed to monitor, you must write scripts to do the actual monitoring. Given an NFS mount, you can write scripts out of simple system utilities such as &man.find.1; and &man.md5.1;. It is best to physically md5 the client-box files at least once a day, and to test control files such as those found in /etc and /usr/local/etc even more often. When mismatches are found, relative to the base md5 information the limited-access machine knows is valid, it should scream at a sysadmin to go check it out. A good security script will also check for inappropriate suid binaries and for new or deleted files on system partitions such as / and /usr. When using ssh rather than NFS, writing the security script is much more difficult. You essentially have to scp the scripts to the client box in order to run them, making them visible, and for safety you also need to scp the binaries (such as find) that those scripts use. The ssh client on the client box may already be compromised. All in all, using ssh may be necessary when running over insecure links, but it is also a lot harder to deal with. A good security script will also check for changes to user and staff members access configuration files: .rhosts, .shosts, .ssh/authorized_keys and so forth… files that might fall outside the purview of the MD5 check. If you have a huge amount of user disk space, it may take too long to run through every file on those partitions. In this case, setting mount flags to disallow suid binaries and devices on those partitions is a good idea. The nodev and nosuid options (see &man.mount.8;) are what you want to look into. You should probably scan them anyway, at least once a week, since the object of this layer is to detect a break-in whether or not the break-in is effective. Process accounting (see &man.accton.8;) is a relatively low-overhead feature of the operating system which might help as a post-break-in evaluation mechanism. It is especially useful in tracking down how an intruder has actually broken into a system, assuming the file is still intact after the break-in occurs. Finally, security scripts should process the log files, and the logs themselves should be generated in as secure a manner as possible – remote syslog can be very useful. An intruder tries to cover his tracks, and log files are critical to the sysadmin trying to track down the time and method of the initial break-in. One way to keep a permanent record of the log files is to run the system console to a serial port and collect the information on a continuing basis through a secure machine monitoring the consoles. Paranoia A little paranoia never hurts. As a rule, a sysadmin can add any number of security features, as long as they do not effect convenience, and can add security features that do effect convenience with some added thought. Even more importantly, a security administrator should mix it up a bit – if you use recommendations such as those given by this document verbatim, you give away your methodologies to the prospective attacker who also has access to this document. Denial of Service Attacks Denial of Service (DoS) This section covers Denial of Service attacks. A DoS attack is typically a packet attack. While there is not much you can do about modern spoofed packet attacks that saturate your network, you can generally limit the damage by ensuring that the attacks cannot take down your servers. Limiting server forks. Limiting springboard attacks (ICMP response attacks, ping broadcast, etc.). Kernel Route Cache. A common DoS attack is against a forking server that attempts to cause the server to eat processes, file descriptors, and memory, until the machine dies. inetd (see &man.inetd.8;) has several options to limit this sort of attack. It should be noted that while it is possible to prevent a machine from going down, it is not generally possible to prevent a service from being disrupted by the attack. Read the inetd manual page carefully and pay specific attention to the , , and options. Note that spoofed-IP attacks will circumvent the option to inetd, so typically a combination of options must be used. Some standalone servers have self-fork-limitation parameters. Sendmail has its option, which tends to work much better than trying to use sendmail's load limiting options due to the load lag. You should specify a MaxDaemonChildren parameter, when you start sendmail, high enough to handle your expected load, but not so high that the computer cannot handle that number of sendmails without falling on its face. It is also prudent to run sendmail in queued mode () and to run the daemon (sendmail -bd) separate from the queue-runs (sendmail -q15m). If you still want real-time delivery you can run the queue at a much lower interval, such as , but be sure to specify a reasonable MaxDaemonChildren option for that sendmail to prevent cascade failures. Syslogd can be attacked directly and it is strongly recommended that you use the option whenever possible, and the option otherwise. You should also be fairly careful with connect-back services such as tcpwrapper's reverse-identd, which can be attacked directly. You generally do not want to use the reverse-ident feature of tcpwrappers for this reason. It is a very good idea to protect internal services from external access by firewalling them off at your border routers. The idea here is to prevent saturation attacks from outside your LAN, not so much to protect internal services from network-based root compromise. Always configure an exclusive firewall, i.e., firewall everything except ports A, B, C, D, and M-Z. This way you can firewall off all of your low ports except for certain specific services such as named (if you are primary for a zone), ntalkd, sendmail, and other Internet-accessible services. If you try to configure the firewall the other way – as an inclusive or permissive firewall, there is a good chance that you will forget to close a couple of services, or that you will add a new internal service and forget to update the firewall. You can still open up the high-numbered port range on the firewall, to allow permissive-like operation, without compromising your low ports. Also take note that FreeBSD allows you to control the range of port numbers used for dynamic binding, via the various net.inet.ip.portrange sysctl's (sysctl -a | fgrep portrange), which can also ease the complexity of your firewall's configuration. For example, you might use a normal first/last range of 4000 to 5000, and a hiport range of 49152 to 65535, then block off everything under 4000 in your firewall (except for certain specific Internet-accessible ports, of course). ICMP_BANDLIM Another common DoS attack is called a springboard attack – to attack a server in a manner that causes the server to generate responses which overloads the server, the local network, or some other machine. The most common attack of this nature is the ICMP ping broadcast attack. The attacker spoofs ping packets sent to your LAN's broadcast address with the source IP address set to the actual machine they wish to attack. If your border routers are not configured to stomp on ping's to broadcast addresses, your LAN winds up generating sufficient responses to the spoofed source address to saturate the victim, especially when the attacker uses the same trick on several dozen broadcast addresses over several dozen different networks at once. Broadcast attacks of over a hundred and twenty megabits have been measured. A second common springboard attack is against the ICMP error reporting system. By constructing packets that generate ICMP error responses, an attacker can saturate a server's incoming network and cause the server to saturate its outgoing network with ICMP responses. This type of attack can also crash the server by running it out of mbuf's, especially if the server cannot drain the ICMP responses it generates fast enough. The FreeBSD kernel has a new kernel compile option called which limits the effectiveness of these sorts of attacks. The last major class of springboard attacks is related to certain internal inetd services such as the udp echo service. An attacker simply spoofs a UDP packet with the source address being server A's echo port, and the destination address being server B's echo port, where server A and B are both on your LAN. The two servers then bounce this one packet back and forth between each other. The attacker can overload both servers and their LANs simply by injecting a few packets in this manner. Similar problems exist with the internal chargen port. A competent sysadmin will turn off all of these inetd-internal test services. Spoofed packet attacks may also be used to overload the kernel route cache. Refer to the net.inet.ip.rtexpire, rtminexpire, and rtmaxcache sysctl parameters. A spoofed packet attack that uses a random source IP will cause the kernel to generate a temporary cached route in the route table, viewable with netstat -rna | fgrep W3. These routes typically timeout in 1600 seconds or so. If the kernel detects that the cached route table has gotten too big it will dynamically reduce the rtexpire but will never decrease it to less than rtminexpire. There are two problems: The kernel does not react quickly enough when a lightly loaded server is suddenly attacked. The rtminexpire is not low enough for the kernel to survive a sustained attack. If your servers are connected to the Internet via a T3 or better, it may be prudent to manually override both rtexpire and rtminexpire via &man.sysctl.8;. Never set either parameter to zero (unless you want to crash the machine). Setting both parameters to 2 seconds should be sufficient to protect the route table from attack. Access Issues with Kerberos and SSH ssh Kerberos There are a few issues with both Kerberos and ssh that need to be addressed if you intend to use them. Kerberos V is an excellent authentication protocol, but there are bugs in the kerberized telnet and rlogin applications that make them unsuitable for dealing with binary streams. Also, by default Kerberos does not encrypt a session unless you use the option. ssh encrypts everything by default. ssh works quite well in every respect except that it forwards encryption keys by default. What this means is that if you have a secure workstation holding keys that give you access to the rest of the system, and you ssh to an insecure machine, your keys are usable. The actual keys themselves are not exposed, but ssh installs a forwarding port for the duration of your login, and if an attacker has broken root on the insecure machine he can utilize that port to use your keys to gain access to any other machine that your keys unlock. We recommend that you use ssh in combination with Kerberos whenever possible for staff logins. ssh can be compiled with Kerberos support. This reduces your reliance on potentially exposable ssh keys while at the same time protecting passwords via Kerberos. ssh keys should only be used for automated tasks from secure machines (something that Kerberos is unsuited to do). We also recommend that you either turn off key-forwarding in the ssh configuration, or that you make use of the from=IP/DOMAIN option that ssh allows in its authorized_keys file to make the key only usable to entities logging in from specific machines. Bill Swingle Parts rewritten and updated by DES, MD5, and Crypt security crypt crypt DES MD5 Every user on a Unix system has a password associated with their account. It seems obvious that these passwords need to be known only to the user and the actual operating system. In order to keep these passwords secret, they are encrypted with what is known as a one-way hash, that is, they can only be easily encrypted but not decrypted. In other words, what we told you a moment ago was obvious is not even true: the operating system itself does not really know the password. It only knows the encrypted form of the password. The only way to get the plain-text password is by a brute force search of the space of possible passwords. Unfortunately the only secure way to encrypt passwords when Unix came into being was based on DES, the Data Encryption Standard. This was not such a problem for users resident in the US, but since the source code for DES could not be exported outside the US, FreeBSD had to find a way to both comply with US law and retain compatibility with all the other Unix variants that still used DES. The solution was to divide up the encryption libraries so that US users could install the DES libraries and use DES but international users still had an encryption method that could be exported abroad. This is how FreeBSD came to use MD5 as its default encryption method. MD5 is believed to be more secure than DES, so installing DES is offered primarily for compatibility reasons. Recognizing Your Crypt Mechanism Before FreeBSD 4.4 libcrypt.a was a symbolic link pointing to the library which was used for encryption. FreeBSD 4.4 changed libcrypt.a to provide a configurable password authentication hash library. Currently the library supports DES, MD5 and Blowfish hash functions. By default FreeBSD uses MD5 to encrypt passwords. It is pretty easy to identify which encryption method FreeBSD is set up to use. Examining the encrypted passwords in the /etc/master.passwd file is one way. Passwords encrypted with the MD5 hash are longer than those encrypted with the DES hash and also begin with the characters $1$. Passwords starting with $2$ are encrypted with the Blowfish hash function. DES password strings do not have any particular identifying characteristics, but they are shorter than MD5 passwords, and are coded in a 64-character alphabet which does not include the $ character, so a relatively short string which does not begin with a dollar sign is very likely a DES password. The password format used for new passwords is controlled by the passwd_format login capability in /etc/login.conf, which takes values of des or md5 or blf. See the &man.login.conf.5; manual page for more information about login capabilities. One-time Passwords one-time passwords security one-time passwords S/Key is a one-time password scheme based on a one-way hash function. FreeBSD uses the MD4 hash for compatibility but other systems have used MD5 and DES-MAC. S/Key has been part of the FreeBSD base system since version 1.1.5 and is also used on a growing number of other operating systems. S/Key is a registered trademark of Bell Communications Research, Inc. From version 5.0 of FreeBSD, S/Key has been replaced with the functionally equivalent OPIE (One-time Passwords In Everything). OPIE uses the MD5 hash by default. There are three different sorts of passwords which we will discuss below. The first is your usual Unix-style or Kerberos password; we will call this a Unix password. The second sort is the one-time password which is generated by the S/Key key program or the OPIE opiekey program and accepted by the keyinit or opiepasswd programs and the login prompt; we will call this a one-time password. The final sort of password is the secret password which you give to the key/opiekey programs (and sometimes the keyinit/opiepasswd programs) which it uses to generate one-time passwords; we will call it a secret password or just unqualified password. The secret password does not have anything to do with your Unix password; they can be the same but this is not recommended. S/Key and OPIE secret passwords are not limited to 8 characters like Unix passwords, they can be as long as you like. Passwords of six or seven word long phrases are fairly common. For the most part, the S/Key or OPIE system operates completely independently of the Unix password system. Besides the password, there are two other pieces of data that are important to S/Key and OPIE. One is what is known as the seed or key, consisting of two letters and five digits. The other is what is called the iteration count, a number between 1 and 100. S/Key creates the one-time password by concatenating the seed and the secret password, then applying the MD4/MD5 hash as many times as specified by the iteration count and turning the result into six short English words. These six English words are your one-time password. The authentication system (primarily PAM) keeps track of the last one-time password used, and the user is authenticated if the hash of the user-provided password is equal to the previous password. Because a one-way hash is used it is impossible to generate future one-time passwords if a successfully used password is captured; the iteration count is decremented after each successful login to keep the user and the login program in sync. When the iteration count gets down to 1, S/Key and OPIE must be reinitialized. There are three programs involved in each system which we will discuss below. The key and opiekey programs accept an iteration count, a seed, and a secret password, and generate a one-time password or a consecutive list of one-time passwords. The keyinit and opiepasswd programs are used to initialize S/Key and OPIE respectively, and to change passwords, iteration counts, or seeds; they take either a secret passphrase, or an iteration count, seed, and one-time password. The keyinfo and opieinfo programs examine the relevant credentials files (/etc/skeykeys or /etc/opiekeys) and print out the invoking user's current iteration count and seed. There are four different sorts of operations we will cover. The first is using keyinit or opiepasswd over a secure connection to set up one-time-passwords for the first time, or to change your password or seed. The second operation is using keyinit or opiepasswd over an insecure connection, in conjunction with key or opiekey over a secure connection, to do the same. The third is using key/opiekey to log in over an insecure connection. The fourth is using key or opiekey to generate a number of keys which can be written down or printed out to carry with you when going to some location without secure connections to anywhere. Secure Connection Initialization To initialize S/Key for the first time, change your password, or change your seed while logged in over a secure connection (e.g., on the console of a machine or via ssh), use the keyinit command without any parameters while logged in as yourself: &prompt.user; keyinit Adding unfurl: Reminder - Only use this method if you are directly connected. If you are using telnet or rlogin exit with no password and use keyinit -s. Enter secret password: Again secret password: ID unfurl s/key is 99 to17757 DEFY CLUB PRO NASH LACE SOFT For OPIE, opiepasswd is used instead: &prompt.user; opiepasswd -c [grimreaper] ~ $ opiepasswd -f -c Adding unfurl: Only use this method from the console; NEVER from remote. If you are using telnet, xterm, or a dial-in, type ^C now or exit with no password. Then run opiepasswd without the -c parameter. Using MD5 to compute responses. Enter new secret pass phrase: Again new secret pass phrase: ID unfurl OTP key is 499 to4268 MOS MALL GOAT ARM AVID COED At the Enter new secret pass phrase: or Enter secret password: prompts, you should enter a password or phrase. Remember, this is not the password that you will use to login with, this is used to generate your one-time login keys. The ID line gives the parameters of your particular instance; your login name, the iteration count, and seed. When logging in the system will remember these parameters and present them back to you so you do not have to remember them. The last line gives the particular one-time password which corresponds to those parameters and your secret password; if you were to re-login immediately, this one-time password is the one you would use. Insecure Connection Initialization To initialize or change your secret password over an insecure connection, you will need to already have a secure connection to some place where you can run key or opiekey; this might be in the form of a desk accessory on a Macintosh, or a shell prompt on a machine you trust. You will also need to make up an iteration count (100 is probably a good value), and you may make up your own seed or use a randomly-generated one. Over on the insecure connection (to the machine you are initializing), use the keyinit -s command: &prompt.user; keyinit -s Updating unfurl: Old key: to17758 Reminder you need the 6 English words from the key command. Enter sequence count from 1 to 9999: 100 Enter new key [default to17759]: s/key 100 to 17759 s/key access password: s/key access password:CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GORE For OPIE, you need to use opiepasswd: &prompt.user; opiepasswd Updating unfurl: You need the response from an OTP generator. Old secret pass phrase: otp-md5 498 to4268 ext Response: GAME GAG WELT OUT DOWN CHAT New secret pass phrase: otp-md5 499 to4269 Response: LINE PAP MILK NELL BUOY TROY ID mark OTP key is 499 gr4269 LINE PAP MILK NELL BUOY TROY To accept the default seed (which the keyinit program confusingly calls a key), press Return. Then before entering an access password, move over to your secure connection or S/Key desk accessory, and give it the same parameters: &prompt.user; key 100 to17759 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: <secret password> CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GORE Or for OPIE: &prompt.user; opiekey 498 to4268 Using the MD5 algorithm to compute response. Reminder: Don't use opiekey from telnet or dial-in sessions. Enter secret pass phrase: GAME GAG WELT OUT DOWN CHAT Now switch back over to the insecure connection, and copy the one-time password generated over to the relevant program. - Generating a Single one-time Password + Generating a Single One-time Password Once you have initialized S/Key or OPIE, when you login you will be presented with a prompt like this: &prompt.user; telnet example.com Trying 10.0.0.1... Connected to example.com Escape character is '^]'. FreeBSD/i386 (example.com) (ttypa) login: <username> s/key 97 fw13894 Password: Or for OPIE: &prompt.user; telnet example.com Trying 10.0.0.1... Connected to example.com Escape character is '^]'. FreeBSD/i386 (example.com) (ttypa) login: <username> otp-md5 498 gr4269 ext Password: As a side note, the S/Key and OPIE prompts have a useful feature (not shown here): if you press Return at the password prompt, the prompter will turn echo on, so you can see what you are typing. This can be extremely useful if you are attempting to type in a password by hand, such as from a printout. MS-DOS Windows MacOS At this point you need to generate your one-time password to answer this login prompt. This must be done on a trusted system that you can run key or opiekey on. (There are versions of these for DOS, Windows and MacOS as well.) They need both the iteration count and the seed as command line options. You can cut-and-paste these right from the login prompt on the machine that you are logging in to. On the trusted system: &prompt.user; key 97 fw13894 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: WELD LIP ACTS ENDS ME HAAG For OPIE: &prompt.user; opiekey 498 to4268 Using the MD5 algorithm to compute response. Reminder: Don't use opiekey from telnet or dial-in sessions. Enter secret pass phrase: GAME GAG WELT OUT DOWN CHAT Now that you have your one-time password you can continue logging in: login: <username> s/key 97 fw13894 Password: <return to enable echo> s/key 97 fw13894 Password [echo on]: WELD LIP ACTS ENDS ME HAAG Last login: Tue Mar 21 11:56:41 from 10.0.0.2 ... - Generating Multiple one-time Passwords + Generating Multiple One-time Passwords Sometimes you have to go places where you do not have access to a trusted machine or secure connection. In this case, it is possible to use the key and opiekey commands to generate a number of one-time passwords beforehand to be printed out and taken with you. For example: &prompt.user; key -n 5 30 zz99999 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: <secret password> 26: SODA RUDE LEA LIND BUDD SILT 27: JILT SPY DUTY GLOW COWL ROT 28: THEM OW COLA RUNT BONG SCOT 29: COT MASH BARR BRIM NAN FLAG 30: CAN KNEE CAST NAME FOLK BILK Or for OPIE: &prompt.user; opiekey -n 5 30 zz99999 Using the MD5 algorithm to compute response. Reminder: Don't use opiekey from telnet or dial-in sessions. Enter secret pass phrase: <secret password> 26: JOAN BORE FOSS DES NAY QUIT 27: LATE BIAS SLAY FOLK MUCH TRIG 28: SALT TIN ANTI LOON NEAL USE 29: RIO ODIN GO BYE FURY TIC 30: GREW JIVE SAN GIRD BOIL PHI The requests five keys in sequence, the specifies what the last iteration number should be. Note that these are printed out in reverse order of eventual use. If you are really paranoid, you might want to write the results down by hand; otherwise you can cut-and-paste into lpr. Note that each line shows both the iteration count and the one-time password; you may still find it handy to scratch off passwords as you use them. Restricting Use of Unix Passwords S/Key can place restrictions on the use of Unix passwords based on the host name, user name, terminal port, or IP address of a login session. These restrictions can be found in the configuration file /etc/skey.access. The &man.skey.access.5; manual page has more information on the complete format of the file and also details some security cautions to be aware of before depending on this file for security. If there is no /etc/skey.access file (this is the default on FreeBSD 4.x systems), then all users will be allowed to use Unix passwords. If the file exists, however, then all users will be required to use S/Key unless explicitly permitted to do otherwise by configuration statements in the skey.access file. In all cases, Unix passwords are permitted on the console. Here is a sample skey.access configuration file which illustrates the three most common sorts of configuration statements: permit internet 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0 permit user fnord permit port ttyd0 The first line (permit internet) allows users whose IP source address (which is vulnerable to spoofing) matches the specified value and mask, to use Unix passwords. This should not be considered a security mechanism, but rather, a means to remind authorized users that they are using an insecure network and need to use S/Key for authentication. The second line (permit user) allows the specified username, in this case fnord, to use Unix passwords at any time. Generally speaking, this should only be used for people who are either unable to use the key program, like those with dumb terminals, or those who are uneducable. The third line (permit port) allows all users logging in on the specified terminal line to use Unix passwords; this would be used for dial-ups. OPIE can restrict the use of Unix passwords based on the IP address of a login session just like S/Key does. The relevant file is /etc/opieaccess, which is present by default on FreeBSD 5.0 and newer systems. Please check &man.opieaccess.5; for more information on this file and which security considerations you should be aware of when using it. Here is a sample opieaccess file: permit 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0 This line allows users whose IP source address (which is vulnerable to spoofing) matches the specified value and mask, to use Unix passwords at any time. If no rules in opieaccess are matched, the default is to deny non-OPIE logins. Mark Murray Contributed by Mark Dapoz Based on a contribution by Kerberos Kerberos Kerberos is a network add-on system/protocol that allows users to authenticate themselves through the services of a secure server. Services such as remote login, remote copy, secure inter-system file copying and other high-risk tasks are made considerably safer and more controllable. The following instructions can be used as a guide on how to set up Kerberos as distributed for FreeBSD. However, you should refer to the relevant manual pages for a complete description. Installing Kerberos MIT Kerberos installing Kerberos is an optional component of FreeBSD. The easiest way to install this software is by selecting the 'krb4' or 'krb5' distribution in sysinstall during the initial installation of FreeBSD. This will install the 'eBones' (KerberosIV) or 'Heimdal' (Kerberos5) implementation of Kerberos. These implementations are included because they are developed outside the USA/Canada and were thus available to system owners outside those countries during the era of restrictive export controls on cryptographic code from the USA. Alternatively, the MIT implementation of Kerberos is available from the ports collection as security/krb5. Creating the Initial Database This is done on the Kerberos server only. First make sure that you do not have any old Kerberos databases around. You should change to the directory /etc/kerberosIV and check that only the following files are present: &prompt.root; cd /etc/kerberosIV &prompt.root; ls README krb.conf krb.realms If any additional files (such as principal.* or master_key) exist, then use the kdb_destroy command to destroy the old Kerberos database, or if Kerberos is not running, simply delete the extra files. You should now edit the krb.conf and krb.realms files to define your Kerberos realm. In this case the realm will be EXAMPLE.COM and the server is grunt.example.com. We edit or create the krb.conf file: &prompt.root; cat krb.conf EXAMPLE.COM EXAMPLE.COM grunt.example.com admin server CS.BERKELEY.EDU okeeffe.berkeley.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-1.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-2.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-3.mit.edu LCS.MIT.EDU kerberos.lcs.mit.edu TELECOM.MIT.EDU bitsy.mit.edu ARC.NASA.GOV trident.arc.nasa.gov In this case, the other realms do not need to be there. They are here as an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple realms. You may wish to not include them for simplicity. The first line names the realm in which this system works. The other lines contain realm/host entries. The first item on a line is a realm, and the second is a host in that realm that is acting as a key distribution center. The words admin server following a host's name means that host also provides an administrative database server. For further explanation of these terms, please consult the Kerberos manual pages. Now we have to add grunt.example.com to the EXAMPLE.COM realm and also add an entry to put all hosts in the .example.com domain in the EXAMPLE.COM realm. The krb.realms file would be updated as follows: &prompt.root; cat krb.realms grunt.example.com EXAMPLE.COM .example.com EXAMPLE.COM .berkeley.edu CS.BERKELEY.EDU .MIT.EDU ATHENA.MIT.EDU .mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU Again, the other realms do not need to be there. They are here as an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple realms. You may wish to remove them to simplify things. The first line puts the specific system into the named realm. The rest of the lines show how to default systems of a particular subdomain to a named realm. Now we are ready to create the database. This only needs to run on the Kerberos server (or Key Distribution Center). Issue the kdb_init command to do this: &prompt.root; kdb_init Realm name [default ATHENA.MIT.EDU ]: EXAMPLE.COM You will be prompted for the database Master Password. It is important that you NOT FORGET this password. Enter Kerberos master key: Now we have to save the key so that servers on the local machine can pick it up. Use the kstash command to do this. &prompt.root; kstash Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! This saves the encrypted master password in /etc/kerberosIV/master_key. Making It All Run Two principals need to be added to the database for each system that will be secured with Kerberos. Their names are kpasswd and rcmd These two principals are made for each system, with the instance being the name of the individual system. These daemons, kpasswd and rcmd allow other systems to change Kerberos passwords and run commands like rcp, rlogin and rsh. Now let us add these entries: &prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: passwd Instance: grunt <Not found>, Create [y] ? y Principal: passwd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Verifying password New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Random password [y] ? y Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: rcmd Instance: grunt <Not found>, Create [y] ? Principal: rcmd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Verifying password New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Random password [y] ? Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Creating the Server File We now have to extract all the instances which define the services on each machine. For this we use the ext_srvtab command. This will create a file which must be copied or moved by secure means to each Kerberos client's /etc/kerberosIV directory. This file must be present on each server and client, and is crucial to the operation of Kerberos. &prompt.root; ext_srvtab grunt Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Generating 'grunt-new-srvtab'.... Now, this command only generates a temporary file which must be renamed to srvtab so that all the servers can pick it up. Use the mv command to move it into place on the original system: &prompt.root; mv grunt-new-srvtab srvtab If the file is for a client system, and the network is not deemed safe, then copy the client-new-srvtab to removable media and transport it by secure physical means. Be sure to rename it to srvtab in the client's /etc/kerberosIV directory, and make sure it is mode 600: &prompt.root; mv grumble-new-srvtab srvtab &prompt.root; chmod 600 srvtab Populating the Database We now have to add some user entries into the database. First let us create an entry for the user jane. Use the kdb_edit command to do this: &prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: jane Instance: <Not found>, Create [y] ? y Principal: jane, Instance: , kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter a secure password here Verifying password New Password: <---- re-enter the password here Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Testing It All Out First we have to start the Kerberos daemons. NOTE that if you have correctly edited your /etc/rc.conf then this will happen automatically when you reboot. This is only necessary on the Kerberos server. Kerberos clients will automatically get what they need from the /etc/kerberosIV directory. &prompt.root; kerberos & Kerberos server starting Sleep forever on error Log file is /var/log/kerberos.log Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Current Kerberos master key version is 1 Local realm: EXAMPLE.COM &prompt.root; kadmind -n & KADM Server KADM0.0A initializing Please do not use 'kill -9' to kill this job, use a regular kill instead Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Now we can try using the kinit command to get a ticket for the id jane that we created above: &prompt.user; kinit jane MIT Project Athena (grunt.example.com) Kerberos Initialization for "jane" Password: Try listing the tokens using klist to see if we really have them: &prompt.user; klist Ticket file: /tmp/tkt245 Principal: jane@EXAMPLE.COM Issued Expires Principal Apr 30 11:23:22 Apr 30 19:23:22 krbtgt.EXAMPLE.COM@EXAMPLE.COM Now try changing the password using passwd to check if the kpasswd daemon can get authorization to the Kerberos database: &prompt.user; passwd realm EXAMPLE.COM Old password for jane: New Password for jane: Verifying password New Password for jane: Password changed. Adding <command>su</command> Privileges Kerberos allows us to give each user who needs root privileges their own separate su password. We could now add an id which is authorized to su to root. This is controlled by having an instance of root associated with a principal. Using kdb_edit we can create the entry jane.root in the Kerberos database: &prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: jane Instance: root <Not found>, Create [y] ? y Principal: jane, Instance: root, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter a SECURE password here Verifying password New Password: <---- re-enter the password here Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? 12 <--- Keep this short! Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Now try getting tokens for it to make sure it works: &prompt.root; kinit jane.root MIT Project Athena (grunt.example.com) Kerberos Initialization for "jane.root" Password: Now we need to add the user to root's .klogin file: &prompt.root; cat /root/.klogin jane.root@EXAMPLE.COM Now try doing the su: &prompt.user; su Password: and take a look at what tokens we have: &prompt.root; klist Ticket file: /tmp/tkt_root_245 Principal: jane.root@EXAMPLE.COM Issued Expires Principal May 2 20:43:12 May 3 04:43:12 krbtgt.EXAMPLE.COM@EXAMPLE.COM Using Other Commands In an earlier example, we created a principal called jane with an instance root. This was based on a user with the same name as the principal, and this is a Kerberos default; that a <principal>.<instance> of the form <username>.root will allow that <username> to su to root if the necessary entries are in the .klogin file in root's home directory: &prompt.root; cat /root/.klogin jane.root@EXAMPLE.COM Likewise, if a user has in their own home directory lines of the form: &prompt.user; cat ~/.klogin jane@EXAMPLE.COM jack@EXAMPLE.COM This allows anyone in the EXAMPLE.COM realm who has authenticated themselves to jane or jack (via kinit, see above) access to rlogin to jane's account or files on this system (grunt) via rlogin, rsh or rcp. For example, jane now logs into another system using Kerberos: &prompt.user; kinit MIT Project Athena (grunt.example.com) Password: &prompt.user; rlogin grunt Last login: Mon May 1 21:14:47 from grumble Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994 The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995 Or Jack logs into Jane's account on the same machine (jane having set up the .klogin file as above, and the person in charge of Kerberos having set up principal jack with a null instance: &prompt.user; kinit &prompt.user; rlogin grunt -l jane MIT Project Athena (grunt.example.com) Password: Last login: Mon May 1 21:16:55 from grumble Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994 The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995 Gary Palmer Contributed by Alex Nash Firewalls firewall security firewalls Firewalls are an area of increasing interest for people who are connected to the Internet, and are even finding applications on private networks to provide enhanced security. This section will hopefully explain what firewalls are, how to use them, and how to use the facilities provided in the FreeBSD kernel to implement them. People often think that having a firewall between your internal network and the Big Bad Internet will solve all your security problems. It may help, but a poorly setup firewall system is more of a security risk than not having one at all. A firewall can add another layer of security to your systems, but it cannot stop a really determined cracker from penetrating your internal network. If you let internal security lapse because you believe your firewall to be impenetrable, you have just made the crackers job that much easier. What Is a Firewall? There are currently two distinct types of firewalls in common use on the Internet today. The first type is more properly called a packet filtering router. This type of firewall utilizes a multi-homed machine and a set of rules to determine whether to forward or block individual packets. A multi-homed machine is simply a device with multiple network interfaces. The second type, known as a proxy server, relies on daemons to provide authentication and to forward packets, possibly on a multi-homed machine which has kernel packet forwarding disabled. Sometimes sites combine the two types of firewalls, so that only a certain machine (known as a bastion host) is allowed to send packets through a packet filtering router onto an internal network. Proxy services are run on the bastion host, which are generally more secure than normal authentication mechanisms. FreeBSD comes with a kernel packet filter (known as IPFW), which is what the rest of this section will concentrate on. Proxy servers can be built on FreeBSD from third party software, but there is such a variety of proxy servers available that it would be impossible to cover them in this section. Packet Filtering Routers A router is a machine which forwards packets between two or more networks. A packet filtering router is programmed to compare each packet to a list of rules before deciding if it should be forwarded or not. Most modern IP routing software includes packet filtering functionality that defaults to forwarding all packets. To enable the filters, you need to define a set of rules. To decide whether a packet should be passed on, the firewall looks through its set of rules for a rule which matches the contents of the packet's headers. Once a match is found, the rule action is obeyed. The rule action could be to drop the packet, to forward the packet, or even to send an ICMP message back to the originator. Only the first match counts, as the rules are searched in order. Hence, the list of rules can be referred to as a rule chain. The packet-matching criteria varies depending on the software used, but typically you can specify rules which depend on the source IP address of the packet, the destination IP address, the source port number, the destination port number (for protocols which support ports), or even the packet type (UDP, TCP, ICMP, etc). Proxy Servers Proxy servers are machines which have had the normal system daemons (telnetd, ftpd, etc) replaced with special servers. These servers are called proxy servers, as they normally only allow onward connections to be made. This enables you to run (for example) a proxy telnet server on your firewall host, and people can telnet in to your firewall from the outside, go through some authentication mechanism, and then gain access to the internal network (alternatively, proxy servers can be used for signals coming from the internal network and heading out). Proxy servers are normally more secure than normal servers, and often have a wider variety of authentication mechanisms available, including one-shot password systems so that even if someone manages to discover what password you used, they will not be able to use it to gain access to your systems as the password expires immediately after the first use. As they do not actually give users access to the host machine, it becomes a lot more difficult for someone to install backdoors around your security system. Proxy servers often have ways of restricting access further, so that only certain hosts can gain access to the servers. Most will also allow the administrator to specify which users can talk to which destination machines. Again, what facilities are available depends largely on what proxy software you choose. What Does IPFW Allow Me to Do? ipfw IPFW, the software supplied with FreeBSD, is a packet filtering and accounting system which resides in the kernel, and has a user-land control utility, &man.ipfw.8;. Together, they allow you to define and query the rules used by the kernel in its routing decisions. There are two related parts to IPFW. The firewall section performs packet filtering. There is also an IP accounting section which tracks usage of the router, based on rules similar to those used in the firewall section. This allows the administrator to monitor how much traffic the router is getting from a certain machine, or how much WWW traffic it is forwarding, for example. As a result of the way that IPFW is designed, you can use IPFW on non-router machines to perform packet filtering on incoming and outgoing connections. This is a special case of the more general use of IPFW, and the same commands and techniques should be used in this situation. Enabling IPFW on FreeBSD ipfw enabling As the main part of the IPFW system lives in the kernel, you will need to add one or more options to your kernel configuration file, depending on what facilities you want, and recompile your kernel. See "Reconfiguring your Kernel" () for more details on how to recompile your kernel. IPFW defaults to a policy of deny ip from any to any. If you do not add other rules during startup to allow access, you will lock yourself out of the server upon rebooting into a firewall-enabled kernel. We suggest that you set firewall_type=open in your /etc/rc.conf file when first enabling this feature, then refining the firewall rules in /etc/rc.firewall after you have tested that the new kernel feature works properly. To be on the safe side, you may wish to consider performing the initial firewall configuration from the local console rather than via ssh. Another option is to build a kernel using both the IPFIREWALL and IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT options. This will change the default rule of IPFW to allow ip from any to any and avoid the possibility of a lockout. There are currently four kernel configuration options relevant to IPFW: options IPFIREWALL Compiles into the kernel the code for packet filtering. options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE Enables code to allow logging of packets through &man.syslogd.8;. Without this option, even if you specify that packets should be logged in the filter rules, nothing will happen. options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT=10 Limits the number of packets logged through &man.syslogd.8; on a per entry basis. You may wish to use this option in hostile environments in which you want to log firewall activity, but do not want to be open to a denial of service attack via syslog flooding. When a chain entry reaches the packet limit specified, logging is turned off for that particular entry. To resume logging, you will need to reset the associated counter using the &man.ipfw.8; utility: &prompt.root; ipfw zero 4500 Where 4500 is the chain entry you wish to continue logging. options IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT This changes the default rule action from deny to allow. This avoids the possibility of locking yourself out if you happen to boot a kernel with IPFIREWALL support but have not configured your firewall yet. It is also very useful if you often use &man.ipfw.8; as a filter for specific problems as they arise. Use with care though, as this opens up the firewall and changes the way it works. Previous versions of FreeBSD contained an IPFIREWALL_ACCT option. This is now obsolete as the firewall code automatically includes accounting facilities. Configuring IPFW ipfw configuring The configuration of the IPFW software is done through the &man.ipfw.8; utility. The syntax for this command looks quite complicated, but it is relatively simple once you understand its structure. There are currently four different command categories used by the utility: addition/deletion, listing, flushing, and clearing. Addition/deletion is used to build the rules that control how packets are accepted, rejected, and logged. Listing is used to examine the contents of your rule set (otherwise known as the chain) and packet counters (accounting). Flushing is used to remove all entries from the chain. Clearing is used to zero out one or more accounting entries. Altering the IPFW Rules The syntax for this form of the command is: ipfw -N command index action log protocol addresses options There is one valid flag when using this form of the command: -N Resolve addresses and service names in output. The command given can be shortened to the shortest unique form. The valid commands are: add Add an entry to the firewall/accounting rule list delete Delete an entry from the firewall/accounting rule list Previous versions of IPFW used separate firewall and accounting entries. The present version provides packet accounting with each firewall entry. If an index value is supplied, it is used to place the entry at a specific point in the chain. Otherwise, the entry is placed at the end of the chain at an index 100 greater than the last chain entry (this does not include the default policy, rule 65535, deny). The log option causes matching rules to be output to the system console if the kernel was compiled with IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE. Valid actions are: reject Drop the packet, and send an ICMP host or port unreachable (as appropriate) packet to the source. allow Pass the packet on as normal. (aliases: pass, permit, and accept) deny Drop the packet. The source is not notified via an ICMP message (thus it appears that the packet never arrived at the destination). count Update packet counters but do not allow/deny the packet based on this rule. The search continues with the next chain entry. Each action will be recognized by the shortest unambiguous prefix. The protocols which can be specified are: all Matches any IP packet icmp Matches ICMP packets tcp Matches TCP packets udp Matches UDP packets The address specification is: from address/maskport to address/maskport via interface You can only specify port in conjunction with protocols which support ports (UDP and TCP). The is optional and may specify the IP address or domain name of a local IP interface, or an interface name (e.g. ed0) to match only packets coming through this interface. Interface unit numbers can be specified with an optional wildcard. For example, ppp* would match all kernel PPP interfaces. The syntax used to specify an address/mask is: address or address/mask-bits or address:mask-pattern A valid hostname may be specified in place of the IP address. is a decimal number representing how many bits in the address mask should be set. e.g. specifying 192.216.222.1/24 will create a mask which will allow any address in a class C subnet (in this case, 192.216.222) to be matched. is an IP address which will be logically AND'ed with the address given. The keyword any may be used to specify any IP address. The port numbers to be blocked are specified as: port,port,port… to specify either a single port or a list of ports, or port-port to specify a range of ports. You may also combine a single range with a list, but the range must always be specified first. The options available are: frag Matches if the packet is not the first fragment of the datagram. in Matches if the packet is on the way in. out Matches if the packet is on the way out. ipoptions spec Matches if the IP header contains the comma separated list of options specified in spec. The supported IP options are: ssrr (strict source route), lsrr (loose source route), rr (record packet route), and ts (time stamp). The absence of a particular option may be specified with a leading !. established Matches if the packet is part of an already established TCP connection (i.e. it has the RST or ACK bits set). You can optimize the performance of the firewall by placing established rules early in the chain. setup Matches if the packet is an attempt to establish a TCP connection (the SYN bit is set but the ACK bit is not). tcpflags flags Matches if the TCP header contains the comma separated list of flags. The supported flags are fin, syn, rst, psh, ack, and urg. The absence of a particular flag may be indicated by a leading !. icmptypes types Matches if the ICMP type is present in the list types. The list may be specified as any combination of ranges and/or individual types separated by commas. Commonly used ICMP types are: 0 echo reply (ping reply), 3 destination unreachable, 5 redirect, 8 echo request (ping request), and 11 time exceeded (used to indicate TTL expiration as with &man.traceroute.8;). Listing the IPFW Rules The syntax for this form of the command is: ipfw -a -c -d -e -t -N -S list There are seven valid flags when using this form of the command: -a While listing, show counter values. This option is the only way to see accounting counters. -c List rules in compact form. -d Show dynamic rules in addition to static rules. -e If was specified, also show expired dynamic rules. -t Display the last match times for each chain entry. The time listing is incompatible with the input syntax used by the &man.ipfw.8; utility. -N Attempt to resolve given addresses and service names. -S Show the set each rule belongs to. If this flag is not specified, disabled rules will not be listed. Flushing the IPFW Rules The syntax for flushing the chain is: ipfw flush This causes all entries in the firewall chain to be removed except the fixed default policy enforced by the kernel (index 65535). Use caution when flushing rules; the default deny policy will leave your system cut off from the network until allow entries are added to the chain. Clearing the IPFW Packet Counters The syntax for clearing one or more packet counters is: ipfw zero index When used without an index argument, all packet counters are cleared. If an index is supplied, the clearing operation only affects a specific chain entry. Example Commands for <application>ipfw</application> This command will deny all packets from the host evil.crackers.org to the telnet port of the host nice.people.org: &prompt.root; ipfw add deny tcp from evil.crackers.org to nice.people.org 23 The next example denies and logs any TCP traffic from the entire crackers.org network (a class C) to the nice.people.org machine (any port). &prompt.root; ipfw add deny log tcp from evil.crackers.org/24 to nice.people.org If you do not want people sending X sessions to your internal network (a subnet of a class C), the following command will do the necessary filtering: &prompt.root; ipfw add deny tcp from any to my.org/28 6000 setup To see the accounting records: &prompt.root; ipfw -a list or in the short form &prompt.root; ipfw -a l You can also see the last time a chain entry was matched with: &prompt.root; ipfw -at l Building a Packet Filtering Firewall The following suggestions are just that: suggestions. The requirements of each firewall are different and we cannot tell you how to build a firewall to meet your particular requirements. When initially setting up your firewall, unless you have a test bench setup where you can configure your firewall host in a controlled environment, it is strongly recommend you use the logging version of the commands and enable logging in the kernel. This will allow you to quickly identify problem areas and cure them without too much disruption. Even after the initial setup phase is complete, I recommend using the logging for `deny' as it allows tracing of possible attacks and also modification of the firewall rules if your requirements alter. If you use the logging versions of the accept command, be aware that it can generate large amounts of log data. One log entry will be generated for every packet that passes through the firewall, so large FTP/http transfers, etc, will really slow the system down. It also increases the latencies on those packets as it requires more work to be done by the kernel before the packet can be passed on. syslogd will also start using up a lot more processor time as it logs all the extra data to disk, and it could quite easily fill the partition /var/log is located on. You should enable your firewall from /etc/rc.conf.local or /etc/rc.conf. The associated manual page explains which knobs to fiddle and lists some preset firewall configurations. If you do not use a preset configuration, ipfw list will output the current ruleset into a file that you can pass to rc.conf. If you do not use /etc/rc.conf.local or /etc/rc.conf to enable your firewall, it is important to make sure your firewall is enabled before any IP interfaces are configured. The next problem is what your firewall should actually do! This is largely dependent on what access to your network you want to allow from the outside, and how much access to the outside world you want to allow from the inside. Some general rules are: Block all incoming access to ports below 1024 for TCP. This is where most of the security sensitive services are, like finger, SMTP (mail) and telnet. Block all incoming UDP traffic. There are very few useful services that travel over UDP, and what useful traffic there is, is normally a security threat (e.g. Suns RPC and NFS protocols). This has its disadvantages also, since UDP is a connectionless protocol, denying incoming UDP traffic also blocks the replies to outgoing UDP traffic. This can cause a problem for people (on the inside) using external archie (prospero) servers. If you want to allow access to archie, you will have to allow packets coming from ports 191 and 1525 to any internal UDP port through the firewall. ntp is another service you may consider allowing through, which comes from port 123. Block traffic to port 6000 from the outside. Port 6000 is the port used for access to X11 servers, and can be a security threat (especially if people are in the habit of doing xhost + on their workstations). X11 can actually use a range of ports starting at 6000, the upper limit being how many X displays you can run on the machine. The upper limit as defined by RFC 1700 (Assigned Numbers) is 6063. Check what ports any internal servers use (e.g. SQL servers, etc). It is probably a good idea to block those as well, as they normally fall outside the 1-1024 range specified above. Another checklist for firewall configuration is available from CERT at As stated above, these are only guidelines. You will have to decide what filter rules you want to use on your firewall yourself. We cannot accept ANY responsibility if someone breaks into your network, even if you follow the advice given above. IPFW Overhead and Optimization Many people want to know how much overhead IPFW adds to a system. The answer to this depends mostly on your rule set and processor speed. For most applications dealing with Ethernet and small rule sets, the answer is negligible. For those of you that need actual measurements to satisfy your curiosity, read on. The following measurements were made using 2.2.5-STABLE on a 486-66. (While IPFW has changed slightly in later releases of FreeBSD, it still performs with similar speed.) IPFW was modified to measure the time spent within the ip_fw_chk routine, displaying the results to the console every 1000 packets. Two rule sets, each with 1000 rules, were tested. The first set was designed to demonstrate a worst case scenario by repeating the rule: &prompt.root; ipfw add deny tcp from any to any 55555 This demonstrates a worst case scenario by causing most of IPFW's packet check routine to be executed before finally deciding that the packet does not match the rule (by virtue of the port number). Following the 999th iteration of this rule was an allow ip from any to any. The second set of rules were designed to abort the rule check quickly: &prompt.root; ipfw add deny ip from 1.2.3.4 to 1.2.3.4 The non-matching source IP address for the above rule causes these rules to be skipped very quickly. As before, the 1000th rule was an allow ip from any to any. The per-packet processing overhead in the former case was approximately 2.703 ms/packet, or roughly 2.7 microseconds per rule. Thus the theoretical packet processing limit with these rules is around 370 packets per second. Assuming 10 Mbps Ethernet and a ~1500 byte packet size, we would only be able to achieve 55.5% bandwidth utilization. For the latter case each packet was processed in approximately 1.172 ms, or roughly 1.2 microseconds per rule. The theoretical packet processing limit here would be about 853 packets per second, which could consume 10 Mbps Ethernet bandwidth. The excessive number of rules tested and the nature of those rules do not provide a real-world scenario -- they were used only to generate the timing information presented here. Here are a few things to keep in mind when building an efficient rule set: Place an established rule early on to handle the majority of TCP traffic. Do not put any allow tcp statements before this rule. Place heavily triggered rules earlier in the rule set than those rarely used (without changing the permissiveness of the firewall, of course). You can see which rules are used most often by examining the packet counting statistics with ipfw -a l. OpenSSL security OpenSSL OpenSSL As of FreeBSD 4.0, the OpenSSL toolkit is a part of the base system. OpenSSL provides a general-purpose cryptography library, as well as the Secure Sockets Layer v2/v3 (SSLv2/SSLv3) and Transport Layer Security v1 (TLSv1) network security protocols. However, one of the algorithms (specifically IDEA) included in OpenSSL is protected by patents in the USA and elsewhere, and is not available for unrestricted use. IDEA is included in the OpenSSL sources in FreeBSD, but it is not built by default. If you wish to use it, and you comply with the license terms, enable the MAKE_IDEA switch in /etc/make.conf and rebuild your sources using make world. Today, the RSA algorithm is free for use in USA and other countries. In the past it was protected by a patent. OpenSSL install Source Code Installations OpenSSL is part of the src-crypto and src-secure cvsup collections. See the Obtaining FreeBSD section for more information about obtaining and updating FreeBSD source code. Yoshinobu Inoue Contributed by IPsec IPsec security IPsec Terminating Characters Throughout examples in this section, and other sections, you will notice that there is a ^D at the end of some examples. This means to hold down the Control key and hit the D key. Another commonly used character is ^C, which respectively means to hold down Control and press C. For other HOWTOs detailing IPsec implementation in FreeBSD, take a look at and . The IPsec mechanism provides secure communication for IP layer and socket layer communication. This section should explain how to use them. For implementation details, please refer to The Developers' Handbook. The current IPsec implementation supports both transport mode and tunnel mode. However, tunnel mode comes with some restrictions. has more comprehensive examples. Please be aware that in order to use this functionality, you must have the following options compiled into your kernel: options IPSEC #IP security options IPSEC_ESP #IP security (crypto; define w/IPSEC) Transport Mode Example with IPv4 Let us setup security association to deploy a secure channel between HOST A (10.2.3.4) and HOST B (10.6.7.8). Here we show a little complicated example. From HOST A to HOST B, only old AH is used. From HOST B to HOST A, new AH and new ESP are combined. Now we should choose an algorithm to be used corresponding to AH/new AH/ESP/ new ESP. Please refer to the &man.setkey.8; man page to know algorithm names. Our choice is MD5 for AH, new-HMAC-SHA1 for new AH, and new-DES-expIV with 8 byte IV for new ESP. Key length highly depends on each algorithm. For example, key length must be equal to 16 bytes for MD5, 20 for new-HMAC-SHA1, and 8 for new-DES-expIV. Now we choose MYSECRETMYSECRET, KAMEKAMEKAMEKAMEKAME, PASSWORD, respectively. OK, let us assign SPI (Security Parameter Index) for each protocol. Please note that we need 3 SPIs for this secure channel since three security headers are produced (one for from HOST A to HOST B, two for from HOST B to HOST A). Please also note that SPI MUST be greater than or equal to 256. We choose, 1000, 2000, and 3000, respectively. (1) HOST A ------> HOST B (1)PROTO=AH ALG=MD5(RFC1826) KEY=MYSECRETMYSECRET SPI=1000 (2.1) HOST A <------ HOST B <------ (2.2) (2.1) PROTO=AH ALG=new-HMAC-SHA1(new AH) KEY=KAMEKAMEKAMEKAMEKAME SPI=2000 (2.2) PROTO=ESP ALG=new-DES-expIV(new ESP) IV length = 8 KEY=PASSWORD SPI=3000 Now, let us setup security association. Execute &man.setkey.8; on both HOST A and B: &prompt.root; setkey -c add 10.2.3.4 10.6.7.8 ah-old 1000 -m transport -A keyed-md5 "MYSECRETMYSECRET" ; add 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 ah 2000 -m transport -A hmac-sha1 "KAMEKAMEKAMEKAMEKAME" ; add 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 esp 3000 -m transport -E des-cbc "PASSWORD" ; ^D Actually, IPsec communication does not process until security policy entries are defined. In this case, you must setup each host. At A: &prompt.root; setkey -c spdadd 10.2.3.4 10.6.7.8 any -P out ipsec ah/transport/10.2.3.4-10.6.7.8/require ; ^D At B: &prompt.root; setkey -c spdadd 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 any -P out ipsec esp/transport/10.6.7.8-10.2.3.4/require ; spdadd 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 any -P out ipsec ah/transport/10.6.7.8-10.2.3.4/require ; ^D HOST A --------------------------------------> HOST E 10.2.3.4 10.6.7.8 | | ========== old AH keyed-md5 ==========> <========= new AH hmac-sha1 =========== <========= new ESP des-cbc ============ Transport Mode Example with IPv6 Another example using IPv6. ESP transport mode is recommended for TCP port number 110 between Host-A and Host-B. ============ ESP ============ | | Host-A Host-B fec0::10 -------------------- fec0::11 Encryption algorithm is blowfish-cbc whose key is kamekame, and authentication algorithm is hmac-sha1 whose key is this is the test key. Configuration at Host-A: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd fec0::10[any] fec0::11[110] tcp -P out ipsec esp/transport/fec0::10-fec0::11/use ; spdadd fec0::11[110] fec0::10[any] tcp -P in ipsec esp/transport/fec0::11-fec0::10/use ; add fec0::10 fec0::11 esp 0x10001 -m transport -E blowfish-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0::11 fec0::10 esp 0x10002 -m transport -E blowfish-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; EOF and at Host-B: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd fec0::11[110] fec0::10[any] tcp -P out ipsec esp/transport/fec0::11-fec0::10/use ; spdadd fec0::10[any] fec0::11[110] tcp -P in ipsec esp/transport/fec0::10-fec0::11/use ; add fec0::10 fec0::11 esp 0x10001 -m transport -E blowfish-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0::11 fec0::10 esp 0x10002 -m transport -E blowfish-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; EOF Note the direction of SP. Tunnel Mode Example with IPv4 Tunnel mode between two security gateways Security protocol is old AH tunnel mode, i.e. specified by RFC1826, with keyed-md5 whose key is this is the test as authentication algorithm. ======= AH ======= | | Network-A Gateway-A Gateway-B Network-B 10.0.1.0/24 ---- 172.16.0.1 ----- 172.16.0.2 ---- 10.0.2.0/24 Configuration at Gateway-A: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd 10.0.1.0/24 10.0.2.0/24 any -P out ipsec ah/tunnel/172.16.0.1-172.16.0.2/require ; spdadd 10.0.2.0/24 10.0.1.0/24 any -P in ipsec ah/tunnel/172.16.0.2-172.16.0.1/require ; add 172.16.0.1 172.16.0.2 ah-old 0x10003 -m any -A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ; add 172.16.0.2 172.16.0.1 ah-old 0x10004 -m any -A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ; EOF If the port number field is omitted such as above then [any] is employed. -m specifies the mode of SA to be used. -m any means wild-card of mode of security protocol. You can use this SA for both tunnel and transport mode. and at Gateway-B: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd 10.0.2.0/24 10.0.1.0/24 any -P out ipsec ah/tunnel/172.16.0.2-172.16.0.1/require ; spdadd 10.0.1.0/24 10.0.2.0/24 any -P in ipsec ah/tunnel/172.16.0.1-172.16.0.2/require ; add 172.16.0.1 172.16.0.2 ah-old 0x10003 -m any -A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ; add 172.16.0.2 172.16.0.1 ah-old 0x10004 -m any -A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ; EOF Making SA bundle between two security gateways AH transport mode and ESP tunnel mode is required between Gateway-A and Gateway-B. In this case, ESP tunnel mode is applied first, and AH transport mode is next. ========== AH ========= | ======= ESP ===== | | | | | Network-A Gateway-A Gateway-B Network-B fec0:0:0:1::/64 --- fec0:0:0:1::1 ---- fec0:0:0:2::1 --- fec0:0:0:2::/64 Tunnel Mode Example with IPv6 Encryption algorithm is 3des-cbc, and authentication algorithm for ESP is hmac-sha1. Authentication algorithm for AH is hmac-md5. Configuration at Gateway-A: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd fec0:0:0:1::/64 fec0:0:0:2::/64 any -P out ipsec esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::1/require ah/transport/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::1/require ; spdadd fec0:0:0:2::/64 fec0:0:0:1::/64 any -P in ipsec esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:2::1-fec0:0:0:1::1/require ah/transport/fec0:0:0:2::1-fec0:0:0:1::1/require ; add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::1 esp 0x10001 -m tunnel -E 3des-cbc "kamekame12341234kame1234" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::1 ah 0x10001 -m transport -A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ; add fec0:0:0:2::1 fec0:0:0:1::1 esp 0x10001 -m tunnel -E 3des-cbc "kamekame12341234kame1234" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0:0:0:2::1 fec0:0:0:1::1 ah 0x10001 -m transport -A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ; EOF Making SAs with the different end ESP tunnel mode is required between Host-A and Gateway-A. Encryption algorithm is cast128-cbc, and authentication algorithm for ESP is hmac-sha1. ESP transport mode is recommended between Host-A and Host-B. Encryption algorithm is rc5-cbc, and authentication algorithm for ESP is hmac-md5. ================== ESP ================= | ======= ESP ======= | | | | | Host-A Gateway-A Host-B fec0:0:0:1::1 ---- fec0:0:0:2::1 ---- fec0:0:0:2::2 Configuration at Host-A: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd fec0:0:0:1::1[any] fec0:0:0:2::2[80] tcp -P out ipsec esp/transport/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::2/use esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::1/require ; spdadd fec0:0:0:2::1[80] fec0:0:0:1::1[any] tcp -P in ipsec esp/transport/fec0:0:0:2::2-fec0:0:0:l::1/use esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:2::1-fec0:0:0:1::1/require ; add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::2 esp 0x10001 -m transport -E cast128-cbc "12341234" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::1 esp 0x10002 -E rc5-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ; add fec0:0:0:2::2 fec0:0:0:1::1 esp 0x10003 -m transport -E cast128-cbc "12341234" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0:0:0:2::1 fec0:0:0:1::1 esp 0x10004 -E rc5-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ; EOF Chern Lee Contributed by OpenSSH OpenSSH security OpenSSH Secure shell is a set of network connectivity tools used to access remote machines securely. It can be used as a direct replacement for rlogin, rsh, rcp, and telnet. Additionally, any other TCP/IP connections can be tunneled/forwarded securely through ssh. ssh encrypts all traffic to effectively eliminate eavesdropping, connection hijacking, and other network-level attacks. OpenSSH is maintained by the OpenBSD project, and is based upon SSH v1.2.12 with all the recent bug fixes and updates. It is compatible with both SSH protocols 1 and 2. OpenSSH has been in the base system since FreeBSD 4.0. Advantages of Using OpenSSH Normally, when using &man.telnet.1; or &man.rlogin.1;, data is sent over the network in an clear, un-encrypted form. Network sniffers anywhere in between the client and server can steal your user/password information or data transferred in your session. OpenSSH offers a variety of authentication and encryption methods to prevent this from happening. Enabling sshd OpenSSH enabling Be sure to make the following additions to your rc.conf file: sshd_enable="YES" This will load the ssh daemon the next time your system initializes. Alternatively, you can simply run the sshd daemon. SSH Client OpenSSH client The &man.ssh.1; utility works similarly to &man.rlogin.1;. &prompt.root; ssh user@example.com Host key not found from the list of known hosts. Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no)? yes Host 'example.com' added to the list of known hosts. user@example.com's password: ******* The login will continue just as it would have if a session was created using rlogin or telnet. SSH utilizes a key fingerprint system for verifying the authenticity of the server when the client connects. The user is prompted to enter yes only when connecting for the first time. Future attempts to login are all verified against the saved fingerprint key. The SSH client will alert you if the saved fingerprint differs from the received fingerprint on future login attempts. The fingerprints are saved in ~/.ssh/known_hosts, or ~/.ssh/known_hosts2 for SSH v2 fingerprints. By default, OpenSSH servers are configured to accept both SSH v1 and SSH v2 connections. The client, however, can choose between the two. Version 2 is known to be more robust and secure than its predecessor. ssh can be forced to use either protocol by passing it the or argument for v1 and v2, respectively. Secure Copy OpenSSH secure copy scp The scp command works similarly to rcp; it copies a file to or from a remote machine, except in a secure fashion. &prompt.root; scp user@example.com:/COPYRIGHT COPYRIGHT user@example.com's password: ******* COPYRIGHT 100% |*****************************| 4735 00:00 &prompt.root; Since the fingerprint was already saved for this host in the previous example, it is verified when using scp here. The arguments passed to scp are similar to cp, with the file or files in the first argument, and the destination in the second. Since the file is fetched over the network, through SSH, one or more of the file arguments takes on the form . Configuration OpenSSH configuration The system-wide configuration files for both the OpenSSH daemon and client reside within the /etc/ssh directory. ssh_config configures the client settings, while sshd_config configures the daemon. Additionally, the (/usr/sbin/sshd by default), and rc.conf options can provide more levels of configuration. ssh-keygen Instead of using passwords, &man.ssh-keygen.1; can be used to generate RSA keys to authenticate a user. &prompt.user; ssh-keygen Initializing random number generator... Generating p: .++ (distance 66) Generating q: ..............................++ (distance 498) Computing the keys... Key generation complete. Enter file in which to save the key (/home/user/.ssh/identity): Enter passphrase: Enter the same passphrase again: Your identification has been saved in /home/user/.ssh/identity. ... &man.ssh-keygen.1; will create a public and private key pair for use in authentication. The private key is stored in ~/.ssh/identity, whereas the public key is stored in ~/.ssh/identity.pub. The public key must be placed in ~/.ssh/authorized_keys of the remote machine in order for the setup to work. This will allow connection to the remote machine based upon RSA authentication instead of passwords. If a passphrase is used in &man.ssh-keygen.1;, the user will be prompted for a password each time in order to use the private key. A SSH v2 DSA key can be created for the same purpose by using the ssh-keygen -d command (or ssh-keygen -t dsa for FreeBSD &os.current;). This will create a public/private DSA key for use in SSH v2 sessions only. The public key is stored in ~/.ssh/id_dsa.pub, while the private key is in ~/.ssh/id_dsa. DSA public keys are placed in ~/.ssh/authorized_keys2 on the remote machine. &man.ssh-agent.1; and &man.ssh-add.1; are utilities used in managing multiple passworded private keys. SSH Tunneling OpenSSH tunneling OpenSSH has the ability to create a tunnel to encapsulate another protocol in an encrypted session. The following command tells &man.ssh.1; to create a tunnel for telnet. &prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 5023:localhost:23 user@foo.example.com &prompt.user; The ssh command is used with the following options: Forces ssh to use version 2 of the protocol. (Do not use if you are working with older ssh servers) Indicates no command, or tunnel only. If omitted, ssh would initiate a normal session. Forces ssh to run in the background. Indicates a local tunnel in localport:remotehost:remoteport fashion. The remote SSH server. An SSH tunnel works by creating a listen socket on localhost on the specified port. It then forwards any connection received on the local host/port via the SSH connection to the specified remote host and port. In the example, port 5023 on localhost is being forwarded to port 23 on localhost of the remote machine. Since 23 is telnet, this would create a secure telnet session through an SSH tunnel. This can be used to wrap any number of insecure TCP protocols such as SMTP, POP3, FTP, etc. - Using SSH to create a secure tunnel for SMTP + Using SSH to Create a Secure Tunnel for SMTP &prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 5025:localhost:25 user@mailserver.example.com user@mailserver.example.com's password: ***** &prompt.user; telnet localhost 5025 Trying 127.0.0.1... Connected to localhost. Escape character is '^]'. 220 mailserver.example.com ESMTP This can be used in conjunction with an &man.ssh-keygen.1; and additional user accounts to create a more seamless/hassle-free SSH tunneling environment. Keys can be used in place of typing a password, and the tunnels can be run as a separate user. Practical SSH Tunneling Examples - Secure Access of a POP3 server + Secure Access of a POP3 Server At work, there is an SSH server that accepts connections from the outside. On the same office network resides a mail server running a POP3 server. The network, or network path between your home and office may or may not be completely trustable. Because of this, you need to check your e-mail in a secure manner. The solution is to create an SSH connection to your office's SSH server, and tunnel through to the mail server. &prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 2110:mail.example.com:110 user@ssh-server.example.com user@ssh-server.example.com's password: ****** When the tunnel is up and running, you can point your mail client to send POP3 requests to localhost port 2110. A connection here will be forwarded securely across the tunnel to mail.example.com. Bypassing a Draconian Firewall Some network administrators impose extremely Draconian firewall rules, filtering not only incoming connections, but outgoing connections. You may be only given access to contact remote machines on ports 22 and 80 for SSH and web surfing. You may wish to access another (perhaps non-work related) service, such as an Ogg Vorbis server to stream music. If this Ogg Vorbis server is streaming on some other port than 22 or 80, you will not be able to access it. The solution is to create an SSH connection to a machine outside of your network's firewall, and use it to tunnel to the Ogg Vorbis server. &prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 8888:music.example.com:8000 user@unfirewalled-system.example.org user@unfirewalled-system.example.org's password: ******* Your streaming client can now be pointed to localhost port 8888, which will be forwarded over to music.example.com port 8000, successfully evading the firewall. Further Reading OpenSSH &man.ssh.1; &man.scp.1; &man.ssh-keygen.1; &man.ssh-agent.1; &man.ssh-add.1; &man.sshd.8; &man.sftp-server.8; Robert Watson Sponsored by DARPA and Network Associates Laboratories. Contributed by MAC Mandatory Access Control (MAC) FreeBSD 5.0 includes a new kernel security framework, the TrustedBSD MAC Framework. The MAC Framework permits compile-time, boot-time, and run-time extension of the kernel access control policy, and can be used to load support for Mandatory Access Control (MAC), and custom security modules such as hardening modules. The MAC Framework is currently considered to be an experimental feature, and should not yet be used in production environments without careful consideration. It is anticipated that the MAC Framework will be appropriate for more widespread production use by FreeBSD 5.2. When configured into a kernel, the MAC Framework permits security modules to augment the existing kernel access control model, restricting access to system services and objects. For example, the &man.mac.bsdextended.4; module augments file system access control, permitting administrators to provide a firewall-like ruleset constraining access to file system objects based on user ids and group membership. Some modules require little or no configuration, such as &man.mac.seeotheruids.4, whereas others perform ubiquitous object labeling, such as &man.mac.biba.4; and &man.mac.mls.4;, and require extensive configuration. To enable the MAC Framework in your system kernel, you must add the following entry to your kernel configuration: options MAC Security policy modules shipped with the base system may be loaded using &man.kldload.8; or in the boot &man.loader.8; They may also be compiled directly into the kernel using the following options, if the use of modules is not desired. Different MAC policies may be configured in different ways; frequently, MAC policy modules export configuration parameters using the &man.sysctl.8; MIB using the security.mac namespace. Policies relying on file system or other labels may require a configuration step that involves assigning initial labels to system objects or creating a policy configuration file. For information on how to configure and use each policy module, see its man page. A variety of tools are available to configure the MAC Framework and labels maintained by various policies. Extensions have been made to the login and credential management mechanisms (&man.setusercontext.3;) to support initial user labeling using &man.login.conf.5;. In addition, modifications have been made to &man.su.1;, &man.ps.1;, &man.ls.1;, and &man.ifconfig.8; to inspect and set labels on processes, files, and interfaces. In addition, several new tools have been added to manage labels on objects, including &man.getfmac.8;, &man.setfmac.8;, and &man.setfsmac.8; to manage labels on files, and &man.getpmac.8; and &man.setpmac.8;. What follows is a list of policy modules shipped with FreeBSD 5.0. Biba Integrity Policy (mac_biba) Biba Integrity Policy Vendor: TrustedBSD Project Module name: mac_biba.ko Kernel option: MAC_BIBA TCB The Biba Integrity Policy (&man.mac.biba.4;) provides for hierarchical and non-hierarchical labeling of all system objects with integrity data, and the strict enforcement of an information flow policy to prevent corruption of high integrity subjects and data by low-integrity subjects. Integrity is enforced by preventing high integrity subjects (generally processes) from reading low integrity objects (often files), and preventing low integrity subjects from writing to high integrity objects. This security policy is frequently used in commercial trusted systems to provide strong protection for the Trusted Code Base (TCB). Because it provides ubiquitous labeling, the Biba integrity policy must be compiled into the kernel or loaded at boot. File System Firewall Policy (mac_bsdextended) File System Firewall Policy Vendor: TrustedBSD Project Module name: mac_bsdextended.ko Kernel option: MAC_BSDEXTENDED The File System Firewall Policy (&man.mac.bsdextended.4;) provides an extension to the BSD file system permission model, permitting the administrator to define a set of firewall-like rules for limiting access to file system objects owned by other users and groups. Managed using &man.ugidfw.8;, rules may limit access to files and directories based on the uid and gids of the process attempting the access, and the owner and group of the target of the access attempt. All rules are restrictive, so they may be placed in any order. This policy requires no prior configuration or labeling, and may be appropriate in multi-user environments where mandatory limits on inter-user data exchange are required. Caution should be exercised in limiting access to files owned by the super-user or other system user ids, as many useful programs and directories are owned by these users. As with a network firewall, improper application of file system firewall rules may render the system unusable. New tools to manage the rule set may be easily written using the &man.libugidfw.3; library. Interface Silencing Policy (mac_ifoff) Interface Silencing Policy Vendor: TrustedBSD Project Module name: mac_ifoff.ko Kernel option: MAC_IFOFF The interface silencing policy (&man.mac.ifoff.4;) prohibits the use of network interfaces during the boot until explicitly enabled, preventing spurious stack output stack response to incoming packets. This is appropriate for use in environments where the monitoring of packets is required, but no traffic may be generated. Low-Watermark Mandatory Access Control (LOMAC) (mac_lomac) MAC Low-Watermark LOMAC Vendor: Network Associates Laboratories Module name: mac_lomac.ko Kernel option: MAC_LOMAC Similar to the Biba Integrity Policy, the LOMAC policy (&man.mac.lomac.4;) relies on the ubiquitous labeling of all system objects with integrity labels. Unlike Biba, LOMAC permits high integrity subjects to read from low integrity objects, but then downgrades the label on the subject to prevent future writes to high integrity objects. This policy may provide for greater compatibility, as well as require less initial configuration than Biba. However, as with Biba, it ubiquitously labels objects and must therefore be compiled into the kernel or loaded at boot. Multi-Level Security Policy (MLS) (mac_mls) Multi-Level Security Policy MAC Multi-Level Vendor: TrustedBSD Project Module name: mac_mls.ko Kernel option: MAC_MLS Multi-Level Security (MLS) (&man.mac.mls.4;) provides for hierarchical and non-hierarchical labeling of all system objects with sensitivity data, and the strict enforcement of an information flow policy to prevent the leakage of confidential data to untrusted parties. The logical conjugate of the Biba Integrity Policy, MLS is frequently shipped in commercial trusted operating systems to protect data secrecy in multi-user environments. Hierarchal labels provide support for the notion of clearances and classifications in traditional parlance; non-hierarchical labels provide support for need-to-know. As with Biba, ubiquitous labeling of objects occurs, and it must therefore be compiled into the kernel or loaded at boot. As with Biba, extensive initial configuration may be required. MAC Stub Policy (mac_none) MAC Stub Policy Vendor: TrustedBSD Project Module name: mac_none.ko Kernel option: MAC_NONE The None policy (&man.mac.none.4;) provides a stub sample policy for developers, implementing all entry points, but not changing the system access control policy. Running this on a production system would not be highly beneficial. Process Partition Policy (mac_partition) Process Partition Policy Vendor: TrustedBSD Project Module name: mac_partition.ko Kernel option: MAC_PARTITION The Partition policy (&man.mac.partition.4;) provides for a simple process visibility limitation, assigning labels to processes identifying what numeric system partition they are present in. If none, all other processes are visible using standard monitoring tools; if a partition identifier is present, then only other processes in the same partition are visible. This policy may be compiled into the kernel, loaded at boot, or loaded at run-time. See Other Uids Policy (mac_seeotheruids) See Other Uids Policy Vendor: TrustedBSD Project Module name: mac_seeotheruids.ko Kernel option: MAC_SEEOTHERUIDS The See Other Uids policy (&man.mac.seeotheruids.4;) implements a similar process visibility model to mac_partition, except that it relies on process credentials to control visibility of processes, rather than partition labels. This policy may be configured to exempt certain users and groups, including permitting system operators to view all processes without special privilege. This policy may be compiled into the kernel, loaded at boot, or loaded at run-time. MAC Framework Test Policy (mac_test) MAC Framework Test Policy Vendor: TrustedBSD Project Module name: mac_test.ko Kernel option: MAC_TEST The Test policy (&man.mac.test.4;) provides a regression test environment for the MAC Framework, and will cause a fail-stop in the event that internal MAC Framework assertions about proper data labeling fail. This module can be used to detect failures to properly label system objects in the kernel implementation. This policy may be compiled into the kernel, loaded at boot, or loaded at run-time. Tom Rhodes Contributed by ACL File System Access Control Lists In conjunction with file system enhancements like snapshots, FreeBSD 5.0 and later offers the security of File System Access Control Lists (ACLs). Access Control Lists extend the standard UNIX permission model in a highly compatible (POSIX.1e) way. This feature permits an administrator to make use of and take advantage of a more sophisticated security model. To enable ACL support for UFS file systems, the following: options UFS_ACL must be compiled into the kernel. If this option has not been compiled in, a warning message will be displayed when attempting to mount a file system supporting ACLs. This option is included in the GENERIC kernel. ACLs rely on extended attributes being enabled on the file system. Extended attributes are natively supported in the next generation UNIX file system, UFS2. A higher level of administrative overhead is required to configure extended attributes on UFS1 than on UFS2. The performance of extended attributes on UFS2 is also substantially higher. As a result, UFS2 is generally recommended in preference to UFS1 for use with access control lists. ACLs are enabled by the mount-time administrative flag, , which may be added to /etc/fstab. The mount-time flag can also be automatically set in a persistent manner using &man.tunefs.8; to modify a superblock ACLs flag in the file system header. In general, it is preferred to use the superblock flag for several reasons: The mount-time ACLs flag cannot be changed by a remount (&man.mount.8; ), only by means of a complete &man.umount.8; and fresh &man.mount.8;. This means that ACLs cannot be enabled on the root file system after boot. It also means that you cannot change the disposition of a file system once it is in use. Setting the superblock flag will cause the file system to always be mounted with ACLs enabled even if there is not an fstab entry or if the devices re-order. This prevents accidental mounting of the file system without ACLs enabled, which can result in ACLs being improperly enforced, and hence security problems. We may change the ACLs behavior to allow the flag to be enabled without a complete fresh &man.mount.8;, but we consider it desirable to discourage accidental mounting without ACLs enabled, because you can shoot your feet quite nastily if you enable ACLs, then disable them, then re-enable them without flushing the extended attributes. In general, once you have enabled ACLs on a file system, they should not be disabled, as the resulting file protections may not be compatible with those intended by the users of the system, and re-enabling ACLs may re-attach the previous ACLs to files that have since had their permissions changed, resulting in other unpredictable behavior. File systems with ACLs enabled will show a + (plus) sign in their permission settings when viewed. For example: drwx------ 2 robert robert 512 Dec 27 11:54 private drwxrwx---+ 2 robert robert 512 Dec 23 10:57 directory1 drwxrwx---+ 2 robert robert 512 Dec 22 10:20 directory2 drwxrwx---+ 2 robert robert 512 Dec 27 11:57 directory3 drwxr-xr-x 2 robert robert 512 Nov 10 11:54 public_html Here we see that the directory1, directory2, and directory3 directories are all taking advantage of ACLs. The public_html directory is not. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml index c5f9610c12..a741c8b725 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml @@ -1,2625 +1,2625 @@ Serial Communications Synopsis serial communications Unix has always had support for serial communications. In fact, the very first Unix machines relied on serial lines for user input and output. Things have changed a lot from the days when the average terminal consisted of a 10-character-per-second serial printer and a keyboard. This chapter will cover some of the ways in which FreeBSD uses serial communications. After reading this chapter, you will know: How to connect terminals to your FreeBSD system. How to use a modem to dial out to remote hosts. How to allow remote users to login to your system with a modem. How to boot your system from a serial console. Before reading this chapter, you should: Know how to configure and install a new kernel (). Understand Unix permissions and processes (). Have access to the technical manual for the serial hardware (modem or multi-port card) that you would like to use with FreeBSD. Introduction Terminology bits-per-second bps Bits per Second — the rate at which data is transmitted DTE DTE Data Terminal Equipment — for example, your computer DCE DCE Data Communications Equipment — your modem RS-232 RS-232C cables EIA standard for hardware serial communications When talking about communications data rates, this section does not use the term baud. Baud refers to the number of electrical state transitions that may be made in a period of time, while bps (bits per second) is the correct term to use (at least it does not seem to bother the curmudgeons quite as much). Cables and Ports To connect a modem or terminal to your FreeBSD system, you will need a serial port on your computer and the proper cable to connect to your serial device. If you are already familiar with your hardware and the cable it requires, you can safely skip this section. Cables There are several different kinds of serial cables. The two most common types for our purposes are null-modem cables and standard (straight) RS-232 cables. The documentation for your hardware should describe the type of cable required. Null-modem Cables null-modem cable A null-modem cable passes some signals, such as signal ground, straight through, but switches other signals. For example, the send data pin on one end goes to the receive data pin on the other end. If you like making your own cables, you can construct a null-modem cable for use with terminals. This table shows the RS-232C signal names and the pin numbers on a DB-25 connector. Signal Pin # Pin # Signal SG 7 connects to 7 SG TxD 2 connects to 3 RxD RxD 3 connects to 2 TxD RTS 4 connects to 5 CTS CTS 5 connects to 4 RTS DTR 20 connects to 6 DSR DCD 8 6 DSR DSR 6 connects to 20 DTR Connect Data Set Ready (DSR) and Data Carrier Detect (DCD) internally in the connector hood, and then to Data Terminal Ready (DTR) in the remote hood. Standard RS-232C Cables RS-232C cables A standard serial cable passes all the RS-232C signals straight-through. That is, the send data pin on one end of the cable goes to the send data pin on the other end. This is the type of cable to use to connect a modem to your FreeBSD system, and is also appropriate for some terminals. Ports Serial ports are the devices through which data is transferred between the FreeBSD host computer and the terminal. This section describes the kinds of ports that exist and how they are addressed in FreeBSD. Kinds of Ports Several kinds of serial ports exist. Before you purchase or construct a cable, you need to make sure it will fit the ports on your terminal and on the FreeBSD system. Most terminals will have DB25 ports. Personal computers, including PCs running FreeBSD, will have DB25 or DB9 ports. If you have a multiport serial card for your PC, you may have RJ-12 or RJ-45 ports. See the documentation that accompanied the hardware for specifications on the kind of port in use. A visual inspection of the port often works too. Port Names In FreeBSD, you access each serial port through an entry in the /dev directory. There are two different kinds of entries: Call-in ports are named /dev/ttydN where N is the port number, starting from zero. Generally, you use the call-in port for terminals. Call-in ports require that the serial line assert the data carrier detect (DCD) signal to work correctly. Call-out ports are named /dev/cuaaN. You usually do not use the call-out port for terminals, just for modems. You may use the call-out port if the serial cable or the terminal does not support the carrier detect signal. If you have connected a terminal to the first serial port (COM1 in MS-DOS), then you will use /dev/ttyd0 to refer to the terminal. If the terminal is on the second serial port (also known as COM2), use /dev/ttyd1, and so forth. Kernel Configuration FreeBSD supports four serial ports by default. In the MS-DOS world, these are known as COM1, COM2, COM3, and COM4. FreeBSD currently supports dumb multiport serial interface cards, such as the BocaBoard 1008 and 2016, as well as more intelligent multi-port cards such as those made by Digiboard and Stallion Technologies. However, the default kernel only looks for the standard COM ports. To see if your kernel recognizes any of your serial ports, watch for messages while the kernel is booting, or use the /sbin/dmesg command to replay the kernel's boot messages. In particular, look for messages that start with the characters sio. To view just the messages that have the word sio, use the command: &prompt.root; /sbin/dmesg | grep 'sio' For example, on a system with four serial ports, these are the serial-port specific kernel boot messages: sio0 at 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 on isa sio0: type 16550A sio1 at 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa sio1: type 16550A sio2 at 0x3e8-0x3ef irq 5 on isa sio2: type 16550A sio3 at 0x2e8-0x2ef irq 9 on isa sio3: type 16550A If your kernel does not recognize all of your serial ports, you will probably need to configure a custom FreeBSD kernel for your system. For detailed information on configuring your kernel, please see . The relevant device lines for your kernel configuration file would look like this, for FreeBSD 4.X: device sio0 at isa? port IO_COM1 irq 4 device sio1 at isa? port IO_COM2 irq 3 device sio2 at isa? port IO_COM3 irq 5 device sio3 at isa? port IO_COM4 irq 9 and like this, for FreeBSD 5.X: device sio You can comment-out or completely remove lines for devices you do not have in the case of FreeBSD 4.X; for FreeBSD 5.X you have to edit your /boot/device.hints file to configure your serial ports. Please refer to the &man.sio.4; manual page for more information on serial ports and multiport boards configuration. Be careful if you are using a configuration file that was previously used for a different version of FreeBSD because the device flags and the syntax have changed between versions. port IO_COM1 is a substitution for port 0x3f8, IO_COM2 is 0x2f8, IO_COM3 is 0x3e8, and IO_COM4 is 0x2e8, which are fairly common port addresses for their respective serial ports; interrupts 4, 3, 5, and 9 are fairly common interrupt request lines. Also note that regular serial ports cannot share interrupts on ISA-bus PCs (multiport boards have on-board electronics that allow all the 16550A's on the board to share one or two interrupt request lines). Device Special Files Most devices in the kernel are accessed through device special files, which are located in the /dev directory. The sio devices are accessed through the /dev/ttydN (dial-in) and /dev/cuaaN (call-out) devices. FreeBSD also provides initialization devices (/dev/ttyidN and /dev/cuai0N) and locking devices (/dev/ttyldN and /dev/cual0N). The initialization devices are used to initialize communications port parameters each time a port is opened, such as crtscts for modems which use RTS/CTS signaling for flow control. The locking devices are used to lock flags on ports to prevent users or programs changing certain parameters; see the manual pages &man.termios.4;, &man.sio.4;, and &man.stty.1; for information on the terminal settings, locking and initializing devices, and setting terminal options, respectively. Making Device Special Files FreeBSD 5.0 includes the &man.devfs.5; filesystem which automatically creates device nodes as needed. If you are running a version of FreeBSD with devfs enabled then you can safely skip this section. A shell script called MAKEDEV in the /dev directory manages the device special files. To use MAKEDEV to make dial-up device special files for COM1 (port 0), cd to /dev and issue the command MAKEDEV ttyd0. Likewise, to make dial-up device special files for COM2 (port 1), use MAKEDEV ttyd1. MAKEDEV not only creates the /dev/ttydN device special files, but also the /dev/cuaaN, /dev/cuaiaN, /dev/cualaN, /dev/ttyldN, and /dev/ttyidN nodes. After making new device special files, be sure to check the permissions on the files (especially the /dev/cua* files) to make sure that only users who should have access to those device special files can read and write on them — you probably do not want to allow your average user to use your modems to dial-out. The default permissions on the /dev/cua* files should be sufficient: crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 129 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cuaa1 crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 161 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cuaia1 crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 193 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cuala1 These permissions allow the user uucp and users in the group dialer to use the call-out devices. Serial Port Configuration ttyd cuaa The ttydN (or cuaaN) device is the regular device you will want to open for your applications. When a process opens the device, it will have a default set of terminal I/O settings. You can see these settings with the command &prompt.root; stty -a -f /dev/ttyd1 When you change the settings to this device, the settings are in effect until the device is closed. When it is reopened, it goes back to the default set. To make changes to the default set, you can open and adjust the settings of the initial state device. For example, to turn on mode, 8 bit communication, and flow control by default for ttyd5, type: &prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyid5 clocal cs8 ixon ixoff rc files rc.serial System-wide initialization of the serial devices is controlled in /etc/rc.serial. This file affects the default settings of serial devices. To prevent certain settings from being changed by an application, make adjustments to the lock state device. For example, to lock the speed of ttyd5 to 57600 bps, type: &prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyld5 57600 Now, an application that opens ttyd5 and tries to change the speed of the port will be stuck with 57600 bps. MAKEDEV Naturally, you should make the initial state and lock state devices writable only by the root account. Sean Kelly Contributed by Terminals terminals Terminals provide a convenient and low-cost way to access your FreeBSD system when you are not at the computer's console or on a connected network. This section describes how to use terminals with FreeBSD. Uses and Types of Terminals The original Unix systems did not have consoles. Instead, people logged in and ran programs through terminals that were connected to the computer's serial ports. It is quite similar to using a modem and terminal software to dial into a remote system to do text-only work. Today's PCs have consoles capable of high quality graphics, but the ability to establish a login session on a serial port still exists in nearly every Unix-style operating system today; FreeBSD is no exception. By using a terminal attached to an unused serial port, you can log in and run any text program that you would normally run on the console or in an xterm window in the X Window System. For the business user, you can attach many terminals to a FreeBSD system and place them on your employees' desktops. For a home user, a spare computer such as an older IBM PC or a Macintosh can be a terminal wired into a more powerful computer running FreeBSD. You can turn what might otherwise be a single-user computer into a powerful multiple user system. For FreeBSD, there are three kinds of terminals: Dumb terminals PCs acting as terminals X terminals The remaining subsections describe each kind. Dumb Terminals Dumb terminals are specialized pieces of hardware that let you connect to computers over serial lines. They are called dumb because they have only enough computational power to display, send, and receive text. You cannot run any programs on them. It is the computer to which you connect them that has all the power to run text editors, compilers, email, games, and so forth. There are hundreds of kinds of dumb terminals made by many manufacturers, including Digital Equipment Corporation's VT-100 and Wyse's WY-75. Just about any kind will work with FreeBSD. Some high-end terminals can even display graphics, but only certain software packages can take advantage of these advanced features. Dumb terminals are popular in work environments where workers do not need access to graphical applications such as those provided by the X Window System. - PCs Acting As Terminals + PCs Acting as Terminals If a dumb terminal has just enough ability to display, send, and receive text, then certainly any spare personal computer can be a dumb terminal. All you need is the proper cable and some terminal emulation software to run on the computer. Such a configuration is popular in homes. For example, if your spouse is busy working on your FreeBSD system's console, you can do some text-only work at the same time from a less powerful personal computer hooked up as a terminal to the FreeBSD system. X Terminals X terminals are the most sophisticated kind of terminal available. Instead of connecting to a serial port, they usually connect to a network like Ethernet. Instead of being relegated to text-only applications, they can display any X application. We introduce X terminals just for the sake of completeness. However, this chapter does not cover setup, configuration, or use of X terminals. Configuration This section describes what you need to configure on your FreeBSD system to enable a login session on a terminal. It assumes you have already configured your kernel to support the serial port to which the terminal is connected—and that you have connected it. Recall from that the init process is responsible for all process control and initialization at system startup. One of the tasks performed by init is to read the /etc/ttys file and start a getty process on the available terminals. The getty process is responsible for reading a login name and starting the login program. Thus, to configure terminals for your FreeBSD system the following steps should be taken as root: Add a line to /etc/ttys for the entry in the /dev directory for the serial port if it is not already there. Specify that /usr/libexec/getty be run on the port, and specify the appropriate getty type from the /etc/gettytab file. Specify the default terminal type. Set the port to on. Specify whether the port should be secure. Force init to reread the /etc/ttys file. As an optional step, you may wish to create a custom getty type for use in step 2 by making an entry in /etc/gettytab. This chapter does not explain how to do so; you are encouraged to see the &man.gettytab.5; and the &man.getty.8; manual pages for more information. Adding an Entry to <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> The /etc/ttys file lists all of the ports on your FreeBSD system where you want to allow logins. For example, the first virtual console ttyv0 has an entry in this file. You can log in on the console using this entry. This file also contains entries for the other virtual consoles, serial ports, and pseudo-ttys. For a hardwired terminal, just list the serial port's /dev entry without the /dev part (for example, /dev/ttyv0 would be listed as ttyv0). A default FreeBSD install includes an /etc/ttys file with support for the first four serial ports: ttyd0 through ttyd3. If you are attaching a terminal to one of those ports, you do not need to add another entry. Adding Terminal Entries to <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> Suppose we would like to connect two terminals to the system: a Wyse-50 and an old 286 IBM PC running Procomm terminal software emulating a VT-100 terminal. We connect the Wyse to the second serial port and the 286 to the sixth serial port (a port on a multiport serial card). The corresponding entries in the /etc/ttys file would look like this: ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wy50 on insecure ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" vt100 on insecure The first field normally specifies the name of the terminal special file as it is found in /dev. The second field is the command to execute for this line, which is usually &man.getty.8;. getty initializes and opens the line, sets the speed, prompts for a user name and then executes the &man.login.1; program. The getty program accepts one (optional) parameter on its command line, the getty type. A getty type configures characteristics on the terminal line, like bps rate and parity. The getty program reads these characteristics from the file /etc/gettytab. The file /etc/gettytab contains lots of entries for terminal lines both old and new. In almost all cases, the entries that start with the text std will work for hardwired terminals. These entries ignore parity. There is a std entry for each bps rate from 110 to 115200. Of course, you can add your own entries to this file. The &man.gettytab.5; manual page provides more information. When setting the getty type in the /etc/ttys file, make sure that the communications settings on the terminal match. For our example, the Wyse-50 uses no parity and connects at 38400 bps. The 286 PC uses no parity and connects at 19200 bps. The third field is the type of terminal usually connected to that tty line. For dial-up ports, unknown or dialup is typically used in this field since users may dial up with practically any type of terminal or software. For hardwired terminals, the terminal type does not change, so you can put a real terminal type from the &man.termcap.5; database file in this field. For our example, the Wyse-50 uses the real terminal type while the 286 PC running Procomm will be set to emulate at VT-100. The fourth field specifies if the port should be enabled. Putting on here will have the init process start the program in the second field, getty. If you put off in this field, there will be no getty, and hence no logins on the port. The final field is used to specify whether the port is secure. Marking a port as secure means that you trust it enough to allow the root account (or any account with a user ID of 0) to login from that port. Insecure ports do not allow root logins. On an insecure port, users must login from unprivileged accounts and then use &man.su.1; or a similar mechanism to gain superuser privileges. It is highly recommended that you use insecure even for terminals that are behind locked doors. It is quite easy to login and use su if you need superuser privileges. Force <command>init</command> to Reread <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> After making the necessary changes to the /etc/ttys file you should send a SIGHUP (hangup) signal to the init process to force it to re-read its configuration file. For example: &prompt.root; kill -HUP 1 init is always the first process run on a system, therefore it will always have PID 1. If everything is set up correctly, all cables are in place, and the terminals are powered up, then a getty process should be running on each terminal and you should see login prompts on your terminals at this point. Troubleshooting Your Connection Even with the most meticulous attention to detail, something could still go wrong while setting up a terminal. Here is a list of symptoms and some suggested fixes. No Login Prompt Appears Make sure the terminal is plugged in and powered up. If it is a personal computer acting as a terminal, make sure it is running terminal emulation software on the correct serial port. Make sure the cable is connected firmly to both the terminal and the FreeBSD computer. Make sure it is the right kind of cable. Make sure the terminal and FreeBSD agree on the bps rate and parity settings. If you have a video display terminal, make sure the contrast and brightness controls are turned up. If it is a printing terminal, make sure paper and ink are in good supply. Make sure that a getty process is running and serving the terminal. For example, to get a list of running getty processes with ps, type: &prompt.root; ps -axww|grep getty You should see an entry for the terminal. For example, the following display shows that a getty is running on the second serial port ttyd1 and is using the std.38400 entry in /etc/gettytab: 22189 d1 Is+ 0:00.03 /usr/libexec/getty std.38400 ttyd1 If no getty process is running, make sure you have enabled the port in /etc/ttys. Also remember to run kill -HUP 1 after modifying the ttys file. If the getty process is running but the terminal still does not display a login prompt, or if it displays a prompt but will not allow you to type, your terminal or cable may not support hardware handshaking. Try changing the entry in /etc/ttys from std.38400 to 3wire.38400 remember to run kill -HUP 1 after modifying /etc/ttys). The 3wire entry is similar to std, but ignores hardware handshaking. You may need to reduce the baud rate or enable software flow control when using 3wire to prevent buffer overflows. If Garbage Appears Instead of a Login Prompt Make sure the terminal and FreeBSD agree on the bps rate and parity settings. Check the getty processes to make sure the correct getty type is in use. If not, edit /etc/ttys and run kill -HUP 1. - Characters Appear Doubled; the Password Appears when Typed + Characters Appear Doubled; the Password Appears When Typed Switch the terminal (or the terminal emulation software) from half duplex or local echo to full duplex. Guy Helmer Contributed by Sean Kelly Additions by Dial-in Service dial-in service Configuring your FreeBSD system for dial-in service is very similar to connecting terminals except that you are dealing with modems instead of terminals. External vs. Internal Modems External modems seem to be more convenient for dial-up, because external modems often can be semi-permanently configured via parameters stored in non-volatile RAM and they usually provide lighted indicators that display the state of important RS-232 signals. Blinking lights impress visitors, but lights are also very useful to see whether a modem is operating properly. Internal modems usually lack non-volatile RAM, so their configuration may be limited only to setting DIP switches. If your internal modem has any signal indicator lights, it is probably difficult to view the lights when the system's cover is in place. Modems and Cables modem If you are using an external modem, then you will of course need the proper cable. A standard RS-232C serial cable should suffice as long as all of the normal signals are wired: Transmitted Data (SD) Received Data (RD) Request to Send (RTS) Clear to Send (CTS) Data Set Ready (DSR) Data Terminal Ready (DTR) Carrier Detect (CD) Signal Ground (SG) FreeBSD needs the RTS and CTS signals for flow-control at speeds above 2400 bps, the CD signal to detect when a call has been answered or the line has been hung up, and the DTR signal to reset the modem after a session is complete. Some cables are wired without all of the needed signals, so if you have problems, such as a login session not going away when the line hangs up, you may have a problem with your cable. Like other Unix-like operating systems, FreeBSD uses the hardware signals to find out when a call has been answered or a line has been hung up and to hangup and reset the modem after a call. FreeBSD avoids sending commands to the modem or watching for status reports from the modem. If you are familiar with connecting modems to PC-based bulletin board systems, this may seem awkward. Serial Interface Considerations FreeBSD supports NS8250-, NS16450-, NS16550-, and NS16550A-based EIA RS-232C (CCITT V.24) communications interfaces. The 8250 and 16450 devices have single-character buffers. The 16550 device provides a 16-character buffer, which allows for better system performance. (Bugs in plain 16550's prevent the use of the 16-character buffer, so use 16550A's if possible). Because single-character-buffer devices require more work by the operating system than the 16-character-buffer devices, 16550A-based serial interface cards are much preferred. If the system has many active serial ports or will have a heavy load, 16550A-based cards are better for low-error-rate communications. Quick Overview getty As with terminals, init spawns a getty process for each configured serial port for dial-in connections. For example, if a modem is attached to /dev/ttyd0, the command ps ax might show this: 4850 ?? I 0:00.09 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0 When a user dials the modem's line and the modems connect, the CD (Carrier Detect) line is reported by the modem. The kernel notices that carrier has been detected and completes getty's open of the port. getty sends a login: prompt at the specified initial line speed. getty watches to see if legitimate characters are received, and, in a typical configuration, if it finds junk (probably due to the modem's connection speed being different than getty's speed), getty tries adjusting the line speeds until it receives reasonable characters. /usr/bin/login After the user enters his/her login name, getty executes /usr/bin/login, which completes the login by asking for the user's password and then starting the user's shell. Configuration Files There are three system configuration files in the /etc directory that you will probably need to edit to allow dial-up access to your FreeBSD system. The first, /etc/gettytab, contains configuration information for the /usr/libexec/getty daemon. Second, /etc/ttys holds information that tells /sbin/init what tty devices should have getty processes running on them. Lastly, you can place port initialization commands in the /etc/rc.serial script. There are two schools of thought regarding dial-up modems on Unix. One group likes to configure their modems and systems so that no matter at what speed a remote user dials in, the local computer-to-modem RS-232 interface runs at a locked speed. The benefit of this configuration is that the remote user always sees a system login prompt immediately. The downside is that the system does not know what a user's true data rate is, so full-screen programs like Emacs will not adjust their screen-painting methods to make their response better for slower connections. The other school configures their modems' RS-232 interface to vary its speed based on the remote user's connection speed. For example, V.32bis (14.4 Kbps) connections to the modem might make the modem run its RS-232 interface at 19.2 Kbps, while 2400 bps connections make the modem's RS-232 interface run at 2400 bps. Because getty does not understand any particular modem's connection speed reporting, getty gives a login: message at an initial speed and watches the characters that come back in response. If the user sees junk, it is assumed that they know they should press the Enter key until they see a recognizable prompt. If the data rates do not match, getty sees anything the user types as junk, tries going to the next speed and gives the login: prompt again. This procedure can continue ad nauseam, but normally only takes a keystroke or two before the user sees a good prompt. Obviously, this login sequence does not look as clean as the former locked-speed method, but a user on a low-speed connection should receive better interactive response from full-screen programs. This section will try to give balanced configuration information, but is biased towards having the modem's data rate follow the connection rate. <filename>/etc/gettytab</filename> /etc/gettytab /etc/gettytab is a &man.termcap.5;-style file of configuration information for &man.getty.8;. Please see the &man.gettytab.5; manual page for complete information on the format of the file and the list of capabilities. - Locked-Speed Config + Locked-speed Config If you are locking your modem's data communications rate at a particular speed, you probably will not need to make any changes to /etc/gettytab. - Matching-Speed Config + Matching-speed Config You will need to setup an entry in /etc/gettytab to give getty information about the speeds you wish to use for your modem. If you have a 2400 bps modem, you can probably use the existing D2400 entry. # # Fast dialup terminals, 2400/1200/300 rotary (can start either way) # D2400|d2400|Fast-Dial-2400:\ :nx=D1200:tc=2400-baud: 3|D1200|Fast-Dial-1200:\ :nx=D300:tc=1200-baud: 5|D300|Fast-Dial-300:\ :nx=D2400:tc=300-baud: If you have a higher speed modem, you will probably need to add an entry in /etc/gettytab; here is an entry you could use for a 14.4 Kbps modem with a top interface speed of 19.2 Kbps: # # Additions for a V.32bis Modem # um|V300|High Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\ :nx=V19200:tc=std.300: un|V1200|High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\ :nx=V300:tc=std.1200: uo|V2400|High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\ :nx=V1200:tc=std.2400: up|V9600|High Speed Modem at 9600,8-bit:\ :nx=V2400:tc=std.9600: uq|V19200|High Speed Modem at 19200,8-bit:\ :nx=V9600:tc=std.19200: This will result in 8-bit, no parity connections. The example above starts the communications rate at 19.2 Kbps (for a V.32bis connection), then cycles through 9600 bps (for V.32), 2400 bps, 1200 bps, 300 bps, and back to 19.2 Kbps. Communications rate cycling is implemented with the nx= (next table) capability. Each of the lines uses a tc= (table continuation) entry to pick up the rest of the standard settings for a particular data rate. If you have a 28.8 Kbps modem and/or you want to take advantage of compression on a 14.4 Kbps modem, you need to use a higher communications rate than 19.2 Kbps. Here is an example of a gettytab entry starting a 57.6 Kbps: # # Additions for a V.32bis or V.34 Modem # Starting at 57.6 Kbps # vm|VH300|Very High Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\ :nx=VH57600:tc=std.300: vn|VH1200|Very High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\ :nx=VH300:tc=std.1200: vo|VH2400|Very High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\ :nx=VH1200:tc=std.2400: vp|VH9600|Very High Speed Modem at 9600,8-bit:\ :nx=VH2400:tc=std.9600: vq|VH57600|Very High Speed Modem at 57600,8-bit:\ :nx=VH9600:tc=std.57600: If you have a slow CPU or a heavily loaded system and do not have 16550A-based serial ports, you may receive sio silo errors at 57.6 Kbps. <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> /etc/ttys Configuration of the /etc/ttys file was covered in . Configuration for modems is similar but we must pass a different argument to getty and specify a different terminal type. The general format for both locked-speed and matching-speed configurations is: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty xxx" dialup on The first item in the above line is the device special file for this entry — ttyd0 means /dev/ttyd0 is the file that this getty will be watching. The second item, "/usr/libexec/getty xxx" (xxx will be replaced by the initial gettytab capability) is the process init will run on the device. The third item, dialup, is the default terminal type. The fourth parameter, on, indicates to init that the line is operational. There can be a fifth parameter, secure, but it should only be used for terminals which are physically secure (such as the system console). The default terminal type (dialup in the example above) may depend on local preferences. dialup is the traditional default terminal type on dial-up lines so that users may customize their login scripts to notice when the terminal is dialup and automatically adjust their terminal type. However, the author finds it easier at his site to specify vt102 as the default terminal type, since the users just use VT102 emulation on their remote systems. After you have made changes to /etc/ttys, you may send the init process a HUP signal to re-read the file. You can use the command &prompt.root; kill -HUP 1 to send the signal. If this is your first time setting up the system, you may want to wait until your modem(s) are properly configured and connected before signaling init. - Locked-Speed Config + Locked-speed Config For a locked-speed configuration, your ttys entry needs to have a fixed-speed entry provided to getty. For a modem whose port speed is locked at 19.2 Kbps, the ttys entry might look like this: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" dialup on If your modem is locked at a different data rate, substitute the appropriate value for std.speed instead of std.19200. Make sure that you use a valid type listed in /etc/gettytab. - Matching-Speed Config + Matching-speed Config In a matching-speed configuration, your ttys entry needs to reference the appropriate beginning auto-baud (sic) entry in /etc/gettytab. For example, if you added the above suggested entry for a matching-speed modem that starts at 19.2 Kbps (the gettytab entry containing the V19200 starting point), your ttys entry might look like this: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty V19200" dialup on <filename>/etc/rc.serial</filename> rc files rc.serial High-speed modems, like V.32, V.32bis, and V.34 modems, need to use hardware (RTS/CTS) flow control. You can add stty commands to /etc/rc.serial to set the hardware flow control flag in the FreeBSD kernel for the modem ports. For example to set the termios flag crtscts on serial port #1's (COM2) dial-in and dial-out initialization devices, the following lines could be added to /etc/rc.serial: # Serial port initial configuration stty -f /dev/ttyid1 crtscts stty -f /dev/cuai01 crtscts Modem Settings If you have a modem whose parameters may be permanently set in non-volatile RAM, you will need to use a terminal program (such as Telix under MS-DOS or tip under FreeBSD) to set the parameters. Connect to the modem using the same communications speed as the initial speed getty will use and configure the modem's non-volatile RAM to match these requirements: CD asserted when connected DTR asserted for operation; dropping DTR hangs up line and resets modem CTS transmitted data flow control Disable XON/XOFF flow control RTS received data flow control Quiet mode (no result codes) No command echo Please read the documentation for your modem to find out what commands and/or DIP switch settings you need to give it. For example, to set the above parameters on a USRobotics Sportster 14,400 external modem, one could give these commands to the modem: ATZ AT&C1&D2&H1&I0&R2&W You might also want to take this opportunity to adjust other settings in the modem, such as whether it will use V.42bis and/or MNP5 compression. The USR Sportster 14,400 external modem also has some DIP switches that need to be set; for other modems, perhaps you can use these settings as an example: Switch 1: UP — DTR Normal Switch 2: N/A (Verbal Result Codes/Numeric Result Codes) Switch 3: UP — Suppress Result Codes Switch 4: DOWN — No echo, offline commands Switch 5: UP — Auto Answer Switch 6: UP — Carrier Detect Normal Switch 7: UP — Load NVRAM Defaults Switch 8: N/A (Smart Mode/Dumb Mode) Result codes should be disabled/suppressed for dial-up modems to avoid problems that can occur if getty mistakenly gives a login: prompt to a modem that is in command mode and the modem echoes the command or returns a result code. This sequence can result in a extended, silly conversation between getty and the modem. Locked-speed Config For a locked-speed configuration, you will need to configure the modem to maintain a constant modem-to-computer data rate independent of the communications rate. On a USR Sportster 14,400 external modem, these commands will lock the modem-to-computer data rate at the speed used to issue the commands: ATZ AT&B1&W Matching-speed Config For a variable-speed configuration, you will need to configure your modem to adjust its serial port data rate to match the incoming call rate. On a USR Sportster 14,400 external modem, these commands will lock the modem's error-corrected data rate to the speed used to issue the commands, but allow the serial port rate to vary for non-error-corrected connections: ATZ AT&B2&W Checking the Modem's Configuration Most high-speed modems provide commands to view the modem's current operating parameters in a somewhat human-readable fashion. On the USR Sportster 14,400 external modems, the command ATI5 displays the settings that are stored in the non-volatile RAM. To see the true operating parameters of the modem (as influenced by the USR's DIP switch settings), use the commands ATZ and then ATI4. If you have a different brand of modem, check your modem's manual to see how to double-check your modem's configuration parameters. Troubleshooting Here are a few steps you can follow to check out the dial-up modem on your system. - Checking out the FreeBSD System + Checking Out the FreeBSD System Hook up your modem to your FreeBSD system, boot the system, and, if your modem has status indication lights, watch to see whether the modem's DTR indicator lights when the login: prompt appears on the system's console — if it lights up, that should mean that FreeBSD has started a getty process on the appropriate communications port and is waiting for the modem to accept a call. If the DTR indicator does not light, login to the FreeBSD system through the console and issue a ps ax to see if FreeBSD is trying to run a getty process on the correct port. You should see lines like these among the processes displayed: 114 ?? I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0 115 ?? I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd1 If you see something different, like this: 114 d0 I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0 and the modem has not accepted a call yet, this means that getty has completed its open on the communications port. This could indicate a problem with the cabling or a mis-configured modem, because getty should not be able to open the communications port until CD (carrier detect) has been asserted by the modem. If you do not see any getty processes waiting to open the desired ttydN port, double-check your entries in /etc/ttys to see if there are any mistakes there. Also, check the log file /var/log/messages to see if there are any log messages from init or getty regarding any problems. If there are any messages, triple-check the configuration files /etc/ttys and /etc/gettytab, as well as the appropriate device special files /dev/ttydN, for any mistakes, missing entries, or missing device special files. Try Dialing In Try dialing into the system; be sure to use 8 bits, no parity, and 1 stop bit on the remote system. If you do not get a prompt right away, or get garbage, try pressing Enter about once per second. If you still do not see a login: prompt after a while, try sending a BREAK. If you are using a high-speed modem to do the dialing, try dialing again after locking the dialing modem's interface speed (via AT&B1 on a USR Sportster, for example). If you still cannot get a login: prompt, check /etc/gettytab again and double-check that The initial capability name specified in /etc/ttys for the line matches a name of a capability in /etc/gettytab Each nx= entry matches another gettytab capability name Each tc= entry matches another gettytab capability name If you dial but the modem on the FreeBSD system will not answer, make sure that the modem is configured to answer the phone when DTR is asserted. If the modem seems to be configured correctly, verify that the DTR line is asserted by checking the modem's indicator lights (if it has any). If you have gone over everything several times and it still does not work, take a break and come back to it later. If it still does not work, perhaps you can send an electronic mail message to the &a.questions; describing your modem and your problem, and the good folks on the list will try to help. Dial-out Service dial-out service The following are tips for getting your host to be able to connect over the modem to another computer. This is appropriate for establishing a terminal session with a remote host. This is useful to log onto a BBS. This kind of connection can be extremely helpful to get a file on the Internet if you have problems with PPP. If you need to FTP something and PPP is broken, use the terminal session to FTP it. Then use zmodem to transfer it to your machine. My Stock Hayes Modem Is Not Supported, What Can I Do? Actually, the manual page for tip is out of date. There is a generic Hayes dialer already built in. Just use at=hayes in your /etc/remote file. The Hayes driver is not smart enough to recognize some of the advanced features of newer modems—messages like BUSY, NO DIALTONE, or CONNECT 115200 will just confuse it. You should turn those messages off when you use tip (using ATX0&W). Also, the dial timeout for tip is 60 seconds. Your modem should use something less, or else tip will think there is a communication problem. Try ATS7=45&W. As shipped, tip does not yet support Hayes modems fully. The solution is to edit the file tipconf.h in the directory /usr/src/usr.bin/tip/tip. Obviously you need the source distribution to do this. Edit the line #define HAYES 0 to #define HAYES 1. Then make and make install. Everything works nicely after that. How Am I Expected to Enter These AT Commands? /etc/remote Make what is called a direct entry in your /etc/remote file. For example, if your modem is hooked up to the first serial port, /dev/cuaa0, then put in the following line: cuaa0:dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#19200:pa=none Use the highest bps rate your modem supports in the br capability. Then, type tip cuaa0 and you will be connected to your modem. If there is no /dev/cuaa0 on your system, do this: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV cuaa0 Or use cu as root with the following command: &prompt.root; cu -lline -sspeed line is the serial port (e.g./dev/cuaa0) and speed is the speed (e.g.57600). When you are done entering the AT commands hit ~. to exit. The <literal>@</literal> Sign for the pn Capability Does Not Work! The @ sign in the phone number capability tells tip to look in /etc/phones for a phone number. But the @ sign is also a special character in capability files like /etc/remote. Escape it with a backslash: pn=\@ How Can I Dial a Phone Number on the Command Line? Put what is called a generic entry in your /etc/remote file. For example: tip115200|Dial any phone number at 115200 bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#115200:at=hayes:pa=none:du: tip57600|Dial any phone number at 57600 bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du: Then you can do things like: &prompt.root; tip -115200 5551234 If you prefer cu over tip, use a generic cu entry: cu115200|Use cu to dial any number at 115200bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa1:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du: and type: &prompt.root; cu 5551234 -s 115200 Do I Have to Type in the bps Rate Every Time I Do That? Put in an entry for tip1200 or cu1200, but go ahead and use whatever bps rate is appropriate with the br capability. tip thinks a good default is 1200 bps which is why it looks for a tip1200 entry. You do not have to use 1200 bps, though. - I Access a Number of Hosts through a Terminal Server + I Access a Number of Hosts Through a Terminal Server Rather than waiting until you are connected and typing CONNECT <host> each time, use tip's cm capability. For example, these entries in /etc/remote: pain|pain.deep13.com|Forrester's machine:\ :cm=CONNECT pain\n:tc=deep13: muffin|muffin.deep13.com|Frank's machine:\ :cm=CONNECT muffin\n:tc=deep13: deep13:Gizmonics Institute terminal server:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa2:br#38400:at=hayes:du:pa=none:pn=5551234: will let you type tip pain or tip muffin to connect to the hosts pain or muffin, and tip deep13 to get to the terminal server. - Can Tip Try More Than one Line for each Site? + Can Tip Try More Than One Line for Each Site? This is often a problem where a university has several modem lines and several thousand students trying to use them. Make an entry for your university in /etc/remote and use @ for the pn capability: big-university:\ :pn=\@:tc=dialout dialout:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa3:br#9600:at=courier:du:pa=none: Then, list the phone numbers for the university in /etc/phones: big-university 5551111 big-university 5551112 big-university 5551113 big-university 5551114 tip will try each one in the listed order, then give up. If you want to keep retrying, run tip in a while loop. Why Do I Have to Hit <keycombo action="simul"> <keycap>Ctrl</keycap> <keycap>P</keycap> </keycombo> Twice to Send <keycombo action="simul"> <keycap>Ctrl</keycap> <keycap>P</keycap> </keycombo> Once? CtrlP is the default force character, used to tell tip that the next character is literal data. You can set the force character to any other character with the ~s escape, which means set a variable. Type ~sforce=single-char followed by a newline. single-char is any single character. If you leave out single-char, then the force character is the nul character, which you can get by typing Ctrl2 or CtrlSpace . A pretty good value for single-char is Shift Ctrl 6 , which is only used on some terminal servers. You can have the force character be whatever you want by specifying the following in your $HOME/.tiprc file: force=<single-char> - Suddenly Everything I Type Is in UPPER CASE?? + Suddenly Everything I Type Is in Upper Case?? You must have pressed Ctrl A , tip's raise character, specially designed for people with broken caps-lock keys. Use ~s as above and set the variable raisechar to something reasonable. In fact, you can set it to the same as the force character, if you never expect to use either of these features. Here is a sample .tiprc file perfect for Emacs users who need to type Ctrl2 and CtrlA a lot: force=^^ raisechar=^^ The ^^ is ShiftCtrl6 . How Can I Do File Transfers with <command>tip</command>? If you are talking to another Unix system, you can send and receive files with ~p (put) and ~t (take). These commands run cat and echo on the remote system to accept and send files. The syntax is: ~p local-file remote-file ~t remote-file local-file There is no error checking, so you probably should use another protocol, like zmodem. How Can I Run zmodem with <command>tip</command>? To receive files, start the sending program on the remote end. Then, type ~C rz to begin receiving them locally. To send files, start the receiving program on the remote end. Then, type ~C sz files to send them to the remote system. Kazutaka YOKOTA Contributed by Bill Paul Based on a document by Setting Up the Serial Console serial console Introduction FreeBSD has the ability to boot on a system with only a dumb terminal on a serial port as a console. Such a configuration should be useful for two classes of people: system administrators who wish to install FreeBSD on machines that have no keyboard or monitor attached, and developers who want to debug the kernel or device drivers. As described in , FreeBSD employs a three stage bootstrap. The first two stages are in the boot block code which is stored at the beginning of the FreeBSD slice on the boot disk. The boot block will then load and run the boot loader (/boot/loader) as the third stage code. In order to set up the serial console you must configure the boot block code, the boot loader code and the kernel. Serial Console Configuration Prepare a serial cable. null-modem cable You will need either a null-modem cable or a standard serial cable and a null-modem adapter. See for a discussion on serial cables. Unplug your keyboard. Most PC systems probe for the keyboard during the Power-On Self-Test (POST) and will generate an error if the keyboard is not detected. Some machines complain loudly about the lack of a keyboard and will not continue to boot until it is plugged in. If your computer complains about the error, but boots anyway, then you do not have to do anything special. (Some machines with Phoenix BIOS installed merely say Keyboard failed and continue to boot normally.) If your computer refuses to boot without a keyboard attached then you will have to configure the BIOS so that it ignores this error (if it can). Consult your motherboard's manual for details on how to do this. Setting the keyboard to Not installed in the BIOS setup does not mean that you will not be able to use your keyboard. All this does is tell the BIOS not to probe for a keyboard at power-on, so it will not complain if the keyboard is not plugged in. You can leave the keyboard plugged in even with this flag set to Not installed and the keyboard will still work. If your system has a PS/2 mouse, chances are very good that you may have to unplug your mouse as well as your keyboard. This is because PS/2 mice share some hardware with the keyboard and leaving the mouse plugged in can fool the keyboard probe into thinking the keyboard is still there. It is said that a Gateway 2000 Pentium 90 MHz system with an AMI BIOS that behaves this way. In general, this is not a problem since the mouse is not much good without the keyboard anyway. Plug a dumb terminal into COM1 (sio0). If you do not have a dumb terminal, you can use an old PC/XT with a modem program, or the serial port on another Unix box. If you do not have a COM1 (sio0), get one. At this time, there is no way to select a port other than COM1 for the boot blocks without recompiling the boot blocks. If you are already using COM1 for another device, you will have to temporarily remove that device and install a new boot block and kernel once you get FreeBSD up and running. (It is assumed that COM1 will be available on a file/compute/terminal server anyway; if you really need COM1 for something else (and you cannot switch that something else to COM2 (sio1)), then you probably should not even be bothering with all this in the first place.) Make sure the configuration file of your kernel has appropriate flags set for COM1 (sio0). Relevant flags are: 0x10 Enables console support for this unit. The other console flags are ignored unless this is set. Currently, at most one unit can have console support; the first one (in config file order) with this flag set is preferred. This option alone will not make the serial port the console. Set the following flag or use the option described below, together with this flag. 0x20 Forces this unit to be the console (unless there is another higher priority console), regardless of the option discussed below. This flag replaces the COMCONSOLE option in FreeBSD versions 2.X. The flag 0x20 must be used together with the flag. 0x40 Reserves this unit (in conjunction with 0x10) and makes the unit unavailable for normal access. You should not set this flag to the serial port unit which you want to use as the serial console. The only use of this flag is to designate the unit for kernel remote debugging. See The Developer's Handbook for more information on remote debugging. In FreeBSD 4.0 or later the semantics of the flag 0x40 are slightly different and there is another flag to specify a serial port for remote debugging. Example: device sio0 at isa? port IO_COM1 flags 0x10 irq 4 See the &man.sio.4; manual page for more details. If the flags were not set, you need to run UserConfig (on a different console) or recompile the kernel. Create boot.config in the root directory of the a partition on the boot drive. This file will instruct the boot block code how you would like to boot the system. In order to activate the serial console, you need one or more of the following options—if you want multiple options, include them all on the same line: Toggles internal and serial consoles. You can use this to switch console devices. For instance, if you boot from the internal (video) console, you can use to direct the boot loader and the kernel to use the serial port as its console device. Alternatively, if you boot from the serial port, you can use the to tell the boot loader and the kernel to use the video display as the console instead. Toggles single and dual console configurations. In the single configuration the console will be either the internal console (video display) or the serial port, depending on the state of the option above. In the dual console configuration, both the video display and the serial port will become the console at the same time, regardless of the state of the option. However, note that the dual console configuration takes effect only during the boot block is running. Once the boot loader gets control, the console specified by the option becomes the only console. Makes the boot block probe the keyboard. If no keyboard is found, the and options are automatically set. Due to space constraints in the current version of the boot blocks, the option is capable of detecting extended keyboards only. Keyboards with less than 101 keys (and without F11 and F12 keys) may not be detected. Keyboards on some laptop computers may not be properly found because of this limitation. If this is the case with your system, you have to abandon using the option. Unfortunately there is no workaround for this problem. Use either the option to select the console automatically, or the option to activate the serial console. You may include other options described in &man.boot.8; as well. The options, except for , will be passed to the boot loader (/boot/loader). The boot loader will determine which of the internal video or the serial port should become the console by examining the state of the option alone. This means that if you specify the option but not the option in /boot.config, you can use the serial port as the console only during the boot block; the boot loader will use the internal video display as the console. Boot the machine. When you start your FreeBSD box, the boot blocks will echo the contents of /boot.config to the console. For example: /boot.config: -P Keyboard: no The second line appears only if you put in /boot.config and indicates presence/absence of the keyboard. These messages go to either serial or internal console, or both, depending on the option in /boot.config. Options Message goes to none internal console serial console serial and internal consoles serial and internal consoles , keyboard present internal console , keyboard absent serial console After the above messages, there will be a small pause before the boot blocks continue loading the boot loader and before any further messages printed to the console. Under normal circumstances, you do not need to interrupt the boot blocks, but you may want to do so in order to make sure things are set up correctly. Hit any key, other than Enter, at the console to interrupt the boot process. The boot blocks will then prompt you for further action. You should now see something like: >> FreeBSD/i386 BOOT Default: 0:wd(0,a)/boot/loader boot: Verify the above message appears on either the serial or internal console or both, according to the options you put in /boot.config. If the message appears in the correct console, hit Enter to continue the boot process. If you want the serial console but you do not see the prompt on the serial terminal, something is wrong with your settings. In the meantime, you enter and hit Enter/Return (if possible) to tell the boot block (and then the boot loader and the kernel) to choose the serial port for the console. Once the system is up, go back and check what went wrong. After the boot loader is loaded and you are in the third stage of the boot process you can still switch between the internal console and the serial console by setting appropriate environment variables in the boot loader. See . Summary Here is the summary of various settings discussed in this section and the console eventually selected. - Case 1: You Set the flags to 0x10 for + <title>Case 1: You Set the Flags to 0x10 for <devicename>sio0</devicename> device sio0 at isa? port IO_COM1 flags 0x10 irq 4 Options in /boot.config Console during boot blocks Console during boot loader Console in kernel nothing internal internal internal serial serial serial serial and internal internal internal serial and internal serial serial , keyboard present internal internal internal , keyboard absent serial and internal serial serial - Case 2: You Set the flags to 0x30 for sio0 + Case 2: You Set the Flags to 0x30 for sio0 device sio0 at isa? port IO_COM1 flags 0x30 irq 4 Options in /boot.config Console during boot blocks Console during boot loader Console in kernel nothing internal internal serial serial serial serial serial and internal internal serial serial and internal serial serial , keyboard present internal internal serial , keyboard absent serial and internal serial serial Tips for the Serial Console Setting a Faster Serial Port Speed By default, the serial port settings are: 9600 baud, 8 bits, no parity, and 1 stop bit. If you wish to change the speed, you need to recompile at least the boot blocks. Add the following line to /etc/make.conf and compile new boot blocks: BOOT_COMCONSOLE_SPEED=19200 If the serial console is configured in some other way than by booting with , or if the serial console used by the kernel is different from the one used by the boot blocks, then you must also add the following option to the kernel configuration file and compile a new kernel: options CONSPEED=19200 Using Serial Port Other Than <devicename>sio0</devicename> for the Console Using a port other than sio0 as the console requires some recompiling. If you want to use another serial port for whatever reasons, recompile the boot blocks, the boot loader and the kernel as follows. Get the kernel source. (See ) Edit /etc/make.conf and set BOOT_COMCONSOLE_PORT to the address of the port you want to use (0x3F8, 0x2F8, 0x3E8 or 0x2E8). Only sio0 through sio3 (COM1 through COM4) can be used; multiport serial cards will not work. No interrupt setting is needed. Create a custom kernel configuration file and add appropriate flags for the serial port you want to use. For example, if you want to make sio1 (COM2) the console: device sio1 at isa? port IO_COM2 flags 0x10 irq 3 or device sio1 at isa? port IO_COM2 flags 0x30 irq 3 The console flags for the other serial ports should not be set. Recompile and install the boot blocks and the boot loader: &prompt.root; cd /sys/boot &prompt.root; make &prompt.root; make install Rebuild and install the kernel. Write the boot blocks to the boot disk with &man.disklabel.8; and boot from the new kernel. Entering the DDB Debugger from the Serial Line If you wish to drop into the kernel debugger from the serial console (useful for remote diagnostics, but also dangerous if you generate a spurious BREAK on the serial port!) then you should compile your kernel with the following options: options BREAK_TO_DEBUGGER options DDB Getting a Login Prompt on the Serial Console While this is not required, you may wish to get a login prompt over the serial line, now that you can see boot messages and can enter the kernel debugging session through the serial console. Here is how to do it. Open the file /etc/ttys with an editor and locate the lines: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd2 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd3 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd0 through ttyd3 corresponds to COM1 through COM4. Change off to on for the desired port. If you have changed the speed of the serial port, you need to change std.9600 to match the current setting, e.g. std.19200. You may also want to change the terminal type from unknown to the actual type of your serial terminal. After editing the file, you must kill -HUP 1 to make this change take effect. Changing Console from the Boot Loader Previous sections described how to set up the serial console by tweaking the boot block. This section shows that you can specify the console by entering some commands and environment variables in the boot loader. As the boot loader is invoked at the third stage of the boot process, after the boot block, the settings in the boot loader will override the settings in the boot block. - Setting up the Serial Console + Setting Up the Serial Console You can easily specify the boot loader and the kernel to use the serial console by writing just one line in /boot/loader.rc: set console=comconsole This will take effect regardless of the settings in the boot block discussed in the previous section. You had better put the above line as the first line of /boot/loader.rc so as to see boot messages on the serial console as early as possible. Likewise, you can specify the internal console as: set console=vidconsole If you do not set the boot loader environment variable console, the boot loader, and subsequently the kernel, will use whichever console indicated by the option in the boot block. In versions 3.2 or later, you may specify the console in /boot/loader.conf.local or /boot/loader.conf, rather than in /boot/loader.rc. In this method your /boot/loader.rc should look like: include /boot/loader.4th start Then, create /boot/loader.conf.local and put the following line there. console=comconsole or console=vidconsole See &man.loader.conf.5; for more information. At the moment, the boot loader has no option equivalent to the option in the boot block, and there is no provision to automatically select the internal console and the serial console based on the presence of the keyboard. - Using Serial Port Other than <devicename>sio0</devicename> for + <title>Using a Serial Port Other Than <devicename>sio0</devicename> for the Console You need to recompile the boot loader to use a serial port other than sio0 for the serial console. Follow the procedure described in . Caveats The idea here is to allow people to set up dedicated servers that require no graphics hardware or attached keyboards. Unfortunately, while most systems will let you boot without a keyboard, there are quite a few that will not let you boot without a graphics adapter. Machines with AMI BIOSes can be configured to boot with no graphics adapter installed simply by changing the graphics adapter setting in the CMOS configuration to Not installed. However, many machines do not support this option and will refuse to boot if you have no display hardware in the system. With these machines, you will have to leave some kind of graphics card plugged in, (even if it is just a junky mono board) although you will not have to attach a monitor. You might also try installing an AMI BIOS. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/vinum/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/vinum/chapter.sgml index 6778ab3d39..fa3ab831c4 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/vinum/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/vinum/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1453 +1,1453 @@ The Vinum Volume Manager Synopsis No matter what disks you have, there will always be limitations: They can be too small. They can be too slow. They can be too unreliable. Greg Lehey Originally written by Disks Are Too Small Vinum RAID Software Vinum is a so-called Volume Manager, a virtual disk driver that addresses these three problems. Let us look at them in more detail. Various solutions to these problems have been proposed and implemented: Disks are getting bigger, but so are data storage requirements. Often you will find you want a file system that is bigger than the disks you have available. Admittedly, this problem is not as acute as it was ten years ago, but it still exists. Some systems have solved this by creating an abstract device which stores its data on a number of disks. Access Bottlenecks Modern systems frequently need to access data in a highly concurrent manner. For example, large FTP or HTTP servers can maintain thousands of concurrent sessions and have multiple 100 Mbit/s connections to the outside world, well beyond the sustained transfer rate of most disks. Current disk drives can transfer data sequentially at up to 70 MB/s, but this value is of little importance in an environment where many independent processes access a drive, where they may achieve only a fraction of these values. In such cases it is more interesting to view the problem from the viewpoint of the disk subsystem: the important parameter is the load that a transfer places on the subsystem, in other words the time for which a transfer occupies the drives involved in the transfer. In any disk transfer, the drive must first position the heads, wait for the first sector to pass under the read head, and then perform the transfer. These actions can be considered to be atomic: it does not make any sense to interrupt them. Consider a typical transfer of about 10 kB: the current generation of high-performance disks can position the heads in an average of 3.5 ms. The fastest drives spin at 15,000 rpm, so the average rotational latency (half a revolution) is 2 ms. At 70 MB/s, the transfer itself takes about 150 μs, almost nothing compared to the positioning time. In such a case, the effective transfer rate drops to a little over 1 MB/s and is clearly highly dependent on the transfer size. The traditional and obvious solution to this bottleneck is more spindles: rather than using one large disk, it uses several smaller disks with the same aggregate storage space. Each disk is capable of positioning and transferring independently, so the effective throughput increases by a factor close to the number of disks used. The exact throughput improvement is, of course, smaller than the number of disks involved: although each drive is capable of transferring in parallel, there is no way to ensure that the requests are evenly distributed across the drives. Inevitably the load on one drive will be higher than on another. disk concatenation Vinum concatenation The evenness of the load on the disks is strongly dependent on the way the data is shared across the drives. In the following discussion, it is convenient to think of the disk storage as a large number of data sectors which are addressable by number, rather like the pages in a book. The most obvious method is to divide the virtual disk into groups of consecutive sectors the size of the individual physical disks and store them in this manner, rather like taking a large book and tearing it into smaller sections. This method is called concatenation and has the advantage that the disks are not required to have any specific size relationships. It works well when the access to the virtual disk is spread evenly about its address space. When access is concentrated on a smaller area, the improvement is less marked. illustrates the sequence in which storage units are allocated in a concatenated organization.
Concatenated Organization
disk striping Vinum striping An alternative mapping is to divide the address space into smaller, equal-sized components and store them sequentially on different devices. For example, the first 256 sectors may be stored on the first disk, the next 256 sectors on the next disk and so on. After filling the last disk, the process repeats until the disks are full. This mapping is called striping or RAID-0 RAID RAID stands for Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks and offers various forms of fault tolerance, though the latter term is somewhat misleading: it provides no redundancy. . Striping requires somewhat more effort to locate the data, and it can cause additional I/O load where a transfer is spread over multiple disks, but it can also provide a more constant load across the disks. illustrates the sequence in which storage units are allocated in a striped organization.
Striped Organization
Data Integrity The final problem with current disks is that they are unreliable. Although disk drive reliability has increased tremendously over the last few years, they are still the most likely core component of a server to fail. When they do, the results can be catastrophic: replacing a failed disk drive and restoring data to it can take days. disk mirroring Vinum mirroring RAID-1 The traditional way to approach this problem has been mirroring, keeping two copies of the data on different physical hardware. Since the advent of the RAID levels, this technique has also been called RAID level 1 or RAID-1. Any write to the volume writes to both locations; a read can be satisfied from either, so if one drive fails, the data is still available on the other drive. Mirroring has two problems: The price. It requires twice as much disk storage as a non-redundant solution. The performance impact. Writes must be performed to both drives, so they take up twice the bandwidth of a non-mirrored volume. Reads do not suffer from a performance penalty: it even looks as if they are faster. RAID-5An alternative solution is parity, implemented in the RAID levels 2, 3, 4 and 5. Of these, RAID-5 is the most interesting. As implemented in Vinum, it is a variant on a striped organization which dedicates one block of each stripe to parity of the other blocks. As implemented by Vinum, a RAID-5 plex is similar to a striped plex, except that it implements RAID-5 by including a parity block in each stripe. As required by RAID-5, the location of this parity block changes from one stripe to the next. The numbers in the data blocks indicate the relative block numbers.
RAID-5 Organization
Compared to mirroring, RAID-5 has the advantage of requiring significantly less storage space. Read access is similar to that of striped organizations, but write access is significantly slower, approximately 25% of the read performance. If one drive fails, the array can continue to operate in degraded mode: a read from one of the remaining accessible drives continues normally, but a read from the failed drive is recalculated from the corresponding block from all the remaining drives. Vinum Objects In order to address these problems, Vinum implements a four-level hierarchy of objects: The most visible object is the virtual disk, called a volume. Volumes have essentially the same properties as a &unix; disk drive, though there are some minor differences. They have no size limitations. Volumes are composed of plexes, each of which represent the total address space of a volume. This level in the hierarchy thus provides redundancy. Think of plexes as individual disks in a mirrored array, each containing the same data. Since Vinum exists within the &unix; disk storage framework, it would be possible to use &unix; partitions as the building block for multi-disk plexes, but in fact this turns out to be too inflexible: &unix; disks can have only a limited number of partitions. Instead, Vinum subdivides a single &unix; partition (the drive) into contiguous areas called subdisks, which it uses as building blocks for plexes. Subdisks reside on Vinum drives, currently &unix; partitions. Vinum drives can contain any number of subdisks. With the exception of a small area at the beginning of the drive, which is used for storing configuration and state information, the entire drive is available for data storage. The following sections describe the way these objects provide the functionality required of Vinum. Volume Size Considerations Plexes can include multiple subdisks spread over all drives in the Vinum configuration. As a result, the size of an individual drive does not limit the size of a plex, and thus of a volume. Redundant Data Storage Vinum implements mirroring by attaching multiple plexes to a volume. Each plex is a representation of the data in a volume. A volume may contain between one and eight plexes. Although a plex represents the complete data of a volume, it is possible for parts of the representation to be physically missing, either by design (by not defining a subdisk for parts of the plex) or by accident (as a result of the failure of a drive). As long as at least one plex can provide the data for the complete address range of the volume, the volume is fully functional. Performance Issues Vinum implements both concatenation and striping at the plex level: A concatenated plex uses the address space of each subdisk in turn. A striped plex stripes the data across each subdisk. The subdisks must all have the same size, and there must be at least two subdisks in order to distinguish it from a concatenated plex. Which Plex Organization? The version of Vinum supplied with FreeBSD &rel.current; implements two kinds of plex: Concatenated plexes are the most flexible: they can contain any number of subdisks, and the subdisks may be of different length. The plex may be extended by adding additional subdisks. They require less CPU time than striped plexes, though the difference in CPU overhead is not measurable. On the other hand, they are most susceptible to hot spots, where one disk is very active and others are idle. The greatest advantage of striped (RAID-0) plexes is that they reduce hot spots: by choosing an optimum sized stripe (about 256 kB), you can even out the load on the component drives. The disadvantages of this approach are (fractionally) more complex code and restrictions on subdisks: they must be all the same size, and extending a plex by adding new subdisks is so complicated that Vinum currently does not implement it. Vinum imposes an additional, trivial restriction: a striped plex must have at least two subdisks, since otherwise it is indistinguishable from a concatenated plex. summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of each plex organization. Vinum Plex Organizations Plex type Minimum subdisks Can add subdisks Must be equal size Application concatenated 1 yes no Large data storage with maximum placement flexibility and moderate performance striped 2 no yes High performance in combination with highly concurrent access
Some Examples Vinum maintains a configuration database which describes the objects known to an individual system. Initially, the user creates the configuration database from one or more configuration files with the aid of the &man.vinum.8; utility program. Vinum stores a copy of its configuration database on each disk slice (which Vinum calls a device) under its control. This database is updated on each state change, so that a restart accurately restores the state of each Vinum object. The Configuration File The configuration file describes individual Vinum objects. The definition of a simple volume might be: drive a device /dev/da3h volume myvol plex org concat sd length 512m drive a This file describes four Vinum objects: The drive line describes a disk partition (drive) and its location relative to the underlying hardware. It is given the symbolic name a. This separation of the symbolic names from the device names allows disks to be moved from one location to another without confusion. The volume line describes a volume. The only required attribute is the name, in this case myvol. The plex line defines a plex. The only required parameter is the organization, in this case concat. No name is necessary: the system automatically generates a name from the volume name by adding the suffix .px, where x is the number of the plex in the volume. Thus this plex will be called myvol.p0. The sd line describes a subdisk. The minimum specifications are the name of a drive on which to store it, and the length of the subdisk. As with plexes, no name is necessary: the system automatically assigns names derived from the plex name by adding the suffix .sx, where x is the number of the subdisk in the plex. Thus Vinum gives this subdisk the name myvol.p0.s0. After processing this file, &man.vinum.8; produces the following output: &prompt.root; vinum -> create config1 Configuration summary Drives: 1 (4 configured) Volumes: 1 (4 configured) Plexes: 1 (8 configured) Subdisks: 1 (16 configured) D a State: up Device /dev/da3h Avail: 2061/2573 MB (80%) V myvol State: up Plexes: 1 Size: 512 MB P myvol.p0 C State: up Subdisks: 1 Size: 512 MB S myvol.p0.s0 State: up PO: 0 B Size: 512 MB This output shows the brief listing format of &man.vinum.8;. It is represented graphically in .
A Simple Vinum Volume
This figure, and the ones which follow, represent a volume, which contains the plexes, which in turn contain the subdisks. In this trivial example, the volume contains one plex, and the plex contains one subdisk. This particular volume has no specific advantage over a conventional disk partition. It contains a single plex, so it is not redundant. The plex contains a single subdisk, so there is no difference in storage allocation from a conventional disk partition. The following sections illustrate various more interesting configuration methods. Increased Resilience: Mirroring The resilience of a volume can be increased by mirroring. When laying out a mirrored volume, it is important to ensure that the subdisks of each plex are on different drives, so that a drive failure will not take down both plexes. The following configuration mirrors a volume: drive b device /dev/da4h volume mirror plex org concat sd length 512m drive a plex org concat sd length 512m drive b In this example, it was not necessary to specify a definition of drive a again, since Vinum keeps track of all objects in its configuration database. After processing this definition, the configuration looks like: Drives: 2 (4 configured) Volumes: 2 (4 configured) Plexes: 3 (8 configured) Subdisks: 3 (16 configured) D a State: up Device /dev/da3h Avail: 1549/2573 MB (60%) D b State: up Device /dev/da4h Avail: 2061/2573 MB (80%) V myvol State: up Plexes: 1 Size: 512 MB V mirror State: up Plexes: 2 Size: 512 MB P myvol.p0 C State: up Subdisks: 1 Size: 512 MB P mirror.p0 C State: up Subdisks: 1 Size: 512 MB P mirror.p1 C State: initializing Subdisks: 1 Size: 512 MB S myvol.p0.s0 State: up PO: 0 B Size: 512 MB S mirror.p0.s0 State: up PO: 0 B Size: 512 MB S mirror.p1.s0 State: empty PO: 0 B Size: 512 MB shows the structure graphically.
A Mirrored Vinum Volume
In this example, each plex contains the full 512 MB of address space. As in the previous example, each plex contains only a single subdisk. Optimizing Performance The mirrored volume in the previous example is more resistant to failure than an unmirrored volume, but its performance is less: each write to the volume requires a write to both drives, using up a greater proportion of the total disk bandwidth. Performance considerations demand a different approach: instead of mirroring, the data is striped across as many disk drives as possible. The following configuration shows a volume with a plex striped across four disk drives: drive c device /dev/da5h drive d device /dev/da6h volume stripe plex org striped 512k sd length 128m drive a sd length 128m drive b sd length 128m drive c sd length 128m drive d As before, it is not necessary to define the drives which are already known to Vinum. After processing this definition, the configuration looks like: Drives: 4 (4 configured) Volumes: 3 (4 configured) Plexes: 4 (8 configured) Subdisks: 7 (16 configured) D a State: up Device /dev/da3h Avail: 1421/2573 MB (55%) D b State: up Device /dev/da4h Avail: 1933/2573 MB (75%) D c State: up Device /dev/da5h Avail: 2445/2573 MB (95%) D d State: up Device /dev/da6h Avail: 2445/2573 MB (95%) V myvol State: up Plexes: 1 Size: 512 MB V mirror State: up Plexes: 2 Size: 512 MB V striped State: up Plexes: 1 Size: 512 MB P myvol.p0 C State: up Subdisks: 1 Size: 512 MB P mirror.p0 C State: up Subdisks: 1 Size: 512 MB P mirror.p1 C State: initializing Subdisks: 1 Size: 512 MB P striped.p1 State: up Subdisks: 1 Size: 512 MB S myvol.p0.s0 State: up PO: 0 B Size: 512 MB S mirror.p0.s0 State: up PO: 0 B Size: 512 MB S mirror.p1.s0 State: empty PO: 0 B Size: 512 MB S striped.p0.s0 State: up PO: 0 B Size: 128 MB S striped.p0.s1 State: up PO: 512 kB Size: 128 MB S striped.p0.s2 State: up PO: 1024 kB Size: 128 MB S striped.p0.s3 State: up PO: 1536 kB Size: 128 MB
A Striped Vinum Volume
This volume is represented in . The darkness of the stripes indicates the position within the plex address space: the lightest stripes come first, the darkest last. Resilience and Performance With sufficient hardware, it is possible to build volumes which show both increased resilience and increased performance compared to standard &unix; partitions. A typical configuration file might be: volume raid10 plex org striped 512k sd length 102480k drive a sd length 102480k drive b sd length 102480k drive c sd length 102480k drive d sd length 102480k drive e plex org striped 512k sd length 102480k drive c sd length 102480k drive d sd length 102480k drive e sd length 102480k drive a sd length 102480k drive b The subdisks of the second plex are offset by two drives from those of the first plex: this helps ensure that writes do not go to the same subdisks even if a transfer goes over two drives. represents the structure of this volume.
A Mirrored, Striped Vinum Volume
Object Naming As described above, Vinum assigns default names to plexes and subdisks, although they may be overridden. Overriding the default names is not recommended: experience with the VERITAS volume manager, which allows arbitrary naming of objects, has shown that this flexibility does not bring a significant advantage, and it can cause confusion. Names may contain any non-blank character, but it is recommended to restrict them to letters, digits and the underscore characters. The names of volumes, plexes and subdisks may be up to 64 characters long, and the names of drives may be up to 32 characters long. Vinum objects are assigned device nodes in the hierarchy /dev/vinum. The configuration shown above would cause Vinum to create the following device nodes: The control devices /dev/vinum/control and /dev/vinum/controld, which are used by &man.vinum.8; and the Vinum daemon respectively. Block and character device entries for each volume. These are the main devices used by Vinum. The block device names are the name of the volume, while the character device names follow the BSD tradition of prepending the letter r to the name. Thus the configuration above would include the block devices /dev/vinum/myvol, /dev/vinum/mirror, /dev/vinum/striped, /dev/vinum/raid5 and /dev/vinum/raid10, and the character devices /dev/vinum/rmyvol, /dev/vinum/rmirror, /dev/vinum/rstriped, /dev/vinum/rraid5 and /dev/vinum/rraid10. There is obviously a problem here: it is possible to have two volumes called r and rr, but there will be a conflict creating the device node /dev/vinum/rr: is it a character device for volume r or a block device for volume rr? Currently Vinum does not address this conflict: the first-defined volume will get the name. A directory /dev/vinum/drive with entries for each drive. These entries are in fact symbolic links to the corresponding disk nodes. A directory /dev/vinum/volume with entries for each volume. It contains subdirectories for each plex, which in turn contain subdirectories for their component subdisks. The directories /dev/vinum/plex, /dev/vinum/sd, and /dev/vinum/rsd, which contain block device nodes for each plex and block and character device nodes respectively for each subdisk. For example, consider the following configuration file: drive drive1 device /dev/sd1h drive drive2 device /dev/sd2h drive drive3 device /dev/sd3h drive drive4 device /dev/sd4h volume s64 setupstate plex org striped 64k sd length 100m drive drive1 sd length 100m drive drive2 sd length 100m drive drive3 sd length 100m drive drive4 After processing this file, &man.vinum.8; creates the following structure in /dev/vinum: brwx------ 1 root wheel 25, 0x40000001 Apr 13 16:46 Control brwx------ 1 root wheel 25, 0x40000002 Apr 13 16:46 control brwx------ 1 root wheel 25, 0x40000000 Apr 13 16:46 controld drwxr-xr-x 2 root wheel 512 Apr 13 16:46 drive drwxr-xr-x 2 root wheel 512 Apr 13 16:46 plex crwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 91, 2 Apr 13 16:46 rs64 drwxr-xr-x 2 root wheel 512 Apr 13 16:46 rsd drwxr-xr-x 2 root wheel 512 Apr 13 16:46 rvol brwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 25, 2 Apr 13 16:46 s64 drwxr-xr-x 2 root wheel 512 Apr 13 16:46 sd drwxr-xr-x 3 root wheel 512 Apr 13 16:46 vol /dev/vinum/drive: total 0 lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 9 Apr 13 16:46 drive1 -> /dev/sd1h lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 9 Apr 13 16:46 drive2 -> /dev/sd2h lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 9 Apr 13 16:46 drive3 -> /dev/sd3h lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 9 Apr 13 16:46 drive4 -> /dev/sd4h /dev/vinum/plex: total 0 brwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 25, 0x10000002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0 /dev/vinum/rsd: total 0 crwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 91, 0x20000002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s0 crwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 91, 0x20100002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s1 crwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 91, 0x20200002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s2 crwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 91, 0x20300002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s3 /dev/vinum/rvol: total 0 crwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 91, 2 Apr 13 16:46 s64 /dev/vinum/sd: total 0 brwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 25, 0x20000002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s0 brwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 25, 0x20100002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s1 brwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 25, 0x20200002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s2 brwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 25, 0x20300002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s3 /dev/vinum/vol: total 1 brwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 25, 2 Apr 13 16:46 s64 drwxr-xr-x 3 root wheel 512 Apr 13 16:46 s64.plex /dev/vinum/vol/s64.plex: total 1 brwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 25, 0x10000002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0 drwxr-xr-x 2 root wheel 512 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.sd /dev/vinum/vol/s64.plex/s64.p0.sd: total 0 brwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 25, 0x20000002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s0 brwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 25, 0x20100002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s1 brwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 25, 0x20200002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s2 brwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 25, 0x20300002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s3 Although it is recommended that plexes and subdisks should not be allocated specific names, Vinum drives must be named. This makes it possible to move a drive to a different location and still recognize it automatically. Drive names may be up to 32 characters long. Creating File Systems Volumes appear to the system to be identical to disks, with one exception. Unlike &unix; drives, Vinum does not partition volumes, which thus do not contain a partition table. This has required modification to some disk utilities, notably &man.newfs.8;, which previously tried to interpret the last letter of a Vinum volume name as a partition identifier. For example, a disk drive may have a name like /dev/ad0a or /dev/da2h. These names represent the first partition (a) on the first (0) IDE disk (ad) and the eighth partition (h) on the third (2) SCSI disk (da) respectively. By contrast, a Vinum volume might be called /dev/vinum/concat, a name which has no relationship with a partition name. Normally, &man.newfs.8; interprets the name of the disk and complains if it cannot understand it. For example: &prompt.root; newfs /dev/vinum/concat newfs: /dev/vinum/concat: can't figure out file system partition The following is only valid for FreeBSD versions prior to 5.0: In order to create a file system on this volume, use the option to &man.newfs.8;: &prompt.root; newfs -v /dev/vinum/concat Configuring Vinum The GENERIC kernel does not contain Vinum. It is possible to build a special kernel which includes Vinum, but this is not recommended. The standard way to start Vinum is as a kernel module (kld). You do not even need to use &man.kldload.8; for Vinum: when you start &man.vinum.8;, it checks whether the module has been loaded, and if it is not, it loads it automatically. Startup Vinum stores configuration information on the disk slices in essentially the same form as in the configuration files. When reading from the configuration database, Vinum recognizes a number of keywords which are not allowed in the configuration files. For example, a disk configuration might contain the following text: volume myvol state up volume bigraid state down plex name myvol.p0 state up org concat vol myvol plex name myvol.p1 state up org concat vol myvol plex name myvol.p2 state init org striped 512b vol myvol plex name bigraid.p0 state initializing org raid5 512b vol bigraid sd name myvol.p0.s0 drive a plex myvol.p0 state up len 1048576b driveoffset 265b plexoffset 0b sd name myvol.p0.s1 drive b plex myvol.p0 state up len 1048576b driveoffset 265b plexoffset 1048576b sd name myvol.p1.s0 drive c plex myvol.p1 state up len 1048576b driveoffset 265b plexoffset 0b sd name myvol.p1.s1 drive d plex myvol.p1 state up len 1048576b driveoffset 265b plexoffset 1048576b sd name myvol.p2.s0 drive a plex myvol.p2 state init len 524288b driveoffset 1048841b plexoffset 0b sd name myvol.p2.s1 drive b plex myvol.p2 state init len 524288b driveoffset 1048841b plexoffset 524288b sd name myvol.p2.s2 drive c plex myvol.p2 state init len 524288b driveoffset 1048841b plexoffset 1048576b sd name myvol.p2.s3 drive d plex myvol.p2 state init len 524288b driveoffset 1048841b plexoffset 1572864b sd name bigraid.p0.s0 drive a plex bigraid.p0 state initializing len 4194304b driveoff set 1573129b plexoffset 0b sd name bigraid.p0.s1 drive b plex bigraid.p0 state initializing len 4194304b driveoff set 1573129b plexoffset 4194304b sd name bigraid.p0.s2 drive c plex bigraid.p0 state initializing len 4194304b driveoff set 1573129b plexoffset 8388608b sd name bigraid.p0.s3 drive d plex bigraid.p0 state initializing len 4194304b driveoff set 1573129b plexoffset 12582912b sd name bigraid.p0.s4 drive e plex bigraid.p0 state initializing len 4194304b driveoff set 1573129b plexoffset 16777216b The obvious differences here are the presence of explicit location information and naming (both of which are also allowed, but discouraged, for use by the user) and the information on the states (which are not available to the user). Vinum does not store information about drives in the configuration information: it finds the drives by scanning the configured disk drives for partitions with a Vinum label. This enables Vinum to identify drives correctly even if they have been assigned different &unix; drive IDs. Automatic Startup In order to start Vinum automatically when you boot the system, ensure that you have the following line in your /etc/rc.conf: start_vinum="YES" # set to YES to start vinum If you do not have a file /etc/rc.conf, create one with this content. This will cause the system to load the Vinum kld at startup, and to start any objects mentioned in the configuration. This is done before mounting file systems, so it is possible to automatically &man.fsck.8; and mount file systems on Vinum volumes. When you start Vinum with the vinum start command, Vinum reads the configuration database from one of the Vinum drives. Under normal circumstances, each drive contains an identical copy of the configuration database, so it does not matter which drive is read. After a crash, however, Vinum must determine which drive was updated most recently and read the configuration from this drive. It then updates the configuration if necessary from progressively older drives. - Using Vinum for the root filesystem + Using Vinum for the Root Filesystem For a machine that has fully-mirrored filesystems using Vinum, it is desirable to also mirror the root filesystem. Setting up such a configuration is less trivial than mirroring an arbitrary filesystem because: The root filesystem must be available very early during the boot process, so the Vinum infrastructure must already be available at this time. The volume containing the root filesystem also contains the system bootstrap and the kernel, which must be read using the host system's native utilities (e. g. the BIOS on PC-class machines) which often cannot be taught about the details of Vinum. In the following sections, the term root volume is generally used to describe the Vinum volume that contains the root filesystem. It is probably a good idea to use the name "root" for this volume, but this is not technically required in any way. All command examples in the following sections assume this name though. - Starting up Vinum early enough for the root - filesystem + Starting up Vinum Early Enough for the Root + Filesystem There are several measures to take for this to happen: Vinum must be available in the kernel at boot-time. Thus, the method to start Vinum automatically described in is not applicable to accomplish this task, and the start_vinum parameter must actually not be set when the following setup is being arranged. The first option would be to compile Vinum statically into the kernel, so it is available all the time, but this is usually not desirable. There is another option as well, to have /boot/loader () load the vinum kernel module early, before starting the kernel. This can be accomplished by putting the line vinum_load="YES" into the file /boot/loader.conf. Vinum must be initialized early since it needs to supply the volume for the root filesystem. By default, the Vinum kernel part is not looking for drives that might contain Vinum volume information until the administrator (or one of the startup scripts) issues a vinum start command. The following paragraphs are outlining the steps needed for FreeBSD 5.x and above. The setup required for FreeBSD 4.x differs, and is described below in . By placing the line: vinum.autostart="YES" into /boot/loader.conf, Vinum is instructed to automatically scan all drives for Vinum information as part of the kernel startup. Note that it is not necessary to instruct the kernel where to look for the root filesystem. /boot/loader looks up the name of the root device in /etc/fstab, and passes this information on to the kernel. When it comes to mount the root filesystem, the kernel figures out from the devicename provided which driver to ask to translate this into the internal device ID (major/minor number). - Making a Vinum-based root volume accessible to the - bootstrap + Making a Vinum-based Root Volume Accessible to the + Bootstrap Since the current FreeBSD bootstrap is only 7.5 KB of code, and already has the burden of reading files (like /boot/loader) from the UFS filesystem, it is sheer impossible to also teach it about internal Vinum structures so it could parse the Vinum configuration data, and figure out about the elements of a boot volume itself. Thus, some tricks are necessary to provide the bootstrap code with the illusion of a standard "a" partition that contains the root filesystem. For this to be possible at all, the following requirements must be met for the root volume: The root volume must not be striped or RAID-5. The root volume must not contain more than one concatenated subdisk per plex. Note that it is desirable and possible that there are multiple plexes, each containing one replica of the root filesystem. The bootstrap process will, however, only use one of these replica for finding the bootstrap and all the files, until the kernel will eventually mount the root filesystem itself. Each single subdisk within these plexes will then need its own "a" partition illusion, for the respective device to become bootable. It is not strictly needed that each of these faked "a" partitions is located at the same offset within its device, compared with other devices containing plexes of the root volume. However, it is probably a good idea to create the Vinum volumes that way so the resulting mirrored devices are symmetric, to avoid confusion. In order to setup these "a" partitions, for each device containing part of the root volume, the following needs to be done: The location (offset from the beginning of the device) and size of this device's subdisk that is part of the root volume need to be examined, using the command vinum l -rv root Note that Vinum offsets and sizes are measured in bytes. They must be divided by 512 in order to obtain the block numbers that are to be used in the disklabel command. Run the command disklabel -e devname for each device that participates in the root volume. devname must be either the name of the disk (like da0) for disks without a slice (aka. fdisk) table, or the name of the slice (like ad0s1). If there is already an "a" partition on the device (presumably, containing a pre-Vinum root filesystem), it should be renamed to something else, so it remains accessible (just in case), but will no longer be used by default to bootstrap the system. Note that active partitions (like a root filesystem currently mounted) cannot be renamed, so this must be executed either when being booted from a Fixit medium, or in a two-step process, where (in a mirrored situation) the disk that has not been currently booted is being manipulated first. Then, the offset the Vinum partition on this device (if any) must be added to the offset of the respective root volume subdisk on this device. The resulting value will become the "offset" value for the new "a" partition. The "size" value for this partition can be taken verbatim from the calculation above. The "fstype" should be 4.2BSD. The "fsize", "bsize", and "cpg" values should best be chosen to match the actual filesystem, though they are fairly unimportant within this context. That way, a new "a" partition will be established that overlaps the Vinum partition on this device. Note that the disklabel will only allow for this overlap if the Vinum partition has properly been marked using the "vinum" fstype. That's all! A faked "a" partition does exist now on each device that has one replica of the root volume. It is highly recommendable to verify the result again, using a command like fsck -n /dev/devnamea It should be remembered that all files containing control information must be relative to the root filesystem in the Vinum volume which, when setting up a new Vinum root volume, might not match the root filesystem that is currently active. So in particular, the files /etc/fstab and /boot/loader.conf need to be taken care of. At next reboot, the bootstrap should figure out the appropriate control information from the new Vinum-based root filesystem, and act accordingly. At the end of the kernel initialization process, after all devices have been announced, the prominent notice that shows the success of this setup is a message like: Mounting root from ufs:/dev/vinum/root - Example of a Vinum-based root setup + Example of a Vinum-based Root Setup After the Vinum root volume has been set up, the output of vinum l -rv root could look like: ... Subdisk root.p0.s0: Size: 125829120 bytes (120 MB) State: up Plex root.p0 at offset 0 (0 B) Drive disk0 (/dev/da0h) at offset 135680 (132 kB) Subdisk root.p1.s0: Size: 125829120 bytes (120 MB) State: up Plex root.p1 at offset 0 (0 B) Drive disk1 (/dev/da1h) at offset 135680 (132 kB) The values to note are 135680 for the offset (relative to partition /dev/da0h). This translates to 265 512-byte disk blocks in disklabel's terms. Likewise, the size of this root volume is 245760 512-byte blocks. /dev/da1h, containing the second replica of this root volume, has a symmetric setup. The disklabel for these devices might look like: ... 8 partitions: # size offset fstype [fsize bsize bps/cpg] a: 245760 281 4.2BSD 2048 16384 0 # (Cyl. 0*- 15*) c: 71771688 0 unused 0 0 # (Cyl. 0 - 4467*) h: 71771672 16 vinum # (Cyl. 0*- 4467*) It can be observed that the "size" parameter for the faked "a" partition matches the value outlined above, while the "offset" parameter is the sum of the offset within the Vinum partition "h", and the offset of this partition within the device (or slice). This is a typical setup that is necessary to avoid the problem described in . It can also be seen that the entire "a" partition is completely within the "h" partition containing all the Vinum data for this device. Note that in the above example, the entire device is dedicated to Vinum, and there is no leftover pre-Vinum root partition, since this has been a newly set-up disk that was only meant to be part of a Vinum configuration, ever. Troubleshooting If something goes wrong, a way is needed to recover from the situation. The following list contains few known pitfalls and solutions. - System bootstrap loads, but system does not boot + System Bootstrap Loads, but System Does Not Boot If for any reason the system does not continue to boot, the bootstrap can be interrupted with by pressing the space key at the 10-seconds warning. The loader variables (like vinum.autostart) can be examined using the show, and manipulated using set or unset commands. If the only problem was that the Vinum kernel module was not yet in the list of modules to load automatically, a simple load vinum will help. When ready, the boot process can be continued with a boot -as. The options will request the kernel to ask for the root filesystem to mount (), and make the boot process stop in single-user mode (), where the root filesystem is mounted read-only. That way, even if only one plex of a multi-plex volume has been mounted, no data inconsistency between plexes is being risked. At the prompt asking for a root filesystem to mount, any device that contains a valid root filesystem can be entered. If /etc/fstab had been set up correctly, the default should be something like ufs:/dev/vinum/root. A typical alternate choice would be something like ufs:da0d which could be a hypothetical partition that contains the pre-Vinum root filesystem. Care should be taken if one of the alias "a" partitions are entered here that are actually reference to the subdisks of the Vinum root device, because in a mirrored setup, this would only mount one piece of a mirrored root device. If this filesystem is to be mounted read-write later on, it is necessary to remove the other plex(es) of the Vinum root volume since these plexes would otherwise carry inconsistent data. - Only primary bootstrap loads + Only Primary Bootstrap Loads If /boot/loader fails to load, but the primary bootstrap still loads (visible by a single dash in the left column of the screen right after the boot process starts), an attempt can be made to interrupt the primary bootstrap at this point, using the space key. This will make the bootstrap stop in stage two, see . An attempt can be made here to boot off an alternate partition, like the partition containing the previous root filesystem that has been moved away from "a" above. - Nothing boots, the bootstrap - panics + Nothing Boots, the Bootstrap + Panics This situation will happen if the bootstrap had been destroyed by the Vinum installation. Unfortunately, Vinum accidentally currently leaves only 4 KB at the beginning of its partition free before starting to write its Vinum header information. However, the stage one and two bootstraps plus the disklabel embedded between them currently require 8 KB. So if a Vinum partition was started at offset 0 within a slice or disk that was meant to be bootable, the Vinum setup will trash the bootstrap. Similarly, if the above situation has been recovered, for example by booting from a Fixit medium, and the bootstrap has been re-installed using disklabel -B as described in , the bootstrap will trash the Vinum header, and Vinum will no longer find its disk(s). Though no actual Vinum configuration data or data in Vinum volumes will be trashed by this, and it would be possible to recover all the data by entering exact the same Vinum configuration data again, the situation is hard to fix at all. It would be necessary to move the entire Vinum partition by at least 4 KB off, in order to have the Vinum header and the system bootstrap no longer collide. Differences for FreeBSD 4.x Under FreeBSD 4.x, some internal functions required to make Vinum automatically scan all disks are missing, and the code that figures out the internal ID of the root device is not smart enough to handle a name like /dev/vinum/root automatically. Therefore, things are a little different here. Vinum must explicitly be told which disks to scan, using a line like the following one in /boot/loader.conf: vinum.drives="/dev/da0 /dev/da1" It is important that all drives are mentioned that could possibly contain Vinum data. It does not harm if more drives are listed, nor is it necessary to add each slice and/or partition explicitly, since Vinum will scan all slices and partitions of the named drives for valid Vinum headers. Since the routines used to parse the name of the root filesystem, and derive the device ID (major/minor number) are only prepared to handle classical device names like /dev/ad0s1a, they cannot make any sense out of a root volume name like /dev/vinum/root. For that reason, Vinum itself needs to pre-setup the internal kernel parameter that holds the ID of the root device during its own initialization. This is requested by passing the name of the root volume in the loader variable vinum.root. The entry in /boot/loader.conf to accomplish this looks like: vinum.root="root" Now, when the kernel initialization tries to find out the root device to mount, it sees whether some kernel module has already pre-initialized the kernel parameter for it. If that is the case, and the device claiming the root device matches the major number of the driver as figured out from the name of the root device string being passed (that is, "vinum" in our case), it will use the pre-allocated device ID, instead of trying to figure out one itself. That way, during the usual automatic startup, it can continue to mount the Vinum root volume for the root filesystem. However, when boot -a has been requesting to ask for entering the name of the root device manually, it must be noted that this routine still cannot actually parse a name entered there that refers to a Vinum volume. If any device name is entered that does not refer to a Vinum device, the mismatch between the major numbers of the pre-allocated root parameter and the driver as figured out from the given name will make this routine enter its normal parser, so entering a string like ufs:da0d will work as expected. Note that if this fails, it is however no longer possible to re-enter a string like ufs:vinum/root again, since it cannot be parsed. The only way out is to reboot again, and start over then. (At the askroot prompt, the initial /dev/ can always be omitted.) diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.sgml index d046485e97..cec02a348d 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1644 +1,1644 @@ The X Window System Synopsis FreeBSD uses XFree86 to provide users with a powerful graphical user interface. XFree86 is an open-source implementation of the X Window System. This chapter will cover installation and configuration of XFree86 on a FreeBSD system. For more information on XFree86 and video hardware that it supports, check the XFree86 web site. After reading this chapter, you will know: The various components of the X Window System, and how they interoperate. How to install and configure XFree86. How to install and use different window managers. How to use TrueType fonts in XFree86. How to setup your system for graphical logins (XDM). Before reading this chapter, you should: Know how to install additional third-party software (). Understanding X Using X for the first time can be somewhat of a shock to someone familiar with other graphical environments, such as Microsoft Windows or MacOS. It is not necessary to understand all of the details of various X components and how they interact; however, some basic knowledge makes it possible to take advantage of X's strengths. Why X? X is not the first window system written for Unix, but it is the most popular. X's original development team had worked on another window system before writing X. That system's name was W (for Window). X is just the next letter in the Roman alphabet. X can be called X, X Window System, X11, and other terms. Calling X11 X Windows can offend some people; see &man.X.1; for a bit more insight on this. The X Client/Server Model X was designed from the beginning to be network-centric, and adopts a client-server model. In the X model, the X server runs on the computer that has the keyboard, monitor, and mouse attached. The server is responsible for managing the display, handling input from the keyboard and mouse, and so on. Each X application (such as XTerm, or Netscape) is a client. A client sends messages to the server such as Please draw a window at these coordinates, and the server sends back messages such as The user just clicked on the OK button. If there is only one computer involved, such as in a home or small office environment, the X server and the X clients will be running on the same computer. However, it is perfectly possible to run the X server on a less powerful desktop computer, and run X applications (the clients) on, say, the powerful and expensive machine that serves the office. In this scenario the communication between the X client and server takes place over the network. This confuses some people, because the X terminology is exactly backward to what they expect. They expect the X server to be the big powerful machine down the hall, and the X client to be the machine on their desk. Remember that the X server is the machine with the monitor and keyboard, and the X clients are the programs that display the windows. There is nothing in the protocol that forces the client and server machines to be running the same operating system, or even to be running on the same type of computer. It is certainly possible to run an X server on Microsoft Windows or Apple's MacOS, and there are various free and commercial applications available that do exactly that. The X server that ships with FreeBSD is called XFree86, and is available for free, under a license very similar to the FreeBSD license. Commercial X servers for FreeBSD are also available. The Window Manager The X design philosophy is much like the Unix design philosophy, tools, not policy. This means that X does not try to dictate how a task is to be accomplished. Instead, tools are provided to the user, and it is the user's responsibility to decide how to use those tools. This philosophy extends to X not dictating what windows should look like on screen, how to move them around with the mouse, what keystrokes should be used to move between windows (i.e., Alt Tab , in the case of Microsoft Windows), what the title bars on each window should look like, whether or not they have close buttons on them, and so on. Instead, X delegates this responsibility to an application called a Window Manager. There are dozens of window managers available for X: AfterStep, Blackbox, ctwm, Enlightenment, fvwm, Sawfish, twm, Window Maker, and more. Each of these window managers provides a different look and feel; some of them support virtual desktops; some of them allow customized keystrokes to manage the desktop; some have a Start button or similar device; some are themeable, allowing a complete change of look-and-feel by applying a new theme. These window managers, and many more, are available in the x11-wm category of the Ports Collection. In addition, the KDE and GNOME desktop environments both have their own window managers which integrate with the desktop. Each window manager also has a different configuration mechanism; some expect configuration file written by hand, others feature GUI tools for most of the configuration tasks; at least one (sawfish) has a configuration file written in a dialect of the Lisp language. Focus Policy Another feature the window manager is responsible for is the mouse focus policy. Every windowing system needs some means of choosing a window to be actively receiving keystrokes, and should visibly indicate which window is active as well. A familiar focus policy is called click-to-focus. This is the model utilized by Microsoft Windows, in which a window becomes active upon receiving a mouse click. X does not support any particular focus policy. Instead, the window manager controls which window has the focus at any one time. Different window managers will support different focus methods. All of them support click to focus, and the majority of them support several others. The most popular focus policies are: focus-follows-mouse The window that is under the mouse pointer is the window that has the focus. This may not necessarily be the window that is on top of all the other windows. The focus is changed by pointing at another window, there is no need to click in it as well. sloppy-focus This policy is a small extension to focus-follows-mouse. With focus-follows-mouse, if the mouse is moved over the root window (or background) then no window has the focus, and keystrokes are simply lost. With sloppy-focus, focus is only changed when the cursor enters a new window, and not when exiting the current window. click-to-focus The active window is selected by mouse click. The window may then be raised, and appear in front of all other windows. All keystrokes will now be directed to this window, even if the cursor is moved to another window. Many window managers support other policies, as well as variations on these. Be sure to consult the documentation for the window manager itself. Widgets The X approach of providing tools and not policy extends to the widgets that seen on screen in each application. Widget is a term for all the items in the user interface that can be clicked or manipulated in some way; buttons, check boxes, radio buttons, icons, lists, and so on. Microsoft Windows calls these controls. Microsoft Windows and Apple's MacOS both have a very rigid widget policy. Application developers are supposed to ensure that their applications share a common look and feel. With X, it was not considered sensible to mandate a particular graphical style, or set of widgets to adhere to. As a result, do not expect X applications to have a common look and feel. There are several popular widget sets and variations, including the original Athena widget set from MIT, Motif (on which the widget set in Microsoft Windows was modeled, all bevelled edges and three shades of grey), OpenLook, and others. Most newer X applications today will use a modern-looking widget set, either Qt, used by KDE, or GTK, used by the GNOME project. In this respect, there is some convergence in look-and-feel of the Unix desktop, which certainly makes things easier for the novice user. Installing XFree86 Before installing XFree86, decide on which version to run. XFree86 3.X is a maintenance branch of XFree86 development. It is very stable, and it supports a huge number of graphics cards. However, no new development is being done on the software. XFree86 4.X is a complete redesign of the system with many new features such as better support for fonts and anti-aliasing. Unfortunately this new architecture requires that the video drivers be rewritten, and some of the older cards that were supported in 3.X are not yet supported in 4.X. As all new developments and support for new graphics cards are done on that branch, XFree86 4.X is now the default version of the X Window System on FreeBSD. The FreeBSD setup program offers users the opportunity to install and configure XFree86 4.X during installation (covered in ). To install and run XFree86 3.X, wait until after the base FreeBSD system is installed, and then install XFree86. For example, to build and install XFree86 3.X from the ports collection: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11/XFree86 &prompt.root; make all install clean Alternatively, either version of XFree86 can be installed directly from the FreeBSD binaries provided on the XFree86 web site. A binary package to use with &man.pkg.add.1; tool is also available for XFree86 4.X. When the remote fetching feature of &man.pkg.add.1; is used, the version number of the package must be removed. &man.pkg.add.1; will automatically fetch the latest version of the application. So to fetch and install the package of XFree86 4.X, simply type: &prompt.root; pkg_add -r XFree86 You can also use the ports collection to install XFree86 4.X, for that you simply need to type the following commands: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11/XFree86-4 &prompt.root; make install clean The rest of this chapter will explain how to configure XFree86, and how to setup a productive desktop environment. Christopher Shumway Contributed by XFree86 Configuration XFree86 4.X XFree86 Before Starting Before configuration of XFree86 4.X, the following information about the target system is needed: Monitor specifications Video Adapter chipset Video Adapter memory horizontal scan rate vertical scan rate The specifications for the monitor are used by XFree86 to determine the resolution and refresh rate to run at. These specifications can usually be obtained from the documentation that came with the monitor or from the manufacturer's website. There are two ranges of numbers that are needed, the horizontal scan rate and the vertical synchronization rate. The video adapter's chipset defines what driver module XFree86 uses to talk to the graphics hardware. With most chipsets, this can be automatically determined, but it is still useful to know in case the automatic detection does not work correctly. Video memory on the graphic adapter determines the resolution and color depth which the system can run at. This is important to know so the user knows the limitations of the system. Configuring XFree86 4.X Configuration of XFree86 4.X is a multi-step process. The first step is to build an initial configuration file with the option to XFree86. As the super user, simply run: &prompt.root; XFree86 -configure This will generate a skeleton XFree86 configuration file in the /root directory called XF86Config.new (in fact the directory used is the one covered by the environment variable $HOME, and it will depend from the way you got the superuser rights). The XFree86 program will attempt to probe the graphics hardware on the system and will write a configuration file to load the proper drivers for the detected hardware on the target system. The next step is to test the existing configuration to verify that XFree86 can work with the graphics hardware on the target system. To perform this task, the user needs to run: &prompt.root; XFree86 -xf86config XF86Config.new If a black and grey grid and an X mouse cursor appear, the configuration was successful. To exit the test, just press Ctrl Alt Backspace simultaneously. If the mouse does not work, be sure the device has been configured. See in the &os; install chapter. XFree86 4 Tuning Next, tune the XF86Config.new configuration file to taste. Open the file in a text editor such as &man.emacs.1; or &man.ee.1;. First, add the frequencies for the target system's monitor. These are usually expressed as a horizontal and vertical synchronization rate. These values are added to the XF86Config.new file under the "Monitor" section: Section "Monitor" Identifier "Monitor0" VendorName "Monitor Vendor" ModelName "Monitor Model" HorizSync 30-107 VertRefresh 48-120 EndSection The HorizSync and VertRefresh keywords may not exist in the configuration file. If they do not, they need to be added, with the correct horizontal synchronization rate placed after the Horizsync keyword and the vertical synchronization rate after the VertRefresh keyword. In the example above the target monitor's rates were entered. X allows DPMS (Energy Star) features to be used with capable monitors. The &man.xset.1; program controls the time-outs and can force standby, suspend, or off modes. If you wish to enable DPMS features for your monitor, you must add the following line to the monitor section: Option "DPMS" XF86Config While the XF86Config.new configuration file is still open in an editor, select the default resolution and color depth desired. This is defined in the "Screen" section: Section "Screen" Identifier "Screen0" Device "Card0" Monitor "Monitor0" DefaultDepth 24 SubSection "Display" Depth 24 Modes "1024x768" EndSubSection EndSection The DefaultDepth keyword describes the color depth to run at by default. This can be overridden with the -bpp command line switch to &man.XFree86.1;. The Modes keyword describes the resolution to run at for the given color depth. Note that only VESA standard modes are supported as defined by the target system's graphics hardware. In the example above, the default color depth is twenty-four bits per pixel. At this color depth, the accepted resolution is one thousand twenty-four pixels by seven hundred and sixty-eight pixels. Finally, write the configuration file and test it using the test mode given above. If all is well, the configuration file needs to be installed in a common location where &man.XFree86.1; can find it. This is typically /etc/X11/XF86Config or /usr/X11R6/etc/X11/XF86Config. &prompt.root; cp XF86Config.new /etc/X11/XF86Config Once the configuration file has been placed in a common location, configuration is complete. In order to start XFree86 4.X with &man.startx.1;, install the x11/wrapper port. XFree86 4.X can also be started with &man.xdm.1;. Advanced Configuration Topics Configuration with Intel i810 Graphics Chipsets Intel i810 graphic chipset Configuration with Intel i810 integrated chipsets requires the agpgart AGP programming interface for XFree86 to drive the card. The &man.agp.4; driver is in the GENERIC kernel since releases 4.8-RELEASE and 5.0-RELEASE. On prior releases, you will have to add the following line: device agp in your kernel configuration file and rebuild a new kernel. Instead, you may want to load the agp.ko kernel module automatically with the &man.loader.8; at boot time. For that, simply add this line to /boot/loader.conf: agp_load="YES" Next, if you are running FreeBSD 4.X or earlier, a device node needs to be created for the programming interface. To create the AGP device node, run &man.MAKEDEV.8; in the /dev directory: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV agpgart FreeBSD 5.X or later will use &man.devfs.5; to allocate device nodes transparently, therefore the &man.MAKEDEV.8; step is not required. This will allow configuration of the hardware as any other graphics board. Note on systems without the &man.agp.4; driver compiled in the kernel, trying to load the module with &man.kldload.8; will not work. This driver has to be in the kernel at boot time through being compiled in or using /boot/loader.conf. If you are using XFree86 4.1.0 (or later) and messages about unresolved symbols like fbPictureInit appear, try adding the following line after Driver "i810" in the XFree86 configuration file: Option "NoDDC" Murray Stokely Contributed by Using Fonts in XFree86 Type1 Fonts The default fonts that ship with XFree86 are less than ideal for typical desktop publishing applications. Large presentation fonts show up jagged and unprofessional looking, and small fonts in Netscape are almost completely unintelligible. However, there are several free, high quality Type1 (PostScript) fonts available which can be readily used with XFree86, either version 3.X or version 4.X. For instance, the URW font collection (x11-fonts/urwfonts) includes high quality versions of standard type1 fonts (Times Roman, Helvetica, Palatino and others). The Freefonts collection (x11-fonts/freefonts) includes many more fonts, but most of them are intended for use in graphics software such as the Gimp, and are not complete enough to serve as screen fonts. In addition, XFree86 can be configured to use TrueType fonts with a minimum of effort: see the section on TrueType fonts later. To install the above Type1 font collections from the ports collection, run the following commands: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11-fonts/urwfonts &prompt.root; make install clean And likewise with the freefont or other collections. To tell the X server that these fonts exist, add an appropriate line to the XF86Config file (in /etc/ for XFree86 version 3, or in /etc/X11/ for version 4), which reads: FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/URW/" Alternatively, at the command line in the X session run: &prompt.user; xset fp+ /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/URW &prompt.user; xset fp rehash This will work but will be lost when the X session is closed, unless it is added to the startup file (~/.xinitrc for a normal startx session, or ~/.xsession when logging in through a graphical login manager like XDM). A third way is to use the new XftConfig file: see the section on anti-aliasing. TrueType Fonts TrueType Fonts fonts TrueType XFree86 4.X has built in support for rendering TrueType fonts. There are two different modules that can enable this functionality. The freetype module is used in this example because it is more consistent with the other font rendering back-ends. To enable the freetype module just add the following line to the "Module" section of the /etc/X11/XF86Config file. Load "freetype" For XFree86 3.3.X, a separate TrueType font server is needed. Xfstt is commonly used for this purpose. To install Xfstt, simply install the port x11-servers/Xfstt. Now make a directory for the TrueType fonts (for example, /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/TrueType) and copy all of the TrueType fonts into this directory. Keep in mind that TrueType fonts cannot be directly taken from a Macintosh; they must be in Unix/DOS/Windows format for use by XFree86. Once the files have been copied into this directory, use ttmkfdir to create a fonts.dir file, so that the X font renderer knows that these new files have been installed. ttmkfdir is available from the FreeBSD Ports Collection as x11-fonts/ttmkfdir. &prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/TrueType &prompt.root; ttmkfdir > fonts.dir Now add the TrueType directory to the font path. This is just the same as described above for Type1 fonts, that is, use &prompt.user; xset fp+ /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/TrueType &prompt.user; xset fp rehash or add a line to the XF86Config file. That's it. Now Netscape, Gimp, StarOffice, and all of the other X applications should now recognize the installed TrueType fonts. Extremely small fonts (as with text in a high resolution display on a web page) and extremely large fonts (within StarOffice) will look much better now. Joe Marcus Clarke Updated for XFree86 4.3 by Anti-Aliased Fonts anti-aliased fonts fonts anti-aliased Anti-aliasing has been available in XFree86 since 4.0.2. However, font configuration was cumbersome before the introduction of XFree86 4.3.0. Starting in version 4.3.0, all fonts in /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/ and ~/.fonts/ are automatically made available for anti-aliasing to Xft-aware applications. Not all applications are Xft-aware yet, but many have received Xft support. Examples of Xft-aware applications include Qt 2.3 and higher (the toolkit for the KDE desktop), Gtk+ 2.0 and higher (the toolkit for the GNOME desktop), and Mozilla 1.2 and higher. In order to control which fonts are anti-aliased, or to configure anti-aliasing properties, create (or edit, if it already exists) the file /usr/X11R6/etc/fonts/local.conf. Several advanced features of the Xft font system can be tuned using this file; this section describes only some simple possibilities. For more details, please see &man.fonts-conf.5;. XML This file must be in XML format. Pay careful attention to case, and make sure all tags are properly closed. The file begins with the usual XML header followed by a DOCTYPE definition, and then the <fontconfig> tag: <?xml version="1.0"?> <!DOCTYPE fontconfig SYSTEM "fonts.dtd"> <fontconfig> As previously stated, all fonts in /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/ as well as ~/.fonts/ are already made available to Xft-aware applications. If you wish to add another directory outside of these two directory trees, add a line similar to the following to /usr/X11R6/etc/fonts/local.conf: <dir>/path/to/my/fonts</dir> After adding new fonts, and especially new font directories, you should run the following command to rebuild the font caches: &prompt.root; fc-cache -f Anti-aliasing makes borders slightly fuzzy, which makes very small text more readable and removes staircases from large text, but can cause eyestrain if applied to normal text. To exclude point sizes smaller than 14 point from anti-aliasing, include these lines: <match target="font"> <test name="size" compare="less"> <double>14</double> </test> <edit name="antialias" mode="assign"> <bool>false</bool> </edit> </match> fonts spacing Spacing for some monospaced fonts may also be inappropriate with anti-aliasing. This seems to be an issue with KDE, in particular. One possible fix for this is to force the spacing for such fonts to be 100. Add the following lines: <match target="pattern" name="family"> <test qual="any" name="family"> <string>fixed</string> </test> <edit name="family" mode="assign"> <string>mono</string> </edit> </match> <match target="pattern" name="family"> <test qual="any" name="family"> <string>console</string> </test> <edit name="family" mode="assign"> <string>mono</string> </edit> </match> (this aliases the other common names for fixed fonts as "mono"), and then add: <match target="pattern" name="family"> <test qual="any" name="family"> <string>mono</string> </test> <edit name="spacing" mode="assign"> <int>100</int> </edit> </match> Certain fonts, such as Helvetica, may have a problem when anti-aliased. Usually this manifests itself as a font that seems cut in half vertically. At worst, it may cause applications such as Mozilla to crash. To avoid this, consider adding the following to local.conf: <match target="pattern" name="family"> <test qual="any" name="family"> <string>Helvetica</string> </test> <edit name="family" mode="assign"> <string>sans-serif</string> </edit> </match> Once you have finished editing local.conf make sure you end the file with the </fontconfig> tag. Not doing this will cause your changes to be ignored. The default font set that comes with XFree86 is not very desirable when it comes to anti-aliasing. A much better set of default fonts can be found in the x11-fonts/bitstream-vera port. This port will install a /usr/X11R6/etc/fonts/local.conf file if one does not exist already. If the file does exist, the port will create a /usr/X11R6/etc/fonts/local.conf-vera file. Merge the contents of this file into /usr/X11R6/etc/fonts/local.conf, and the Bitstream fonts will automatically replace the default XFree86 Serif, Sans Serif, and Monospaced fonts. Finally, users can add their own settings via their personal .fonts.conf files. To do this, each user should simply create a ~/.fonts.conf. This file must also be in XML format. LCD screen Fonts LCD screen One last point: with an LCD screen, sub-pixel sampling may be desired. This basically treats the (horizontally separated) red, green and blue components separately to improve the horizontal resolution; the results can be dramatic. To enable this, add the line somewhere in the local.conf file: <match target="font"> <test qual="all" name="rgba"> <const>unknown</const> </test> <edit name="rgba" mode="assign"> <const>rgb</const> </edit> </match> Depending on the sort of display, rgb may need to be changed to bgr, vrgb or vbgr: experiment and see which works best. Mozilla web browsers Mozilla Mozilla Anti-aliasing should be enabled the next time the X server is started. However, programs must know how to take advantage of it. At present, the Qt toolkit does, so the entire KDE environment can use anti-aliased fonts (see on KDE for details). Gtk+ and GNOME can also be made to use anti-aliasing via the Font capplet (see for details). By default, Mozilla 1.2 and greater will automatically use anti-aliasing. To disable this, rebuild Mozilla with the -DWITHOUT_XFT flag. Seth Kingsley Contributed by The X Display Manager Overview X Display Manager The X Display Manager (XDM) is an optional part of the X Window System that is used for login session management. This is useful for several types of situations, including minimal X Terminals, desktops, and large network display servers. Since the X Window System is network and protocol independent, there are a wide variety of possible configurations for running X clients and servers on different machines connected by a network. XDM provides a graphical interface for choosing which display server to connect to, and entering authorization information such as a login and password combination. Think of XDM as providing the same functionality to the user as the &man.getty.8; utility (see for details). That is, it performs system logins to the display being connected to and then runs a session manager on behalf of the user (usually an X window manager). XDM then waits for this program to exit, signaling that the user is done and should be logged out of the display. At this point, XDM can display the login and display chooser screens for the next user to login. Using XDM The XDM daemon program is located in /usr/X11R6/bin/xdm. This program can be run at any time as root and it will start managing the X display on the local machine. If XDM is to be run every time the machine boots up, a convenient way to do this is by adding an entry to /etc/ttys. For more information about the format and usage of this file, see . There is a line in the default /etc/ttys file for running the XDM daemon on a virtual terminal: ttyv8 "/usr/X11R6/bin/xdm -nodaemon" xterm off secure By default this entry is disabled; in order to enable it change field 5 from off to on and restart &man.init.8; using the directions in . The first field, the name of the terminal this program will manage, is ttyv8. This means that XDM will start running on the 9th virtual terminal. Configuring XDM The XDM configuration directory is located in /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/xdm. In this directory there are several files used to change the behavior and appearance of XDM. Typically these files will be found: File Description Xaccess Client authorization ruleset. Xresources Default X resource values. Xservers List of remote and local displays to manage. Xsession Default session script for logins. Xsetup_* Script to launch applications before the login interface. xdm-config Global configuration for all displays running on this machine. xdm-errors Errors generated by the server program. xdm-pid The process ID of the currently running XDM. Also in this directory are a few scripts and programs used to setup the desktop when XDM is running. The purpose of each of these files will be briefly described. The exact syntax and usage of all of these files is described in &man.xdm.1;. The default configuration is a simple rectangular login window with the hostname of the machine displayed at the top in a large font and Login: and Password: prompts below. This is a good starting point for changing the look and feel of XDM screens. Xaccess The protocol for connecting to XDM controlled displays is called the X Display Manager Connection Protocol (XDMCP). This file is a ruleset for controlling XDMCP connections from remote machines. By default, it allows any client to connect, but that does not matter unless the xdm-config is changed to listen for remote connections. Xresources This is an application-defaults file for the display chooser and the login screens. This is where the appearance of the login program can be modified. The format is identical to the app-defaults file described in the XFree86 documentation. Xservers This is a list of the remote displays the chooser should provide as choices. Xsession This is the default session script for XDM to run after a user has logged in. Normally each user will have a customized session script in ~/.xsession that overrides this script. Xsetup_* These will be run automatically before displaying the chooser or login interfaces. There is a script for each display being used, named Xsetup_ followed by the local display number (for instance Xsetup_0). Typically these scripts will run one or two programs in the background such as xconsole. xdm-config This contains settings in the form of app-defaults that are applicable to every display that this installation manages. xdm-errors This contains the output of the X servers that XDM is trying to run. If a display that XDM is trying to start hangs for some reason, this is a good place to look for error messages. These messages are also written to the user's ~/.xsession-errors file on a per-session basis. Running a Network Display Server In order for other clients to connect to the display server, edit the access control rules, and enable the connection listener. By default these are set to conservative values. To make XDM listen for connections, first comment out a line in the xdm-config file: ! SECURITY: do not listen for XDMCP or Chooser requests ! Comment out this line if you want to manage X terminals with xdm DisplayManager.requestPort: 0 and then restart XDM. Remember that comments in app-defaults files begin with a ! character, not the usual #. More strict access controls may be desired. Look at the example entries in Xaccess, and refer to the &man.xdm.1; manual page. Replacements for XDM Several replacements for the default XDM program exist. One of them, KDM (bundled with KDE) is described later in this chapter. KDM offers many visual improvements and cosmetic frills, as well as the functionality to allow users to choose their window manager of choice at login time. Valentino Vaschetto Contributed by Desktop Environments This section describes the different desktop environments available for X on FreeBSD. A desktop environment can mean anything ranging from a simple window manager to a complete suite of desktop applications, such as KDE or GNOME. GNOME About GNOME GNOME GNOME is a user-friendly desktop environment that enables users to easily use and configure their computers. GNOME includes a panel (for starting applications and displaying status), a desktop (where data and applications can be placed), a set of standard desktop tools and applications, and a set of conventions that make it easy for applications to cooperate and be consistent with each other. Users of other operating systems or environments should feel right at home using the powerful graphics-driven environment that GNOME provides. More information regarding GNOME on FreeBSD can be found on the FreeBSD GNOME Project's web site. Installing GNOME The easiest way to install GNOME is through the Desktop Configuration menu during the FreeBSD installation process as described in of Chapter 2. It can also be easily installed from a package or the ports collection: To install the GNOME package from the network, simply type: &prompt.root; pkg_add -r gnome2 To build GNOME from source, use the ports tree: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11/gnome2 &prompt.root; make install clean Once GNOME is installed, the X server must be told to start GNOME instead of a default window manager. If a custom .xinitrc is already in place, simply replace the line that starts the current window manager with one that starts /usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-session instead. If nothing special has been done to configuration file, then it is enough to simply type: &prompt.user; echo "/usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-session" > ~/.xinitrc Next, type startx, and the GNOME desktop environment will be started. If a display manager, like XDM, is being used, this will not work. Instead, create an executable .xsession file with the same command in it. To do this, edit the file and replace the existing window manager command with /usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-session: &prompt.user; echo "#!/bin/sh" > ~/.xsession &prompt.user; echo "/usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-session" >> ~/.xsession &prompt.user; chmod +x ~/.xsession Another option is to configure the display manager to allow choosing the window manager at login time; the section on KDE details explains how to do this for kdm, the display manager of KDE. - Anti-aliased fonts with GNOME + Anti-aliased Fonts with GNOME GNOME anti-aliased fonts Starting with version 4.0.2, XFree86 supports anti-aliasing via its RENDER extension. Gtk+ 2.0 and greater (the toolkit used by GNOME) can make use of this functionality. Configuring anti-aliasing is described in . So, with up-to-date software, anti-aliasing is possible within the GNOME desktop. Just go to Applications -> Desktop Preferences -> Font, and select either Best shapes, Best contrast, or Subpixel smoothing (LCDs). For a Gtk+ application that is not part of the GNOME desktop, set the environment variable GDK_USE_XFT to 1 before launching the program. KDE KDE About KDE KDE is an easy to use contemporary desktop environment. Some of the things that KDE brings to the user are: A beautiful contemporary desktop A desktop exhibiting complete network transparency An integrated help system allowing for convenient, consistent access to help on the use of the KDE desktop and its applications Consistent look and feel of all KDE applications Standardized menu and toolbars, keybindings, color-schemes, etc. Internationalization: KDE is available in more than 40 languages Centralized consisted dialog driven desktop configuration A great number of useful KDE applications KDE has an office application suite based on KDE's KParts technology consisting of a spread-sheet, a presentation application, an organizer, a news client and more. KDE also comes with a web browser called Konqueror, which represents a solid competitor to other existing web browsers on Unix systems. More information on KDE can be found on the KDE website. For FreeBSD specific informations and resources on KDE, consult the FreeBSD-KDE team's website. Installing KDE Just as with GNOME or any other desktop environment, the easiest way to install KDE is through the Desktop Configuration menu during the FreeBSD installation process as described in of Chapter 2. Once again, the software can be easily installed from a package or from the ports collection: To install the KDE package from the network, simply type: &prompt.root; pkg_add -r kde &man.pkg.add.1; will automatically fetch the latest version of the application. To build KDE from source, use the ports tree: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11/kde3 &prompt.root; make install clean After KDE has been installed, the X server must be told to launch this application instead of the default window manager. This is accomplished by editing the .xinitrc file: &prompt.user; echo "exec startkde" > ~/.xinitrc Now, whenever the X Window System is invoked with startx, KDE will be the desktop. If a display manager such as xdm is being used, the configuration is slightly different. Edit the .xsession file instead. Instructions for kdm are described later in this chapter. More Details on KDE Now that KDE is installed on the system, most things can be discovered through the help pages, or just by pointing and clicking at various menus. Windows or Mac users will feel quite at home. The best reference for KDE is the on-line documentation. KDE comes with its own web browser, Konqueror, dozens of useful applications, and extensive documentation. The remainder of this section discusses the technical items that are difficult to learn by random exploration. - The KDE display manager + The KDE Display Manager KDE display manager An administrator of a multi-user system may wish to have a graphical login screen to welcome users. xdm can be used, as described earlier. However, KDE includes an alternative, kdm, which is designed to look more attractive and include more login-time options. In particular, users can easily choose (via a menu) which desktop environment (KDE, GNOME, or something else) to run after logging on. To begin with, run the KDE control panel, kcontrol, as root. It is generally considered unsafe to run the entire X environment as root. Instead, run the window manager as a normal user, open a terminal window (such as xterm or KDE's konsole), become root with su (the user must be in the wheel group in /etc/group for this), and then type kcontrol. Click on the icon on the left marked System, then on Login manager. On the right there are various configurable options, which the KDE manual will explain in greater detail. Click on sessions on the right. Click New type to add various window managers and desktop environments. These are just labels, so they can say KDE and GNOME rather than startkde or gnome-session. Include a label failsafe. Play with the other menus as well, they are mainly cosmetic and self-explanatory. When you are done, click on Apply at the bottom, and quit the control center. To make sure kdm understands what the labels (KDE, GNOME etc) mean, edit the files used by xdm. In KDE 2.2 this has changed: kdm now uses its own configuration files. Please see the KDE 2.2 documentation for details. In a terminal window, as root, edit the file /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/xdm/Xsession. There is a section in the middle like this: case $# in 1) case $1 in failsafe) exec xterm -geometry 80x24-0-0 ;; esac esac A few lines need to be added to this section. Assuming the labels from used were KDE and GNOME, use the following: case $# in 1) case $1 in kde) exec /usr/local/bin/startkde ;; GNOME) exec /usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-session ;; failsafe) exec xterm -geometry 80x24-0-0 ;; esac esac For the KDE login-time desktop background to be honored, the following line needs to be added to /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/xdm/Xsetup_0: /usr/local/bin/kdmdesktop Now, make sure kdm is listed in /etc/ttys to be started at the next bootup. To do this, simply follow the instructions from the previous section on xdm and replace references to the /usr/X11R6/bin/xdm program with /usr/local/bin/kdm. Anti-aliased Fonts KDE anti-aliased fonts Starting with version 4.0.2, XFree86 supports anti-aliasing via its RENDER extension, and starting with version 2.3, Qt (the toolkit used by KDE) supports this extension. Configuring this is described in on antialiasing X11 fonts. So, with up-to-date software, anti-aliasing is possible on a KDE desktop. Just go to the KDE menu, go to Preferences -> Look and Feel -> Fonts, and click on the check box Use Anti-Aliasing for Fonts and Icons. For a Qt application which is not part of KDE, the environment variable QT_XFT needs to be set to true before starting the program. XFce About XFce XFce is a desktop environment based on the GTK toolkit used by GNOME, but is much more lightweight and meant for those who want a simple, efficient desktop which is nevertheless easy to use and configure. Visually, it looks very much like CDE, found on commercial Unix systems. Some of XFce's features are: A simple, easy-to-handle desktop Fully configurable via mouse, with drag and drop, etc Main panel similar to CDE, with menus, applets and app launchers Integrated window manager, file manager, sound manager, GNOME compliance module, and other things Themeable (since it uses GTK) Fast, light and efficient: ideal for older/slower machines or machines with memory limitations More information on XFce can be found on the XFce website. Installing XFce A binary package for XFce exists (at the time of writing). To install, simply type: &prompt.root; pkg_add -r xfce Alternatively, to build from source, use the ports collection: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11-wm/xfce &prompt.root; make install clean Now, tell the X server to launch XFce the next time X is started. Simply type this: &prompt.user; echo "/usr/X11R6/bin/startxfce" > ~/.xinitrc The next time X is started, XFce will be the desktop. As before, if a display manager like xdm is being used, create an .xsession, as described in the section on GNOME, but with the /usr/X11R6/bin/startxfce command; or, configure the display manager to allow choosing a desktop at login time, as explained in the section on kdm.