diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml index 1ad8273a4c..065e1e53c8 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml @@ -1,3793 +1,3793 @@ Storage Synopsis This chapter covers the use of disks in FreeBSD. This includes memory-backed disks, network-attached disks, standard SCSI/IDE storage devices, and devices using the USB interface. After reading this chapter, you will know: The terminology FreeBSD uses to describe the organization of data on a physical disk (partitions and slices). How to add additional hard disks to your system. How to configure &os; to use USB storage devices. How to set up virtual file systems, such as memory disks. How to use quotas to limit disk space usage. How to encrypt disks to secure them against attackers. How to create and burn CDs and DVDs on FreeBSD. The various storage media options for backups. How to use backup programs available under FreeBSD. How to backup to floppy disks. What snapshots are and how to use them efficiently. Before reading this chapter, you should: Know how to configure and install a new FreeBSD kernel (). Device Names The following is a list of physical storage devices supported in FreeBSD, and the device names associated with them. Physical Disk Naming Conventions Drive type Drive device name IDE hard drives ad IDE CDROM drives acd SCSI hard drives and USB Mass storage devices da SCSI CDROM drives cd Assorted non-standard CDROM drives mcd for Mitsumi CD-ROM, scd for Sony CD-ROM, matcd for Matsushita/Panasonic CD-ROM The &man.matcd.4; driver has been removed in FreeBSD 4.X branch since October 5th, 2002 and does not exist in FreeBSD 5.0 and 5.1 releases. However this driver is back in the FreeBSD 5.X branch since June 16th, 2003. Floppy drives fd SCSI tape drives sa IDE tape drives ast Flash drives fla for &diskonchip; Flash device RAID drives aacd for &adaptec; AdvancedRAID, mlxd and mlyd for &mylex;, amrd for AMI &megaraid;, idad for Compaq Smart RAID, twed for &tm.3ware; RAID.
David O'Brien Originally contributed by Adding Disks disks adding Lets say we want to add a new SCSI disk to a machine that currently only has a single drive. First turn off the computer and install the drive in the computer following the instructions of the computer, controller, and drive manufacturer. Due to the wide variations of procedures to do this, the details are beyond the scope of this document. Login as user root. After you have installed the drive, inspect /var/run/dmesg.boot to ensure the new disk was found. Continuing with our example, the newly added drive will be da1 and we want to mount it on /1 (if you are adding an IDE drive, the device name will be wd1 in pre-4.0 systems, or ad1 in most 4.X systems). partitions slices fdisk Because FreeBSD runs on IBM-PC compatible computers, it must take into account the PC BIOS partitions. These are different from the traditional BSD partitions. A PC disk has up to four BIOS partition entries. If the disk is going to be truly dedicated to FreeBSD, you can use the dedicated mode. Otherwise, FreeBSD will have to live within one of the PC BIOS partitions. FreeBSD calls the PC BIOS partitions slices so as not to confuse them with traditional BSD partitions. You may also use slices on a disk that is dedicated to FreeBSD, but used in a computer that also has another operating system installed. This is to not confuse the fdisk utility of the other operating system. In the slice case the drive will be added as /dev/da1s1e. This is read as: SCSI disk, unit number 1 (second SCSI disk), slice 1 (PC BIOS partition 1), and e BSD partition. In the dedicated case, the drive will be added simply as /dev/da1e. Using &man.sysinstall.8; sysinstall adding disks su Navigating <application>Sysinstall</application> You may use /stand/sysinstall to partition and label a new disk using its easy to use menus. Either login as user root or use the su command. Run /stand/sysinstall and enter the Configure menu. Within the FreeBSD Configuration Menu, scroll down and select the Fdisk option. <application>fdisk</application> Partition Editor Once inside fdisk, we can type A to use the entire disk for FreeBSD. When asked if you want to remain cooperative with any future possible operating systems, answer YES. Write the changes to the disk using W. Now exit the FDISK editor by typing q. Next you will be asked about the Master Boot Record. Since you are adding a disk to an already running system, choose None. Disk Label Editor BSD partitions Next, you need to exit sysinstall and start it again. Follow the directions above, although this time choose the Label option. This will enter the Disk Label Editor. This is where you will create the traditional BSD partitions. A disk can have up to eight partitions, labeled a-h. A few of the partition labels have special uses. The a partition is used for the root partition (/). Thus only your system disk (e.g, the disk you boot from) should have an a partition. The b partition is used for swap partitions, and you may have many disks with swap partitions. The c partition addresses the entire disk in dedicated mode, or the entire FreeBSD slice in slice mode. The other partitions are for general use. sysinstall's Label editor favors the e partition for non-root, non-swap partitions. Within the Label editor, create a single file system by typing C. When prompted if this will be a FS (file system) or swap, choose FS and type in a mount point (e.g, /mnt). When adding a disk in post-install mode, sysinstall will not create entries in /etc/fstab for you, so the mount point you specify is not important. You are now ready to write the new label to the disk and create a file system on it. Do this by typing W. Ignore any errors from sysinstall that it could not mount the new partition. Exit the Label Editor and sysinstall completely. Finish The last step is to edit /etc/fstab to add an entry for your new disk. Using Command Line Utilities Using Slices This setup will allow your disk to work correctly with other operating systems that might be installed on your computer and will not confuse other operating systems' fdisk utilities. It is recommended to use this method for new disk installs. Only use dedicated mode if you have a good reason to do so! &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/da1 bs=1k count=1 &prompt.root; fdisk -BI da1 #Initialize your new disk &prompt.root; disklabel -B -w -r da1s1 auto #Label it. &prompt.root; disklabel -e da1s1 # Edit the disklabel just created and add any partitions. &prompt.root; mkdir -p /1 &prompt.root; newfs /dev/da1s1e # Repeat this for every partition you created. &prompt.root; mount /dev/da1s1e /1 # Mount the partition(s) &prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # Add the appropriate entry/entries to your /etc/fstab. If you have an IDE disk, substitute ad for da. On pre-4.X systems use wd. Dedicated OS/2 If you will not be sharing the new drive with another operating system, you may use the dedicated mode. Remember this mode can confuse Microsoft operating systems; however, no damage will be done by them. IBM's &os2; however, will appropriate any partition it finds which it does not understand. &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/da1 bs=1k count=1 &prompt.root; disklabel -Brw da1 auto &prompt.root; disklabel -e da1 # create the `e' partition &prompt.root; newfs -d0 /dev/da1e &prompt.root; mkdir -p /1 &prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # add an entry for /dev/da1e &prompt.root; mount /1 An alternate method is: &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/da1 count=2 &prompt.root; disklabel /dev/da1 | disklabel -BrR da1 /dev/stdin &prompt.root; newfs /dev/da1e &prompt.root; mkdir -p /1 &prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # add an entry for /dev/da1e &prompt.root; mount /1 Since &os; 5.1-RELEASE, the &man.bsdlabel.8; utility replaces the old &man.disklabel.8; program. With &man.bsdlabel.8; a number of obsolete options and parameters have been retired; in the examples above the option should be removed with &man.bsdlabel.8;. For more information, please refer to the &man.bsdlabel.8; manual page. RAID Software RAID Christopher Shumway Original work by Jim Brown Revised by RAIDsoftware RAIDCCD Concatenated Disk Driver (CCD) Configuration When choosing a mass storage solution the most important factors to consider are speed, reliability, and cost. It is rare to have all three in balance; normally a fast, reliable mass storage device is expensive, and to cut back on cost either speed or reliability must be sacrificed. In designing the system described below, cost was chosen as the most important factor, followed by speed, then reliability. Data transfer speed for this system is ultimately constrained by the network. And while reliability is very important, the CCD drive described below serves online data that is already fully backed up on CD-R's and can easily be replaced. Defining your own requirements is the first step in choosing a mass storage solution. If your requirements prefer speed or reliability over cost, your solution will differ from the system described in this section. Installing the Hardware In addition to the IDE system disk, three Western Digital 30GB, 5400 RPM IDE disks form the core of the CCD disk described below providing approximately 90GB of online storage. Ideally, each IDE disk would have its own IDE controller and cable, but to minimize cost, additional IDE controllers were not used. Instead the disks were configured with jumpers so that each IDE controller has one master, and one slave. Upon reboot, the system BIOS was configured to automatically detect the disks attached. More importantly, FreeBSD detected them on reboot: ad0: 19574MB <WDC WD205BA> [39770/16/63] at ata0-master UDMA33 ad1: 29333MB <WDC WD307AA> [59598/16/63] at ata0-slave UDMA33 ad2: 29333MB <WDC WD307AA> [59598/16/63] at ata1-master UDMA33 ad3: 29333MB <WDC WD307AA> [59598/16/63] at ata1-slave UDMA33 If FreeBSD does not detect all the disks, ensure that you have jumpered them correctly. Most IDE drives also have a Cable Select jumper. This is not the jumper for the master/slave relationship. Consult the drive documentation for help in identifying the correct jumper. Next, consider how to attach them as part of the file system. You should research both &man.vinum.8; () and &man.ccd.4;. In this particular configuration, &man.ccd.4; was chosen. Setting Up the CCD The driver &man.ccd.4; allows you to take several identical disks and concatenate them into one logical file system. In order to use &man.ccd.4;, you need a kernel with &man.ccd.4; support built in. Add this line to your kernel configuration file, rebuild, and reinstall the kernel: pseudo-device ccd 4 On 5.X systems, you have to use instead the following line: device ccd In FreeBSD 5.X, it is not necessary to specify a number of &man.ccd.4; devices, as the &man.ccd.4; device driver is now self-cloning — new device instances will automatically be created on demand. The &man.ccd.4; support can also be loaded as a kernel loadable module in FreeBSD 3.0 or later. To set up &man.ccd.4;, you must first use &man.disklabel.8; to label the disks: disklabel -r -w ad1 auto disklabel -r -w ad2 auto disklabel -r -w ad3 auto This creates a disklabel for ad1c, ad2c and ad3c that spans the entire disk. Since &os; 5.1-RELEASE, the &man.bsdlabel.8; utility replaces the old &man.disklabel.8; program. With &man.bsdlabel.8; a number of obsolete options and parameters have been retired; in the examples above the option should be removed. For more information, please refer to the &man.bsdlabel.8; manual page. The next step is to change the disk label type. You can use &man.disklabel.8; to edit the disks: disklabel -e ad1 disklabel -e ad2 disklabel -e ad3 This opens up the current disk label on each disk with the editor specified by the EDITOR environment variable, typically &man.vi.1;. An unmodified disk label will look something like this: 8 partitions: # size offset fstype [fsize bsize bps/cpg] c: 60074784 0 unused 0 0 0 # (Cyl. 0 - 59597) Add a new e partition for &man.ccd.4; to use. This can usually be copied from the c partition, but the must be 4.2BSD. The disk label should now look something like this: 8 partitions: # size offset fstype [fsize bsize bps/cpg] c: 60074784 0 unused 0 0 0 # (Cyl. 0 - 59597) e: 60074784 0 4.2BSD 0 0 0 # (Cyl. 0 - 59597) Building the File System The device node for ccd0c may not exist yet, so to create it, perform the following commands: cd /dev sh MAKEDEV ccd0 In FreeBSD 5.0, &man.devfs.5; will automatically manage device nodes in /dev, so use of MAKEDEV is not necessary. Now that you have all of the disks labeled, you must build the &man.ccd.4;. To do that, use &man.ccdconfig.8;, with options similar to the following: ccdconfig ccd0 32 0 /dev/ad1e /dev/ad2e /dev/ad3e The use and meaning of each option is shown below: The first argument is the device to configure, in this case, - /dev/ccd0c. The /dev/ + /dev/ccd0c. The /dev/ portion is optional. The interleave for the file system. The interleave defines the size of a stripe in disk blocks, each normally 512 bytes. So, an interleave of 32 would be 16,384 bytes. Flags for &man.ccdconfig.8;. If you want to enable drive mirroring, you can specify a flag here. This configuration does not provide mirroring for &man.ccd.4;, so it is set at 0 (zero). The final arguments to &man.ccdconfig.8; are the devices to place into the array. Use the complete pathname for each device. After running &man.ccdconfig.8; the &man.ccd.4; is configured. A file system can be installed. Refer to &man.newfs.8; for options, or simply run: newfs /dev/ccd0c Making it All Automatic Generally, you will want to mount the &man.ccd.4; upon each reboot. To do this, you must configure it first. Write out your current configuration to /etc/ccd.conf using the following command: ccdconfig -g > /etc/ccd.conf During reboot, the script /etc/rc runs ccdconfig -C if /etc/ccd.conf exists. This automatically configures the &man.ccd.4; so it can be mounted. If you are booting into single user mode, before you can &man.mount.8; the &man.ccd.4;, you need to issue the following command to configure the array: ccdconfig -C To automatically mount the &man.ccd.4;, place an entry for the &man.ccd.4; in /etc/fstab so it will be mounted at boot time: /dev/ccd0c /media ufs rw 2 2 The Vinum Volume Manager RAIDsoftware RAID Vinum The Vinum Volume Manager is a block device driver which implements virtual disk drives. It isolates disk hardware from the block device interface and maps data in ways which result in an increase in flexibility, performance and reliability compared to the traditional slice view of disk storage. &man.vinum.8; implements the RAID-0, RAID-1 and RAID-5 models, both individually and in combination. See for more information about &man.vinum.8;. Hardware RAID RAID hardware FreeBSD also supports a variety of hardware RAID controllers. These devices control a RAID subsystem without the need for FreeBSD specific software to manage the array. Using an on-card BIOS, the card controls most of the disk operations itself. The following is a brief setup description using a Promise IDE RAID controller. When this card is installed and the system is started up, it displays a prompt requesting information. Follow the instructions to enter the card's setup screen. From here, you have the ability to combine all the attached drives. After doing so, the disk(s) will look like a single drive to FreeBSD. Other RAID levels can be set up accordingly. Rebuilding ATA RAID1 Arrays FreeBSD allows you to hot-replace a failed disk in an array. This requires that you catch it before you reboot. You will probably see something like the following in /var/log/messages or in the &man.dmesg.8; output: ad6 on monster1 suffered a hard error. ad6: READ command timeout tag=0 serv=0 - resetting ad6: trying fallback to PIO mode ata3: resetting devices .. done ad6: hard error reading fsbn 1116119 of 0-7 (ad6 bn 1116119; cn 1107 tn 4 sn 11)\\ status=59 error=40 ar0: WARNING - mirror lost Using &man.atacontrol.8;, check for further information: &prompt.root; atacontrol list ATA channel 0: Master: no device present Slave: acd0 <HL-DT-ST CD-ROM GCR-8520B/1.00> ATA/ATAPI rev 0 ATA channel 1: Master: no device present Slave: no device present ATA channel 2: Master: ad4 <MAXTOR 6L080J4/A93.0500> ATA/ATAPI rev 5 Slave: no device present ATA channel 3: Master: ad6 <MAXTOR 6L080J4/A93.0500> ATA/ATAPI rev 5 Slave: no device present &prompt.root; atacontrol status ar0 ar0: ATA RAID1 subdisks: ad4 ad6 status: DEGRADED You will first need to detach the disk from the array so that you can safely remove it: &prompt.root; atacontrol detach 3 Replace the disk. Reattach the disk as a spare: &prompt.root; atacontrol attach 3 Master: ad6 <MAXTOR 6L080J4/A93.0500> ATA/ATAPI rev 5 Slave: no device present Rebuild the array: &prompt.root; atacontrol rebuild ar0 The rebuild command hangs until complete. However, it is possible to open another terminal (using Alt Fn) and check on the progress by issuing the following command: &prompt.root; dmesg | tail -10 [output removed] ad6: removed from configuration ad6: deleted from ar0 disk1 ad6: inserted into ar0 disk1 as spare &prompt.root; atacontrol status ar0 ar0: ATA RAID1 subdisks: ad4 ad6 status: REBUILDING 0% completed Wait until this operation completes. Marc Fonvieille Contributed by USB Storage Devices USB disks A lot of external storage solutions, nowadays, use the Universal Serial Bus (USB): hard drives, USB thumbdrives, CD-R burners, etc. &os; provides support for these devices. Configuration The USB mass storage devices driver, &man.umass.4;, provides the support for USB storage devices. If you use the GENERIC kernel, you do not have to change anything in your configuration. If you use a custom kernel, be sure that the following lines are present in your kernel configuration file: device scbus device da device pass device uhci device ohci device usb device umass The &man.umass.4; driver uses the SCSI subsystem to access to the USB storage devices, your USB device will be seen as a SCSI device by the system. Depending on the USB chipset on your motherboard, you only need either device uhci or device ohci, however having both in the kernel configuration file is harmless. Do not forget to compile and install the new kernel if you added any lines. If your USB device is a CD-R or DVD burner, the SCSI CD-ROM driver, &man.cd.4;, must be added to the kernel via the line: device cd Since the burner is seen as a SCSI drive, the driver &man.atapicam.4; should not be used in the kernel configuration. Support for USB 2.0 controllers is provided on &os; 5.X, and on the 4.X branch since &os; 4.10-RELEASE. You have to add: device ehci to your configuration file for USB 2.0 support. Note &man.uhci.4; and &man.ohci.4; drivers are still needed if you want USB 1.X support. On &os; 4.X, the USB daemon (&man.usbd.8;) must be running to be able to see some USB devices. To enable it, add usbd_enable="YES" to your /etc/rc.conf file and reboot the machine. Testing the Configuration The configuration is ready to be tested: plug in your USB device, and in the system message buffer (&man.dmesg.8;), the drive should appear as something like: umass0: USB Solid state disk, rev 1.10/1.00, addr 2 GEOM: create disk da0 dp=0xc2d74850 da0 at umass-sim0 bus 0 target 0 lun 0 da0: <Generic Traveling Disk 1.11> Removable Direct Access SCSI-2 device da0: 1.000MB/s transfers da0: 126MB (258048 512 byte sectors: 64H 32S/T 126C) Of course, the brand, the device node (da0) and other details can differ according to your configuration. Since the USB device is seen as a SCSI one, the camcontrol command can be used to list the USB storage devices attached to the system: &prompt.root; camcontrol devlist <Generic Traveling Disk 1.11> at scbus0 target 0 lun 0 (da0,pass0) If the drive comes with a file system, you should be able to mount it. The will help you to format and create partitions on the USB drive if needed. If you unplug the device (the disk must be unmounted before), you should see, in the system message buffer, something like the following: umass0: at uhub0 port 1 (addr 2) disconnected (da0:umass-sim0:0:0:0): lost device (da0:umass-sim0:0:0:0): removing device entry GEOM: destroy disk da0 dp=0xc2d74850 umass0: detached Further Reading Beside the Adding Disks and Mounting and Unmounting File Systems sections, reading various manual pages may be also useful: &man.umass.4;, &man.camcontrol.8;, and &man.usbdevs.8;. Mike Meyer Contributed by Creating and Using Optical Media (CDs) CDROMs creating Introduction CDs have a number of features that differentiate them from conventional disks. Initially, they were not writable by the user. They are designed so that they can be read continuously without delays to move the head between tracks. They are also much easier to transport between systems than similarly sized media were at the time. CDs do have tracks, but this refers to a section of data to be read continuously and not a physical property of the disk. To produce a CD on FreeBSD, you prepare the data files that are going to make up the tracks on the CD, then write the tracks to the CD. ISO 9660 file systems ISO 9660 The ISO 9660 file system was designed to deal with these differences. It unfortunately codifies file system limits that were common then. Fortunately, it provides an extension mechanism that allows properly written CDs to exceed those limits while still working with systems that do not support those extensions. sysutils/cdrtools The sysutils/cdrtools port includes &man.mkisofs.8;, a program that you can use to produce a data file containing an ISO 9660 file system. It has options that support various extensions, and is described below. CD burner ATAPI Which tool to use to burn the CD depends on whether your CD burner is ATAPI or something else. ATAPI CD burners use the burncd program that is part of the base system. SCSI and USB CD burners should use cdrecord from the sysutils/cdrtools port. burncd has a limited number of supported drives. To find out if a drive is supported, see the CD-R/RW supported drives list. CD burner ATAPI/CAM driver If you run &os; 5.X, &os; 4.8-RELEASE version or higher, it will be possible to use cdrecord and other tools for SCSI drives on an ATAPI hardware with the ATAPI/CAM module. If you want a CD burning software with a graphical user interface, you should have a look to X-CD-Roast or K3b. These tools are available as packages or from the sysutils/xcdroast and sysutils/k3b ports. X-CD-Roast and K3b require the ATAPI/CAM module with ATAPI hardware. mkisofs The &man.mkisofs.8; program, which is part of the sysutils/cdrtools port, produces an ISO 9660 file system that is an image of a directory tree in the &unix; file system name space. The simplest usage is: &prompt.root; mkisofs -o imagefile.iso /path/to/tree file systems ISO 9660 This command will create an imagefile.iso containing an ISO 9660 file system that is a copy of the tree at /path/to/tree. In the process, it will map the file names to names that fit the limitations of the standard ISO 9660 file system, and will exclude files that have names uncharacteristic of ISO file systems. file systems HFS file systems Joliet A number of options are available to overcome those restrictions. In particular, enables the Rock Ridge extensions common to &unix; systems, enables Joliet extensions used by Microsoft systems, and can be used to create HFS file systems used by &macos;. For CDs that are going to be used only on FreeBSD systems, can be used to disable all filename restrictions. When used with , it produces a file system image that is identical to the FreeBSD tree you started from, though it may violate the ISO 9660 standard in a number of ways. CDROMs creating bootable The last option of general use is . This is used to specify the location of the boot image for use in producing an El Torito bootable CD. This option takes an argument which is the path to a boot image from the top of the tree being written to the CD. So, given that /tmp/myboot holds a bootable FreeBSD system with the boot image in /tmp/myboot/boot/cdboot, you could produce the image of an ISO 9660 file system in /tmp/bootable.iso like so: &prompt.root; mkisofs -U -R -b boot/cdboot -o /tmp/bootable.iso /tmp/myboot Having done that, if you have vn (FreeBSD 4.X), or md (FreeBSD 5.X) configured in your kernel, you can mount the file system with: &prompt.root; vnconfig -e vn0c /tmp/bootable.iso &prompt.root; mount -t cd9660 /dev/vn0c /mnt for FreeBSD 4.X, and for FreeBSD 5.X: &prompt.root; mdconfig -a -t vnode -f /tmp/bootable.iso -u 0 &prompt.root; mount -t cd9660 /dev/md0 /mnt At which point you can verify that /mnt and /tmp/myboot are identical. There are many other options you can use with &man.mkisofs.8; to fine-tune its behavior. In particular: modifications to an ISO 9660 layout and the creation of Joliet and HFS discs. See the &man.mkisofs.8; manual page for details. burncd CDROMs burning If you have an ATAPI CD burner, you can use the burncd command to burn an ISO image onto a CD. burncd is part of the base system, installed as /usr/sbin/burncd. Usage is very simple, as it has few options: &prompt.root; burncd -f cddevice data imagefile.iso fixate Will burn a copy of imagefile.iso on cddevice. The default device is /dev/acd0 (or /dev/acd0c under &os; 4.X). See &man.burncd.8; for options to set the write speed, eject the CD after burning, and write audio data. cdrecord If you do not have an ATAPI CD burner, you will have to use cdrecord to burn your CDs. cdrecord is not part of the base system; you must install it from either the port at sysutils/cdrtools or the appropriate package. Changes to the base system can cause binary versions of this program to fail, possibly resulting in a coaster. You should therefore either upgrade the port when you upgrade your system, or if you are tracking -STABLE, upgrade the port when a new version becomes available. While cdrecord has many options, basic usage is even simpler than burncd. Burning an ISO 9660 image is done with: &prompt.root; cdrecord dev=device imagefile.iso The tricky part of using cdrecord is finding the to use. To find the proper setting, use the flag of cdrecord, which might produce results like this: CDROMs burning &prompt.root; cdrecord -scanbus Cdrecord 1.9 (i386-unknown-freebsd4.2) Copyright (C) 1995-2000 Jörg Schilling Using libscg version 'schily-0.1' scsibus0: 0,0,0 0) 'SEAGATE ' 'ST39236LW ' '0004' Disk 0,1,0 1) 'SEAGATE ' 'ST39173W ' '5958' Disk 0,2,0 2) * 0,3,0 3) 'iomega ' 'jaz 1GB ' 'J.86' Removable Disk 0,4,0 4) 'NEC ' 'CD-ROM DRIVE:466' '1.26' Removable CD-ROM 0,5,0 5) * 0,6,0 6) * 0,7,0 7) * scsibus1: 1,0,0 100) * 1,1,0 101) * 1,2,0 102) * 1,3,0 103) * 1,4,0 104) * 1,5,0 105) 'YAMAHA ' 'CRW4260 ' '1.0q' Removable CD-ROM 1,6,0 106) 'ARTEC ' 'AM12S ' '1.06' Scanner 1,7,0 107) * This lists the appropriate value for the devices on the list. Locate your CD burner, and use the three numbers separated by commas as the value for . In this case, the CRW device is 1,5,0, so the appropriate input would be . There are easier ways to specify this value; see &man.cdrecord.1; for details. That is also the place to look for information on writing audio tracks, controlling the speed, and other things. Duplicating Audio CDs You can duplicate an audio CD by extracting the audio data from the CD to a series of files, and then writing these files to a blank CD. The process is slightly different for ATAPI and SCSI drives. SCSI Drives Use cdda2wav to extract the audio. &prompt.user; cdda2wav -v255 -D2,0 -B -Owav Use cdrecord to write the .wav files. &prompt.user; cdrecord -v dev=2,0 -dao -useinfo *.wav Make sure that 2.0 is set appropriately, as described in . ATAPI Drives The ATAPI CD driver makes each track available as /dev/acddtnn, where d is the drive number, and nn is the track number written with two decimal digits, prefixed with zero as needed. So the first track on the first disk is /dev/acd0t01, the second is /dev/acd0t02, the third is /dev/acd0t03, and so on. Make sure the appropriate files exist in /dev. &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV acd0t99 In FreeBSD 5.0, &man.devfs.5; will automatically create and manage entries in /dev for you, so it is not necessary to use MAKEDEV. Extract each track using &man.dd.1;. You must also use a specific block size when extracting the files. &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/acd0t01 of=track1.cdr bs=2352 &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/acd0t02 of=track2.cdr bs=2352 ... Burn the extracted files to disk using burncd. You must specify that these are audio files, and that burncd should fixate the disk when finished. &prompt.root; burncd -f /dev/acd0 audio track1.cdr track2.cdr ... fixate Duplicating Data CDs You can copy a data CD to a image file that is functionally equivalent to the image file created with &man.mkisofs.8;, and you can use it to duplicate any data CD. The example given here assumes that your CDROM device is acd0. Substitute your correct CDROM device. Under &os; 4.X, a c must be appended to the end of the device name to indicate the entire partition or, in the case of CDROMs, the entire disc. &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/acd0 of=file.iso bs=2048 Now that you have an image, you can burn it to CD as described above. Using Data CDs Now that you have created a standard data CDROM, you probably want to mount it and read the data on it. By default, &man.mount.8; assumes that a file system is of type ufs. If you try something like: &prompt.root; mount /dev/cd0 /mnt you will get a complaint about Incorrect super block, and no mount. The CDROM is not a UFS file system, so attempts to mount it as such will fail. You just need to tell &man.mount.8; that the file system is of type ISO9660, and everything will work. You do this by specifying the option &man.mount.8;. For example, if you want to mount the CDROM device, - /dev/cd0, under + /dev/cd0, under /mnt, you would execute: &prompt.root; mount -t cd9660 /dev/cd0 /mnt Note that your device name - (/dev/cd0 in this example) could be + (/dev/cd0 in this example) could be different, depending on the interface your CDROM uses. Also, the option just executes &man.mount.cd9660.8;. The above example could be shortened to: &prompt.root; mount_cd9660 /dev/cd0 /mnt You can generally use data CDROMs from any vendor in this way. Disks with certain ISO 9660 extensions might behave oddly, however. For example, Joliet disks store all filenames in two-byte Unicode characters. The FreeBSD kernel does not speak Unicode (yet!), so non-English characters show up as question marks. (If you are running FreeBSD 4.3 or later, the CD9660 driver includes hooks to load an appropriate Unicode conversion table on the fly. Modules for some of the common encodings are available via the sysutils/cd9660_unicode port.) Occasionally, you might get Device not configured when trying to mount a CDROM. This usually means that the CDROM drive thinks that there is no disk in the tray, or that the drive is not visible on the bus. It can take a couple of seconds for a CDROM drive to realize that it has been fed, so be patient. Sometimes, a SCSI CDROM may be missed because it did not have enough time to answer the bus reset. If you have a SCSI CDROM please add the following option to your kernel configuration and rebuild your kernel. options SCSI_DELAY=15000 This tells your SCSI bus to pause 15 seconds during boot, to give your CDROM drive every possible chance to answer the bus reset. Burning Raw Data CDs You can choose to burn a file directly to CD, without creating an ISO 9660 file system. Some people do this for backup purposes. This runs more quickly than burning a standard CD: &prompt.root; burncd -f /dev/acd1 -s 12 data archive.tar.gz fixate In order to retrieve the data burned to such a CD, you must read data from the raw device node: &prompt.root; tar xzvf /dev/acd1 You cannot mount this disk as you would a normal CDROM. Such a CDROM cannot be read under any operating system except FreeBSD. If you want to be able to mount the CD, or share data with another operating system, you must use &man.mkisofs.8; as described above. Marc Fonvieille Contributed by CD burner ATAPI/CAM driver Using the ATAPI/CAM Driver This driver allows ATAPI devices (CD-ROM, CD-RW, DVD drives etc...) to be accessed through the SCSI subsystem, and so allows the use of applications like sysutils/cdrdao or &man.cdrecord.1;. To use this driver, you will need to add the following lines to your kernel configuration file: device atapicam device scbus device cd device pass You also need the following line in your kernel configuration file: device ata which should already be present. Then rebuild, install your new kernel, and reboot your machine. During the boot process, your burner should show up, like so: acd0: CD-RW <MATSHITA CD-RW/DVD-ROM UJDA740> at ata1-master PIO4 cd0 at ata1 bus 0 target 0 lun 0 cd0: <MATSHITA CDRW/DVD UJDA740 1.00> Removable CD-ROM SCSI-0 device cd0: 16.000MB/s transfers cd0: Attempt to query device size failed: NOT READY, Medium not present - tray closed The drive could now be accessed via the /dev/cd0 device name, for example to mount a CD-ROM on /mnt, just type the following: &prompt.root; mount -t cd9660 /dev/cd0 /mnt As root, you can run the following command to get the SCSI address of the burner: &prompt.root; camcontrol devlist <MATSHITA CDRW/DVD UJDA740 1.00> at scbus1 target 0 lun 0 (pass0,cd0) So 1,0,0 will be the SCSI address to use with &man.cdrecord.1; and other SCSI application. For more information about ATAPI/CAM and SCSI system, refer to the &man.atapicam.4; and &man.cam.4; manual pages. Marc Fonvieille Contributed by Andy Polyakov With inputs from Creating and Using Optical Media (DVDs) DVD burning Introduction Compared to the CD, the DVD is the next generation of optical media storage technology. The DVD can hold more data than any CD and is nowadays the standard for video publishing. Five physical recordable formats can be defined for what we will call a recordable DVD: DVD-R: This was the first DVD recordable format available. The DVD-R standard is defined by the DVD Forum. This format is write once. DVD-RW: This is the rewriteable version of the DVD-R standard. A DVD-RW can be rewritten about 1000 times. DVD-RAM: This is also a rewriteable format supported by the DVD Forum. A DVD-RAM can be seen as a removable hard drive. However, this media is not compatible with most DVD-ROM drives and DVD-Video players; only a few DVD writers support the DVD-RAM format. DVD+RW: This is a rewriteable format defined by the DVD+RW Alliance. A DVD+RW can be rewritten about 1000 times. DVD+R: This format is the write once variation of the DVD+RW format. A single layer recordable DVD can hold up to 4,700,000,000 bytes which is actually 4.38 GB or 4485 MB (1 kilobyte is 1024 bytes). A distinction must be made between the physical media and the application. For example, a DVD-Video is a specific file layout that can be written on any recordable DVD physical media: DVD-R, DVD+R, DVD-RW etc. Before choosing the type of media, you must be sure that both the burner and the DVD-Video player (a standalone player or a DVD-ROM drive on a computer) are compatible with the media under consideration. Configuration The program &man.growisofs.1; will be used to perform DVD recording. This command is part of the dvd+rw-tools utilities (sysutils/dvd+rw-tools). The dvd+rw-tools support all DVD media types. These tools use the SCSI subsystem to access to the devices, therefore the ATAPI/CAM support must be added to your kernel. If your burner uses the USB interface this addition is useless, and you should read the for more details on USB devices configuration. You also have to enable DMA access for ATAPI devices, this can be done in adding the following line to the /boot/loader.conf file: hw.ata.atapi_dma="1" Before attempting to use the dvd+rw-tools you should consult the dvd+rw-tools' hardware compatibility notes for any information related to your DVD burner. If you want a graphical user interface, you should have a look to K3b (sysutils/k3b) which provides a user friendly interface to &man.growisofs.1; and many others burning tools. Burning Data DVDs The &man.growisofs.1; command is a frontend to mkisofs, it will invoke &man.mkisofs.8; to create the file system layout and will perform the write on the DVD. This means you do not need to create an image of the data before the burning process. To burn onto a DVD+R or a DVD-R the data from the /path/to/data directory, use the following command: &prompt.root; growisofs -dvd-compat -Z /dev/cd0 -J -R /path/to/data The options are passed to &man.mkisofs.8; for the file system creation (in this case: an ISO 9660 file system with Joliet and Rock Ridge extensions), consult the &man.mkisofs.8; manual page for more details. The option is used for the initial session recording in any case: multiple sessions or not. The DVD device, /dev/cd0, must be changed according to your configuration. The parameter will close the disk, the recording will be unappendable. In return this should provide better media compatibility with DVD-ROM drives. It is also possible to burn a pre-mastered image, for example to burn the image imagefile.iso, we will run: &prompt.root; growisofs -dvd-compat -Z /dev/cd0=imagefile.iso The write speed should be detected and automatically set according to the media and the drive being used. If you want to force the write speed, use the parameter. For more information, read the &man.growisofs.1; manual page. DVD DVD-Video Burning a DVD-Video A DVD-Video is a specific file layout based on ISO 9660 and the micro-UDF (M-UDF) specifications. The DVD-Video also presents a specific data structure hierarchy, it is the reason why you need a particular program such as multimedia/dvdauthor to author the DVD. If you already have an image of the DVD-Video file system, just burn it in the same way as for any image, see the previous section for an example. If you have made the DVD authoring and the result is in, for example, the directory /path/to/video, the following command should be used to burn the DVD-Video: &prompt.root; growisofs -Z /dev/cd0 -dvd-video /path/to/video The option will be passed down to &man.mkisofs.8; and will instruct it to create a DVD-Video file system layout. Beside this, the option implies &man.growisofs.1; option. DVD DVD+RW Using a DVD+RW Unlike CD-RW, a virgin DVD+RW needs to be formatted before first use. The &man.growisofs.1; program will take care of it automatically whenever appropriate, which is the recommended way. However you can use the dvd+rw-format command to format the DVD+RW: &prompt.root; dvd+rw-format /dev/cd0 You need to perform this operation just once, keep in mind that only virgin DVD+RW medias need to be formatted. Then you can burn the DVD+RW in the way seen in previous sections. If you want to burn new data (burn a totally new file system not append some data) onto a DVD+RW, you do not need to blank it, you just have to write over the previous recording (in performing a new initial session), like this: &prompt.root; growisofs -Z /dev/cd0 -J -R /path/to/newdata DVD+RW format offers the possibility to easily append data to a previous recording. The operation consists in merging a new session to the existing one, it is not multisession writing, &man.growisofs.1; will grow the ISO 9660 file system present on the media. For example, if we want to append data to our previous DVD+RW, we have to use the following: &prompt.root; growisofs -M /dev/cd0 -J -R /path/to/nextdata The same &man.mkisofs.8; options we used to burn the initial session should be used during next writes. You may want to use the option if you want better media compatibility with DVD-ROM drives. In the DVD+RW case, this will not prevent you from adding data. If for any reason you really want to blank the media, do the following: &prompt.root; growisofs -Z /dev/cd0=/dev/zero DVD DVD-RW Using a DVD-RW A DVD-RW accepts two disc formats: the incremental sequential one and the restricted overwrite. By default DVD-RW discs are in sequential format. A virgin DVD-RW can be directly written without the need of a formatting operation, however a non-virgin DVD-RW in sequential format needs to be blanked before to be able to write a new initial session. To blank a DVD-RW in sequential mode, run: &prompt.root; dvd+rw-format -blank=full /dev/cd0 A full blanking () will take about one hour on a 1x media. A fast blanking can be performed using the option if the DVD-RW will be recorded in Disk-At-Once (DAO) mode. To burn the DVD-RW in DAO mode, use the command: &prompt.root; growisofs -use-the-force-luke=dao -Z /dev/cd0=imagefile.iso The option should not be required since &man.growisofs.1; attempts to detect minimally (fast blanked) media and engage DAO write. In fact one should use restricted overwrite mode with any DVD-RW, this format is more flexible than the default incremental sequential one. To write data on a sequential DVD-RW, use the same instructions as for the other DVD formats: &prompt.root; growisofs -Z /dev/cd0 -J -R /path/to/data If you want to append some data to your previous recording, you will have to use the &man.growisofs.1; option. However, if you perform data addition on a DVD-RW in incremental sequential mode, a new session will be created on the disc and the result will be a multi-session disc. A DVD-RW in restricted overwrite format does not need to be blanked before a new initial session, you just have to overwrite the disc with the option, this is similar to the DVD+RW case. It is also possible to grow an existing ISO 9660 file system written on the disc in a same way as for a DVD+RW with the option. The result will be a one-session DVD. To put a DVD-RW in the restricted overwrite format, the following command must be used: &prompt.root; dvd+rw-format /dev/cd0 To change back to the sequential format use: &prompt.root; dvd+rw-format -blank=full /dev/cd0 Multisession Very few DVD-ROM drives support multisession DVDs, they will most of time, hopefully, only read the first session. DVD+R, DVD-R and DVD-RW in sequential format can accept multiple sessions, the notion of multiple sessions does not exist for the DVD+RW and the DVD-RW restricted overwrite formats. Using the following command after an initial (non-closed) session on a DVD+R, DVD-R, or DVD-RW in sequential format, will add a new session to the disc: &prompt.root; growisofs -M /dev/cd0 -J -R /path/to/nextdata Using this command line with a DVD+RW or a DVD-RW in restricted overwrite mode, will append data in merging the new session to the existing one. The result will be a single-session disc. This is the way used to add data after an initial write on these medias. Some space on the media is used between each session for end and start of sessions. Therefore, one should add sessions with large amount of data to optimize media space. The number of sessions is limited to 154 for a DVD+R, about 2000 for a DVD-R, and 127 for a DVD+R Double Layer. For More Information To obtain more information about a DVD, the dvd+rw-mediainfo /dev/cd0 command can be ran with the disc in the drive. More information about the dvd+rw-tools can be found in the &man.growisofs.1; manual page, on the dvd+rw-tools web site and in the cdwrite mailing list archives. The dvd+rw-mediainfo output of the resulting recording or the media with issues is mandatory for any problem report. Without this output, it will be quite impossible to help you. Julio Merino Original work by Martin Karlsson Rewritten by Creating and Using Floppy Disks Storing data on floppy disks is sometimes useful, for example when one does not have any other removable storage media or when one needs to transfer small amounts of data to another computer. This section will explain how to use floppy disks in FreeBSD. It will primarily cover formatting and usage of 3.5inch DOS floppies, but the concepts are similar for other floppy disk formats. Formatting Floppies The Device Floppy disks are accessed through entries in /dev, just like other devices. To access the raw floppy disk in 4.X and earlier releases, one uses /dev/fdN, where N stands for the drive number, usually 0, or /dev/fdNX, where X stands for a letter. In 5.0 or newer releases, simply use /dev/fdN. The Disk Size in 4.X and Earlier Releases There are also /dev/fdN.size devices, where size is a floppy disk size in kilobytes. These entries are used at low-level format time to determine the disk size. 1440kB is the size that will be used in the following examples. Sometimes the entries under /dev will have to be (re)created. To do that, issue: &prompt.root; cd /dev && ./MAKEDEV "fd*" The Disk Size in 5.0 and Newer Releases In 5.0, &man.devfs.5; will automatically manage device nodes in /dev, so use of MAKEDEV is not necessary. The desired disk size is passed to &man.fdformat.1; through the flag. Supported sizes are listed in &man.fdcontrol.8;, but be advised that 1440kB is what works best. Formatting A floppy disk needs to be low-level formated before it can be used. This is usually done by the vendor, but formatting is a good way to check media integrity. Although it is possible to force larger (or smaller) disk sizes, 1440kB is what most floppy disks are designed for. To low-level format the floppy disk you need to use &man.fdformat.1;. This utility expects the device name as an argument. Make note of any error messages, as these can help determine if the disk is good or bad. Formatting in 4.X and Earlier Releases Use the /dev/fdN.size devices to format the floppy. Insert a new 3.5inch floppy disk in your drive and issue: &prompt.root; /usr/sbin/fdformat /dev/fd0.1440 Formatting in 5.0 and Newer Releases Use the /dev/fdN devices to format the floppy. Insert a new 3.5inch floppy disk in your drive and issue: &prompt.root; /usr/sbin/fdformat -f 1440 /dev/fd0 The Disk Label After low-level formatting the disk, you will need to place a disk label on it. This disk label will be destroyed later, but it is needed by the system to determine the size of the disk and its geometry later. The new disk label will take over the whole disk, and will contain all the proper information about the geometry of the floppy. The geometry values for the disk label are listed in /etc/disktab. You can run now &man.disklabel.8; like so: &prompt.root; /sbin/disklabel -B -r -w /dev/fd0 fd1440 Since &os; 5.1-RELEASE, the &man.bsdlabel.8; utility replaces the old &man.disklabel.8; program. With &man.bsdlabel.8; a number of obsolete options and parameters have been retired; in the example above the option should be removed. For more information, please refer to the &man.bsdlabel.8; manual page. The File System Now the floppy is ready to be high-level formated. This will place a new file system on it, which will let FreeBSD read and write to the disk. After creating the new file system, the disk label is destroyed, so if you want to reformat the disk, you will have to recreate the disk label. The floppy's file system can be either UFS or FAT. FAT is generally a better choice for floppies. To put a new file system on the floppy, issue: &prompt.root; /sbin/newfs_msdos /dev/fd0 The disk is now ready for use. Using the Floppy To use the floppy, mount it with &man.mount.msdos.8; (in 4.X and earlier releases) or &man.mount.msdosfs.8; (in 5.0 or newer releases). One can also use emulators/mtools from the ports collection. Creating and Using Data Tapes tape media The major tape media are the 4mm, 8mm, QIC, mini-cartridge and DLT. 4mm (DDS: Digital Data Storage) tape media DDS (4mm) tapes tape media QIC tapes 4mm tapes are replacing QIC as the workstation backup media of choice. This trend accelerated greatly when Conner purchased Archive, a leading manufacturer of QIC drives, and then stopped production of QIC drives. 4mm drives are small and quiet but do not have the reputation for reliability that is enjoyed by 8mm drives. The cartridges are less expensive and smaller (3 x 2 x 0.5 inches, 76 x 51 x 12 mm) than 8mm cartridges. 4mm, like 8mm, has comparatively short head life for the same reason, both use helical scan. Data throughput on these drives starts ~150 kB/s, peaking at ~500 kB/s. Data capacity starts at 1.3 GB and ends at 2.0 GB. Hardware compression, available with most of these drives, approximately doubles the capacity. Multi-drive tape library units can have 6 drives in a single cabinet with automatic tape changing. Library capacities reach 240 GB. The DDS-3 standard now supports tape capacities up to 12 GB (or 24 GB compressed). 4mm drives, like 8mm drives, use helical-scan. All the benefits and drawbacks of helical-scan apply to both 4mm and 8mm drives. Tapes should be retired from use after 2,000 passes or 100 full backups. 8mm (Exabyte) tape media Exabyte (8mm) tapes 8mm tapes are the most common SCSI tape drives; they are the best choice of exchanging tapes. Nearly every site has an Exabyte 2 GB 8mm tape drive. 8mm drives are reliable, convenient and quiet. Cartridges are inexpensive and small (4.8 x 3.3 x 0.6 inches; 122 x 84 x 15 mm). One downside of 8mm tape is relatively short head and tape life due to the high rate of relative motion of the tape across the heads. Data throughput ranges from ~250 kB/s to ~500 kB/s. Data sizes start at 300 MB and go up to 7 GB. Hardware compression, available with most of these drives, approximately doubles the capacity. These drives are available as single units or multi-drive tape libraries with 6 drives and 120 tapes in a single cabinet. Tapes are changed automatically by the unit. Library capacities reach 840+ GB. The Exabyte Mammoth model supports 12 GB on one tape (24 GB with compression) and costs approximately twice as much as conventional tape drives. Data is recorded onto the tape using helical-scan, the heads are positioned at an angle to the media (approximately 6 degrees). The tape wraps around 270 degrees of the spool that holds the heads. The spool spins while the tape slides over the spool. The result is a high density of data and closely packed tracks that angle across the tape from one edge to the other. QIC tape media QIC-150 QIC-150 tapes and drives are, perhaps, the most common tape drive and media around. QIC tape drives are the least expensive serious backup drives. The downside is the cost of media. QIC tapes are expensive compared to 8mm or 4mm tapes, up to 5 times the price per GB data storage. But, if your needs can be satisfied with a half-dozen tapes, QIC may be the correct choice. QIC is the most common tape drive. Every site has a QIC drive of some density or another. Therein lies the rub, QIC has a large number of densities on physically similar (sometimes identical) tapes. QIC drives are not quiet. These drives audibly seek before they begin to record data and are clearly audible whenever reading, writing or seeking. QIC tapes measure (6 x 4 x 0.7 inches; 15.2 x 10.2 x 1.7 mm). Data throughput ranges from ~150 kB/s to ~500 kB/s. Data capacity ranges from 40 MB to 15 GB. Hardware compression is available on many of the newer QIC drives. QIC drives are less frequently installed; they are being supplanted by DAT drives. Data is recorded onto the tape in tracks. The tracks run along the long axis of the tape media from one end to the other. The number of tracks, and therefore the width of a track, varies with the tape's capacity. Most if not all newer drives provide backward-compatibility at least for reading (but often also for writing). QIC has a good reputation regarding the safety of the data (the mechanics are simpler and more robust than for helical scan drives). Tapes should be retired from use after 5,000 backups. DLT tape media DLT DLT has the fastest data transfer rate of all the drive types listed here. The 1/2" (12.5mm) tape is contained in a single spool cartridge (4 x 4 x 1 inches; 100 x 100 x 25 mm). The cartridge has a swinging gate along one entire side of the cartridge. The drive mechanism opens this gate to extract the tape leader. The tape leader has an oval hole in it which the drive uses to hook the tape. The take-up spool is located inside the tape drive. All the other tape cartridges listed here (9 track tapes are the only exception) have both the supply and take-up spools located inside the tape cartridge itself. Data throughput is approximately 1.5 MB/s, three times the throughput of 4mm, 8mm, or QIC tape drives. Data capacities range from 10 GB to 20 GB for a single drive. Drives are available in both multi-tape changers and multi-tape, multi-drive tape libraries containing from 5 to 900 tapes over 1 to 20 drives, providing from 50 GB to 9 TB of storage. With compression, DLT Type IV format supports up to 70 GB capacity. Data is recorded onto the tape in tracks parallel to the direction of travel (just like QIC tapes). Two tracks are written at once. Read/write head lifetimes are relatively long; once the tape stops moving, there is no relative motion between the heads and the tape. AIT tape media AIT AIT is a new format from Sony, and can hold up to 50 GB (with compression) per tape. The tapes contain memory chips which retain an index of the tape's contents. This index can be rapidly read by the tape drive to determine the position of files on the tape, instead of the several minutes that would be required for other tapes. Software such as SAMS:Alexandria can operate forty or more AIT tape libraries, communicating directly with the tape's memory chip to display the contents on screen, determine what files were backed up to which tape, locate the correct tape, load it, and restore the data from the tape. Libraries like this cost in the region of $20,000, pricing them a little out of the hobbyist market. Using a New Tape for the First Time The first time that you try to read or write a new, completely blank tape, the operation will fail. The console messages should be similar to: sa0(ncr1:4:0): NOT READY asc:4,1 sa0(ncr1:4:0): Logical unit is in process of becoming ready The tape does not contain an Identifier Block (block number 0). All QIC tape drives since the adoption of QIC-525 standard write an Identifier Block to the tape. There are two solutions: mt fsf 1 causes the tape drive to write an Identifier Block to the tape. Use the front panel button to eject the tape. Re-insert the tape and dump data to the tape. dump will report DUMP: End of tape detected and the console will show: HARDWARE FAILURE info:280 asc:80,96. rewind the tape using: mt rewind. Subsequent tape operations are successful. Backups to Floppies Can I Use Floppies for Backing Up My Data? backup floppies floppy disks Floppy disks are not really a suitable media for making backups as: The media is unreliable, especially over long periods of time. Backing up and restoring is very slow. They have a very limited capacity (the days of backing up an entire hard disk onto a dozen or so floppies has long since passed). However, if you have no other method of backing up your data then floppy disks are better than no backup at all. If you do have to use floppy disks then ensure that you use good quality ones. Floppies that have been lying around the office for a couple of years are a bad choice. Ideally use new ones from a reputable manufacturer. So How Do I Backup My Data to Floppies? The best way to backup to floppy disk is to use &man.tar.1; with the (multi volume) option, which allows backups to span multiple floppies. To backup all the files in the current directory and sub-directory use this (as root): &prompt.root; tar Mcvf /dev/fd0 * When the first floppy is full &man.tar.1; will prompt you to insert the next volume (because &man.tar.1; is media independent it refers to volumes; in this context it means floppy disk). Prepare volume #2 for /dev/fd0 and hit return: This is repeated (with the volume number incrementing) until all the specified files have been archived. Can I Compress My Backups? tar gzip compression Unfortunately, &man.tar.1; will not allow the option to be used for multi-volume archives. You could, of course, &man.gzip.1; all the files, &man.tar.1; them to the floppies, then &man.gunzip.1; the files again! How Do I Restore My Backups? To restore the entire archive use: &prompt.root; tar Mxvf /dev/fd0 There are two ways that you can use to restore only specific files. First, you can start with the first floppy and use: &prompt.root; tar Mxvf /dev/fd0 filename The utility &man.tar.1; will prompt you to insert subsequent floppies until it finds the required file. Alternatively, if you know which floppy the file is on then you can simply insert that floppy and use the same command as above. Note that if the first file on the floppy is a continuation from the previous one then &man.tar.1; will warn you that it cannot restore it, even if you have not asked it to! Backup Basics The three major backup programs are &man.dump.8;, &man.tar.1;, and &man.cpio.1;. Dump and Restore backup software dump / restore dump restore The traditional &unix; backup programs are dump and restore. They operate on the drive as a collection of disk blocks, below the abstractions of files, links and directories that are created by the file systems. dump backs up an entire file system on a device. It is unable to backup only part of a file system or a directory tree that spans more than one file system. dump does not write files and directories to tape, but rather writes the raw data blocks that comprise files and directories. If you use dump on your root directory, you would not back up /home, /usr or many other directories since these are typically mount points for other file systems or symbolic links into those file systems. dump has quirks that remain from its early days in Version 6 of AT&T UNIX (circa 1975). The default parameters are suitable for 9-track tapes (6250 bpi), not the high-density media available today (up to 62,182 ftpi). These defaults must be overridden on the command line to utilize the capacity of current tape drives. .rhosts It is also possible to backup data across the network to a tape drive attached to another computer with rdump and rrestore. Both programs rely upon rcmd and ruserok to access the remote tape drive. Therefore, the user performing the backup must be listed in the .rhosts file on the remote computer. The arguments to rdump and rrestore must be suitable to use on the remote computer. When rdumping from a FreeBSD computer to an Exabyte tape drive connected to a Sun called komodo, use: &prompt.root; /sbin/rdump 0dsbfu 54000 13000 126 komodo:/dev/nsa8 /dev/da0a 2>&1 Beware: there are security implications to allowing .rhosts authentication. Evaluate your situation carefully. It is also possible to use dump and restore in a more secure fashion over ssh. Using <command>dump</command> over <application>ssh</application> &prompt.root; /sbin/dump -0uan -f - /usr | gzip -2 | ssh -c blowfish \ targetuser@targetmachine.example.com dd of=/mybigfiles/dump-usr-l0.gz Or using dump's built-in method, setting the environment variable RSH: Using <command>dump</command> over <application>ssh</application> with <envar>RSH</envar> set &prompt.root; RSH=/usr/bin/ssh /sbin/dump -0uan -f targetuser@targetmachine.example.com:/dev/sa0 <command>tar</command> backup software tar &man.tar.1; also dates back to Version 6 of AT&T UNIX (circa 1975). tar operates in cooperation with the file system; tar writes files and directories to tape. tar does not support the full range of options that are available from &man.cpio.1;, but tar does not require the unusual command pipeline that cpio uses. tar Most versions of tar do not support backups across the network. The GNU version of tar, which FreeBSD utilizes, supports remote devices using the same syntax as rdump. To tar to an Exabyte tape drive connected to a Sun called komodo, use: &prompt.root; /usr/bin/tar cf komodo:/dev/nsa8 . 2>&1 For versions without remote device support, you can use a pipeline and rsh to send the data to a remote tape drive. &prompt.root; tar cf - . | rsh hostname dd of=tape-device obs=20b If you are worried about the security of backing up over a network you should use the ssh command instead of rsh. <command>cpio</command> backup software cpio &man.cpio.1; is the original &unix; file interchange tape program for magnetic media. cpio has options (among many others) to perform byte-swapping, write a number of different archive formats, and pipe the data to other programs. This last feature makes cpio an excellent choice for installation media. cpio does not know how to walk the directory tree and a list of files must be provided through stdin. cpio cpio does not support backups across the network. You can use a pipeline and rsh to send the data to a remote tape drive. &prompt.root; for f in directory_list; do find $f >> backup.list done &prompt.root; cpio -v -o --format=newc < backup.list | ssh user@host "cat > backup_device" Where directory_list is the list of directories you want to back up, user@host is the user/hostname combination that will be performing the backups, and backup_device is where the backups should be written to (e.g., /dev/nsa0). <command>pax</command> backup software pax pax POSIX IEEE &man.pax.1; is IEEE/&posix;'s answer to tar and cpio. Over the years the various versions of tar and cpio have gotten slightly incompatible. So rather than fight it out to fully standardize them, &posix; created a new archive utility. pax attempts to read and write many of the various cpio and tar formats, plus new formats of its own. Its command set more resembles cpio than tar. <application>Amanda</application> backup software Amanda Amanda Amanda (Advanced Maryland Network Disk Archiver) is a client/server backup system, rather than a single program. An Amanda server will backup to a single tape drive any number of computers that have Amanda clients and a network connection to the Amanda server. A common problem at sites with a number of large disks is that the length of time required to backup to data directly to tape exceeds the amount of time available for the task. Amanda solves this problem. Amanda can use a holding disk to backup several file systems at the same time. Amanda creates archive sets: a group of tapes used over a period of time to create full backups of all the file systems listed in Amanda's configuration file. The archive set also contains nightly incremental (or differential) backups of all the file systems. Restoring a damaged file system requires the most recent full backup and the incremental backups. The configuration file provides fine control of backups and the network traffic that Amanda generates. Amanda will use any of the above backup programs to write the data to tape. Amanda is available as either a port or a package, it is not installed by default. Do Nothing Do nothing is not a computer program, but it is the most widely used backup strategy. There are no initial costs. There is no backup schedule to follow. Just say no. If something happens to your data, grin and bear it! If your time and your data is worth little to nothing, then Do nothing is the most suitable backup program for your computer. But beware, &unix; is a useful tool, you may find that within six months you have a collection of files that are valuable to you. Do nothing is the correct backup method for /usr/obj and other directory trees that can be exactly recreated by your computer. An example is the files that comprise the HTML or &postscript; version of this Handbook. These document formats have been created from SGML input files. Creating backups of the HTML or &postscript; files is not necessary. The SGML files are backed up regularly. Which Backup Program Is Best? LISA &man.dump.8; Period. Elizabeth D. Zwicky torture tested all the backup programs discussed here. The clear choice for preserving all your data and all the peculiarities of &unix; file systems is dump. Elizabeth created file systems containing a large variety of unusual conditions (and some not so unusual ones) and tested each program by doing a backup and restore of those file systems. The peculiarities included: files with holes, files with holes and a block of nulls, files with funny characters in their names, unreadable and unwritable files, devices, files that change size during the backup, files that are created/deleted during the backup and more. She presented the results at LISA V in Oct. 1991. See torture-testing Backup and Archive Programs. Emergency Restore Procedure Before the Disaster There are only four steps that you need to perform in preparation for any disaster that may occur. disklabel First, print the disklabel from each of your disks (e.g. disklabel da0 | lpr), your file system table (/etc/fstab) and all boot messages, two copies of each. fix-it floppies Second, determine that the boot and fix-it floppies (boot.flp and fixit.flp) have all your devices. The easiest way to check is to reboot your machine with the boot floppy in the floppy drive and check the boot messages. If all your devices are listed and functional, skip on to step three. Otherwise, you have to create two custom bootable floppies which have a kernel that can mount all of your disks and access your tape drive. These floppies must contain: fdisk, disklabel, newfs, mount, and whichever backup program you use. These programs must be statically linked. If you use dump, the floppy must contain restore. Third, create backup tapes regularly. Any changes that you make after your last backup may be irretrievably lost. Write-protect the backup tapes. Fourth, test the floppies (either boot.flp and fixit.flp or the two custom bootable floppies you made in step two.) and backup tapes. Make notes of the procedure. Store these notes with the bootable floppy, the printouts and the backup tapes. You will be so distraught when restoring that the notes may prevent you from destroying your backup tapes (How? In place of tar xvf /dev/sa0, you might accidentally type tar cvf /dev/sa0 and over-write your backup tape). For an added measure of security, make bootable floppies and two backup tapes each time. Store one of each at a remote location. A remote location is NOT the basement of the same office building. A number of firms in the World Trade Center learned this lesson the hard way. A remote location should be physically separated from your computers and disk drives by a significant distance. A Script for Creating a Bootable Floppy /mnt/sbin/init gzip -c -best /sbin/fsck > /mnt/sbin/fsck gzip -c -best /sbin/mount > /mnt/sbin/mount gzip -c -best /sbin/halt > /mnt/sbin/halt gzip -c -best /sbin/restore > /mnt/sbin/restore gzip -c -best /bin/sh > /mnt/bin/sh gzip -c -best /bin/sync > /mnt/bin/sync cp /root/.profile /mnt/root cp -f /dev/MAKEDEV /mnt/dev chmod 755 /mnt/dev/MAKEDEV chmod 500 /mnt/sbin/init chmod 555 /mnt/sbin/fsck /mnt/sbin/mount /mnt/sbin/halt chmod 555 /mnt/bin/sh /mnt/bin/sync chmod 6555 /mnt/sbin/restore # # create the devices nodes # cd /mnt/dev ./MAKEDEV std ./MAKEDEV da0 ./MAKEDEV da1 ./MAKEDEV da2 ./MAKEDEV sa0 ./MAKEDEV pty0 cd / # # create minimum file system table # cat > /mnt/etc/fstab < /mnt/etc/passwd < /mnt/etc/master.passwd < After the Disaster The key question is: did your hardware survive? You have been doing regular backups so there is no need to worry about the software. If the hardware has been damaged, the parts should be replaced before attempting to use the computer. If your hardware is okay, check your floppies. If you are using a custom boot floppy, boot single-user (type -s at the boot: prompt). Skip the following paragraph. If you are using the boot.flp and fixit.flp floppies, keep reading. Insert the boot.flp floppy in the first floppy drive and boot the computer. The original install menu will be displayed on the screen. Select the Fixit--Repair mode with CDROM or floppy. option. Insert the fixit.flp when prompted. restore and the other programs that you need are located in /mnt2/stand. Recover each file system separately. mount root partition disklabel newfs Try to mount (e.g. mount /dev/da0a /mnt) the root partition of your first disk. If the disklabel was damaged, use disklabel to re-partition and label the disk to match the label that you printed and saved. Use newfs to re-create the file systems. Re-mount the root partition of the floppy read-write (mount -u -o rw /mnt). Use your backup program and backup tapes to recover the data for this file system (e.g. restore vrf /dev/sa0). Unmount the file system (e.g. umount /mnt). Repeat for each file system that was damaged. Once your system is running, backup your data onto new tapes. Whatever caused the crash or data loss may strike again. Another hour spent now may save you from further distress later. * I Did Not Prepare for the Disaster, What Now? ]]> Marc Fonvieille Reorganized and enhanced by Network, Memory, and File-Backed File Systems virtual disks disks virtual Aside from the disks you physically insert into your computer: floppies, CDs, hard drives, and so forth; other forms of disks are understood by FreeBSD - the virtual disks. NFS Coda disks memory These include network file systems such as the Network File System and Coda, memory-based file systems and file-backed file systems. According to the FreeBSD version you run, you will have to use different tools for creation and use of file-backed and memory-based file systems. The FreeBSD 4.X users will have to use &man.MAKEDEV.8; to create the required devices. FreeBSD 5.0 and later use &man.devfs.5; to allocate device nodes transparently for the user. File-Backed File System under FreeBSD 4.X disks file-backed (4.X) The utility &man.vnconfig.8; configures and enables vnode pseudo-disk devices. A vnode is a representation of a file, and is the focus of file activity. This means that &man.vnconfig.8; uses files to create and operate a file system. One possible use is the mounting of floppy or CD images kept in files. To use &man.vnconfig.8;, you need &man.vn.4; support in your kernel configuration file: pseudo-device vn To mount an existing file system image: Using vnconfig to Mount an Existing File System Image under FreeBSD 4.X &prompt.root; vnconfig vn0 diskimage &prompt.root; mount /dev/vn0c /mnt To create a new file system image with &man.vnconfig.8;: Creating a New File-Backed Disk with <command>vnconfig</command> &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=newimage bs=1k count=5k 5120+0 records in 5120+0 records out &prompt.root; vnconfig -s labels -c vn0 newimage &prompt.root; disklabel -r -w vn0 auto &prompt.root; newfs vn0c Warning: 2048 sector(s) in last cylinder unallocated /dev/vn0c: 10240 sectors in 3 cylinders of 1 tracks, 4096 sectors 5.0MB in 1 cyl groups (16 c/g, 32.00MB/g, 1280 i/g) super-block backups (for fsck -b #) at: 32 &prompt.root; mount /dev/vn0c /mnt &prompt.root; df /mnt Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on /dev/vn0c 4927 1 4532 0% /mnt File-Backed File System under FreeBSD 5.X disks file-backed (5.X) The utility &man.mdconfig.8; is used to configure and enable memory disks, &man.md.4;, under FreeBSD 5.X. To use &man.mdconfig.8;, you have to load &man.md.4; module or to add the support in your kernel configuration file: device md The &man.mdconfig.8; command supports three kinds of memory backed virtual disks: memory disks allocated with &man.malloc.9;, memory disks using a file or swap space as backing. One possible use is the mounting of floppy or CD images kept in files. To mount an existing file system image: Using <command>mdconfig</command> to Mount an Existing File System Image under FreeBSD 5.X &prompt.root; mdconfig -a -t vnode -f diskimage -u 0 &prompt.root; mount /dev/md0 /mnt To create a new file system image with &man.mdconfig.8;: Creating a New File-Backed Disk with <command>mdconfig</command> &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=newimage bs=1k count=5k 5120+0 records in 5120+0 records out &prompt.root; mdconfig -a -t vnode -f newimage -u 0 &prompt.root; disklabel -r -w md0 auto &prompt.root; newfs md0c /dev/md0c: 5.0MB (10240 sectors) block size 16384, fragment size 2048 using 4 cylinder groups of 1.27MB, 81 blks, 256 inodes. super-block backups (for fsck -b #) at: 32, 2624, 5216, 7808 &prompt.root; mount /dev/md0c /mnt &prompt.root; df /mnt Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on /dev/md0c 4846 2 4458 0% /mnt If you do not specify the unit number with the option, &man.mdconfig.8; will use the &man.md.4; automatic allocation to select an unused device. The name of the allocated unit will be output on stdout like md4. For more details about &man.mdconfig.8;, please refer to the manual page. Since &os; 5.1-RELEASE, the &man.bsdlabel.8; utility replaces the old &man.disklabel.8; program. With &man.bsdlabel.8; a number of obsolete options and parameters have been retired; in the example above the option should be removed. For more information, please refer to the &man.bsdlabel.8; manual page. The utility &man.mdconfig.8; is very useful, however it asks many command lines to create a file-backed file system. FreeBSD 5.0 also comes with a tool called &man.mdmfs.8;, this program configures a &man.md.4; disk using &man.mdconfig.8;, puts a UFS file system on it using &man.newfs.8;, and mounts it using &man.mount.8;. For example, if you want to create and mount the same file system image as above, simply type the following: Configure and Mount a File-Backed Disk with <command>mdmfs</command> &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=newimage bs=1k count=5k 5120+0 records in 5120+0 records out &prompt.root; mdmfs -F newimage -s 5m md0 /mnt &prompt.root; df /mnt Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on /dev/md0 4846 2 4458 0% /mnt If you use the option without unit number, &man.mdmfs.8; will use &man.md.4; auto-unit feature to automatically select an unused device. For more details about &man.mdmfs.8;, please refer to the manual page. Memory-Based File System under FreeBSD 4.X disks memory file system (4.X) The &man.md.4; driver is a simple, efficient means to create memory file systems under FreeBSD 4.X. &man.malloc.9; is used to allocate the memory. Simply take a file system you have prepared with, for example, &man.vnconfig.8;, and: md Memory Disk under FreeBSD 4.X &prompt.root; dd if=newimage of=/dev/md0 5120+0 records in 5120+0 records out &prompt.root; mount /dev/md0c /mnt &prompt.root; df /mnt Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on /dev/md0c 4927 1 4532 0% /mnt For more details, please refer to &man.md.4; manual page. Memory-Based File System under FreeBSD 5.X disks memory file system (5.X) The same tools are used for memory-based and file-backed file systems: &man.mdconfig.8; or &man.mdmfs.8;. The storage for memory-based file system is allocated with &man.malloc.9;. Creating a New Memory-Based Disk with <command>mdconfig</command> &prompt.root; mdconfig -a -t malloc -s 5m -u 1 &prompt.root; newfs -U md1 /dev/md1: 5.0MB (10240 sectors) block size 16384, fragment size 2048 using 4 cylinder groups of 1.27MB, 81 blks, 256 inodes. with soft updates super-block backups (for fsck -b #) at: 32, 2624, 5216, 7808 &prompt.root; mount /dev/md1 /mnt &prompt.root; df /mnt Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on /dev/md1 4846 2 4458 0% /mnt Creating a New Memory-Based Disk with <command>mdmfs</command> &prompt.root; mdmfs -M -s 5m md2 /mnt &prompt.root; df /mnt Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on /dev/md2 4846 2 4458 0% /mnt Instead of using a &man.malloc.9; backed file system, it is possible to use swap, for that just replace with in the command line of &man.mdconfig.8;. The &man.mdmfs.8; utility by default (without ) creates a swap-based disk. For more details, please refer to &man.mdconfig.8; and &man.mdmfs.8; manual pages. Detaching a Memory Disk from the System disks detaching a memory disk When a memory-based or file-based file system is not used, you should release all resources to the system. The first thing to do is to unmount the file system, then use &man.mdconfig.8; to detach the disk from the system and release the resources. For example to detach and free all resources used by /dev/md4: &prompt.root; mdconfig -d -u 4 It is possible to list information about configured &man.md.4; devices in using the command mdconfig -l. For FreeBSD 4.X, &man.vnconfig.8; is used to detach the device. For example to detach and free all resources used by /dev/vn4: &prompt.root; vnconfig -u vn4 Tom Rhodes Contributed by File System Snapshots file systems snapshots FreeBSD 5.0 offers a new feature in conjunction with Soft Updates: File system snapshots. Snapshots allow a user to create images of specified file systems, and treat them as a file. Snapshot files must be created in the file system that the action is performed on, and a user may create no more than 20 snapshots per file system. Active snapshots are recorded in the superblock so they are persistent across unmount and remount operations along with system reboots. When a snapshot is no longer required, it can be removed with the standard &man.rm.1; command. Snapshots may be removed in any order, however all the used space may not be acquired because another snapshot will possibly claim some of the released blocks. During initial creation, the flag (see the &man.chflags.1; manual page) is set to ensure that even root cannot write to the snapshot. The &man.unlink.1; command makes an exception for snapshot files since it allows them to be removed with the flag set, so it is not necessary to clear the flag before removing a snapshot file. Snapshots are created with the &man.mount.8; command. To place a snapshot of /var in the file /var/snapshot/snap use the following command: &prompt.root; mount -u -o snapshot /var/snapshot/snap /var Alternatively, you can use &man.mksnap.ffs.8; to create a snapshot: &prompt.root; mksnap_ffs /var /var/snapshot/snap Once a snapshot has been created, it has several uses: Some administrators will use a snapshot file for backup purposes, because the snapshot can be transfered to CDs or tape. File integrity, &man.fsck.8; may be ran on the snapshot. Assuming that the file system was clean when it was mounted, you should always get a clean (and unchanging) result. This is essentially what the background &man.fsck.8; process does. Run the &man.dump.8; utility on the snapshot. A dump will be returned that is consistent with the file system and the timestamp of the snapshot. &man.dump.8; can also take a snapshot, create a dump image and then remove the snapshot in one command using the flag. &man.mount.8; the snapshot as a frozen image of the file system. To &man.mount.8; the snapshot /var/snapshot/snap run: &prompt.root; mdconfig -a -t vnode -f /var/snapshot/snap -u 4 &prompt.root; mount -r /dev/md4 /mnt You can now walk the hierarchy of your frozen /var file system mounted at /mnt. Everything will be in the same state it was during the snapshot creation time. The only exception is that any earlier snapshots will appear as zero length files. When the use of a snapshot has delimited, it can be unmounted with: &prompt.root; umount /mnt &prompt.root; mdconfig -d -u 4 For more information about and file system snapshots, including technical papers, you can visit Marshall Kirk McKusick's website at http://www.mckusick.com. File System Quotas accounting disk space disk quotas Quotas are an optional feature of the operating system that allow you to limit the amount of disk space and/or the number of files a user or members of a group may allocate on a per-file system basis. This is used most often on timesharing systems where it is desirable to limit the amount of resources any one user or group of users may allocate. This will prevent one user or group of users from consuming all of the available disk space. Configuring Your System to Enable Disk Quotas Before attempting to use disk quotas, it is necessary to make sure that quotas are configured in your kernel. This is done by adding the following line to your kernel configuration file: options QUOTA The stock GENERIC kernel does not have this enabled by default, so you will have to configure, build and install a custom kernel in order to use disk quotas. Please refer to for more information on kernel configuration. Next you will need to enable disk quotas in /etc/rc.conf. This is done by adding the line: enable_quotas="YES" disk quotas checking For finer control over your quota startup, there is an additional configuration variable available. Normally on bootup, the quota integrity of each file system is checked by the &man.quotacheck.8; program. The &man.quotacheck.8; facility insures that the data in the quota database properly reflects the data on the file system. This is a very time consuming process that will significantly affect the time your system takes to boot. If you would like to skip this step, a variable in /etc/rc.conf is made available for the purpose: check_quotas="NO" If you are running FreeBSD prior to 3.2-RELEASE, the configuration is simpler, and consists of only one variable. Set the following in your /etc/rc.conf: check_quotas="YES" Finally you will need to edit /etc/fstab to enable disk quotas on a per-file system basis. This is where you can either enable user or group quotas or both for all of your file systems. To enable per-user quotas on a file system, add the option to the options field in the /etc/fstab entry for the file system you want to enable quotas on. For example: /dev/da1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota 1 2 Similarly, to enable group quotas, use the option instead of . To enable both user and group quotas, change the entry as follows: /dev/da1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota,groupquota 1 2 By default, the quota files are stored in the root directory of the file system with the names quota.user and quota.group for user and group quotas respectively. See &man.fstab.5; for more information. Even though the &man.fstab.5; manual page says that you can specify an alternate location for the quota files, this is not recommended because the various quota utilities do not seem to handle this properly. At this point you should reboot your system with your new kernel. /etc/rc will automatically run the appropriate commands to create the initial quota files for all of the quotas you enabled in /etc/fstab, so there is no need to manually create any zero length quota files. In the normal course of operations you should not be required to run the &man.quotacheck.8;, &man.quotaon.8;, or &man.quotaoff.8; commands manually. However, you may want to read their manual pages just to be familiar with their operation. Setting Quota Limits disk quotas limits Once you have configured your system to enable quotas, verify that they really are enabled. An easy way to do this is to run: &prompt.root; quota -v You should see a one line summary of disk usage and current quota limits for each file system that quotas are enabled on. You are now ready to start assigning quota limits with the &man.edquota.8; command. You have several options on how to enforce limits on the amount of disk space a user or group may allocate, and how many files they may create. You may limit allocations based on disk space (block quotas) or number of files (inode quotas) or a combination of both. Each of these limits are further broken down into two categories: hard and soft limits. hard limit A hard limit may not be exceeded. Once a user reaches his hard limit he may not make any further allocations on the file system in question. For example, if the user has a hard limit of 500 blocks on a file system and is currently using 490 blocks, the user can only allocate an additional 10 blocks. Attempting to allocate an additional 11 blocks will fail. soft limit Soft limits, on the other hand, can be exceeded for a limited amount of time. This period of time is known as the grace period, which is one week by default. If a user stays over his or her soft limit longer than the grace period, the soft limit will turn into a hard limit and no further allocations will be allowed. When the user drops back below the soft limit, the grace period will be reset. The following is an example of what you might see when you run the &man.edquota.8; command. When the &man.edquota.8; command is invoked, you are placed into the editor specified by the EDITOR environment variable, or in the vi editor if the EDITOR variable is not set, to allow you to edit the quota limits. &prompt.root; edquota -u test Quotas for user test: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) inodes in use: 7, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60) /usr/var: blocks in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) inodes in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60) You will normally see two lines for each file system that has quotas enabled. One line for the block limits, and one line for inode limits. Simply change the value you want updated to modify the quota limit. For example, to raise this user's block limit from a soft limit of 50 and a hard limit of 75 to a soft limit of 500 and a hard limit of 600, change: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) to: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 500, hard = 600) The new quota limits will be in place when you exit the editor. Sometimes it is desirable to set quota limits on a range of UIDs. This can be done by use of the option on the &man.edquota.8; command. First, assign the desired quota limit to a user, and then run edquota -p protouser startuid-enduid. For example, if user test has the desired quota limits, the following command can be used to duplicate those quota limits for UIDs 10,000 through 19,999: &prompt.root; edquota -p test 10000-19999 For more information see &man.edquota.8; manual page. Checking Quota Limits and Disk Usage disk quotas checking You can use either the &man.quota.1; or the &man.repquota.8; commands to check quota limits and disk usage. The &man.quota.1; command can be used to check individual user or group quotas and disk usage. A user may only examine his own quota, and the quota of a group he is a member of. Only the super-user may view all user and group quotas. The &man.repquota.8; command can be used to get a summary of all quotas and disk usage for file systems with quotas enabled. The following is some sample output from the quota -v command for a user that has quota limits on two file systems. Disk quotas for user test (uid 1002): Filesystem blocks quota limit grace files quota limit grace /usr 65* 50 75 5days 7 50 60 /usr/var 0 50 75 0 50 60 grace period On the /usr file system in the above example, this user is currently 15 blocks over the soft limit of 50 blocks and has 5 days of the grace period left. Note the asterisk * which indicates that the user is currently over his quota limit. Normally file systems that the user is not using any disk space on will not show up in the output from the &man.quota.1; command, even if he has a quota limit assigned for that file system. The option will display those file systems, such as the /usr/var file system in the above example. Quotas over NFS NFS Quotas are enforced by the quota subsystem on the NFS server. The &man.rpc.rquotad.8; daemon makes quota information available to the &man.quota.1; command on NFS clients, allowing users on those machines to see their quota statistics. Enable rpc.rquotad in /etc/inetd.conf like so: rquotad/1 dgram rpc/udp wait root /usr/libexec/rpc.rquotad rpc.rquotad Now restart inetd: &prompt.root; kill -HUP `cat /var/run/inetd.pid` Lucky Green Contributed by
shamrock@cypherpunks.to
 Encrypting Disk Partitions disks encrypting FreeBSD offers excellent online protections against unauthorized data access. File permissions and Mandatory Access Control (MAC) (see ) help prevent unauthorized third-parties from accessing data while the operating system is active and the computer is powered up. However, the permissions enforced by the operating system are irrelevant if an attacker has physical access to a computer and can simply move the computer's hard drive to another system to copy and analyze the sensitive data. Regardless of how an attacker may have come into possession of a hard drive or powered-down computer, GEOM Based Disk Encryption (gbde) can protect the data on the computer's file systems against even highly-motivated attackers with significant resources. Unlike cumbersome encryption methods that encrypt only individual files, gbde transparently encrypts entire file systems. No cleartext ever touches the hard drive's platter. Enabling gbde in the Kernel Become <username>root</username> Configuring gbde requires super-user privileges. &prompt.user; su - Password: Verify the Operating System Version &man.gbde.4; requires FreeBSD 5.0 or higher. &prompt.root; uname -r 5.0-RELEASE Add &man.gbde.4; Support to the Kernel Configuration File Using your favorite text editor, add the following line to your kernel configuration file: options GEOM_BDE Configure, recompile, and install the FreeBSD kernel. This process is described in . Reboot into the new kernel. Preparing the Encrypted Hard Drive The following example assumes that you are adding a new hard drive to your system that will hold a single encrypted partition. This partition will be mounted as /private. gbde can also be used to encrypt /home and /var/mail, but this requires more complex instructions which exceed the scope of this introduction. Add the New Hard Drive Install the new drive to the system as explained in . For the purposes of this example, a new hard drive partition has been added as - /dev/ad4s1c. The - /dev/ad0s1* + /dev/ad4s1c. The + /dev/ad0s1* devices represent existing standard FreeBSD partitions on the example system. &prompt.root; ls /dev/ad* /dev/ad0 /dev/ad0s1b /dev/ad0s1e /dev/ad4s1 /dev/ad0s1 /dev/ad0s1c /dev/ad0s1f /dev/ad4s1c /dev/ad0s1a /dev/ad0s1d /dev/ad4 Create a Directory to Hold gbde Lock Files &prompt.root; mkdir /etc/gbde The gbde lock file contains information that gbde requires to access encrypted partitions. Without access to the lock file, gbde will not be able to decrypt the data contained in the encrypted partition without significant manual intervention which is not supported by the software. Each encrypted partition uses a separate lock file. Initialize the gbde Partition A gbde partition must be initialized before it can be used. This initialization needs to be performed only once: &prompt.root; gbde init /dev/ad4s1c -i -L /etc/gbde/ad4s1c &man.gbde.8; will open your editor, permitting you to set various configuration options in a template. For use with UFS1 or UFS2, set the sector_size to 2048: $FreeBSD: src/sbin/gbde/template.txt,v 1.1 2002/10/20 11:16:13 phk Exp $ # # Sector size is the smallest unit of data which can be read or written. # Making it too small decreases performance and decreases available space. # Making it too large may prevent filesystems from working. 512 is the # minimum and always safe. For UFS, use the fragment size # sector_size = 2048 [...] &man.gbde.8; will ask you twice to type the passphrase that should be used to secure the data. The passphrase must be the same both times. gbde's ability to protect your data depends entirely on the quality of the passphrase that you choose. For tips on how to select a secure passphrase that is easy to remember, see the Diceware Passphrase website. The gbde init command creates a lock file for your gbde partition that in this example is stored as /etc/gbde/ad4s1c. gbde lock files must be backed up together with the contents of any encrypted partitions. While deleting a lock file alone cannot prevent a determined attacker from decrypting a gbde partition, without the lock file, the legitimate owner will be unable to access the data on the encrypted partition without a significant amount of work that is totally unsupported by &man.gbde.8; and its designer. Attach the Encrypted Partition to the Kernel &prompt.root; gbde attach /dev/ad4s1c -l /etc/gbde/ad4s1c You will be asked to provide the passphrase that you selected during the initialization of the encrypted partition. The new encrypted device will show up in /dev as /dev/device_name.bde: &prompt.root; ls /dev/ad* /dev/ad0 /dev/ad0s1b /dev/ad0s1e /dev/ad4s1 /dev/ad0s1 /dev/ad0s1c /dev/ad0s1f /dev/ad4s1c /dev/ad0s1a /dev/ad0s1d /dev/ad4 /dev/ad4s1c.bde Create a File System on the Encrypted Device Once the encrypted device has been attached to the kernel, you can create a file system on the device. To create a file system on the encrypted device, use &man.newfs.8;. Since it is much faster to initialize a new UFS2 file system than it is to initialize the old UFS1 file system, using &man.newfs.8; with the option is recommended. The option is the default with &os; 5.1-RELEASE and later. &prompt.root; newfs -U -O2 /dev/ad4s1c.bde The &man.newfs.8; command must be performed on an attached gbde partition which is identified by a *.bde extension to the device name. Mount the Encrypted Partition Create a mount point for the encrypted file system. &prompt.root; mkdir /private Mount the encrypted file system. &prompt.root; mount /dev/ad4s1c.bde /private Verify That the Encrypted File System is Available The encrypted file system should now be visible to &man.df.1; and be available for use. &prompt.user; df -H Filesystem Size Used Avail Capacity Mounted on /dev/ad0s1a 1037M 72M 883M 8% / /devfs 1.0K 1.0K 0B 100% /dev /dev/ad0s1f 8.1G 55K 7.5G 0% /home /dev/ad0s1e 1037M 1.1M 953M 0% /tmp /dev/ad0s1d 6.1G 1.9G 3.7G 35% /usr /dev/ad4s1c.bde 150G 4.1K 138G 0% /private Mounting Existing Encrypted File Systems After each boot, any encrypted file systems must be re-attached to the kernel, checked for errors, and mounted, before the file systems can be used. The required commands must be executed as user root. Attach the gbde Partition to the Kernel &prompt.root; gbde attach /dev/ad4s1c -l /etc/gbde/ad4s1c You will be asked to provide the passphrase that you selected during initialization of the encrypted gbde partition. Check the File System for Errors Since encrypted file systems cannot yet be listed in /etc/fstab for automatic mounting, the file systems must be checked for errors by running &man.fsck.8; manually before mounting. &prompt.root; fsck -p -t ffs /dev/ad4s1c.bde Mount the Encrypted File System &prompt.root; mount /dev/ad4s1c.bde /private The encrypted file system is now available for use. Automatically Mounting Encrypted Partitions It is possible to create a script to automatically attach, check, and mount an encrypted partition, but for security reasons the script should not contain the &man.gbde.8; password. Instead, it is recommended that such scripts be run manually while providing the password via the console or &man.ssh.1;. Cryptographic Protections Employed by gbde &man.gbde.8; encrypts the sector payload using 128-bit AES in CBC mode. Each sector on the disk is encrypted with a different AES key. For more information on gbde's cryptographic design, including how the sector keys are derived from the user-supplied passphrase, see &man.gbde.4;. Compatibility Issues &man.sysinstall.8; is incompatible with gbde-encrypted devices. All *.bde devices must be detached from the kernel before starting &man.sysinstall.8; or it will crash during its initial probing for devices. To detach the encrypted device used in our example, use the following command: &prompt.root; gbde detach /dev/ad4s1c Also note that, as &man.vinum.4; does not use the &man.geom.4; subsystem, you cannot use gbde with vinum volumes. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml index 358658a3c6..37901d9d71 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml @@ -1,5568 +1,5568 @@ Jim Mock Restructured, reorganized, and parts rewritten by Randy Pratt The sysinstall walkthrough, screenshots, and general copy by Installing FreeBSD Synopsis installation FreeBSD is provided with a text-based, easy to use installation program called sysinstall. This is the default installation program for FreeBSD, although vendors are free to provide their own installation suite if they wish. This chapter describes how to use sysinstall to install FreeBSD. After reading this chapter, you will know: How to create the FreeBSD installation disks. How FreeBSD refers to, and subdivides, your hard disks. How to start sysinstall. The questions sysinstall will ask you, what they mean, and how to answer them. Before reading this chapter, you should: Read the supported hardware list that shipped with the version of FreeBSD you are installing, and verify that your hardware is supported. In general, these installation instructions are written for &i386; (PC compatible) architecture computers. Where applicable, instructions specific to other platforms (for example, Alpha) will be listed. Although this guide is kept as up to date as possible, you may find minor differences between the installer and what is shown here. It is suggested that you use this chapter as a general guide rather than a literal installation manual. Pre-installation Tasks Inventory Your Computer Before installing FreeBSD you should attempt to inventory the components in your computer. The FreeBSD installation routines will show you the components (hard disks, network cards, CDROM drives, and so forth) with their model number and manufacturer. FreeBSD will also attempt to determine the correct configuration for these devices, which includes information about IRQ and IO port usage. Due to the vagaries of PC hardware this process is not always completely successful, and you may need to correct FreeBSD's determination of your configuration. If you already have another operating system installed, such as &windows; or Linux, it is a good idea to use the facilities provided by those operating systems to see how your hardware is already configured. If you are not sure what settings an expansion card is using, you may find it printed on the card itself. Popular IRQ numbers are 3, 5, and 7, and IO port addresses are normally written as hexadecimal numbers, such as 0x330. We recommend you print or write down this information before installing FreeBSD. It may help to use a table, like this: Sample Device Inventory Device Name IRQ IO port(s) Notes First hard disk N/A N/A 40 GB, made by Seagate, first IDE master CDROM N/A N/A First IDE slave Second hard disk N/A N/A 20 GB, made by IBM, second IDE master First IDE controller 14 0x1f0 Network card N/A N/A &intel; 10/100 Modem N/A N/A &tm.3com; 56K faxmodem, on COM1 …
Backup Your Data If the computer you will be installing FreeBSD on contains valuable data, then ensure you have it backed up, and that you have tested the backups before installing FreeBSD. The FreeBSD installation routine will prompt you before writing any data to your disk, but once that process has started it cannot be undone. Decide Where to Install FreeBSD If you want FreeBSD to use your entire hard disk, then there is nothing more to concern yourself with at this point — you can skip this section. However, if you need FreeBSD to co-exist with other operating systems then you need to have a rough understanding of how data is laid out on the disk, and how this affects you. Disk Layouts for the &i386; A PC disk can be divided into discrete chunks. These chunks are called partitions. By design, the PC only supports four partitions per disk. These partitions are called primary partitions. To work around this limitation and allow more than four partitions, a new partition type was created, the extended partition. A disk may contain only one extended partition. Special partitions, called logical partitions, can be created inside this extended partition. Each partition has a partition ID, which is a number used to identify the type of data on the partition. FreeBSD partitions have the partition ID of 165. In general, each operating system that you use will identify partitions in a particular way. For example, DOS, and its descendants, like &windows;, assign each primary and logical partition a drive letter, starting with C:. FreeBSD must be installed into a primary partition. FreeBSD can keep all its data, including any files that you create, on this one partition. However, if you have multiple disks, then you can create a FreeBSD partition on all, or some, of them. When you install FreeBSD, you must have one partition available. This might be a blank partition that you have prepared, or it might be an existing partition that contains data that you no longer care about. If you are already using all the partitions on all your disks, then you will have to free one of them for FreeBSD using the tools provided by the other operating systems you use (e.g., fdisk on DOS or &windows;). If you have a spare partition then you can use that. However, you may need to shrink one or more of your existing partitions first. A minimal installation of FreeBSD takes as little as 100 MB of disk space. However, that is a very minimal install, leaving almost no space for your own files. A more realistic minimum is 250 MB without a graphical environment, and 350 MB or more if you want a graphical user interface. If you intend to install a lot of third party software as well, then you will need more space. You can use a commercial tool such as &partitionmagic; to resize your partitions to make space for FreeBSD. The tools directory on the CDROM contains two free software tools which can carry out this task, namely FIPS and PResizer. Documentation for both of these is available in the same directory. FIPS, PResizer, and &partitionmagic; can resize FAT16 and FAT32 partitions — used in &ms-dos; through &windows; ME. &partitionmagic; is the only known application that can resize NTFS. Incorrect use of these tools can delete the data on your disk. Be sure that you have recent, working backups before using them. Using an Existing Partition Unchanged Suppose that you have a computer with a single 4 GB disk that already has a version of &windows; installed, and you have split the disk into two drive letters, C: and D:, each of which is 2 GB in size. You have 1 GB of data on C:, and 0.5 GB of data on D:. This means that your disk has two partitions on it, one per drive letter. You can copy all your existing data from D: to C:, which will free up the second partition, ready for FreeBSD. Shrinking an Existing Partition Suppose that you have a computer with a single 4 GB disk that already has a version of &windows; installed. When you installed &windows; you created one large partition, giving you a C: drive that is 4 GB in size. You are currently using 1.5 GB of space, and want FreeBSD to have 2 GB of space. In order to install FreeBSD you will need to either: Backup your &windows; data, and then reinstall &windows;, asking for a 2 GB partition at install time. Use one of the tools such as &partitionmagic;, described above, to shrink your &windows; partition. Disk Layouts for the Alpha Alpha You will need a dedicated disk for FreeBSD on the Alpha. It is not possible to share a disk with another operating system at this time. Depending on the specific Alpha machine you have, this disk can either be a SCSI disk or an IDE disk, as long as your machine is capable of booting from it. Following the conventions of the Digital / Compaq manuals all SRM input is shown in uppercase. SRM is case insensitive. To find the names and types of disks in your machine, use the SHOW DEVICE command from the SRM console prompt: >>>SHOW DEVICE dka0.0.0.4.0 DKA0 TOSHIBA CD-ROM XM-57 3476 dkc0.0.0.1009.0 DKC0 RZ1BB-BS 0658 dkc100.1.0.1009.0 DKC100 SEAGATE ST34501W 0015 dva0.0.0.0.1 DVA0 ewa0.0.0.3.0 EWA0 00-00-F8-75-6D-01 pkc0.7.0.1009.0 PKC0 SCSI Bus ID 7 5.27 pqa0.0.0.4.0 PQA0 PCI EIDE pqb0.0.1.4.0 PQB0 PCI EIDE This example is from a Digital Personal Workstation 433au and shows three disks attached to the machine. The first is a CDROM drive called DKA0 and the other two are disks and are called DKC0 and DKC100 respectively. Disks with names of the form DKx are SCSI disks. For example DKA100 refers to a SCSI disk with SCSI target ID 1 on the first SCSI bus (A), whereas DKC300 refers to a SCSI disk with SCSI ID 3 on the third SCSI bus (C). Devicename PKx refers to the SCSI host bus adapter. As seen in the SHOW DEVICE output SCSI CDROM drives are treated as any other SCSI hard disk drive. IDE disks have names similar to DQx, while PQx is the associated IDE controller. Collect Your Network Configuration Details If you intend to connect to a network as part of your FreeBSD installation (for example, if you will be installing from an FTP site or an NFS server), then you need to know your network configuration. You will be prompted for this information during the installation so that FreeBSD can connect to the network to complete the install. Connecting to an Ethernet Network or Cable/DSL Modem If you connect to an Ethernet network, or you have an Internet connection using an Ethernet adapter via cable or DSL, then you will need the following information: IP address IP address of the default gateway Hostname DNS server IP addresses Subnet Mask If you do not know this information, then ask your system administrator or service provider. They may say that this information is assigned automatically, using DHCP. If so, make a note of this. Connecting Using a Modem If you dial up to an ISP using a regular modem then you can still install FreeBSD over the Internet, it will just take a very long time. You will need to know: The phone number to dial for your ISP The COM: port your modem is connected to The username and password for your ISP account Check for FreeBSD Errata Although the FreeBSD project strives to ensure that each release of FreeBSD is as stable as possible, bugs do occasionally creep into the process. On very rare occasions those bugs affect the installation process. As these problems are discovered and fixed, they are noted in the FreeBSD Errata, which is found on the FreeBSD web site. You should check the errata before installing to make sure that there are no late-breaking problems which you should be aware of. Information about all the releases, including the errata for each release, can be found on the release information section of the FreeBSD web site. Obtain the FreeBSD Installation Files The FreeBSD installation process can install FreeBSD from files located in any of the following places: Local Media A CDROM or DVD A DOS partition on the same computer A SCSI or QIC tape Floppy disks Network An FTP site, going through a firewall, or using an HTTP proxy, as necessary An NFS server A dedicated parallel or serial connection If you have purchased FreeBSD on CD or DVD then you already have everything you need, and should proceed to the next section (). If you have not obtained the FreeBSD installation files you should skip ahead to which explains how to prepare to install FreeBSD from any of the above. After reading that section, you should come back here, and read on to . Prepare the Boot Media The FreeBSD installation process is started by booting your computer into the FreeBSD installer—it is not a program you run within another operating system. Your computer normally boots using the operating system installed on your hard disk, but it can also be configured to use a bootable floppy disk. Most modern computers can also boot from a CDROM in the CDROM drive. If you have FreeBSD on CDROM or DVD (either one you purchased or you prepared yourself), and your computer allows you to boot from the CDROM or DVD (typically a BIOS option called Boot Order or similar), then you can skip this section. The FreeBSD CDROM and DVD images are bootable and can be used to install FreeBSD without any other special preparation. To create boot floppy images, follow these steps: Acquire the Boot Floppy Images The boot disks are available on your installation media in the floppies/ directory, and can also be downloaded from the floppies directory, ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/releases/<arch>/<version>-RELEASE/floppies/. Replace <arch> and <version> with the architecture and the version number which you want to install, respectively. For example, the boot floppy images for &os; &rel.current;-RELEASE for &i386; are available from . The floppy images have a .flp extension. The floppies/ directory contains a number of different images, and the ones you will need to use depends on the version of FreeBSD you are installing, and in some cases, the hardware you are installing to. In most cases you will just need two files, kern.flp and mfsroot.flp. Additional device drivers may be necessary for some systems. These drivers are provided on the drivers.flp image. Check README.TXT in the same directory for the most up to date information about these floppy images. Your FTP program must use binary mode to download these disk images. Some web browsers have been known to use text (or ASCII) mode, which will be apparent if you cannot boot from the disks. Prepare the Floppy Disks You must prepare one floppy disk per image file you had to download. It is imperative that these disks are free from defects. The easiest way to test this is to format the disks for yourself. Do not trust pre-formatted floppies. The format utility in &windows; will not tell about the presence of bad blocks, it simply marks them as bad and ignores them. It is advised that you use brand new floppies if choosing this installation route. If you try to install FreeBSD and the installation program crashes, freezes, or otherwise misbehaves, one of the first things to suspect is the floppies. Try writing the floppy image files to new disks and try again. Write the Image Files to the Floppy Disks The .flp files are not regular files you copy to the disk. They are images of the complete contents of the disk. This means that you cannot simply copy files from one disk to another. Instead, you must use specific tools to write the images directly to the disk. DOS If you are creating the floppies on a computer running &ms-dos;/&windows;, then we provide a tool to do this called fdimage. If you are using the floppies from the CDROM, and your CDROM is the E: drive, then you would run this: E:\> tools\fdimage floppies\kern.flp A: Repeat this command for each .flp file, replacing the floppy disk each time, being sure to label the disks with the name of the file that you copied to them. Adjust the command line as necessary, depending on where you have placed the .flp files. If you do not have the CDROM, then fdimage can be downloaded from the tools directory on the FreeBSD FTP site. If you are writing the floppies on a &unix; system (such as another FreeBSD system) you can use the &man.dd.1; command to write the image files directly to disk. On FreeBSD, you would run: &prompt.root; dd if=kern.flp of=/dev/fd0 On FreeBSD, /dev/fd0 refers to the first floppy disk (the A: drive). /dev/fd1 would be the B: drive, and so on. Other &unix; variants might have different names for the floppy disk devices, and you will need to check the documentation for the system as necessary. You are now ready to start installing FreeBSD. Starting the Installation By default, the installation will not make any changes to your disk(s) until you see the following message: Last Chance: Are you SURE you want continue the installation? If you're running this on a disk with data you wish to save then WE STRONGLY ENCOURAGE YOU TO MAKE PROPER BACKUPS before proceeding! We can take no responsibility for lost disk contents! The install can be exited at any time prior to the final warning without changing the contents of the hard drive. If you are concerned that you have configured something incorrectly you can just turn the computer off before this point, and no damage will be done. Booting Booting for the &i386; Start with your computer turned off. Turn on the computer. As it starts it should display an option to enter the system set up menu, or BIOS, commonly reached by keys like F2, F10, Del, or Alt S . Use whichever keystroke is indicated on screen. In some cases your computer may display a graphic while it starts. Typically, pressing Esc will dismiss the graphic and allow you to see the necessary messages. Find the setting that controls which devices the system boots from. This is usually labeled as the Boot Order and commonly shown as a list of devices, such as Floppy, CDROM, First Hard Disk, and so on. If you needed to prepare boot floppies, then make sure that the floppy disk is selected. If you are booting from the CDROM then make sure that that is selected instead. In case of doubt, you should consult the manual that came with your computer, and/or its motherboard. Make the change, then save and exit. The computer should now restart. If you needed to prepare boot floppies, as described in , then one of them will be the first boot disc, probably the one containing kern.flp. Put this disc in your floppy drive. If you are booting from CDROM, then you will need to turn on the computer, and insert the CDROM at the first opportunity. If your computer starts up as normal and loads your existing operating system, then either: The disks were not inserted early enough in the boot process. Leave them in, and try restarting your computer. The BIOS changes earlier did not work correctly. You should redo that step until you get the right option. Your particular BIOS does not support booting from the desired media. FreeBSD will start to boot. If you are booting from CDROM you will see a display similar to this (version information omitted): Verifying DMI Pool Data ........ Boot from ATAPI CD-ROM : 1. FD 2.88MB System Type-(00) Uncompressing ... done BTX loader 1.00 BTX version is 1.01 Console: internal video/keyboard BIOS drive A: is disk0 BIOS drive B: is disk1 BIOS drive C: is disk2 BIOS drive D: is disk3 BIOS 639kB/261120kB available memory FreeBSD/i386 bootstrap loader, Revision 0.8 /kernel text=0x277391 data=0x3268c+0x332a8 | | Hit [Enter] to boot immediately, or any other key for command prompt. Booting [kernel] in 9 seconds... _ If you are booting from floppy disc, you will see a display similar to this (version information omitted): Verifying DMI Pool Data ........ BTX loader 1.00 BTX version is 1.01 Console: internal video/keyboard BIOS drive A: is disk0 BIOS drive C: is disk1 BIOS 639kB/261120kB available memory FreeBSD/i386 bootstrap loader, Revision 0.8 /kernel text=0x277391 data=0x3268c+0x332a8 | Please insert MFS root floppy and press enter: Follow these instructions by removing the kern.flp disc, insert the mfsroot.flp disc, and press Enter. Whether you booted from floppy or CDROM, the boot process will then get to this point: Hit [Enter] to boot immediately, or any other key for command prompt. Booting [kernel] in 9 seconds... _ Either wait ten seconds, or press Enter. This will then launch the kernel configuration menu. Booting for the Alpha Alpha Start with your computer turned off. Turn on the computer and wait for a boot monitor prompt. If you needed to prepare boot floppies, as described in then one of them will be the first boot disc, probably the one containing kern.flp. Put this disc in your floppy drive and type the following command to boot the disk (substituting the name of your floppy drive if necessary): >>>BOOT DVA0 -FLAGS '' -FILE '' If you are booting from CDROM, insert the CDROM into the drive and type the following command to start the installation (substituting the name of the appropriate CDROM drive if necessary): >>>BOOT DKA0 -FLAGS '' -FILE '' FreeBSD will start to boot. If you are booting from a floppy disc, at some point you will see the message: Please insert MFS root floppy and press enter: Follow these instructions by removing the kern.flp disc, insert the mfsroot.flp disc, and press Enter. Whether you booted from floppy or CDROM, the boot process will then get to this point: Hit [Enter] to boot immediately, or any other key for command prompt. Booting [kernel] in 9 seconds... _ Either wait ten seconds, or press Enter. This will then launch the kernel configuration menu. Kernel Configuration From FreeBSD versions 5.0 and later, userconfig has been deprecated in favor of the new &man.device.hints.5; method. For more information on &man.device.hints.5; please visit The kernel is the core of the operating system. It is responsible for many things, including access to all the devices you may have on your system, such as hard disks, network cards, sound cards, and so on. Each piece of hardware supported by the FreeBSD kernel has a driver associated with it. Each driver has a two or three letter name, such as sa for the SCSI sequential access driver, or sio for the Serial I/O driver (which manages COM ports). When the kernel starts, each driver checks the system to see whether or not the hardware it supports exists on your system. If it does, then the driver configures the hardware and makes it available to the rest of the kernel. This checking is commonly referred to as device probing. Unfortunately, it is not always possible to do this in a safe way. Some hardware drivers do not co-exist well, and probing for one piece of hardware can sometimes leave another in an inconsistent state. This is a basic limitation of the PC design. Many older devices are called ISA devices—as opposed to PCI devices. The ISA specification requires each device to have some information hard coded into it, typically the Interrupt Request Line number (IRQ) and IO port address that the driver uses. This information is commonly set by using physical jumpers on the card, or by using a DOS based utility. This was often a source of problems, because it was not possible to have two devices that shared the same IRQ or port address. Newer devices follow the PCI specification, which does not require this, as the devices are supposed to cooperate with the BIOS, and are told which IRQ and IO port addresses to use. If you have any ISA devices in your computer then FreeBSD's driver for that device will need to be configured with the IRQ and port address that you have set the card to. This is why carrying out an inventory of your hardware (see ) can be useful. Unfortunately, the default IRQs and memory ports used by some drivers clash. This is because some ISA devices are shipped with IRQs or memory ports that clash. The defaults in FreeBSD's drivers are deliberately set to mirror the manufacturer's defaults, so that, out of the box, as many devices as possible will work. This is almost never an issue when running FreeBSD day-to-day. Your computer will not normally contain two pieces of hardware that clash, because one of them would not work (irrespective of the operating system you are using). It becomes an issue when you are installing FreeBSD for the first time because the kernel used to carry out the install has to contain as many drivers as possible, so that many different hardware configurations can be supported. This means that some of those drivers will have conflicting configurations. The devices are probed in a strict order, and if you own a device that is probed late in the process, but conflicted with an earlier probe, then your hardware might not function or be probed correctly when you install FreeBSD. Because of this, the first thing you have the opportunity to do when installing FreeBSD is look at the list of drivers that are configured into the kernel, and either disable some of them, if you do not own that device, or confirm (and alter) the driver's configuration if you do own the device but the defaults are wrong. This probably sounds much more complicated than it actually is. shows the first kernel configuration menu. We recommend that you choose the Start kernel configuration in full-screen visual mode option, as it presents the easiest interface for the new user.
Kernel Configuration Menu &txt.install.userconfig;
The kernel configuration screen () is then divided into four sections: A collapsible list of all the drivers that are currently marked as active, subdivided into groups such as Storage, and Network. Each driver is shown as a description, its two or three letter driver name, and the IRQ and memory port used by that driver. In addition, if an active driver conflicts with another active driver then CONF is shown next to the driver name. This section also shows the total number of conflicting drivers that are currently active. Drivers that have been marked inactive. They remain in the kernel, but they will not probe for their device when the kernel starts. These are subdivided into groups in the same way as the active driver list. More detail about the currently selected driver, including its IRQ and memory port address. Information about the keystrokes that are valid at this point in time.
The Kernel Device Configuration Visual Interface &txt.install.userconfig2;
Do not worry if any conflicts are listed, it is to be expected; all the drivers are enabled, and as has already been explained, some of them will conflict with one another. You now have to work through the list of drivers, resolving the conflicts. Resolving Driver Conflicts Press X. This will completely expand the list of drivers, so you can see all of them. You will need to use the arrow keys to scroll back and forth through the active driver list. shows the result of pressing X.
Expanded Driver List
Disable all the drivers for devices that you do not have. To disable a driver, highlight it with the arrow keys and press Del. The driver will be moved to the Inactive Drivers list. If you inadvertently disable a device that you need then press Tab to switch to the Inactive Drivers list, select the driver that you disabled, and press Enter to move it back to the active list. Do not disable sc0. This controls the screen, and you will need this unless you are installing over a serial cable. Only disable atkbd0 if you are using a USB keyboard. If you have a normal keyboard then you must keep atkbd0. If there are no conflicts listed then you can skip this step. Otherwise, the remaining conflicts need to be examined. If they do not have the indication of an allowed conflict in the message area, then either the IRQ/address for device probe will need to be changed, or the IRQ/address on the hardware will need to be changed. To change the driver's configuration for IRQ and IO port address, select the device and press Enter. The cursor will move to the third section of the screen, and you can change the values. You should enter the values for IRQ and port address that you discovered when you made your hardware inventory. Press Q to finish editing the device's configuration and return to the active driver list. If you are not sure what these figures should be then you can try using -1. Some FreeBSD drivers can safely probe the hardware to discover what the correct value should be, and a value of -1 configures them to do this. The procedure for changing the address on the hardware varies from device to device. For some devices you may need to physically remove the card from your computer and adjust jumper settings or DIP switches. Other cards may have come with a DOS floppy that contains the programs used to reconfigure the card. In any case, you should refer to the documentation that came with the device. This will obviously entail restarting your computer, so you will need to boot back into the FreeBSD installation routine when you have reconfigured the card. When all the conflicts have been resolved the screen will look similar to .
Driver Configuration With No Conflicts
As you can see, the active driver list is now much smaller, with only drivers for the hardware that actually exists being listed. You can now save these changes, and move on to the next step of the install. Press Q to quit the device configuration interface. This message will appear: Save these parameters before exiting? ([Y]es/[N]o/[C]ancel) Answer Y to save the parameters to memory (it will be saved to disk if you finish the install) and the probing will start. After displaying the probe results in white on black text sysinstall will start and display its main menu ().
Sysinstall Main Menu
Reviewing the Device Probe Results The last few hundred lines that have been displayed on screen are stored and can be reviewed. To review the buffer, press Scroll Lock. This turns on scrolling in the display. You can then use the arrow keys, or PageUp and PageDown to view the results. Press Scroll Lock again to stop scrolling. Do this now, to review the text that scrolled off the screen when the kernel was carrying out the device probes. You will see text similar to , although the precise text will differ depending on the devices that you have in your computer.
Typical Device Probe Results avail memory = 253050880 (247120K bytes) Preloaded elf kernel "kernel" at 0xc0817000. Preloaded mfs_root "/mfsroot" at 0xc0817084. md0: Preloaded image </mfsroot> 4423680 bytes at 0xc03ddcd4 md1: Malloc disk Using $PIR table, 4 entries at 0xc00fde60 npx0: <math processor> on motherboard npx0: INT 16 interface pcib0: <Host to PCI bridge> on motherboard pci0: <PCI bus> on pcib0 pcib1:<VIA 82C598MVP (Apollo MVP3) PCI-PCI (AGP) bridge> at device 1.0 on pci0 pci1: <PCI bus> on pcib1 pci1: <Matrox MGA G200 AGP graphics accelerator> at 0.0 irq 11 isab0: <VIA 82C586 PCI-ISA bridge> at device 7.0 on pci0 isa0: <iSA bus> on isab0 atapci0: <VIA 82C586 ATA33 controller> port 0xe000-0xe00f at device 7.1 on pci0 ata0: at 0x1f0 irq 14 on atapci0 ata1: at 0x170 irq 15 on atapci0 uhci0 <VIA 83C572 USB controller> port 0xe400-0xe41f irq 10 at device 7.2 on pci 0 usb0: <VIA 83572 USB controller> on uhci0 usb0: USB revision 1.0 uhub0: VIA UHCI root hub, class 9/0, rev 1.00/1.00, addr1 uhub0: 2 ports with 2 removable, self powered pci0: <unknown card> (vendor=0x1106, dev=0x3040) at 7.3 dc0: <ADMtek AN985 10/100BaseTX> port 0xe800-0xe8ff mem 0xdb000000-0xeb0003ff ir q 11 at device 8.0 on pci0 dc0: Ethernet address: 00:04:5a:74:6b:b5 miibus0: <MII bus> on dc0 ukphy0: <Generic IEEE 802.3u media interface> on miibus0 ukphy0: 10baseT, 10baseT-FDX, 100baseTX, 100baseTX-FDX, auto ed0: <NE2000 PCI Ethernet (RealTek 8029)> port 0xec00-0xec1f irq 9 at device 10. 0 on pci0 ed0 address 52:54:05:de:73:1b, type NE2000 (16 bit) isa0: too many dependant configs (8) isa0: unexpected small tag 14 orm0: <Option ROM> at iomem 0xc0000-0xc7fff on isa0 fdc0: <NEC 72065B or clone> at port 0x3f0-0x3f5,0x3f7 irq 6 drq2 on isa0 fdc0: FIFO enabled, 8 bytes threshold fd0: <1440-KB 3.5" drive> on fdc0 drive 0 atkbdc0: <Keyboard controller (i8042)> at port 0x60,0x64 on isa0 atkbd0: <AT Keyboard> flags 0x1 irq1 on atkbdc0 kbd0 at atkbd0 psm0: <PS/2 Mouse> irq 12 on atkbdc0 psm0: model Generic PS/@ mouse, device ID 0 vga0: <Generic ISA VGA> at port 0x3c0-0x3df iomem 0xa0000-0xbffff on isa0 sc0: <System console> at flags 0x100 on isa0 sc0: VGA <16 virtual consoles, flags=0x300> sio0 at port 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 flags 0x10 on isa0 sio0: type 16550A sio1 at port 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa0 sio1: type 16550A ppc0: <Parallel port> at port 0x378-0x37f irq 7 on isa0 pppc0: SMC-like chipset (ECP/EPP/PS2/NIBBLE) in COMPATIBLE mode ppc0: FIFO with 16/16/15 bytes threshold plip0: <PLIP network interface> on ppbus0 ad0: 8063MB <IBM-DHEA-38451> [16383/16/63] at ata0-master UDMA33 acd0: CD-RW <LITE-ON LTR-1210B> at ata1-slave PIO4 Mounting root from ufs:/dev/md0c /stand/sysinstall running as init on vty0
Check the probe results carefully to make sure that FreeBSD found all the devices you expected. If a device was not found, then it will not be listed. If the device's driver required configuring with the IRQ and port address then you should check that you entered them correctly. If you need to make changes to the UserConfig device probing, it is easy to exit the sysinstall program and start over again. It is also a good way to become more familiar with the process.
Select Sysinstall Exit
Use the arrow keys to select Exit Install from the Main Install Screen menu. The following message will display: User Confirmation Requested Are you sure you wish to exit? The system will reboot (be sure to remove any floppies from the drives). [ Yes ] No The install program will start again if the CDROM is left in the drive and &gui.yes; is selected. If you are booting from floppies it will be necessary to remove the mfsroot.flp floppy and replace it with kern.flp before rebooting. Introducing Sysinstall The sysinstall utility is the installation application provided by the FreeBSD Project. It is console based and is divided into a number of menus and screens that you can use to configure and control the installation process. The sysinstall menu system is controlled by the arrow keys, Enter, Space, and other keys. A detailed description of these keys and what they do is contained in sysinstall's usage information. To review this information, ensure that the Usage entry is highlighted and that the [Select] button is selected, as shown in , then press Enter. The instructions for using the menu system will be displayed. After reviewing them, press Enter to return to the Main Menu.
Selecting Usage from Sysinstall Main Menu
Selecting the Documentation Menu From the Main Menu, select Doc with the arrow keys and press Enter.
Selecting Documentation Menu
This will display the Documentation Menu.
Sysinstall Documentation Menu
It is important to read the documents provided. To view a document, select it with the arrow keys and press Enter. When finished reading a document, pressing Enter will return to the Documentation Menu. To return to the Main Installation Menu, select Exit with the arrow keys and press Enter. Selecting the Keymap Menu To change the keyboard mapping, use the arrow keys to select Keymap from the menu and press Enter. This is only required if you are using a non-standard or non-US keyboard.
Sysinstall Main Menu
A different keyboard mapping may be chosen by selecting the menu item using up/down arrow keys and pressing Space. Pressing Space again will unselect the item. When finished, choose the &gui.ok; using the arrow keys and press Enter. Only a partial list is shown in this screen representation. Selecting &gui.cancel; by pressing Tab will use the default keymap and return to the Main Install Menu.
Sysinstall Keymap Menu
Installation Options Screen Select Options and press Enter.
Sysinstall Main Menu
Sysinstall Options
The default values are usually fine for most users and do not need to be changed. The release name will vary according to the version being installed. The description of the selected item will appear at the bottom of the screen highlighted in blue. Notice that one of the options is Use Defaults to reset all values to startup defaults. Press F1 to read the help screen about the various options. Pressing Q will return to the Main Install menu. Begin a Standard Installation The Standard installation is the option recommended for those new to &unix; or FreeBSD. Use the arrow keys to select Standard and then press Enter to start the installation.
Begin Standard Installation
Allocating Disk Space Your first task is to allocate disk space for FreeBSD, and label that space so that sysinstall can prepare it. In order to do this you need to know how FreeBSD expects to find information on the disk. BIOS Drive Numbering Before you install and configure FreeBSD on your system, there is an important subject that you should be aware of, especially if you have multiple hard drives. DOS Microsoft Windows In a PC running a BIOS-dependent operating system such as &ms-dos; or µsoft.windows;, the BIOS is able to abstract the normal disk drive order, and the operating system goes along with the change. This allows the user to boot from a disk drive other than the so-called primary master. This is especially convenient for some users who have found that the simplest and cheapest way to keep a system backup is to buy an identical second hard drive, and perform routine copies of the first drive to the second drive using Ghost or XCOPY . Then, if the first drive fails, or is attacked by a virus, or is scribbled upon by an operating system defect, he can easily recover by instructing the BIOS to logically swap the drives. It is like switching the cables on the drives, but without having to open the case. SCSI BIOS More expensive systems with SCSI controllers often include BIOS extensions which allow the SCSI drives to be re-ordered in a similar fashion for up to seven drives. A user who is accustomed to taking advantage of these features may become surprised when the results with FreeBSD are not as expected. FreeBSD does not use the BIOS, and does not know the logical BIOS drive mapping. This can lead to very perplexing situations, especially when drives are physically identical in geometry, and have also been made as data clones of one another. When using FreeBSD, always restore the BIOS to natural drive numbering before installing FreeBSD, and then leave it that way. If you need to switch drives around, then do so, but do it the hard way, and open the case and move the jumpers and cables. An Illustration from the Files of Bill and Fred's Exceptional Adventures: Bill breaks-down an older Wintel box to make another FreeBSD box for Fred. Bill installs a single SCSI drive as SCSI unit zero and installs FreeBSD on it. Fred begins using the system, but after several days notices that the older SCSI drive is reporting numerous soft errors and reports this fact to Bill. After several more days, Bill decides it is time to address the situation, so he grabs an identical SCSI drive from the disk drive archive in the back room. An initial surface scan indicates that this drive is functioning well, so Bill installs this drive as SCSI unit four and makes an image copy from drive zero to drive four. Now that the new drive is installed and functioning nicely, Bill decides that it is a good idea to start using it, so he uses features in the SCSI BIOS to re-order the disk drives so that the system boots from SCSI unit four. FreeBSD boots and runs just fine. Fred continues his work for several days, and soon Bill and Fred decide that it is time for a new adventure — time to upgrade to a newer version of FreeBSD. Bill removes SCSI unit zero because it was a bit flaky and replaces it with another identical disk drive from the archive. Bill then installs the new version of FreeBSD onto the new SCSI unit zero using Fred's magic Internet FTP floppies. The installation goes well. Fred uses the new version of FreeBSD for a few days, and certifies that it is good enough for use in the engineering department. It is time to copy all of his work from the old version. So Fred mounts SCSI unit four (the latest copy of the older FreeBSD version). Fred is dismayed to find that none of his precious work is present on SCSI unit four. Where did the data go? When Bill made an image copy of the original SCSI unit zero onto SCSI unit four, unit four became the new clone. When Bill re-ordered the SCSI BIOS so that he could boot from SCSI unit four, he was only fooling himself. FreeBSD was still running on SCSI unit zero. Making this kind of BIOS change will cause some or all of the Boot and Loader code to be fetched from the selected BIOS drive, but when the FreeBSD kernel drivers take-over, the BIOS drive numbering will be ignored, and FreeBSD will transition back to normal drive numbering. In the illustration at hand, the system continued to operate on the original SCSI unit zero, and all of Fred's data was there, not on SCSI unit four. The fact that the system appeared to be running on SCSI unit four was simply an artifact of human expectations. We are delighted to mention that no data bytes were killed or harmed in any way by our discovery of this phenomenon. The older SCSI unit zero was retrieved from the bone pile, and all of Fred's work was returned to him, (and now Bill knows that he can count as high as zero). Although SCSI drives were used in this illustration, the concepts apply equally to IDE drives. Creating Slices Using FDisk No changes you make at this point will be written to the disk. If you think you have made a mistake and want to start again you can use the menus to exit sysinstall and try again or press U to use the Undo option. If you get confused and can not see how to exit you can always turn your computer off. After choosing to begin a standard installation in sysinstall you will be shown this message: Message In the next menu, you will need to set up a DOS-style ("fdisk") partitioning scheme for your hard disk. If you simply wish to devote all disk space to FreeBSD (overwriting anything else that might be on the disk(s) selected) then use the (A)ll command to select the default partitioning scheme followed by a (Q)uit. If you wish to allocate only free space to FreeBSD, move to a partition marked "unused" and use the (C)reate command. [ OK ] [ Press enter or space ] Press Enter as instructed. You will then be shown a list of all the hard drives that the kernel found when it carried out the device probes. shows an example from a system with two IDE disks. They have been called ad0 and ad2.
Select Drive for FDisk
You might be wondering why ad1 is not listed here. Why has it been missed? Consider what would happen if you had two IDE hard disks, one as the master on the first IDE controller, and one as the master on the second IDE controller. If FreeBSD numbered these as it found them, as ad0 and ad1 then everything would work. But if you then added a third disk, as the slave device on the first IDE controller, it would now be ad1, and the previous ad1 would become ad2. Because device names (such as ad1s1a) are used to find filesystems, you may suddenly discover that some of your filesystems no longer appear correctly, and you would need to change your FreeBSD configuration. To work around this, the kernel can be configured to name IDE disks based on where they are, and not the order in which they were found. With this scheme the master disk on the second IDE controller will always be ad2, even if there are no ad0 or ad1 devices. This configuration is the default for the FreeBSD kernel, which is why this display shows ad0 and ad2. The machine on which this screenshot was taken had IDE disks on both master channels of the IDE controllers, and no disks on the slave channels. You should select the disk on which you want to install FreeBSD, and then press &gui.ok;. FDisk will start, with a display similar to that shown in . The FDisk display is broken into three sections. The first section, covering the first two lines of the display, shows details about the currently selected disk, including its FreeBSD name, the disk geometry, and the total size of the disk. The second section shows the slices that are currently on the disk, where they start and end, how large they are, the name FreeBSD gives them, and their description and sub-type. This example shows two small unused slices, which are artifacts of disk layout schemes on the PC. It also shows one large FAT slice, which almost certainly appears as C: in &ms-dos; / &windows;, and an extended slice, which may contain other drive letters for &ms-dos; / &windows;. The third section shows the commands that are available in FDisk.
Typical Fdisk Partitions before Editing
What you do now will depend on how you want to slice up your disk. If you want to use FreeBSD for the entire disk (which will delete all the other data on this disk when you confirm that you want sysinstall to continue later in the installation process) then you can press A, which corresponds to the Use Entire Disk option. The existing slices will be removed, and replaced with a small area flagged as unused (again, an artifact of PC disk layout), and then one large slice for FreeBSD. If you do this, then you should select the newly created FreeBSD slice using the arrow keys, and press S to mark the slice as being bootable. The screen will then look very similar to . Note the A in the Flags column, which indicates that this slice is active, and will be booted from. If you will be deleting an existing slice to make space for FreeBSD then you should select the slice using the arrow keys, and then press D. You can then press C, and be prompted for size of slice you want to create. Enter the appropriate figure and press Enter. The default value in this box represents the largest possible slice you can make, which could be the largest contiguous block of unallocated space or the size of the entire hard disk. If you have already made space for FreeBSD (perhaps by using a tool such as &partitionmagic;) then you can press C to create a new slice. Again, you will be prompted for the size of slice you would like to create.
Fdisk Partition Using Entire Disk
When finished, press Q. Your changes will be saved in sysinstall, but will not yet be written to disk. Install a Boot Manager You now have the option to install a boot manager. In general, you should choose to install the FreeBSD boot manager if: You have more than one drive, and have installed FreeBSD onto a drive other than the first one. You have installed FreeBSD alongside another operating system on the same disk, and you want to choose whether to start FreeBSD or the other operating system when you start the computer. If FreeBSD is going to be the only operating system on this machine, installed on the first hard disk, then the Standard boot manager will suffice. Choose None if you are using a third-party boot manager capable of booting FreeBSD. Make your choice and press Enter.
Sysinstall Boot Manager Menu
The help screen, reached by pressing F1, discusses the problems that can be encountered when trying to share the hard disk between operating systems. Creating Slices on Another Drive If there is more than one drive, it will return to the Select Drives screen after the boot manager selection. If you wish to install FreeBSD on to more than one disk, then you can select another disk here and repeat the slice process using FDisk. If you are installing FreeBSD on a drive other than your first, then the FreeBSD boot manager needs to be installed on both drives.
Exit Select Drive
The Tab key toggles between the last drive selected, &gui.ok;, and &gui.cancel;. Press the Tab once to toggle to the &gui.ok;, then press Enter to continue with the installation. Creating Partitions Using <application>Disklabel</application> You must now create some partitions inside each slice that you have just created. Remember that each partition is lettered, from a through to h, and that partitions b, c, and d have conventional meanings that you should adhere to. Certain applications can benefit from particular partition schemes, especially if you are laying out partitions across more than one disk. However, for this, your first FreeBSD installation, you do not need to give too much thought to how you partition the disk. It is more important that you install FreeBSD and start learning how to use it. You can always re-install FreeBSD to change your partition scheme when you are more familiar with the operating system. This scheme features four partitions—one for swap space, and three for filesystems. Partition Layout for First Disk Partition Filesystem Size Description a / 100 MB This is the root filesystem. Every other filesystem will be mounted somewhere under this one. 100 MB is a reasonable size for this filesystem. You will not be storing too much data on it, as a regular FreeBSD install will put about 40 MB of data here. The remaining space is for temporary data, and also leaves expansion space if future versions of FreeBSD need more space in /. b N/A 2-3 x RAM The system's swap space is kept on this partition. Choosing the right amount of swap space can be a bit of an art. A good rule of thumb is that your swap space should be two or three times as much as the available physical memory (RAM). You should also have at least 64 MB of swap, so if you have less than 32 MB of RAM in your computer then set the swap amount to 64 MB. If you have more than one disk then you can put swap space on each disk. FreeBSD will then use each disk for swap, which effectively speeds up the act of swapping. In this case, calculate the total amount of swap you need (e.g., 128 MB), and then divide this by the number of disks you have (e.g., two disks) to give the amount of swap you should put on each disk, in this example, 64 MB of swap per disk. e /var 50 MB The /var directory contains files that are constantly varying; log files, and other administrative files. Many of these files are read-from or written-to extensively during FreeBSD's day-to-day running. Putting these files on another filesystem allows FreeBSD to optimize the access of these files without affecting other files in other directories that do not have the same access pattern. f /usr Rest of disk All your other files will typically be stored in /usr and its subdirectories.
If you will be installing FreeBSD on to more than one disk then you must also create partitions in the other slices that you configured. The easiest way to do this is to create two partitions on each disk, one for the swap space, and one for a filesystem. Partition Layout for Subsequent Disks Partition Filesystem Size Description b N/A See description As already discussed, you can split swap space across each disk. Even though the a partition is free, convention dictates that swap space stays on the b partition. e /diskn Rest of disk The rest of the disk is taken up with one big partition. This could easily be put on the a partition, instead of the e partition. However, convention says that the a partition on a slice is reserved for the filesystem that will be the root (/) filesystem. You do not have to follow this convention, but sysinstall does, so following it yourself makes the installation slightly cleaner. You can choose to mount this filesystem anywhere; this example suggests that you mount them as directories /diskn, where n is a number that changes for each disk. But you can use another scheme if you prefer.
Having chosen your partition layout you can now create it using sysinstall. You will see this message: Message Now, you need to create BSD partitions inside of the fdisk partition(s) just created. If you have a reasonable amount of disk space (200MB or more) and don't have any special requirements, simply use the (A)uto command to allocate space automatically. If you have more specific needs or just don't care for the layout chosen by (A)uto, press F1 for more information on manual layout. [ OK ] [ Press enter or space ] Press Enter to start the FreeBSD partition editor, called Disklabel. shows the display when you first start Disklabel. The display is divided in to three sections. The first few lines show the name of the disk you are currently working on, and the slice that contains the partitions you are creating (at this point Disklabel calls this the Partition name rather than slice name). This display also shows the amount of free space within the slice; that is, space that was set aside in the slice, but that has not yet been assigned to a partition. The middle of the display shows the partitions that have been created, the name of the filesystem that each partition contains, their size, and some options pertaining to the creation of the filesystem. The bottom third of the screen shows the keystrokes that are valid in Disklabel.
Sysinstall Disklabel Editor
Disklabel can automatically create partitions for you and assign them default sizes. Try this now, by Pressing A. You will see a display similar to that shown in . Depending on the size of the disk you are using, the defaults may or may not be appropriate. This does not matter, as you do not have to accept the defaults. Beginning with FreeBSD 4.5, the default partitioning assigns the /tmp directory its own partition instead of being part of the / partition. This helps avoid filling the / partition with temporary files.
Sysinstall Disklabel Editor with Auto Defaults
If you choose to not use the default partitions and wish to replace them with your own, use the arrow keys to select the first partition, and press D to delete it. Repeat this to delete all the suggested partitions. To create the first partition (a, mounted as / — root), make sure the proper disk slice at the top of the screen is selected and press C. A dialog box will appear prompting you for the size of the new partition (as shown in ). You can enter the size as the number of disk blocks you want to use, or as a number followed by either M for megabytes, G for gigabytes, or C for cylinders. Beginning with FreeBSD 5.X, users can: select UFS2 using the Custom Newfs (Z) option, create labels with Auto Defaults and modify them with the Custom Newfs option or add during the regular creation period. Do not forget to add for SoftUpdates if you use the Custom Newfs option!
Free Space for Root Partition
The default size shown will create a partition that takes up the rest of the slice. If you are using the partition sizes described in the earlier example, then delete the existing figure using Backspace, and then type in 64M, as shown in . Then press &gui.ok;.
Edit Root Partition Size
Having chosen the partition's size you will then be asked whether this partition will contain a filesystem or swap space. The dialog box is shown in . This first partition will contain a filesystem, so check that FS is selected and press Enter.
Choose the Root Partition Type
Finally, because you are creating a filesystem, you must tell Disklabel where the filesystem is to be mounted. The dialog box is shown in . The root filesystem's mount point is /, so type /, and then press Enter.
Choose the Root Mount Point
The display will then update to show you the newly created partition. You should repeat this procedure for the other partitions. When you create the swap partition, you will not be prompted for the filesystem mount point, as swap partitions are never mounted. When you create the final partition, /usr, you can leave the suggested size as is, to use the rest of the slice. Your final FreeBSD DiskLabel Editor screen will appear similar to , although your values chosen may be different. Press Q to finish.
Sysinstall Disklabel Editor
Choosing What to Install Select the Distribution Set Deciding which distribution set to install will depend largely on the intended use of the system and the amount of disk space available. The predefined options range from installing the smallest possible configuration to everything. Those who are new to &unix; and/or FreeBSD should almost certainly select one of these canned options. Customizing a distribution set is typically for the more experienced user. Press F1 for more information on the distribution set options and what they contain. When finished reviewing the help, pressing Enter will return to the Select Distributions Menu. If a graphical user interface is desired then a distribution set that is preceded by an X should be chosen. The configuration of &xfree86; and selection of a default desktop is part of the post-installation steps. The default version of &xfree86; that is installed depends on the version of the FreeBSD that you are installing. For FreeBSD versions prior to 4.6, &xfree86; 3.X is installed. For FreeBSD 4.6 and later, &xfree86; 4.X is the default. You should check to see whether your video card is supported at the &xfree86; web site. If your video card is not supported under the default version that FreeBSD will install, you should select a distribution without X for installation. After installation, install and configure the appropriate version of &xfree86; using the ports collection. If compiling a custom kernel is anticipated, select an option which includes the source code. For more information on why a custom kernel should be built or how to build a custom kernel, see . Obviously, the most versatile system is one that includes everything. If there is adequate disk space, select All as shown in by using the arrow keys and press Enter. If there is a concern about disk space consider using an option that is more suitable for the situation. Do not fret over the perfect choice, as other distributions can be added after installation.
Choose Distributions
Installing the Ports Collection After selecting the desired distribution, an opportunity to install the FreeBSD Ports Collection is presented. The ports collection is an easy and convenient way to install software. The ports collection does not contain the source code necessary to compile the software. Instead, it is a collection of files which automates the downloading, compiling and installation of third-party software packages. discusses how to use the ports collection. The installation program does not check to see if you have adequate space. Select this option only if you have adequate hard disk space. As of FreeBSD &rel.current;, the FreeBSD Ports Collection takes up about &ports.size; of disk space. You can safely assume a larger value for more recent versions of FreeBSD. User Confirmation Requested Would you like to install the FreeBSD ports collection? This will give you ready access to over &os.numports; ported software packages, at a cost of around &ports.size; of disk space when "clean" and possibly much more than that if a lot of the distribution tarballs are loaded (unless you have the extra CDs from a FreeBSD CD/DVD distribution available and can mount it on /cdrom, in which case this is far less of a problem). The ports collection is a very valuable resource and well worth having on your /usr partition, so it is advisable to say Yes to this option. For more information on the ports collection & the latest ports, visit: http://www.FreeBSD.org/ports [ Yes ] No Select &gui.yes; with the arrow keys to install the ports collection or &gui.no; to skip this option. Press Enter to continue. The Choose Distributions menu will redisplay.
Confirm Distributions
If satisfied with the options, select Exit with the arrow keys, ensure that &gui.ok; is highlighted, and pressing Enter to continue. Choosing Your Installation Media If Installing from a CDROM or DVD, use the arrow keys to highlight Install from a FreeBSD CD/DVD. Ensure that &gui.ok; is highlighted, then press Enter to proceed with the installation. For other methods of installation, select the appropriate option and follow the instructions. Press F1 to display the Online Help for installation media. Press Enter to return to the media selection menu.
Choose Installation Media
FTP Installation Modes installation network FTP There are three FTP installation modes you can choose from: active FTP, passive FTP, or via a HTTP proxy. FTP Active: Install from an FTP server This option will make all FTP transfers use Active mode. This will not work through firewalls, but will often work with older FTP servers that do not support passive mode. If your connection hangs with passive mode (the default), try active! FTP Passive: Install from an FTP server through a firewall FTP passive mode This option instructs sysinstall to use Passive mode for all FTP operations. This allows the user to pass through firewalls that do not allow incoming connections on random TCP ports. FTP via a HTTP proxy: Install from an FTP server through a http proxy FTP via a HTTP proxy This option instructs sysinstall to use the HTTP protocol (like a web browser) to connect to a proxy for all FTP operations. The proxy will translate the requests and send them to the FTP server. This allows the user to pass through firewalls that do not allow FTP at all, but offer a HTTP proxy. In this case, you have to specify the proxy in addition to the FTP server. For a proxy FTP server, you should usually give the name of the server you really want as a part of the username, after an @ sign. The proxy server then fakes the real server. For example, assuming you want to install from ftp.FreeBSD.org, using the proxy FTP server foo.example.com, listening on port 1024. In this case, you go to the options menu, set the FTP username to ftp@ftp.FreeBSD.org, and the password to your email address. As your installation media, you specify FTP (or passive FTP, if the proxy supports it), and the URL ftp://foo.example.com:1234/pub/FreeBSD. Since /pub/FreeBSD from ftp.FreeBSD.org is proxied under foo.example.com, you are able to install from that machine (which will fetch the files from ftp.FreeBSD.org as your installation requests them). Committing to the Installation The installation can now proceed if desired. This is also the last chance for aborting the installation to prevent changes to the hard drive. User Confirmation Requested Last Chance! Are you SURE you want to continue the installation? If you're running this on a disk with data you wish to save then WE STRONGLY ENCOURAGE YOU TO MAKE PROPER BACKUPS before proceeding! We can take no responsibility for lost disk contents! [ Yes ] No Select &gui.yes; and press Enter to proceed. The installation time will vary according to the distribution chosen, installation media, and the speed of the computer. There will be a series of messages displayed indicating the status. The installation is complete when the following message is displayed: Message Congratulations! You now have FreeBSD installed on your system. We will now move on to the final configuration questions. For any option you do not wish to configure, simply select No. If you wish to re-enter this utility after the system is up, you may do so by typing: /stand/sysinstall . [ OK ] [ Press enter to continue ] Press Enter to proceed with post-installation configurations. Selecting &gui.no; and pressing Enter will abort the installation so no changes will be made to your system. The following message will appear: Message Installation complete with some errors. You may wish to scroll through the debugging messages on VTY1 with the scroll-lock feature. You can also choose "No" at the next prompt and go back into the installation menus to retry whichever operations have failed. [ OK ] This message is generated because nothing was installed. Pressing Enter will return to the Main Installation Menu to exit the installation. Post-installation Configuration of various options follows the successful installation. An option can be configured by re-entering the configuration options before booting the new FreeBSD system or after installation using /stand/sysinstall and selecting Configure. Network Device Configuration If you previously configured PPP for an FTP install, this screen will not display and can be configured later as described above. For detailed information on Local Area Networks and configuring FreeBSD as a gateway/router refer to the Advanced Networking chapter. User Confirmation Requested Would you like to configure any Ethernet or SLIP/PPP network devices? [ Yes ] No To configure a network device, select &gui.yes; and press Enter. Otherwise, select &gui.no; to continue.
Selecting an Ethernet Device
Select the interface to be configured with the arrow keys and press Enter. User Confirmation Requested Do you want to try IPv6 configuration of the interface? Yes [ No ] In this private local area network, the current Internet type protocol (IPv4) was sufficient and &gui.no; was selected with the arrow keys and Enter pressed. If you are connected to an existing IPv6 network with an RA server, then choose &gui.yes; and press Enter. It will take several seconds to scan for RA servers. User Confirmation Requested Do you want to try DHCP configuration of the interface? Yes [ No ] If DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is not required select &gui.no; with the arrow keys and press Enter. Selecting &gui.yes; will execute dhclient, and if successful, will fill in the network configuration information automatically. Refer to for more information. The following Network Configuration screen shows the configuration of the Ethernet device for a system that will act as the gateway for a Local Area Network.
Set Network Configuration for ed0
Use Tab to select the information fields and fill in appropriate information: Host The fully-qualified hostname, such as k6-2.example.com in this case. Domain The name of the domain that your machine is in, such as example.com for this case. IPv4 Gateway IP address of host forwarding packets to non-local destinations. You must fill this in if the machine is a node on the network. Leave this field blank if the machine is the gateway to the Internet for the network. The IPv4 Gateway is also known as the default gateway or default route. Name server IP address of your local DNS server. There is no local DNS server on this private local area network so the IP address of the provider's DNS server (208.163.10.2) was used. IPv4 address The IP address to be used for this interface was 192.168.0.1 Netmask The address block being used for this local area network is a Class C block (192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255). The default netmask is for a Class C network (255.255.255.0). Extra options to ifconfig Any interface-specific options to ifconfig you would like to add. There were none in this case. Use Tab to select &gui.ok; when finished and press Enter. User Confirmation Requested Would you like to Bring Up the ed0 interface right now? [ Yes ] No Choosing &gui.yes; and pressing Enter will bring the machine up on the network and be ready for use. However, this does not accomplish much during installation, since the machine still needs to be rebooted. Configure Gateway User Confirmation Requested Do you want this machine to function as a network gateway? [ Yes ] No If the machine will be acting as the gateway for a local area network and forwarding packets between other machines then select &gui.yes; and press Enter. If the machine is a node on a network then select &gui.no; and press Enter to continue. Configure Internet Services User Confirmation Requested Do you want to configure inetd and the network services that it provides? Yes [ No ] If &gui.no; is selected, various services such telnetd will not be enabled. This means that remote users will not be able to telnet into this machine. Local users will be still be able to access remote machines with telnet. These services can be enabled after installation by editing /etc/inetd.conf with your favorite text editor. See for more information. Select &gui.yes; if you wish to configure these services during install. An additional confirmation will display: User Confirmation Requested The Internet Super Server (inetd) allows a number of simple Internet services to be enabled, including finger, ftp and telnetd. Enabling these services may increase risk of security problems by increasing the exposure of your system. With this in mind, do you wish to enable inetd? [ Yes ] No Select &gui.yes; to continue. User Confirmation Requested inetd(8) relies on its configuration file, /etc/inetd.conf, to determine which of its Internet services will be available. The default FreeBSD inetd.conf(5) leaves all services disabled by default, so they must be specifically enabled in the configuration file before they will function, even once inetd(8) is enabled. Note that services for IPv6 must be separately enabled from IPv4 services. Select [Yes] now to invoke an editor on /etc/inetd.conf, or [No] to use the current settings. [ Yes ] No Selecting &gui.yes; will allow adding services by deleting the # at the beginning of a line.
Editing <filename>inetd.conf</filename>
After adding the desired services, pressing Esc will display a menu which will allow exiting and saving the changes. Anonymous FTP User Confirmation Requested Do you want to have anonymous FTP access to this machine? Yes [ No ] Deny Anonymous FTP Selecting the default &gui.no; and pressing Enter will still allow users who have accounts with passwords to use FTP to access the machine. Allow Anonymous FTP Anyone can access your machine if you elect to allow anonymous FTP connections. The security implications should be considered before enabling this option. For more information about security see . To allow anonymous FTP, use the arrow keys to select &gui.yes; and press Enter. The following screen (or similar) will display:
Default Anonymous FTP Configuration
Pressing F1 will display the help: This screen allows you to configure the anonymous FTP user. The following configuration values are editable: UID: The user ID you wish to assign to the anonymous FTP user. All files uploaded will be owned by this ID. Group: Which group you wish the anonymous FTP user to be in. Comment: String describing this user in /etc/passwd FTP Root Directory: Where files available for anonymous FTP will be kept. Upload subdirectory: Where files uploaded by anonymous FTP users will go. The ftp root directory will be put in /var by default. If you do not have enough room there for the anticipated FTP needs, the /usr directory could be used by setting the FTP Root Directory to /usr/ftp. When you are satisfied with the values, press Enter to continue. User Confirmation Requested Create a welcome message file for anonymous FTP users? [ Yes ] No If you select &gui.yes; and press Enter, an editor will automatically start allowing you to edit the message.
Edit the FTP Welcome Message
This is a text editor called ee. Use the instructions to change the message or change the message later using a text editor of your choice. Note the file name/location at the bottom of the editor screen. Press Esc and a pop-up menu will default to a) leave editor. Press Enter to exit and continue. Press Enter again to save changes if you made any. Configure Network File System Network File System (NFS) allows sharing of files across a network. A machine can be configured as a server, a client, or both. Refer to for a more information. NFS Server User Confirmation Requested Do you want to configure this machine as an NFS server? Yes [ No ] If there is no need for a Network File System server, select &gui.no; and press Enter. If &gui.yes; is chosen, a message will pop-up indicating that the exports file must be created. Message Operating as an NFS server means that you must first configure an /etc/exports file to indicate which hosts are allowed certain kinds of access to your local filesystems. Press [Enter] now to invoke an editor on /etc/exports [ OK ] Press Enter to continue. A text editor will start allowing the exports file to be created and edited.
Editing <filename>exports</filename>
Use the instructions to add the actual exported filesystems now or later using a text editor of your choice. Note the file name/location at the bottom of the editor screen. Press Esc and a pop-up menu will default to a) leave editor. Press Enter to exit and continue. NFS Client The NFS client allows your machine to access NFS servers. User Confirmation Requested Do you want to configure this machine as an NFS client? Yes [ No ] With the arrow keys, select &gui.yes; or &gui.no; as appropriate and press Enter. Security Profile A security profile is a set of configuration options that attempts to achieve the desired ratio of security to convenience by enabling and disabling certain programs and other settings. The more severe the security profile, the fewer programs will be enabled by default. This is one of the basic principles of security: do not run anything except what you must. Please note that the security profile is just a default setting. All programs can be enabled and disabled after you have installed FreeBSD by editing or adding the appropriate line(s) to /etc/rc.conf. For more information, please see the &man.rc.conf.5; manual page. The following table describes what each of the security profiles does. The columns are the choices you have for a security profile, and the rows are the program or feature that the profile enables or disables. Possible Security Profiles Extreme Moderate &man.sendmail.8; NO YES &man.sshd.8; NO YES &man.portmap.8; NO MAYBE The portmapper is enabled if the machine has been configured as an NFS client or server earlier in the installation. NFS server NO YES &man.securelevel.8; YES If you choose a security profile that sets the securelevel to Extreme or High, you must be aware of the implications. Please read the &man.init.8; manual page and pay particular attention to the meanings of the security levels, or you may have significant trouble later! NO
User Confirmation Requested Do you want to select a default security profile for this host (select No for "medium" security)? [ Yes ] No Selecting &gui.no; and pressing Enter will set the security profile to medium. Selecting &gui.yes; and pressing Enter will allow selecting a different security profile.
Security Profile Options
Press F1 to display the help. Press Enter to return to selection menu. Use the arrow keys to choose Medium unless your are sure that another level is required for your needs. With &gui.ok; highlighted, press Enter. An appropriate confirmation message will display depending on which security setting was chosen. Message Moderate security settings have been selected. Sendmail and SSHd have been enabled, securelevels are disabled, and NFS server setting have been left intact. PLEASE NOTE that this still does not save you from having to properly secure your system in other ways or exercise due diligence in your administration, this simply picks a standard set of out-of-box defaults to start with. To change any of these settings later, edit /etc/rc.conf [OK] Message Extreme security settings have been selected. Sendmail, SSHd, and NFS services have been disabled, and securelevels have been enabled. PLEASE NOTE that this still does not save you from having to properly secure your system in other ways or exercise due diligence in your administration, this simply picks a more secure set of out-of-box defaults to start with. To change any of these settings later, edit /etc/rc.conf [OK] Press Enter to continue with the post-installation configuration. The security profile is not a silver bullet! Even if you use the extreme setting, you need to keep up with security issues by reading an appropriate mailing list (), using good passwords and passphrases, and generally adhering to good security practices. It simply sets up the desired security to convenience ratio out of the box. System Console Settings There are several options available to customize the system console. User Confirmation Requested Would you like to customize your system console settings? [ Yes ] No To view and configure the options, select &gui.yes; and press Enter.
System Console Configuration Options
A commonly used option is the screen saver. Use the arrow keys to select Saver and then press Enter.
Screen Saver Options
Select the desired screen saver using the arrow keys and then press Enter. The System Console Configuration menu will redisplay. The default time interval is 300 seconds. To change the time interval, select Saver again. At the Screen Saver Options menu, select Timeout using the arrow keys and press Enter. A pop-up menu will appear:
Screen Saver Timeout
The value can be changed, then select &gui.ok; and press Enter to return to the System Console Configuration menu.
System Console Configuration Exit
Selecting Exit and pressing Enter will continue with the post-installation configurations. Setting the Time Zone Setting the time zone for your machine will allow it to automatically correct for any regional time changes and perform other time zone related functions properly. The example shown is for a machine located in the Eastern time zone of the United States. Your selections will vary according to your geographical location. User Confirmation Requested Would you like to set this machine's time zone now? [ Yes ] No Select &gui.yes; and press Enter to set the time zone. User Confirmation Requested Is this machine's CMOS clock set to UTC? If it is set to local time or you don't know, please choose NO here! Yes [ No ] Select &gui.yes; or &gui.no; according to how the machine's clock is configured and press Enter.
Select Your Region
The appropriate region is selected using the arrow keys and then pressing Enter.
Select Your Country
Select the appropriate country using the arrow keys and press Enter.
Select Your Time Zone
The appropriate time zone is selected using the arrow keys and pressing Enter. Confirmation Does the abbreviation 'EDT' look reasonable? [ Yes ] No Confirm the abbreviation for the time zone is correct. If it looks okay, press Enter to continue with the post-installation configuration. Linux Compatibility User Confirmation Requested Would you like to enable Linux binary compatibility? [ Yes ] No Selecting &gui.yes; and pressing Enter will allow running Linux software on FreeBSD. The install will add the appropriate packages for Linux compatibility. If installing by FTP, the machine will need to be connected to the Internet. Sometimes a remote ftp site will not have all the distributions like the Linux binary compatibility. This can be installed later if necessary. Mouse Settings This option will allow you to cut and paste text in the console and user programs with a 3-button mouse. If using a 2-button mouse, refer to manual page, &man.moused.8;, after installation for details on emulating the 3-button style. This example depicts a non-USB mouse configuration (such as a PS/2 or COM port mouse): User Confirmation Requested Does this system have a non-USB mouse attached to it? [ Yes ] No Select &gui.yes; for a non-USB mouse or &gui.no; for a USB mouse and press Enter.
Select Mouse Protocol Type
Use the arrow keys to select Type and press Enter.
Set Mouse Protocol
The mouse used in this example is a PS/2 type, so the default Auto was appropriate. To change protocol, use the arrow keys to select another option. Ensure that &gui.ok; is highlighted and press Enter to exit this menu.
Configure Mouse Port
Use the arrow keys to select Port and press Enter.
Setting the Mouse Port
This system had a PS/2 mouse, so the default PS/2 was appropriate. To change the port, use the arrow keys and then press Enter.
Enable the Mouse Daemon
Last, use the arrow keys to select Enable, and press Enter to enable and test the mouse daemon.
Test the Mouse Daemon
Move the mouse around the screen and verify the cursor shown responds properly. If it does, select &gui.yes; and press Enter. If not, the mouse has not been configured correctly — select &gui.no; and try using different configuration options. Select Exit with the arrow keys and press Enter to return to continue with the post-installation configuration. Configure Additional Network Services Configuring network services can be a daunting task for new users if they lack previous knowledge in this area. Networking, including the Internet, is critical to all modern operating systems including &os;; as a result, it is very useful to have some understanding &os;'s extensive networking capabilities. Doing this during the installation will ensure users have some understanding of the various services available to them. Network services are programs that accept input from anywhere on the network. Every effort is made to make sure these programs will not do anything harmful. Unfortunately, programmers are not perfect and through time there have been cases where bugs in network services have been exploited by attackers to do bad things. It is important that you only enable the network services you know that you need. If in doubt it is best if you do not enable a network service until you find out that you do need it. You can always enable it later by re-running sysinstall or by using the features provided by the /etc/rc.conf file. Selecting the Networking option will display a menu similar to the one below:
Network Configuration Upper-level
The first option, Interfaces, was previously covered during the , thus this option can safely be ignored. Selecting the AMD option adds support for the BSD automatic mount utility. This is usually used in conjunction with the NFS protocol (see below) for automatically mounting remote file systems. No special configuration is required here. Next in line is the AMD Flags option. When selected, a menu will pop up for you to enter specific AMD flags. The menu already contains a set of default options: -a /.amd_mnt -l syslog /host /etc/amd.map /net /etc/amd.map The option sets the default mount location which is specified here as /.amd_mnt. The option specifies the default log file; however, when syslogd is used all log activity will be sent to the system log daemon. The /host directory is used to mount an exported file system from a remote host, while /net directory is used to mount an exported file system from an IP address. The /etc/amd.map file defines the default options for AMD exports. The Anon FTP option permits anonymous FTP connections. Select this option to make this machine an anonymous FTP server. Be aware of the security risks involved with this option. Another menu will be displayed to explain the security risks and configuration in depth. The Gateway configuration menu will set the machine up to be a gateway as explained previously. This can be used to unset the Gateway option if you accidentally selected it during the installation process. The Inetd option can be used to configure or completely disable the &man.inetd.8; daemon as discussed above. The Mail option is used to configure the system's default MTA or Mail Transfer Agent. Selecting this option will bring up the following menu:
Select a default MTA
Here you are offered a choice as to which MTA to install and set as the default. An MTA is nothing more than a mail server which delivers email to users on the system or the Internet. Selecting Sendmail will install the popular sendmail server which is the &os; default. The Sendmail local option will set sendmail to be the default MTA, but disable its ability to receive incoming email from the Internet. The other options here, Postfix and Exim act similar to Sendmail. They both deliver email; however, some users prefer these alternatives to the sendmail MTA. After selecting an MTA, or choosing not to select an MTA, the network configuration menu will appear with the next option being NFS client. The NFS client option will configure the system to communicate with a server via NFS. An NFS server makes file systems available to other machines on the network via the NFS protocol. If this is a stand alone machine, this option can remain unselected. The system may require more configuration later; see for more information about client and server configuration. Below that option is the NFS server option, permitting you to set the system up as an NFS server. This adds the required information to start up the RPC remote procedure call services. RPC is used to coordinate connections between hosts and programs. Next in line is the Ntpdate option, which deals with time synchronization. When selected, a menu like the one below shows up:
Ntpdate Configuration
From this menu, select the server which is the closest to your location. Selecting a close one will make the time synchronization more accurate as a server further from your location may have more connection latency. The next option is the PCNFSD selection. This option will install the net/pcnfsd package from the ports collection. This is a useful utility which provides NFS authentication services for systems which are unable to provide their own, such as Microsoft's &ms-dos; operating system. Now you must scroll down a bit to see the other options:
Network Configuration Lower-level
The &man.rpcbind.8;, &man.rpc.statd.8;, and &man.rpc.lockd.8; utilities are all used for Remote Procedure Calls (RPC). The rpcbind utility manages communication between NFS servers and clients, and is required for NFS servers to operate correctly. The rpc.statd daemon interacts with the rpc.statd daemon on other hosts to provide status monitoring. The reported status is usually held in the /var/db/statd.status file. The next option listed here is the rpc.lockd option, which, when selected, will provide file locking services. This is usually used with rpc.statd to monitor what hosts are requesting locks and how frequently they request them. While these last two options are marvelous for debugging, they are not required for NFS servers and clients to operate correctly. As you progress down the list the next item here is Routed, which is the routing daemon. The &man.routed.8; utility manages network routing tables, discovers multicast routers, and supplies a copy of the routing tables to any physically connected host on the network upon request. This is mainly used for machines which act as a gateway for the local network. When selected, a menu will be presented requesting the default location of the utility. The default location is already defined for you and can be selected with the Enter key. You will then be presented with yet another menu, this time asking for the flags you wish to pass on to routed. The default is and it should already appear on the screen. Next in line is the Rwhod option which, when selected, will start the &man.rwhod.8; daemon during system initialization. The rwhod utility broadcasts system messages across the network periodically, or collects them when in consumer mode. More information can be found in the &man.ruptime.1; and &man.rwho.1; manual pages. The next to the last option in the list is for the &man.sshd.8; daemon. This is the secure shell server for OpenSSH and it is highly recommended over the standard telnet and FTP servers. The sshd server is used to create a secure connection from one host to another by using encrypted connections. Finally there is the TCP Extensions option. This enables the TCP Extensions defined in RFC 1323 and RFC 1644. While on many hosts this can speed up connections, it can also cause some connections to be dropped. It is not recommended for servers, but may be beneficial for stand alone machines. Now that you have configured the network services, you can scroll up to the very top item which is Exit and continue on to the next configuration section. Configure X Server In order to use a graphical user interface such as KDE, GNOME, or others, the X server will need to be configured. In order to run &xfree86; as a non root user you will need to have x11/wrapper installed. This is installed by default beginning with FreeBSD 4.7. For earlier versions this can be added from the Package Selection menu. To see whether your video card is supported, check the &xfree86; web site. User Confirmation Requested Would you like to configure your X server at this time? [ Yes ] No It is necessary to know your monitor specifications and video card information. Equipment damage can occur if settings are incorrect. If you do not have this information, select &gui.no; and perform the configuration after installation when you have the information using /stand/sysinstall, selecting Configure and then XFree86. Improper configuration of the X server at this time can leave the machine in a frozen state. It is often advised to configure the X server once the installation has completed. If you have graphics card and monitor information, select &gui.yes; and press Enter to proceed with configuring the X server.
Select Configuration Method Menu
There are several ways to configure the X server. Use the arrow keys to select one of the methods and press Enter. Be sure to read all instructions carefully. The xf86cfg and xf86cfg -textmode methods may make the screen go dark and take a few seconds to start. Be patient. The following will illustrate the use of the xf86config configuration tool. The configuration choices you make will depend on the hardware in the system so your choices will probably be different than those shown: Message You have configured and been running the mouse daemon. Choose "/dev/sysmouse" as the mouse port and "SysMouse" or "MouseSystems" as the mouse protocol in the X configuration utility. [ OK ] [ Press enter to continue ] This indicates that the mouse daemon previously configured has been detected. Press Enter to continue. Starting xf86config will display a brief introduction: This program will create a basic XF86Config file, based on menu selections you make. The XF86Config file usually resides in /usr/X11R6/etc/X11 or /etc/X11. A sample XF86Config file is supplied with XFree86; it is configured for a standard VGA card and monitor with 640x480 resolution. This program will ask for a pathname when it is ready to write the file. You can either take the sample XF86Config as a base and edit it for your configuration, or let this program produce a base XF86Config file for your configuration and fine-tune it. Before continuing with this program, make sure you know what video card you have, and preferably also the chipset it uses and the amount of video memory on your video card. SuperProbe may be able to help with this. Press enter to continue, or ctrl-c to abort. Pressing Enter will start the mouse configuration. Be sure to follow the instructions and use Mouse Systems as the mouse protocol and - /dev/sysmouse as the mouse port even if + /dev/sysmouse as the mouse port even if using a PS/2 mouse is shown as an illustration. First specify a mouse protocol type. Choose one from the following list: 1. Microsoft compatible (2-button protocol) 2. Mouse Systems (3-button protocol) & FreeBSD moused protocol 3. Bus Mouse 4. PS/2 Mouse 5. Logitech Mouse (serial, old type, Logitech protocol) 6. Logitech MouseMan (Microsoft compatible) 7. MM Series 8. MM HitTablet 9. Microsoft IntelliMouse If you have a two-button mouse, it is most likely of type 1, and if you have a three-button mouse, it can probably support both protocol 1 and 2. There are two main varieties of the latter type: mice with a switch to select the protocol, and mice that default to 1 and require a button to be held at boot-time to select protocol 2. Some mice can be convinced to do 2 by sending a special sequence to the serial port (see the ClearDTR/ClearRTS options). Enter a protocol number: 2 You have selected a Mouse Systems protocol mouse. If your mouse is normally in Microsoft-compatible mode, enabling the ClearDTR and ClearRTS options may cause it to switch to Mouse Systems mode when the server starts. Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'. Do you want to enable ClearDTR and ClearRTS? n You have selected a three-button mouse protocol. It is recommended that you do not enable Emulate3Buttons, unless the third button doesn't work. Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'. Do you want to enable Emulate3Buttons? y Now give the full device name that the mouse is connected to, for example /dev/tty00. Just pressing enter will use the default, /dev/mouse. On FreeBSD, the default is /dev/sysmouse. Mouse device: /dev/sysmouse The keyboard is the next item to be configured. A generic 101-key model is shown for illustration. Any name may be used for the variant or simply press Enter to accept the default value. Please select one of the following keyboard types that is the better description of your keyboard. If nothing really matches, choose 1 (Generic 101-key PC) 1 Generic 101-key PC 2 Generic 102-key (Intl) PC 3 Generic 104-key PC 4 Generic 105-key (Intl) PC 5 Dell 101-key PC 6 Everex STEPnote 7 Keytronic FlexPro 8 Microsoft Natural 9 Northgate OmniKey 101 10 Winbook Model XP5 11 Japanese 106-key 12 PC-98xx Series 13 Brazilian ABNT2 14 HP Internet 15 Logitech iTouch 16 Logitech Cordless Desktop Pro 17 Logitech Internet Keyboard 18 Logitech Internet Navigator Keyboard 19 Compaq Internet 20 Microsoft Natural Pro 21 Genius Comfy KB-16M 22 IBM Rapid Access 23 IBM Rapid Access II 24 Chicony Internet Keyboard 25 Dell Internet Keyboard Enter a number to choose the keyboard. 1 Please select the layout corresponding to your keyboard 1 U.S. English 2 U.S. English w/ ISO9995-3 3 U.S. English w/ deadkeys 4 Albanian 5 Arabic 6 Armenian 7 Azerbaidjani 8 Belarusian 9 Belgian 10 Bengali 11 Brazilian 12 Bulgarian 13 Burmese 14 Canadian 15 Croatian 16 Czech 17 Czech (qwerty) 18 Danish Enter a number to choose the country. Press enter for the next page 1 Please enter a variant name for 'us' layout. Or just press enter for default variant us Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'. Do you want to select additional XKB options (group switcher, group indicator, etc.)? n Next, we proceed to the configuration for the monitor. Do not exceed the ratings of your monitor. Damage could occur. If you have any doubts, do the configuration after you have the information. Now we want to set the specifications of the monitor. The two critical parameters are the vertical refresh rate, which is the rate at which the whole screen is refreshed, and most importantly the horizontal sync rate, which is the rate at which scanlines are displayed. The valid range for horizontal sync and vertical sync should be documented in the manual of your monitor. If in doubt, check the monitor database /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/doc/Monitors to see if your monitor is there. Press enter to continue, or ctrl-c to abort. You must indicate the horizontal sync range of your monitor. You can either select one of the predefined ranges below that correspond to industry- standard monitor types, or give a specific range. It is VERY IMPORTANT that you do not specify a monitor type with a horizontal sync range that is beyond the capabilities of your monitor. If in doubt, choose a conservative setting. hsync in kHz; monitor type with characteristic modes 1 31.5; Standard VGA, 640x480 @ 60 Hz 2 31.5 - 35.1; Super VGA, 800x600 @ 56 Hz 3 31.5, 35.5; 8514 Compatible, 1024x768 @ 87 Hz interlaced (no 800x600) 4 31.5, 35.15, 35.5; Super VGA, 1024x768 @ 87 Hz interlaced, 800x600 @ 56 Hz 5 31.5 - 37.9; Extended Super VGA, 800x600 @ 60 Hz, 640x480 @ 72 Hz 6 31.5 - 48.5; Non-Interlaced SVGA, 1024x768 @ 60 Hz, 800x600 @ 72 Hz 7 31.5 - 57.0; High Frequency SVGA, 1024x768 @ 70 Hz 8 31.5 - 64.3; Monitor that can do 1280x1024 @ 60 Hz 9 31.5 - 79.0; Monitor that can do 1280x1024 @ 74 Hz 10 31.5 - 82.0; Monitor that can do 1280x1024 @ 76 Hz 11 Enter your own horizontal sync range Enter your choice (1-11): 6 You must indicate the vertical sync range of your monitor. You can either select one of the predefined ranges below that correspond to industry- standard monitor types, or give a specific range. For interlaced modes, the number that counts is the high one (e.g. 87 Hz rather than 43 Hz). 1 50-70 2 50-90 3 50-100 4 40-150 5 Enter your own vertical sync range Enter your choice: 2 You must now enter a few identification/description strings, namely an identifier, a vendor name, and a model name. Just pressing enter will fill in default names. The strings are free-form, spaces are allowed. Enter an identifier for your monitor definition: Hitachi The selection of a video card driver from a list is next. If you pass your card on the list, continue to press Enter and the list will repeat. Only an excerpt from the list is shown: Now we must configure video card specific settings. At this point you can choose to make a selection out of a database of video card definitions. Because there can be variation in Ramdacs and clock generators even between cards of the same model, it is not sensible to blindly copy the settings (e.g. a Device section). For this reason, after you make a selection, you will still be asked about the components of the card, with the settings from the chosen database entry presented as a strong hint. The database entries include information about the chipset, what driver to run, the Ramdac and ClockChip, and comments that will be included in the Device section. However, a lot of definitions only hint about what driver to run (based on the chipset the card uses) and are untested. If you can't find your card in the database, there's nothing to worry about. You should only choose a database entry that is exactly the same model as your card; choosing one that looks similar is just a bad idea (e.g. a GemStone Snail 64 may be as different from a GemStone Snail 64+ in terms of hardware as can be). Do you want to look at the card database? y 288 Matrox Millennium G200 8MB mgag200 289 Matrox Millennium G200 SD 16MB mgag200 290 Matrox Millennium G200 SD 4MB mgag200 291 Matrox Millennium G200 SD 8MB mgag200 292 Matrox Millennium G400 mgag400 293 Matrox Millennium II 16MB mga2164w 294 Matrox Millennium II 4MB mga2164w 295 Matrox Millennium II 8MB mga2164w 296 Matrox Mystique mga1064sg 297 Matrox Mystique G200 16MB mgag200 298 Matrox Mystique G200 4MB mgag200 299 Matrox Mystique G200 8MB mgag200 300 Matrox Productiva G100 4MB mgag100 301 Matrox Productiva G100 8MB mgag100 302 MediaGX mediagx 303 MediaVision Proaxcel 128 ET6000 304 Mirage Z-128 ET6000 305 Miro CRYSTAL VRX Verite 1000 Enter a number to choose the corresponding card definition. Press enter for the next page, q to continue configuration. 288 Your selected card definition: Identifier: Matrox Millennium G200 8MB Chipset: mgag200 Driver: mga Do NOT probe clocks or use any Clocks line. Press enter to continue, or ctrl-c to abort. Now you must give information about your video card. This will be used for the "Device" section of your video card in XF86Config. You must indicate how much video memory you have. It is probably a good idea to use the same approximate amount as that detected by the server you intend to use. If you encounter problems that are due to the used server not supporting the amount memory you have (e.g. ATI Mach64 is limited to 1024K with the SVGA server), specify the maximum amount supported by the server. How much video memory do you have on your video card: 1 256K 2 512K 3 1024K 4 2048K 5 4096K 6 Other Enter your choice: 6 Amount of video memory in Kbytes: 8192 You must now enter a few identification/description strings, namely an identifier, a vendor name, and a model name. Just pressing enter will fill in default names (possibly from a card definition). Your card definition is Matrox Millennium G200 8MB. The strings are free-form, spaces are allowed. Enter an identifier for your video card definition: Next, the video modes are set for the resolutions desired. Typically, useful ranges are 640x480, 800x600, and 1024x768 but those are a function of video card capability, monitor size, and eye comfort. When selecting a color depth, select the highest mode that your card will support. For each depth, a list of modes (resolutions) is defined. The default resolution that the server will start-up with will be the first listed mode that can be supported by the monitor and card. Currently it is set to: "640x480" "800x600" "1024x768" "1280x1024" for 8-bit "640x480" "800x600" "1024x768" "1280x1024" for 16-bit "640x480" "800x600" "1024x768" "1280x1024" for 24-bit Modes that cannot be supported due to monitor or clock constraints will be automatically skipped by the server. 1 Change the modes for 8-bit (256 colors) 2 Change the modes for 16-bit (32K/64K colors) 3 Change the modes for 24-bit (24-bit color) 4 The modes are OK, continue. Enter your choice: 2 Select modes from the following list: 1 "640x400" 2 "640x480" 3 "800x600" 4 "1024x768" 5 "1280x1024" 6 "320x200" 7 "320x240" 8 "400x300" 9 "1152x864" a "1600x1200" b "1800x1400" c "512x384" Please type the digits corresponding to the modes that you want to select. For example, 432 selects "1024x768" "800x600" "640x480", with a default mode of 1024x768. Which modes? 432 You can have a virtual screen (desktop), which is screen area that is larger than the physical screen and which is panned by moving the mouse to the edge of the screen. If you don't want virtual desktop at a certain resolution, you cannot have modes listed that are larger. Each color depth can have a differently-sized virtual screen Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'. Do you want a virtual screen that is larger than the physical screen? n For each depth, a list of modes (resolutions) is defined. The default resolution that the server will start-up with will be the first listed mode that can be supported by the monitor and card. Currently it is set to: "640x480" "800x600" "1024x768" "1280x1024" for 8-bit "1024x768" "800x600" "640x480" for 16-bit "640x480" "800x600" "1024x768" "1280x1024" for 24-bit Modes that cannot be supported due to monitor or clock constraints will be automatically skipped by the server. 1 Change the modes for 8-bit (256 colors) 2 Change the modes for 16-bit (32K/64K colors) 3 Change the modes for 24-bit (24-bit color) 4 The modes are OK, continue. Enter your choice: 4 Please specify which color depth you want to use by default: 1 1 bit (monochrome) 2 4 bits (16 colors) 3 8 bits (256 colors) 4 16 bits (65536 colors) 5 24 bits (16 million colors) Enter a number to choose the default depth. 4 Finally, the configuration needs to be saved. Be sure to enter /etc/XF86Config as the location for saving the configuration. I am going to write the XF86Config file now. Make sure you don't accidently overwrite a previously configured one. Shall I write it to /etc/X11/XF86Config? y If the configuration fails, you can try the configuration again by selecting &gui.yes; when the following message appears: User Confirmation Requested The XFree86 configuration process seems to have failed. Would you like to try again? [ Yes ] No If you have trouble configuring &xfree86;, select &gui.no; and press Enter and continue with the installation process. After installation you can use xf86cfg -textmode or xf86config to access the command line configuration utilities as root. There is an additional method for configuring &xfree86; described in . If you choose not to configure &xfree86; at this time the next menu will be for package selection. The default setting which allows the server to be killed is the hotkey sequence CtrlAlt Backspace. This can be executed if something is wrong with the server settings and prevent hardware damage. The default setting that allows video mode switching will permit changing of the mode while running X with the hotkey sequence CtrlAlt+ or CtrlAlt- . After you have &xfree86; running, the display can be adjusted for height, width, or centering by using xvidtune. There are warnings that improper settings can damage your equipment. Heed them. If in doubt, do not do it. Instead, use the monitor controls to adjust the display for X Window. There may be some display differences when switching back to text mode, but it is better than damaging equipment. Read the &man.xvidtune.1; manual page before making any adjustments. Following a successful &xfree86; configuration, it will proceed to the selection of a default desktop. Select Default X Desktop There are a variety of window managers available. They range from very basic environments to full desktop environments with a large suite of software. Some require only minimal disk space and low memory while others with more features require much more. The best way to determine which is most suitable for you is to try a few different ones. Those are available from the ports collection or as packages and can be added after installation. You can select one of the popular desktops to be installed and configured as the default desktop. This will allow you to start it right after installation.
Select Default Desktop
Use the arrow keys to select a desktop and press Enter. Installation of the selected desktop will proceed. Install Packages Packages are pre-compiled binaries and are a convenient way to install software. Installation of one package is shown for purposes of illustration. Additional packages can also be added at this time if desired. After installation /stand/sysinstall can be used to add additional packages. User Confirmation Requested The FreeBSD package collection is a collection of hundreds of ready-to-run applications, from text editors to games to WEB servers and more. Would you like to browse the collection now? [ Yes ] No Selecting &gui.yes; and pressing Enter will be followed by the Package Selection screens:
Select Package Category
Only packages on the current installation media are available for installation at any given time. All packages available will be displayed if All is selected or you can select a particular category. Highlight your selection with the arrow keys and press Enter. A menu will display showing all the packages available for the selection made:
Select Packages
The bash shell is shown selected. Select as many as desired by highlighting the package and pressing the Space key. A short description of each package will appear in the lower left corner of the screen. Pressing the Tab key will toggle between the last selected package, &gui.ok;, and &gui.cancel;. When you have finished marking the packages for installation, press Tab once to toggle to the &gui.ok; and press Enter to return to the Package Selection menu. The left and right arrow keys will also toggle between &gui.ok; and &gui.cancel;. This method can also be used to select &gui.ok; and press Enter to return to the Package Selection menu.
Install Packages
Use the Tab and arrow keys to select [ Install ] and press Enter. You will then need to confirm that you want to install the packages:
Confirm Package Installation
Selecting &gui.ok; and pressing Enter will start the package installation. Installing messages will appear until completed. Make note if there are any error messages. The final configuration continues after packages are installed. If you end up not selecting any packages, and wish to return to the final configuration, select Install anyways. Add Users/Groups You should add at least one user during the installation so that you can use the system without being logged in as root. The root partition is generally small and running applications as root can quickly fill it. A bigger danger is noted below: User Confirmation Requested Would you like to add any initial user accounts to the system? Adding at least one account for yourself at this stage is suggested since working as the "root" user is dangerous (it is easy to do things which adversely affect the entire system). [ Yes ] No Select &gui.yes; and press Enter to continue with adding a user.
Select User
Select User with the arrow keys and press Enter.
Add User Information
The following descriptions will appear in the lower part of the screen as the items are selected with Tab to assist with entering the required information: Login ID The login name of the new user (mandatory). UID The numerical ID for this user (leave blank for automatic choice). Group The login group name for this user (leave blank for automatic choice). Password The password for this user (enter this field with care!). Full name The user's full name (comment). Member groups The groups this user belongs to (i.e. gets access rights for). Home directory The user's home directory (leave blank for default). Login shell The user's login shell (leave blank for default, e.g. /bin/sh). The login shell was changed from /bin/sh to /usr/local/bin/bash to use the bash shell that was previously installed as a package. Do not try to use a shell that does not exist or you will not be able to login. The most common shell used in the BSD-world is the C shell, which can be indicated as /bin/tcsh. The user was also added to the wheel group to be able to become a superuser with root privileges. When you are satisfied, press &gui.ok; and the User and Group Management menu will redisplay:
Exit User and Group Management
Groups can also be added at this time if specific needs are known. Otherwise, this may be accessed through using /stand/sysinstall after installation is completed. When you are finished adding users, select Exit with the arrow keys and press Enter to continue the installation. Set the <username>root</username> Password Message Now you must set the system manager's password. This is the password you'll use to log in as "root". [ OK ] [ Press enter to continue ] Press Enter to set the root password. The password will need to be typed in twice correctly. Needless to say, make sure you have a way of finding the password if you forget. Changing local password for root. New password : Retype new password : The installation will continue after the password is successfully entered. Exiting Install If you need to configure additional network devices or any other configuration, you can do it at this point or after installation with /stand/sysinstall. User Confirmation Requested Visit the general configuration menu for a chance to set any last options? Yes [ No ] Select &gui.no; with the arrow keys and press Enter to return to the Main Installation Menu.
Exit Install
Select [X Exit Install] with the arrow keys and press Enter. You will be asked to confirm exiting the installation: User Confirmation Requested Are you sure you wish to exit? The system will reboot (be sure to remove any floppies from the drives). [ Yes ] No Select &gui.yes; and remove the floppy if booting from the floppy. The CDROM drive is locked until the machine starts to reboot. The CDROM drive is then unlocked and the disk can be removed from drive (quickly). The system will reboot so watch for any error messages that may appear. FreeBSD Bootup FreeBSD Bootup on the &i386; If everything went well, you will see messages scroll off the screen and you will arrive at a login prompt. You can view the content of the messages by pressing Scroll-Lock and using PgUp and PgDn. Pressing Scroll-Lock again will return to the prompt. The entire message may not display (buffer limitation) but it can be viewed from the command line after logging in by typing dmesg at the prompt. Login using the username/password you set during installation (rpratt, in this example). Avoid logging in as root except when necessary. Typical boot messages (version information omitted): Copyright (c) 1992-2002 The FreeBSD Project. Copyright (c) 1979, 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. Timecounter "i8254" frequency 1193182 Hz CPU: AMD-K6(tm) 3D processor (300.68-MHz 586-class CPU) Origin = "AuthenticAMD" Id = 0x580 Stepping = 0 Features=0x8001bf<FPU,VME,DE,PSE,TSC,MSR,MCE,CX8,MMX> AMD Features=0x80000800<SYSCALL,3DNow!> real memory = 268435456 (262144K bytes) config> di sn0 config> di lnc0 config> di le0 config> di ie0 config> di fe0 config> di cs0 config> di bt0 config> di aic0 config> di aha0 config> di adv0 config> q avail memory = 256311296 (250304K bytes) Preloaded elf kernel "kernel" at 0xc0491000. Preloaded userconfig_script "/boot/kernel.conf" at 0xc049109c. md0: Malloc disk Using $PIR table, 4 entries at 0xc00fde60 npx0: <math processor> on motherboard npx0: INT 16 interface pcib0: <Host to PCI bridge> on motherboard pci0: <PCI bus> on pcib0 pcib1: <VIA 82C598MVP (Apollo MVP3) PCI-PCI (AGP) bridge> at device 1.0 on pci0 pci1: <PCI bus> on pcib1 pci1: <Matrox MGA G200 AGP graphics accelerator> at 0.0 irq 11 isab0: <VIA 82C586 PCI-ISA bridge> at device 7.0 on pci0 isa0: <ISA bus> on isab0 atapci0: <VIA 82C586 ATA33 controller> port 0xe000-0xe00f at device 7.1 on pci0 ata0: at 0x1f0 irq 14 on atapci0 ata1: at 0x170 irq 15 on atapci0 uhci0: <VIA 83C572 USB controller> port 0xe400-0xe41f irq 10 at device 7.2 on pci0 usb0: <VIA 83C572 USB controller> on uhci0 usb0: USB revision 1.0 uhub0: VIA UHCI root hub, class 9/0, rev 1.00/1.00, addr 1 uhub0: 2 ports with 2 removable, self powered chip1: <VIA 82C586B ACPI interface> at device 7.3 on pci0 ed0: <NE2000 PCI Ethernet (RealTek 8029)> port 0xe800-0xe81f irq 9 at device 10.0 on pci0 ed0: address 52:54:05:de:73:1b, type NE2000 (16 bit) isa0: too many dependant configs (8) isa0: unexpected small tag 14 fdc0: <NEC 72065B or clone> at port 0x3f0-0x3f5,0x3f7 irq 6 drq 2 on isa0 fdc0: FIFO enabled, 8 bytes threshold fd0: <1440-KB 3.5" drive> on fdc0 drive 0 atkbdc0: <keyboard controller (i8042)> at port 0x60-0x64 on isa0 atkbd0: <AT Keyboard> flags 0x1 irq 1 on atkbdc0 kbd0 at atkbd0 psm0: <PS/2 Mouse> irq 12 on atkbdc0 psm0: model Generic PS/2 mouse, device ID 0 vga0: <Generic ISA VGA> at port 0x3c0-0x3df iomem 0xa0000-0xbffff on isa0 sc0: <System console> at flags 0x1 on isa0 sc0: VGA <16 virtual consoles, flags=0x300> sio0 at port 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 flags 0x10 on isa0 sio0: type 16550A sio1 at port 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa0 sio1: type 16550A ppc0: <Parallel port> at port 0x378-0x37f irq 7 on isa0 ppc0: SMC-like chipset (ECP/EPP/PS2/NIBBLE) in COMPATIBLE mode ppc0: FIFO with 16/16/15 bytes threshold ppbus0: IEEE1284 device found /NIBBLE Probing for PnP devices on ppbus0: plip0: <PLIP network interface> on ppbus0 lpt0: <Printer> on ppbus0 lpt0: Interrupt-driven port ppi0: <Parallel I/O> on ppbus0 ad0: 8063MB <IBM-DHEA-38451> [16383/16/63] at ata0-master using UDMA33 ad2: 8063MB <IBM-DHEA-38451> [16383/16/63] at ata1-master using UDMA33 acd0: CDROM <DELTA OTC-H101/ST3 F/W by OIPD> at ata0-slave using PIO4 Mounting root from ufs:/dev/ad0s1a swapon: adding /dev/ad0s1b as swap device Automatic boot in progress... /dev/ad0s1a: FILESYSTEM CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS /dev/ad0s1a: clean, 48752 free (552 frags, 6025 blocks, 0.9% fragmentation) /dev/ad0s1f: FILESYSTEM CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS /dev/ad0s1f: clean, 128997 free (21 frags, 16122 blocks, 0.0% fragmentation) /dev/ad0s1g: FILESYSTEM CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS /dev/ad0s1g: clean, 3036299 free (43175 frags, 374073 blocks, 1.3% fragmentation) /dev/ad0s1e: filesystem CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS /dev/ad0s1e: clean, 128193 free (17 frags, 16022 blocks, 0.0% fragmentation) Doing initial network setup: hostname. ed0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 inet 192.168.0.1 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255 inet6 fe80::5054::5ff::fede:731b%ed0 prefixlen 64 tentative scopeid 0x1 ether 52:54:05:de:73:1b lo0: flags=8049<UP,LOOPBACK,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 16384 inet6 fe80::1%lo0 prefixlen 64 scopeid 0x8 inet6 ::1 prefixlen 128 inet 127.0.0.1 netmask 0xff000000 Additional routing options: IP gateway=YES TCP keepalive=YES routing daemons:. additional daemons: syslogd. Doing additional network setup:. Starting final network daemons: creating ssh RSA host key Generating public/private rsa1 key pair. Your identification has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key. Your public key has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key.pub. The key fingerprint is: cd:76:89:16:69:0e:d0:6e:f8:66:d0:07:26:3c:7e:2d root@k6-2.example.com creating ssh DSA host key Generating public/private dsa key pair. Your identification has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key. Your public key has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key.pub. The key fingerprint is: f9:a1:a9:47:c4:ad:f9:8d:52:b8:b8:ff:8c:ad:2d:e6 root@k6-2.example.com. setting ELF ldconfig path: /usr/lib /usr/lib/compat /usr/X11R6/lib /usr/local/lib a.out ldconfig path: /usr/lib/aout /usr/lib/compat/aout /usr/X11R6/lib/aout starting standard daemons: inetd cron sshd usbd sendmail. Initial rc.i386 initialization:. rc.i386 configuring syscons: blank_time screensaver moused. Additional ABI support: linux. Local package initialization:. Additional TCP options:. FreeBSD/i386 (k6-2.example.com) (ttyv0) login: rpratt Password: Generating the RSA and DSA keys may take some time on slower machines. This happens only on the initial boot-up of a new installation. Subsequent boots will be faster. If the X server has been configured and a Default Desktop chosen, it can be started by typing startx at the command line. Bootup of FreeBSD on the Alpha Alpha Once the install procedure has finished, you will be able to start FreeBSD by typing something like this to the SRM prompt: >>>BOOT DKC0 This instructs the firmware to boot the specified disk. To make FreeBSD boot automatically in the future, use these commands: >>> SET BOOT_OSFLAGS A >>> SET BOOT_FILE '' >>> SET BOOTDEF_DEV DKC0 >>> SET AUTO_ACTION BOOT The boot messages will be similar (but not identical) to those produced by FreeBSD booting on the &i386;. FreeBSD Shutdown It is important to properly shutdown the operating system. Do not just turn off power. First, become a superuser by typing su at the command line and entering the root password. This will work only if the user is a member of the wheel group. Otherwise, login as root and use shutdown -h now. The operating system has halted. Please press any key to reboot. It is safe to turn off the power after the shutdown command has been issued and the message Please press any key to reboot appears. If any key is pressed instead of turning off the power switch, the system will reboot. You could also use the Ctrl Alt Del key combination to reboot the system, however this is not recommended during normal operation. Supported Hardware hardware FreeBSD currently runs on a wide variety of ISA, VLB, EISA, and PCI bus-based PCs with Intel, AMD, Cyrix, or NexGen x86 processors, as well as a number of machines based on the Compaq Alpha processor. Support for generic IDE or ESDI drive configurations, various SCSI controllers, PCMCIA cards, USB devices, and network and serial cards is also provided. FreeBSD also supports IBM's microchannel (MCA) bus. A list of supported hardware is provided with each FreeBSD release in the FreeBSD Hardware Notes. This document can usually be found in a file named HARDWARE.TXT, in the top-level directory of a CDROM or FTP distribution or in sysinstall's documentation menu. It lists, for a given architecture, what hardware devices are known to be supported by each release of FreeBSD. Copies of the supported hardware list for various releases and architectures can also be found on the Release Information page of the FreeBSD Web site. Troubleshooting installation troubleshooting The following section covers basic installation troubleshooting, such as common problems people have reported. There are also a few questions and answers for people wishing to dual-boot FreeBSD with &ms-dos;. What to Do If Something Goes Wrong Due to various limitations of the PC architecture, it is impossible for probing to be 100% reliable, however, there are a few things you can do if it fails. Check the Hardware Notes document for your version of FreeBSD to make sure your hardware is supported. If your hardware is supported and you still experience lock-ups or other problems, reset your computer, and when the visual kernel configuration option is given, choose it. This will allow you to go through your hardware and supply information to the system about it. The kernel on the boot disks is configured assuming that most hardware devices are in their factory default configuration in terms of IRQs, IO addresses, and DMA channels. If your hardware has been reconfigured, you will most likely need to use the configuration editor to tell FreeBSD where to find things. It is also possible that a probe for a device not present will cause a later probe for another device that is present to fail. In that case, the probes for the conflicting driver(s) should be disabled. Some installation problems can be avoided or alleviated by updating the firmware on various hardware components, most notably the motherboard. The motherboard firmware may also be referred to as BIOS and most of the motherboard or computer manufactures have a website where the upgrades and upgrade information may be located. Most manufacturers strongly advise against upgrading the motherboard BIOS unless there is a good reason for doing so, which could possibly be a critical update of sorts. The upgrade process can go wrong, causing permanent damage to the BIOS chip. Do not disable any drivers you will need during the installation, such as your screen (sc0). If the installation wedges or fails mysteriously after leaving the configuration editor, you have probably removed or changed something you should not have. Reboot and try again. In configuration mode, you can: List the device drivers installed in the kernel. Disable device drivers for hardware that is not present in your system. Change IRQs, DRQs, and IO port addresses used by a device driver. After adjusting the kernel to match your hardware configuration, type Q to boot with the new settings. Once the installation has completed, any changes you made in the configuration mode will be permanent so you do not have to reconfigure every time you boot. It is still highly likely that you will eventually want to build a custom kernel. Dealing with Existing &ms-dos; Partitions DOS Many users wish to install &os; on PCs inhabited by µsoft; based operating systems. For those instances, &os; has a utility known as FIPS. This utility can be found in the tools directory on the install CD-ROM, or downloaded from one of various &os; mirrors. The FIPS utility allows you to split an existing &ms-dos; partition into two pieces, preserving the original partition and allowing you to install onto the second free piece. You first need to defragment your &ms-dos; partition using the &windows;; Disk Defragmenter utility (go into Explorer, right-click on the hard drive, and choose to defrag your hard drive), or use Norton Disk Tools. Now you can run the FIPS utility. It will prompt you for the rest of the information, just follow the on screen instructions. Afterwards, you can reboot and install &os; on the new free slice. See the Distributions menu for an estimate of how much free space you will need for the kind of installation you want. There is also a very useful product from PowerQuest (http://www.powerquest.com) called &partitionmagic;. This application has far more functionality than FIPS, and is highly recommended if you plan to add/remove operating systems often. It does cost money, so if you plan to install &os; and keep it installed, FIPS will probably be fine for you. Using &ms-dos; and &windows; File Systems At this time, &os; does not support file systems compressed with the Double Space™ application. Therefore the file system will need to be uncompressed before &os; can access the data. This can be done by running the Compression Agent located in the Start> Programs > System Tools menu. &os; can support &ms-dos; based file systems. This requires you use the &man.mount.msdos.8; command (in &os; 5.X, the command is &man.mount.msdosfs.8;) with the required parameters. The utilities most common usage is: &prompt.root; mount_msdos /dev/ad0s1 /mnt In this example, the &ms-dos; file system is located on the first partition of the primary hard disk. Your situation may be different, check the output from the dmesg, and mount commands. They should produce enough information too give an idea of the partition layout. Extended &ms-dos; file systems are usually mapped after the &os; partitions. In other words, the slice number may be higher than the ones &os; is using. For instance, the first &ms-dos; partition may be /dev/ad0s1, the &os; partition may be /dev/ad0s2, with the extended &ms-dos; partition being located on /dev/ad0s3. To some, this can be confusing at first. NTFS partitions can also be mounted in a similar manner using the &man.mount.ntfs.8; command. Alpha User's Questions and Answers Alpha This section answers some commonly asked questions about installing FreeBSD on Alpha systems. Can I boot from the ARC or Alpha BIOS Console? ARC Alpha BIOS SRM No. &os;, like Compaq Tru64 and VMS, will only boot from the SRM console. Help, I have no space! Do I need to delete everything first? Unfortunately, yes. Can I mount my Compaq Tru64 or VMS filesystems? No, not at this time. Valentino Vaschetto Contributed by Advanced Installation Guide This section describes how to install FreeBSD in exceptional cases. Installing FreeBSD on a System without a Monitor or Keyboard installation headless (serial console) serial console This type of installation is called a headless install, because the machine that you are trying to install FreeBSD on either does not have a monitor attached to it, or does not even have a VGA output. How is this possible you ask? Using a serial console. A serial console is basically using another machine to act as the main display and keyboard for a system. To do this, just follow the steps to create installation floppies, explained in . To modify these floppies to boot into a serial console, follow these steps: Enabling the Boot Floppies to Boot into a Serial Console mount If you were to boot into the floppies that you just made, FreeBSD would boot into its normal install mode. We want FreeBSD to boot into a serial console for our install. To do this, you have to mount the kern.flp floppy onto your FreeBSD system using the &man.mount.8; command. &prompt.root; mount /dev/fd0 /mnt Now that you have the floppy mounted, you must change into the /mnt directory: &prompt.root; cd /mnt Here is where you must set the floppy to boot into a serial console. You have to make a file called boot.config containing /boot/loader -h. All this does is pass a flag to the bootloader to boot into a serial console. &prompt.root; echo "/boot/loader -h" > boot.config Now that you have your floppy configured correctly, you must unmount the floppy using the &man.umount.8; command: &prompt.root; cd / &prompt.root; umount /mnt Now you can remove the floppy from the floppy drive. Connecting Your Null Modem Cable null modem cable You now need to connect a null modem cable between the two machines. Just connect the cable to the serial ports of the 2 machines. A normal serial cable will not work here, you need a null modem cable because it has some of the wires inside crossed over. Booting Up for the Install It is now time to go ahead and start the install. Put the kern.flp floppy in the floppy drive of the machine you are doing the headless install on, and power on the machine. Connecting to Your Headless Machine cu Now you have to connect to that machine with &man.cu.1;: &prompt.root; cu -l /dev/cuaa0 That's it! You should now be able to control the headless machine through your cu session. It will ask you to put in the mfsroot.flp, and then it will come up with a selection of what kind of terminal to use. Select the FreeBSD color console and proceed with your install! Preparing Your Own Installation Media To prevent repetition, FreeBSD disk in this context means a FreeBSD CDROM or DVD that you have purchased or produced yourself. There may be some situations in which you need to create your own FreeBSD installation media and/or source. This might be physical media, such as a tape, or a source that sysinstall can use to retrieve the files, such as a local FTP site, or an &ms-dos; partition. For example: You have many machines connected to your local network, and one FreeBSD disk. You want to create a local FTP site using the contents of the FreeBSD disk, and then have your machines use this local FTP site instead of needing to connect to the Internet. You have a FreeBSD disk, and FreeBSD does not recognize your CD/DVD drive, but &ms-dos;/&windows; does. You want to copy the FreeBSD installations files to a DOS partition on the same computer, and then install FreeBSD using those files. The computer you want to install on does not have a CD/DVD drive or a network card, but you can connect a Laplink-style serial or parallel cable to a computer that does. You want to create a tape that can be used to install FreeBSD. Creating an Installation CDROM As part of each release, the FreeBSD project makes available two CDROM images (ISO images). These images can be written (burned) to CDs if you have a CD writer, and then used to install FreeBSD. If you have a CD writer, and bandwidth is cheap, then this is the easiest way to install FreeBSD. Download the Correct ISO Images The ISO images for each release can be downloaded from ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ISO-IMAGES-arch/version or the closest mirror. Substitute arch and version as appropriate. That directory will normally contain the following images: FreeBSD ISO Image Names and Meanings Filename Contains version-mini.iso Everything you need to install FreeBSD. version-disc1.iso Everything you need to install FreeBSD, and as many additional third party packages as would fit on the disc. version-disc2.iso A live filesystem, which is used in conjunction with the Repair facility in sysinstall. A copy of the FreeBSD CVS tree. As many additional third party packages as would fit on the disc.
You must download one of either the mini ISO image, or the image of disc one. Do not download both of them, since the disc one image contains everything that the mini ISO image contains. Use the mini ISO if Internet access is cheap for you. It will let you install FreeBSD, and you can then install third party packages by downloading them using the ports/packages system (see ) as necessary. Use the image of disc one if you want a reasonable selection of third party packages on the disc as well. The additional disc images are useful, but not essential, especially if you have high-speed access to the Internet. Write the CDs You must then write the CD images to disc. If you will be doing this on another FreeBSD system then see for more information (in particular, and ). If you will be doing this on another platform then you will need to use whatever utilities exist to control your CD writer on that platform. The images provided are in the standard ISO format, which many CD writing applications support. Creating a Local FTP Site with a FreeBSD Disk installation network FTP FreeBSD disks are laid out in the same way as the FTP site. This makes it very easy for you to create a local FTP site that can be used by other machines on your network when installing FreeBSD. On the FreeBSD computer that will host the FTP site, ensure that the CDROM is in the drive, and mounted on /cdrom. &prompt.root; mount /cdrom Create an account for anonymous FTP in /etc/passwd. Do this by editing /etc/passwd using &man.vipw.8; and adding this line: ftp:*:99:99::0:0:FTP:/cdrom:/nonexistent Ensure that the FTP service is enabled in /etc/inetd.conf. Anyone with network connectivity to your machine can now chose a media type of FTP and type in ftp://your machine after picking Other in the FTP sites menu during the install. This approach is OK for a machine that is on your local network, and that is protected by your firewall. Offering up FTP services to other machines over the Internet (and not your local network) exposes your computer to the attention of crackers and other undesirables. We strongly recommend that you follow good security practices if you do this. Creating Installation Floppies installation floppies If you must install from floppy disk (which we suggest you do not do), either due to unsupported hardware or simply because you insist on doing things the hard way, you must first prepare some floppies for the installation. At a minimum, you will need as many 1.44 MB or 1.2 MB floppies as it takes to hold all the files in the bin (binary distribution) directory. If you are preparing the floppies from DOS, then they must be formatted using the &ms-dos; FORMAT command. If you are using &windows;, use Explorer to format the disks (right-click on the A: drive, and select Format. Do not trust factory pre-formatted floppies. Format them again yourself, just to be sure. Many problems reported by our users in the past have resulted from the use of improperly formatted media, which is why we are making a point of it now. If you are creating the floppies on another FreeBSD machine, a format is still not a bad idea, though you do not need to put a DOS filesystem on each floppy. You can use the disklabel and newfs commands to put a UFS filesystem on them instead, as the following sequence of commands (for a 3.5" 1.44 MB floppy) illustrates: &prompt.root; fdformat -f 1440 fd0.1440 &prompt.root; disklabel -w -r fd0.1440 floppy3 &prompt.root; newfs -t 2 -u 18 -l 1 -i 65536 /dev/fd0 Use fd0.1200 and floppy5 for 5.25" 1.2 MB disks. Then you can mount and write to them like any other filesystem. After you have formatted the floppies, you will need to copy the files to them. The distribution files are split into chunks conveniently sized so that five of them will fit on a conventional 1.44 MB floppy. Go through all your floppies, packing as many files as will fit on each one, until you have all of the distributions you want packed up in this fashion. Each distribution should go into a subdirectory on the floppy, e.g.: a:\bin\bin.aa, a:\bin\bin.ab, and so on. Once you come to the Media screen during the install process, select Floppy and you will be prompted for the rest. Installing from an &ms-dos; Partition installation from MS-DOS To prepare for an installation from an &ms-dos; partition, copy the files from the distribution into a directory called freebsd in the root directory of the partition. For example, c:\freebsd. The directory structure of the CDROM or FTP site must be partially reproduced within this directory, so we suggest using the DOS xcopy command if you are copying it from a CD. For example, to prepare for a minimal installation of FreeBSD: C:\> md c:\freebsd C:\> xcopy e:\bin c:\freebsd\bin\ /s C:\> xcopy e:\manpages c:\freebsd\manpages\ /s Assuming that C: is where you have free space and E: is where your CDROM is mounted. If you do not have a CDROM drive, you can download the distribution from ftp.FreeBSD.org. Each distribution is in its own directory; for example, the base distribution can be found in the &rel.current;/base/ directory. In the 4.X and older releases of &os; the base distribution is called bin. Adjust the sample commands and URLs above accordingly, if you are using one of these versions. For as many distributions you wish to install from an &ms-dos; partition (and you have the free space for), install each one under c:\freebsd — the BIN distribution is the only one required for a minimum installation. Creating an Installation Tape installation from QIC/SCSI Tape Installing from tape is probably the easiest method, short of an online FTP install or CDROM install. The installation program expects the files to be simply tarred onto the tape. After getting all of the distribution files you are interested in, simply tar them onto the tape: &prompt.root; cd /freebsd/distdir &prompt.root; tar cvf /dev/rwt0 dist1 ... dist2 When you perform the installation, you should make sure that you leave enough room in some temporary directory (which you will be allowed to choose) to accommodate the full contents of the tape you have created. Due to the non-random access nature of tapes, this method of installation requires quite a bit of temporary storage. When starting the installation, the tape must be in the drive before booting from the boot floppy. The installation probe may otherwise fail to find it. Before Installing over a Network installation network serial (SLIP or PPP) installation network parallel (PLIP) installation network Ethernet There are three types of network installations available. Serial port (SLIP or PPP), Parallel port (PLIP (laplink cable)), or Ethernet (a standard Ethernet controller (includes some PCMCIA)). The SLIP support is rather primitive, and limited primarily to hard-wired links, such as a serial cable running between a laptop computer and another computer. The link should be hard-wired as the SLIP installation does not currently offer a dialing capability; that facility is provided with the PPP utility, which should be used in preference to SLIP whenever possible. If you are using a modem, then PPP is almost certainly your only choice. Make sure that you have your service provider's information handy as you will need to know it fairly early in the installation process. If you use PAP or CHAP to connect your ISP (in other words, if you can connect to the ISP in &windows; without using a script), then all you will need to do is type in dial at the ppp prompt. Otherwise, you will need to know how to dial your ISP using the AT commands specific to your modem, as the PPP dialer provides only a very simple terminal emulator. Please refer to the user-ppp handbook and FAQ entries for further information. If you have problems, logging can be directed to the screen using the command set log local .... If a hard-wired connection to another FreeBSD (2.0-R or later) machine is available, you might also consider installing over a laplink parallel port cable. The data rate over the parallel port is much higher than what is typically possible over a serial line (up to 50 kbytes/sec), thus resulting in a quicker installation. Finally, for the fastest possible network installation, an Ethernet adapter is always a good choice! FreeBSD supports most common PC Ethernet cards; a table of supported cards (and their required settings) is provided in the Hardware Notes for each release of FreeBSD. If you are using one of the supported PCMCIA Ethernet cards, also be sure that it is plugged in before the laptop is powered on! FreeBSD does not, unfortunately, currently support hot insertion of PCMCIA cards during installation. You will also need to know your IP address on the network, the netmask value for your address class, and the name of your machine. If you are installing over a PPP connection and do not have a static IP, fear not, the IP address can be dynamically assigned by your ISP. Your system administrator can tell you which values to use for your particular network setup. If you will be referring to other hosts by name rather than IP address, you will also need a name server and possibly the address of a gateway (if you are using PPP, it is your provider's IP address) to use in talking to it. If you want to install by FTP via a HTTP proxy, you will also need the proxy's address. If you do not know the answers to all or most of these questions, then you should really probably talk to your system administrator or ISP before trying this type of installation. Before Installing via NFS installation network NFS The NFS installation is fairly straight-forward. Simply copy the FreeBSD distribution files you want onto an NFS server and then point the NFS media selection at it. If this server supports only privileged port (as is generally the default for Sun workstations), you will need to set the option in the Options menu before installation can proceed. If you have a poor quality Ethernet card which suffers from very slow transfer rates, you may also wish to toggle the flag. In order for NFS installation to work, the server must support subdir mounts, for example, if your FreeBSD &rel.current; distribution directory lives on: ziggy:/usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD, then ziggy will have to allow the direct mounting of /usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD, not just /usr or /usr/archive/stuff. In FreeBSD's /etc/exports file, this is controlled by the options. Other NFS servers may have different conventions. If you are getting permission denied messages from the server, then it is likely that you do not have this enabled properly. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/linuxemu/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/linuxemu/chapter.sgml index 59c2723e0d..252480b98d 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/linuxemu/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/linuxemu/chapter.sgml @@ -1,3349 +1,3349 @@ Jim Mock Restructured and parts updated by Brian N. Handy Originally contributed by Rich Murphey Linux Binary Compatibility Synopsis Linux binary compatibility binary compatibility Linux FreeBSD provides binary compatibility with several other &unix; like operating systems, including Linux. At this point, you may be asking yourself why exactly, does FreeBSD need to be able to run Linux binaries? The answer to that question is quite simple. Many companies and developers develop only for Linux, since it is the latest hot thing in the computing world. That leaves the rest of us FreeBSD users bugging these same companies and developers to put out native FreeBSD versions of their applications. The problem is, that most of these companies do not really realize how many people would use their product if there were FreeBSD versions too, and most continue to only develop for Linux. So what is a FreeBSD user to do? This is where the Linux binary compatibility of FreeBSD comes into play. In a nutshell, the compatibility allows FreeBSD users to run about 90% of all Linux applications without modification. This includes applications such as &staroffice;, the Linux version of &netscape;, &adobe; &acrobat;, RealPlayer 5 and 7, VMware, &oracle;, WordPerfect, Doom, Quake, and more. It is also reported that in some situations, Linux binaries perform better on FreeBSD than they do under Linux. Linux /proc file system There are, however, some Linux-specific operating system features that are not supported under FreeBSD. Linux binaries will not work on FreeBSD if they overly use the Linux /proc file system (which is different from FreeBSD's /proc file system), or &i386; specific calls, such as enabling virtual 8086 mode. After reading this chapter, you will know: How to enable Linux binary compatibility on your system. How to install additional Linux shared libraries. How to install Linux applications on your FreeBSD system. The implementation details of Linux compatibility in FreeBSD. Before reading this chapter, you should: Know how to install additional third-party software (). Installation KLD (kernel loadable object) Linux binary compatibility is not turned on by default. The easiest way to enable this functionality is to load the linux KLD object (Kernel LoaDable object). You can load this module by simply typing linux at the command prompt. If you would like Linux compatibility to always be enabled, then you should add the following line to /etc/rc.conf: linux_enable="YES" The &man.kldstat.8; command can be used to verify that the KLD is loaded: &prompt.user; kldstat Id Refs Address Size Name 1 2 0xc0100000 16bdb8 kernel 7 1 0xc24db000 d000 linux.ko kernel options LINUX If for some reason you do not want to or cannot load the KLD, then you may statically link Linux binary compatibility into the kernel by adding options COMPAT_LINUX to your kernel configuration file. Then install your new kernel as described in . Installing Linux Runtime Libraries Linux installing Linux libraries This can be done one of two ways, either by using the linux_base port, or by installing them manually. Installing Using the linux_base Port ports collection This is by far the easiest method to use when installing the runtime libraries. It is just like installing any other port from the ports collection. Simply do the following: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/emulators/linux_base &prompt.root; make install distclean You should now have working Linux binary compatibility. Some programs may complain about incorrect minor versions of the system libraries. In general, however, this does not seem to be a problem. There may be multiple versions of the emulators/linux_base port available, corresponding to different versions of various Linux distributions. You should install the port most closely resembling the requirements of the Linux applications you would like to install. Installing Libraries Manually If you do not have the ports collection installed, you can install the libraries by hand instead. You will need the Linux shared libraries that the program depends on and the runtime linker. Also, you will need to create a shadow root directory, /compat/linux, for Linux libraries on your FreeBSD system. Any shared libraries opened by Linux programs run under FreeBSD will look in this tree first. So, if a Linux program loads, for example, /lib/libc.so, FreeBSD will first try to open /compat/linux/lib/libc.so, and if that does not exist, it will then try /lib/libc.so. Shared libraries should be installed in the shadow tree /compat/linux/lib rather than the paths that the Linux ld.so reports. Generally, you will need to look for the shared libraries that Linux binaries depend on only the first few times that you install a Linux program on your FreeBSD system. After a while, you will have a sufficient set of Linux shared libraries on your system to be able to run newly imported Linux binaries without any extra work. How to Install Additional Shared Libraries shared libraries What if you install the linux_base port and your application still complains about missing shared libraries? How do you know which shared libraries Linux binaries need, and where to get them? Basically, there are 2 possibilities (when following these instructions you will need to be root on your FreeBSD system). If you have access to a Linux system, see what shared libraries the application needs, and copy them to your FreeBSD system. Look at the following example: Let us assume you used FTP to get the Linux binary of Doom, and put it on a Linux system you have access to. You then can check which shared libraries it needs by running ldd linuxdoom, like so: &prompt.user; ldd linuxdoom libXt.so.3 (DLL Jump 3.1) => /usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3.1.0 libX11.so.3 (DLL Jump 3.1) => /usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3.1.0 libc.so.4 (DLL Jump 4.5pl26) => /lib/libc.so.4.6.29 symbolic links You would need to get all the files from the last column, and put them under /compat/linux, with the names in the first column as symbolic links pointing to them. This means you eventually have these files on your FreeBSD system: /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3.1.0 /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3 -> libXt.so.3.1.0 /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3.1.0 /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3 -> libX11.so.3.1.0 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.29 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.29
Note that if you already have a Linux shared library with a matching major revision number to the first column of the ldd output, you will not need to copy the file named in the last column to your system, the one you already have should work. It is advisable to copy the shared library anyway if it is a newer version, though. You can remove the old one, as long as you make the symbolic link point to the new one. So, if you have these libraries on your system: /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.27 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.27 and you find a new binary that claims to require a later version according to the output of ldd: libc.so.4 (DLL Jump 4.5pl26) -> libc.so.4.6.29 If it is only one or two versions out of date in the in the trailing digit then do not worry about copying /lib/libc.so.4.6.29 too, because the program should work fine with the slightly older version. However, if you like, you can decide to replace the libc.so anyway, and that should leave you with: /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.29 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.29
The symbolic link mechanism is only needed for Linux binaries. The FreeBSD runtime linker takes care of looking for matching major revision numbers itself and you do not need to worry about it.
Installing Linux ELF Binaries Linux ELF binaries ELF binaries sometimes require an extra step of branding. If you attempt to run an unbranded ELF binary, you will get an error message like the following: &prompt.user; ./my-linux-elf-binary ELF binary type not known Abort To help the FreeBSD kernel distinguish between a FreeBSD ELF binary from a Linux binary, use the &man.brandelf.1; utility. &prompt.user; brandelf -t Linux my-linux-elf-binary GNU toolchain The GNU toolchain now places the appropriate branding information into ELF binaries automatically, so this step should become increasingly unnecessary in the future. Configuring the Hostname Resolver If DNS does not work or you get this message: resolv+: "bind" is an invalid keyword resolv+: "hosts" is an invalid keyword You will need to configure a /compat/linux/etc/host.conf file containing: order hosts, bind multi on The order here specifies that /etc/hosts is searched first and DNS is searched second. When /compat/linux/etc/host.conf is not installed, Linux applications find FreeBSD's /etc/host.conf and complain about the incompatible FreeBSD syntax. You should remove bind if you have not configured a name server using the /etc/resolv.conf file. Murray Stokely Updated for Mathematica 4.X by Bojan Bistrovic Merged with work by Installing &mathematica; applications Mathematica This document describes the process of installing the Linux version of &mathematica; 4.X onto a FreeBSD system. The Linux version of &mathematica; runs perfectly under FreeBSD however the binaries shipped by Wolfram need to be branded so that FreeBSD knows to use the Linux ABI to execute them. The Linux version of &mathematica; or &mathematica; for Students can be ordered directly from Wolfram at . Branding the Linux Binaries The Linux binaries are located in the Unix directory of the &mathematica; CDROM distributed by Wolfram. You need to copy this directory tree to your local hard drive so that you can brand the Linux binaries with &man.brandelf.1; before running the installer: &prompt.root; mount /cdrom &prompt.root; cp -rp /cdrom/Unix/ /localdir/ &prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Kernel/Binaries/Linux/* &prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/FrontEnd/Binaries/Linux/* &prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Installation/Binaries/Linux/* &prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Graphics/Binaries/Linux/* &prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Converters/Binaries/Linux/* &prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/LicenseManager/Binaries/Linux/mathlm &prompt.root; cd /localdir/Installers/Linux/ &prompt.root; ./MathInstaller Alternatively, you can simply set the default ELF brand to Linux for all unbranded binaries with the command: &prompt.root; sysctl kern.fallback_elf_brand=3 This will make FreeBSD assume that unbranded ELF binaries use the Linux ABI and so you should be able to run the installer straight from the CDROM. Obtaining Your &mathematica; Password Before you can run &mathematica; you will have to obtain a password from Wolfram that corresponds to your machine ID. Ethernet MAC address Once you have installed the Linux compatibility runtime libraries and unpacked &mathematica; you can obtain the machine ID by running the program mathinfo in the installation directory. This machine ID is based solely on the MAC address of your first Ethernet card. &prompt.root; cd /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Installation/Binaries/Linux &prompt.root; mathinfo disco.example.com 7115-70839-20412 When you register with Wolfram, either by email, phone or fax, you will give them the machine ID and they will respond with a corresponding password consisting of groups of numbers. You can then enter this information when you attempt to run &mathematica; for the first time exactly as you would for any other &mathematica; platform. Running the &mathematica; Frontend over a Network &mathematica; uses some special fonts to display characters not present in any of the standard font sets (integrals, sums, Greek letters, etc.). The X protocol requires these fonts to be install locally. This means you will have to copy these fonts from the CDROM or from a host with &mathematica; installed to your local machine. These fonts are normally stored in /cdrom/Unix/Files/SystemFiles/Fonts on the CDROM, or /usr/local/mathematica/SystemFiles/Fonts on your hard drive. The actual fonts are in the subdirectories Type1 and X. There are several ways to use them, as described below. The first way is to copy them into one of the existing font directories in /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts. This will require editing the fonts.dir file, adding the font names to it, and changing the number of fonts on the first line. Alternatively, you should also just be able to run &man.mkfontdir.1; in the directory you have copied them to. The second way to do this is to copy the directories to /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts: &prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts &prompt.root; mkdir X &prompt.root; mkdir MathType1 &prompt.root; cd /cdrom/Unix/Files/SystemFiles/Fonts &prompt.root; cp X/* /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/X &prompt.root; cp Type1/* /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/MathType1 &prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/X &prompt.root; mkfontdir &prompt.root; cd ../MathType1 &prompt.root; mkfontdir Now add the new font directories to your font path: &prompt.root; xset fp+ /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/X &prompt.root; xset fp+ /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/MathType1 &prompt.root; xset fp rehash If you are using the &xfree86; server, you can have these font directories loaded automatically by adding them to your XF86Config file. fonts If you do not already have a directory called /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/Type1, you can change the name of the MathType1 directory in the example above to Type1. Aaron Kaplan Contributed by Robert Getschmann Thanks to Installing &maple; applications Maple &maple; is a commercial mathematics program similar to &mathematica;. You must purchase this software from and then register there for a license file. To install this software on FreeBSD, please follow these simple steps. Execute the INSTALL shell script from the product distribution. Choose the RedHat option when prompted by the installation program. A typical installation directory might be /usr/local/maple. If you have not done so, order a license for &maple; from Maple Waterloo Software () and copy it to /usr/local/maple/license/license.dat. Install the FLEXlm license manager by running the INSTALL_LIC install shell script that comes with &maple;. Specify the primary hostname for your machine for the license server. Patch the /usr/local/maple/bin/maple.system.type file with the following: ----- snip ------------------ *** maple.system.type.orig Sun Jul 8 16:35:33 2001 --- maple.system.type Sun Jul 8 16:35:51 2001 *************** *** 72,77 **** --- 72,78 ---- # the IBM RS/6000 AIX case MAPLE_BIN="bin.IBM_RISC_UNIX" ;; + "FreeBSD"|\ "Linux") # the Linux/x86 case # We have two Linux implementations, one for Red Hat and ----- snip end of patch ----- Please note that after the "FreeBSD"|\ no other whitespace should be present. This patch instructs &maple; to recognize FreeBSD as a type of Linux system. The bin/maple shell script calls the bin/maple.system.type shell script which in turn calls uname -a to find out the operating system name. Depending on the OS name it will find out which binaries to use. Start the license server. The following script, installed as /usr/local/etc/rc.d/lmgrd.sh is a convenient way to start up lmgrd: ----- snip ------------ #! /bin/sh PATH=/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin:/sbin:/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin PATH=${PATH}:/usr/local/maple/bin:/usr/local/maple/FLEXlm/UNIX/LINUX export PATH LICENSE_FILE=/usr/local/maple/license/license.dat LOG=/var/log/lmgrd.log case "$1" in start) lmgrd -c ${LICENSE_FILE} 2>> ${LOG} 1>&2 echo -n " lmgrd" ;; stop) lmgrd -c ${LICENSE_FILE} -x lmdown 2>> ${LOG} 1>&2 ;; *) echo "Usage: `basename $0` {start|stop}" 1>&2 exit 64 ;; esac exit 0 ----- snip ------------ Test-start &maple;: &prompt.user; cd /usr/local/maple/bin &prompt.user; ./xmaple You should be up and running. Make sure to write Maplesoft to let them know you would like a native FreeBSD version! Common Pitfalls The FLEXlm license manager can be a difficult tool to work with. Additional documentation on the subject can be found at . lmgrd is known to be very picky about the license file and to core dump if there are any problems. A correct license file should look like this: # ======================================================= # License File for UNIX Installations ("Pointer File") # ======================================================= SERVER chillig ANY #USE_SERVER VENDOR maplelmg FEATURE Maple maplelmg 2000.0831 permanent 1 XXXXXXXXXXXX \ PLATFORMS=i86_r ISSUER="Waterloo Maple Inc." \ ISSUED=11-may-2000 NOTICE=" Technische Universitat Wien" \ SN=XXXXXXXXX Serial number and key 'X''ed out. chillig is a hostname. Editing the license file works as long as you do not touch the FEATURE line (which is protected by the license key). Dan Pelleg Contributed by Installing &matlab; applications MATLAB This document describes the process of installing the Linux version of &matlab; version 6.5 onto a &os; system. It works quite well, with the exception of the &java.virtual.machine; (see ). The Linux version of &matlab; can be ordered directly from The MathWorks at . Make sure you also get the license file or instructions how to create it. While you are there, let them know you would like a native &os; version of their software. Installing &matlab; To install &matlab;, do the following: Insert the installation CD and mount it. Become root, as recommended by the installation script. To start the installation script type: &prompt.root; /compat/linux/bin/sh /cdrom/install The installer is graphical. If you get errors about not being able to open a display, type setenv HOME ~USER, where USER is the user you did a &man.su.1; as. When asked for the &matlab; root directory, type: /compat/linux/usr/local/matlab. For easier typing on the rest of the installation process, type this at your shell prompt: set MATLAB=/compat/linux/usr/local/matlab Edit the license file as instructed when obtaining the &matlab; license. You can prepare this file in advance using your favorite editor, and copy it to $MATLAB/license.dat before the installer asks you to edit it. Complete the installation process. At this point your &matlab; installation is complete. The following steps apply glue to connect it to your &os; system. License Manager Startup Create symlinks for the license manager scripts: &prompt.root; ln -s $MATLAB/etc/lmboot /usr/local/etc/lmboot_TMW &prompt.root; ln -s $MATLAB/etc/lmdown /usr/local/etc/lmdown_TMW Create a startup file at /usr/local/etc/rc.d/flexlm.sh. The example below is a modified version of the distributed $MATLAB/etc/rc.lm.glnx86. The changes are file locations, and startup of the license manager under Linux emulation. #!/bin/sh case "$1" in start) if [ -f /usr/local/etc/lmboot_TMW ]; then /compat/linux/bin/sh /usr/local/etc/lmboot_TMW -u username && echo 'MATLAB_lmgrd' fi ;; stop) if [ -f /usr/local/etc/lmdown_TMW ]; then /compat/linux/bin/sh /usr/local/etc/lmdown_TMW > /dev/null 2>&1 fi ;; *) echo "Usage: $0 {start|stop}" exit 1 ;; esac exit 0 The file must be made executable: &prompt.root; chmod +x /usr/local/etc/rc.d/flexlm.sh You must also replace username above with the name of a valid user on your system (and not root). Start the license manager with the command: &prompt.root; /usr/local/etc/rc.d/flexlm.sh start Linking the &java; Runtime Environment Change the &java; Runtime Environment (JRE) link to one working under &os;: &prompt.root; cd $MATLAB/sys/java/jre/glnx86/ &prompt.root; unlink jre; ln -s ./jre1.1.8 ./jre Creating a &matlab; Startup Script Place the following startup script in /usr/local/bin/matlab: #!/bin/sh /compat/linux/bin/sh /compat/linux/usr/local/matlab/bin/matlab "$@" Then type the command chmod +x /usr/local/bin/matlab. Depending on your version of emulators/linux_base, you may run into errors when running this script. To avoid that, edit the file /compat/linux/usr/local/matlab/bin/matlab, and change the line that says: if [ `expr "$lscmd" : '.*->.*'` -ne 0 ]; then (in version 13.0.1 it is on line 410) to this line: if test -L $newbase; then Creating a &matlab; Shutdown Script The following is needed to solve a problem with &matlab; not exiting correctly. Create a file $MATLAB/toolbox/local/finish.m, and in it put the single line: ! $MATLAB/bin/finish.sh The $MATLAB is literal. In the same directory, you will find the files finishsav.m and finishdlg.m, which let you save your workspace before quitting. If you use either of them, insert the line above immediately after the save command. Create a file $MATLAB/bin/finish.sh, which will contain the following: #!/usr/compat/linux/bin/sh (sleep 5; killall -1 matlab_helper) & exit 0 Make the file executable: &prompt.root; chmod +x $MATLAB/bin/finish.sh Using &matlab; At this point you are ready to type matlab and start using it. Marcel Moolenaar Contributed by Installing &oracle; applications Oracle Preface This document describes the process of installing &oracle; 8.0.5 and &oracle; 8.0.5.1 Enterprise Edition for Linux onto a FreeBSD machine. Installing the Linux Environment Make sure you have both emulators/linux_base and devel/linux_devtools from the ports collection installed. If you run into difficulties with these ports, you may have to use the packages or older versions available in the ports collection. If you want to run the intelligent agent, you will also need to install the Red Hat Tcl package: tcl-8.0.3-20.i386.rpm. The general command for installing packages with the official RPM port (archivers/rpm) is: &prompt.root; rpm -i --ignoreos --root /compat/linux --dbpath /var/lib/rpm package Installation of the package should not generate any errors. Creating the &oracle; Environment Before you can install &oracle;, you need to set up a proper environment. This document only describes what to do specially to run &oracle; for Linux on FreeBSD, not what has been described in the &oracle; installation guide. Kernel Tuning kernel tuning As described in the &oracle; installation guide, you need to set the maximum size of shared memory. Do not use SHMMAX under FreeBSD. SHMMAX is merely calculated out of SHMMAXPGS and PGSIZE. Therefore define SHMMAXPGS. All other options can be used as described in the guide. For example: options SHMMAXPGS=10000 options SHMMNI=100 options SHMSEG=10 options SEMMNS=200 options SEMMNI=70 options SEMMSL=61 Set these options to suit your intended use of &oracle;. Also, make sure you have the following options in your kernel configuration file: options SYSVSHM #SysV shared memory options SYSVSEM #SysV semaphores options SYSVMSG #SysV interprocess communication &oracle; Account Create an oracle account just as you would create any other account. The oracle account is special only that you need to give it a Linux shell. Add /compat/linux/bin/bash to /etc/shells and set the shell for the oracle account to /compat/linux/bin/bash. Environment Besides the normal &oracle; variables, such as ORACLE_HOME and ORACLE_SID you must set the following environment variables: Variable Value LD_LIBRARY_PATH $ORACLE_HOME/lib CLASSPATH $ORACLE_HOME/jdbc/lib/classes111.zip PATH /compat/linux/bin /compat/linux/sbin /compat/linux/usr/bin /compat/linux/usr/sbin /bin /sbin /usr/bin /usr/sbin /usr/local/bin $ORACLE_HOME/bin It is advised to set all the environment variables in .profile. A complete example is: ORACLE_BASE=/oracle; export ORACLE_BASE ORACLE_HOME=/oracle; export ORACLE_HOME LD_LIBRARY_PATH=$ORACLE_HOME/lib export LD_LIBRARY_PATH ORACLE_SID=ORCL; export ORACLE_SID ORACLE_TERM=386x; export ORACLE_TERM CLASSPATH=$ORACLE_HOME/jdbc/lib/classes111.zip export CLASSPATH PATH=/compat/linux/bin:/compat/linux/sbin:/compat/linux/usr/bin PATH=$PATH:/compat/linux/usr/sbin:/bin:/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/sbin PATH=$PATH:/usr/local/bin:$ORACLE_HOME/bin export PATH Installing &oracle; Due to a slight inconsistency in the Linux emulator, you need to create a directory named .oracle in /var/tmp before you start the installer. Either make it world writable or let it be owned by the oracle user. You should be able to install &oracle; without any problems. If you have problems, check your &oracle; distribution and/or configuration first! After you have installed &oracle;, apply the patches described in the next two subsections. A frequent problem is that the TCP protocol adapter is not installed right. As a consequence, you cannot start any TCP listeners. The following actions help solve this problem: &prompt.root; cd $ORACLE_HOME/network/lib &prompt.root; make -f ins_network.mk ntcontab.o &prompt.root; cd $ORACLE_HOME/lib &prompt.root; ar r libnetwork.a ntcontab.o &prompt.root; cd $ORACLE_HOME/network/lib &prompt.root; make -f ins_network.mk install Do not forget to run root.sh again! Patching root.sh When installing &oracle;, some actions, which need to be performed as root, are recorded in a shell script called root.sh. This script is written in the orainst directory. Apply the following patch to root.sh, to have it use to proper location of chown or alternatively run the script under a Linux native shell. *** orainst/root.sh.orig Tue Oct 6 21:57:33 1998 --- orainst/root.sh Mon Dec 28 15:58:53 1998 *************** *** 31,37 **** # This is the default value for CHOWN # It will redefined later in this script for those ports # which have it conditionally defined in ss_install.h ! CHOWN=/bin/chown # # Define variables to be used in this script --- 31,37 ---- # This is the default value for CHOWN # It will redefined later in this script for those ports # which have it conditionally defined in ss_install.h ! CHOWN=/usr/sbin/chown # # Define variables to be used in this script When you do not install &oracle; from CD, you can patch the source for root.sh. It is called rthd.sh and is located in the orainst directory in the source tree. Patching genclntsh The script genclntsh is used to create a single shared client library. It is used when building the demos. Apply the following patch to comment out the definition of PATH: *** bin/genclntsh.orig Wed Sep 30 07:37:19 1998 --- bin/genclntsh Tue Dec 22 15:36:49 1998 *************** *** 32,38 **** # # Explicit path to ensure that we're using the correct commands #PATH=/usr/bin:/usr/ccs/bin export PATH ! PATH=/usr/local/bin:/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin export PATH # # each product MUST provide a $PRODUCT/admin/shrept.lst --- 32,38 ---- # # Explicit path to ensure that we're using the correct commands #PATH=/usr/bin:/usr/ccs/bin export PATH ! #PATH=/usr/local/bin:/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin export PATH # # each product MUST provide a $PRODUCT/admin/shrept.lst Running &oracle; When you have followed the instructions, you should be able to run &oracle; as if it was run on Linux itself. Holger Kipp Contributed by Valentino Vaschetto Original version converted to SGML by Installing &sap.r3; applications SAP R/3 Installations of &sap; Systems using FreeBSD will not be supported by the &sap; support team — they only offer support for certified platforms. Preface This document describes a possible way of installing a &sap.r3; System with &oracle; Database for Linux onto a FreeBSD machine, including the installation of FreeBSD and &oracle;. Two different configurations will be described: &sap.r3; 4.6B (IDES) with &oracle; 8.0.5 on FreeBSD 4.3-STABLE &sap.r3; 4.6C with &oracle; 8.1.7 on FreeBSD 4.5-STABLE Even though this document tries to describe all important steps in a greater detail, it is not intended as a replacement for the &oracle; and &sap.r3; installation guides. Please see the documentation that comes with the &sap.r3; Linux edition for &sap; and &oracle; specific questions, as well as resources from &oracle; and &sap; OSS. Software The following CD-ROMs have been used for &sap; installations: &sap.r3; 4.6B, &oracle; 8.0.5 Name Number Description KERNEL 51009113 SAP Kernel Oracle / Installation / AIX, Linux, Solaris RDBMS 51007558 Oracle / RDBMS 8.0.5.X / Linux EXPORT1 51010208 IDES / DB-Export / Disc 1 of 6 EXPORT2 51010209 IDES / DB-Export / Disc 2 of 6 EXPORT3 51010210 IDES / DB-Export / Disc 3 of 6 EXPORT4 51010211 IDES / DB-Export / Disc 4 of 6 EXPORT5 51010212 IDES / DB-Export / Disc 5 of 6 EXPORT6 51010213 IDES / DB-Export / Disc 6 of 6 Additionally, we used the &oracle; 8 Server (Pre-production version 8.0.5 for Linux, Kernel Version 2.0.33) CD which is not really necessary, and FreeBSD 4.3-STABLE (it was only a few days past 4.3 RELEASE). &sap.r3; 4.6C SR2, &oracle; 8.1.7 Name Number Description KERNEL 51014004 SAP Kernel Oracle / SAP Kernel Version 4.6D / DEC, Linux RDBMS 51012930 Oracle 8.1.7/ RDBMS / Linux EXPORT1 51013953 Release 4.6C SR2 / Export / Disc 1 of 4 EXPORT1 51013953 Release 4.6C SR2 / Export / Disc 2 of 4 EXPORT1 51013953 Release 4.6C SR2 / Export / Disc 3 of 4 EXPORT1 51013953 Release 4.6C SR2 / Export / Disc 4 of 4 LANG1 51013954 Release 4.6C SR2 / Language / DE, EN, FR / Disc 1 of 3 Depending on the languages you would like to install, additional language CDs might be necessary. Here we are just using DE and EN, so the first language CD is the only one needed. As a little note, the numbers for all four EXPORT CDs are identical. All three language CDs also have the same number (this is different from the 4.6B IDES release CD numbering). At the time of writing this installation is running on FreeBSD 4.5-STABLE (20.03.2002). &sap; Notes The following notes should be read before installing &sap.r3; and proved to be useful during installation: &sap.r3; 4.6B, &oracle; 8.0.5 Number Title 0171356 SAP Software on Linux: Essential Comments 0201147 INST: 4.6C R/3 Inst. on UNIX - Oracle 0373203 Update / Migration Oracle 8.0.5 --> 8.0.6/8.1.6 LINUX 0072984 Release of Digital UNIX 4.0B for Oracle 0130581 R3SETUP step DIPGNTAB terminates 0144978 Your system has not been installed correctly 0162266 Questions and tips for R3SETUP on Windows NT / W2K &sap.r3; 4.6C, &oracle; 8.1.7 Number Title 0015023 Initializing table TCPDB (RSXP0004) (EBCDIC) 0045619 R/3 with several languages or typefaces 0171356 SAP Software on Linux: Essential Comments 0195603 RedHat 6.1 Enterprise version: Known problems 0212876 The new archiving tool SAPCAR 0300900 Linux: Released DELL Hardware 0377187 RedHat 6.2: important remarks 0387074 INST: R/3 4.6C SR2 Installation on UNIX 0387077 INST: R/3 4.6C SR2 Inst. on UNIX - Oracle 0387078 SAP Software on UNIX: OS Dependencies 4.6C SR2 Hardware Requirements The following equipment is sufficient for the installation of a &sap.r3; System. For production use, a more exact sizing is of course needed: Component 4.6B 4.6C Processor 2 x 800MHz &pentium; III 2 x 800MHz &pentium; III Memory 1GB ECC 2GB ECC Hard Disk Space 50-60GB (IDES) 50-60GB (IDES) For use in production, &xeon; Processors with large cache, high-speed disk access (SCSI, RAID hardware controller), USV and ECC-RAM is recommended. The large amount of hard disk space is due to the preconfigured IDES System, which creates 27 GB of database files during installation. This space is also sufficient for initial production systems and application data. &sap.r3; 4.6B, &oracle; 8.0.5 The following off-the-shelf hardware was used: a dual processor board with 2 800 MHz &pentium; III processors, &adaptec; 29160 Ultra160 SCSI adapter (for accessing a 40/80 GB DLT tape drive and CDROM), &mylex; &acceleraid; (2 channels, firmware 6.00-1-00 with 32 MB RAM). To the &mylex; RAID controller are attached two 17 GB hard disks (mirrored) and four 36 GB hard disks (RAID level 5). &sap.r3; 4.6C, &oracle; 8.1.7 For this installation a &dell; &poweredge; 2500 was used: a dual processor board with two 1000 MHz &pentium; III processors (256 kB Cache), 2 GB PC133 ECC SDRAM, PERC/3 DC PCI RAID Controller with 128 MB, and an EIDE DVD-ROM drive. To the RAID controller are attached two 18 GB hard disks (mirrored) and four 36 GB hard disks (RAID level 5). Installation of FreeBSD First you have to install FreeBSD. There are several ways to do this (FreeBSD 4.3 was installed via FTP, FreeBSD 4.5 directly from the RELEASE CD) for more informations read the . Disk Layout To keep it simple, the same disk layout both for the &sap.r3; 46B and &sap.r3; 46C SR2 installation was used. Only the device names - changed, as the installations were on different hardware (/dev/da - and /dev/amr respectively, so if using an AMI &megaraid;, one will see - /dev/amr0s1a instead of /dev/da0s1a): + changed, as the installations were on different hardware (/dev/da + and /dev/amr respectively, so if using an AMI &megaraid;, one will see + /dev/amr0s1a instead of /dev/da0s1a): File system Size (1k-blocks) Size (GB) Mounted on - /dev/da0s1a + /dev/da0s1a 1.016.303 1 / - /dev/da0s1b + /dev/da0s1b 6 swap - /dev/da0s1e + /dev/da0s1e 2.032.623 2 /var - /dev/da0s1f + /dev/da0s1f 8.205.339 8 /usr - /dev/da1s1e + /dev/da1s1e 45.734.361 45 /compat/linux/oracle - /dev/da1s1f + /dev/da1s1f 2.032.623 2 /compat/linux/sapmnt - /dev/da1s1g + /dev/da1s1g 2.032.623 2 /compat/linux/usr/sap Configure and initialize the two logical drives with the &mylex; or PERC/3 RAID software beforehand. The software can be started during the BIOS boot phase. Please note that this disk layout differs slightly from the &sap; recommendations, as &sap; suggests mounting the &oracle; subdirectories (and some others) separately — we decided to just create them as real subdirectories for simplicity. <command>make world</command> and a New Kernel Download the latest -STABLE sources. Rebuild world and your custom kernel after configuring your kernel configuration file. Here you should also include the kernel parameters which are required for both &sap.r3; and &oracle;. Installing the Linux Environment Installing the Linux Base System First the linux_base port needs to be installed (as root): &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/emulators/linux_base &prompt.root; make install distclean Installing Linux Development Environment The Linux development environment is needed, if you want to install &oracle; on FreeBSD according to the : &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/devel/linux_devtools &prompt.root; make install distclean The Linux development environment has only been installed for the &sap.r3; 46B IDES installation. It is not needed, if the &oracle; DB is not relinked on the FreeBSD system. This is the case if you are using the &oracle; tarball from a Linux system. Installing the Necessary RPMs RPMs To start the R3SETUP program, PAM support is needed. During the first &sap; Installation on FreeBSD 4.3-STABLE we tried to install PAM with all the required packages and finally forced the installation of the PAM package, which worked. For &sap.r3; 4.6C SR2 we directly forced the installation of the PAM RPM, which also works, so it seems the dependent packages are not needed: &prompt.root; rpm -i --ignoreos --nodeps --root /compat/linux --dbpath /var/lib/rpm \ pam-0.68-7.i386.rpm For &oracle; 8.0.5 to run the intelligent agent, we also had to install the RedHat Tcl package tcl-8.0.5-30.i386.rpm (otherwise the relinking during &oracle; installation will not work). There are some other issues regarding relinking of &oracle;, but that is a &oracle; Linux issue, not FreeBSD specific. Some Additional Hints It might also be a good idea to add linprocfs to /etc/fstab, for more informations, see the &man.linprocfs.5; manual page. Another parameter to set is kern.fallback_elf_brand=3 which is done in the file /etc/sysctl.conf. Creating the &sap.r3; Environment Creating the Necessary File Systems and Mountpoints For a simple installation, it is sufficient to create the following file systems: mount point size in GB /compat/linux/oracle 45 GB /compat/linux/sapmnt 2 GB /compat/linux/usr/sap 2 GB It is also necessary to created some links. Otherwise the &sap; Installer will complain, as it is checking the created links: &prompt.root; ln -s /compat/linux/oracle /oracle &prompt.root; ln -s /compat/linux/sapmnt /sapmnt &prompt.root; ln -s /compat/linux/usr/sap /usr/sap Possible error message during installation (here with System PRD and the &sap.r3; 4.6C SR2 installation): INFO 2002-03-19 16:45:36 R3LINKS_IND_IND SyLinkCreate:200 Checking existence of symbolic link /usr/sap/PRD/SYS/exe/dbg to /sapmnt/PRD/exe. Creating if it does not exist... WARNING 2002-03-19 16:45:36 R3LINKS_IND_IND SyLinkCreate:400 Link /usr/sap/PRD/SYS/exe/dbg exists but it points to file /compat/linux/sapmnt/PRD/exe instead of /sapmnt/PRD/exe. The program cannot go on as long as this link exists at this location. Move the link to another location. ERROR 2002-03-19 16:45:36 R3LINKS_IND_IND Ins_SetupLinks:0 can not setup link '/usr/sap/PRD/SYS/exe/dbg' with content '/sapmnt/PRD/exe' Creating Users and Directories &sap.r3; needs two users and three groups. The user names depend on the &sap; system ID (SID) which consists of three letters. Some of these SIDs are reserved by &sap; (for example SAP and NIX. For a complete list please see the &sap; documentation). For the IDES installation we used IDS, for the 4.6C SR2 installation PRD, as that system is intended for production use. We have therefore the following groups (group IDs might differ, these are just the values we used with our installation): group ID group name description 100 dba Data Base Administrator 101 sapsys &sap; System 102 oper Data Base Operator For a default &oracle; installation, only group dba is used. As oper group, one also uses group dba (see &oracle; and &sap; documentation for further information). We also need the following users: user ID user name generic name group additional groups description 1000 idsadm/prdadm sidadm sapsys oper &sap; Administrator 1002 oraids/oraprd orasid dba oper &oracle; Administrator Adding the users with &man.adduser.8; requires the following (please note shell and home directory) entries for &sap; Administrator: Name: sidadm Password: ****** Fullname: SAP Administrator SID Uid: 1000 Gid: 101 (sapsys) Class: Groups: sapsys dba HOME: /home/sidadm Shell: bash (/compat/linux/bin/bash) and for &oracle; Administrator: Name: orasid Password: ****** Fullname: Oracle Administrator SID Uid: 1002 Gid: 100 (dba) Class: Groups: dba HOME: /oracle/sid Shell: bash (/compat/linux/bin/bash) This should also include group oper in case you are using both groups dba and oper. Creating Directories These directories are usually created as separate file systems. This depends entirely on your requirements. We choose to create them as simple directories, as they are all located on the same RAID 5 anyway: First we will set owners and rights of some directories (as user root): &prompt.root; chmod 775 /oracle &prompt.root; chmod 777 /sapmnt &prompt.root; chown root:dba /oracle &prompt.root; chown sidadm:sapsys /compat/linux/usr/sap &prompt.root; chmod 775 /compat/linux/usr/sap Second we will create directories as user orasid. These will all be subdirectories of /oracle/SID: &prompt.root; su - orasid &prompt.root; cd /oracle/SID &prompt.root; mkdir mirrlogA mirrlogB origlogA origlogB &prompt.root; mkdir sapdata1 sapdata2 sapdata3 sapdata4 sapdata5 sapdata6 &prompt.root; mkdir saparch sapreorg &prompt.root; exit For the &oracle; 8.1.7 installation some additional directories are needed: &prompt.root; su - orasid &prompt.root; cd /oracle &prompt.root; mkdir 805_32 &prompt.root; mkdir client stage &prompt.root; mkdir client/80x_32 &prompt.root; mkdir stage/817_32 &prompt.root; cd /oracle/SID &prompt.root; mkdir 817_32 The directory client/80x_32 is used with exactly this name. Do not replace the x with some number or anything. In the third step we create directories as user sidadm: &prompt.root; su - sidadm &prompt.root; cd /usr/sap &prompt.root; mkdir SID &prompt.root; mkdir trans &prompt.root; exit Entries in <filename>/etc/services</filename> &sap.r3; requires some entries in file /etc/services, which will not be set correctly during installation under FreeBSD. Please add the following entries (you need at least those entries corresponding to the instance number — in this case, 00. It will do no harm adding all entries from 00 to 99 for dp, gw, sp and ms). If you are going to use a SAProuter or need to access &sap; OSS, you also need 99, as port 3299 is usually used for the SAProuter process on the target system: sapdp00 3200/tcp # SAP Dispatcher. 3200 + Instance-Number sapgw00 3300/tcp # SAP Gateway. 3300 + Instance-Number sapsp00 3400/tcp # 3400 + Instance-Number sapms00 3500/tcp # 3500 + Instance-Number sapmsSID 3600/tcp # SAP Message Server. 3600 + Instance-Number sapgw00s 4800/tcp # SAP Secure Gateway 4800 + Instance-Number Necessary Locales locale &sap; requires at least two locales that are not part of the default RedHat installation. &sap; offers the required RPMs as download from their FTP server (which is only accessible if you are a customer with OSS access). See note 0171356 for a list of RPMs you need. It is also possible to just create appropriate links (for example from de_DE and en_US ), but we would not recommend this for a production system (so far it worked with the IDES system without any problems, though). The following locales are needed: de_DE.ISO-8859-1 en_US.ISO-8859-1 Create the links like this: &prompt.root; cd /compat/linux/usr/share/locale &prompt.root; ln -s de_DE de_DE.ISO-8859-1 &prompt.root; ln -s en_US en_US.ISO-8859-1 If they are not present, there will be some problems during the installation. If these are then subsequently ignored (by setting the STATUS of the offending steps to OK in file CENTRDB.R3S), it will be impossible to log onto the &sap; system without some additional effort. Kernel Tuning kernel tuning &sap.r3; systems need a lot of resources. We therefore added the following parameters to the kernel configuration file: # Set these for memory pigs (SAP and Oracle): options MAXDSIZ="(1024*1024*1024)" options DFLDSIZ="(1024*1024*1024)" # System V options needed. options SYSVSHM #SYSV-style shared memory options SHMMAXPGS=262144 #max amount of shared mem. pages #options SHMMAXPGS=393216 #use this for the 46C inst.parameters options SHMMNI=256 #max number of shared memory ident if. options SHMSEG=100 #max shared mem.segs per process options SYSVMSG #SYSV-style message queues options MSGSEG=32767 #max num. of mes.segments in system options MSGSSZ=32 #size of msg-seg. MUST be power of 2 options MSGMNB=65535 #max char. per message queue options MSGTQL=2046 #max amount of msgs in system options SYSVSEM #SYSV-style semaphores options SEMMNU=256 #number of semaphore UNDO structures options SEMMNS=1024 #number of semaphores in system options SEMMNI=520 #number of semaphore identifiers options SEMUME=100 #number of UNDO keys The minimum values are specified in the documentation that comes from &sap;. As there is no description for Linux, see the HP-UX section (32-bit) for further information. As the system for the 4.6C SR2 installation has more main memory, the shared segments can be larger both for &sap; and &oracle;, therefore choose a larger number of shared memory pages. With the default installation of FreeBSD 4.5 on &i386;, leave MAXDSIZ and DFLDSIZ at 1 GB maximum. Otherwise, strange errors like ORA-27102: out of memory and Linux Error: 12: Cannot allocate memory might happen. Installing &sap.r3; Preparing &sap; CDROMs There are many CDROMs to mount and unmount during the installation. Assuming you have enough CDROM drives, you can just mount them all. We decided to copy the CDROMs contents to corresponding directories: /oracle/SID/sapreorg/cd-name where cd-name was one of KERNEL, RDBMS, EXPORT1, EXPORT2, EXPORT3, EXPORT4, EXPORT5 and EXPORT6 for the 4.6B/IDES installation, and KERNEL, RDBMS, DISK1, DISK2, DISK3, DISK4 and LANG for the 4.6C SR2 installation. All the filenames on the mounted CDs should be in capital letters, otherwise use the option for mounting. So use the following commands: &prompt.root; mount_cd9660 -g /dev/cd0a /mnt &prompt.root; cp -R /mnt/* /oracle/SID/sapreorg/cd-name &prompt.root; umount /mnt Running the Installation Script First you have to prepare an install directory: &prompt.root; cd /oracle/SID/sapreorg &prompt.root; mkdir install &prompt.root; cd install Then the installation script is started, which will copy nearly all the relevant files into the install directory: &prompt.root; /oracle/SID/sapreorg/KERNEL/UNIX/INSTTOOL.SH The IDES installation (4.6B) comes with a fully customized &sap.r3; demonstration system, so there are six instead of just three EXPORT CDs. At this point the installation template CENTRDB.R3S is for installing a standard central instance (&r3; and database), not the IDES central instance, so one needs to copy the corresponding CENTRDB.R3S from the EXPORT1 directory, otherwise R3SETUP will only ask for three EXPORT CDs. The newer &sap; 4.6C SR2 release comes with four EXPORT CDs. The parameter file that controls the installation steps is CENTRAL.R3S. Contrary to earlier releases there are no separate installation templates for a central instance with or without database. &sap; is using a separate template for database installation. To restart the installation later it is however sufficient to restart with the original file. During and after installation, &sap; requires hostname to return the computer name only, not the fully qualified domain name. So either set the hostname accordingly, or set an alias with alias hostname='hostname -s' for both orasid and sidadm (and for root at least during installation steps performed as root). It is also possible to adjust the installed .profile and .login files of both users that are installed during &sap; installation. Start <command>R3SETUP</command> 4.6B Make sure LD_LIBRARY_PATH is set correctly: &prompt.root; export LD_LIBRARY_PATH=/oracle/IDS/lib:/sapmnt/IDS/exe:/oracle/805_32/lib Start R3SETUP as root from installation directory: &prompt.root; cd /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/install &prompt.root; ./R3SETUP -f CENTRDB.R3S The script then asks some questions (defaults in brackets, followed by actual input): Question Default Input Enter SAP System ID [C11] IDSEnter Enter SAP Instance Number [00] Enter Enter SAPMOUNT Directory [/sapmnt] Enter Enter name of SAP central host [troubadix.domain.de] Enter Enter name of SAP db host [troubadix] Enter Select character set [1] (WE8DEC) Enter Enter Oracle server version (1) Oracle 8.0.5, (2) Oracle 8.0.6, (3) Oracle 8.1.5, (4) Oracle 8.1.6 1Enter Extract Oracle Client archive [1] (Yes, extract) Enter Enter path to KERNEL CD [/sapcd] /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/KERNEL Enter path to RDBMS CD [/sapcd] /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/RDBMS Enter path to EXPORT1 CD [/sapcd] /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/EXPORT1 Directory to copy EXPORT1 CD [/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/CD4_DIR] Enter Enter path to EXPORT2 CD [/sapcd] /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/EXPORT2 Directory to copy EXPORT2 CD [/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/CD5_DIR] Enter Enter path to EXPORT3 CD [/sapcd] /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/EXPORT3 Directory to copy EXPORT3 CD [/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/CD6_DIR] Enter Enter path to EXPORT4 CD [/sapcd] /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/EXPORT4 Directory to copy EXPORT4 CD [/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/CD7_DIR] Enter Enter path to EXPORT5 CD [/sapcd] /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/EXPORT5 Directory to copy EXPORT5 CD [/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/CD8_DIR] Enter Enter path to EXPORT6 CD [/sapcd] /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/EXPORT6 Directory to copy EXPORT6 CD [/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/CD9_DIR] Enter Enter amount of RAM for SAP + DB 850Enter (in Megabytes) Service Entry Message Server [3600] Enter Enter Group-ID of sapsys [101] Enter Enter Group-ID of oper [102] Enter Enter Group-ID of dba [100] Enter Enter User-ID of sidadm [1000] Enter Enter User-ID of orasid [1002] Enter Number of parallel procs [2] Enter If you had not copied the CDs to the different locations, then the &sap; installer cannot find the CD needed (identified by the LABEL.ASC file on the CD) and would then ask you to insert and mount the CD and confirm or enter the mount path. The CENTRDB.R3S might not be error free. In our case, it requested EXPORT4 CD again but indicated the correct key (6_LOCATION, then 7_LOCATION etc.), so one can just continue with entering the correct values. Apart from some problems mentioned below, everything should go straight through up to the point where the &oracle; database software needs to be installed. Start <command>R3SETUP</command> 4.6C SR2 Make sure LD_LIBRARY_PATH is set correctly. This is a different value from the 4.6B installation with &oracle; 8.0.5: &prompt.root; export LD_LIBRARY_PATH=/sapmnt/PRD/exe:/oracle/PRD/817_32/lib Start R3SETUP as user root from installation directory: &prompt.root; cd /oracle/PRD/sapreorg/install &prompt.root; ./R3SETUP -f CENTRAL.R3S The script then asks some questions (defaults in brackets, followed by actual input): Question Default Input Enter SAP System ID [C11] PRDEnter Enter SAP Instance Number [00] Enter Enter SAPMOUNT Directory [/sapmnt] Enter Enter name of SAP central host [majestix] Enter Enter Database System ID [PRD] PRDEnter Enter name of SAP db host [majestix] Enter Select character set [1] (WE8DEC) Enter Enter Oracle server version (2) Oracle 8.1.7 2Enter Extract Oracle Client archive [1] (Yes, extract) Enter Enter path to KERNEL CD [/sapcd] /oracle/PRD/sapreorg/KERNEL Enter amount of RAM for SAP + DB 2044 1800Enter (in Megabytes) Service Entry Message Server [3600] Enter Enter Group-ID of sapsys [100] Enter Enter Group-ID of oper [101] Enter Enter Group-ID of dba [102] Enter Enter User-ID of oraprd [1002] Enter Enter User-ID of prdadm [1000] Enter LDAP support 3Enter (no support) Installation step completed [1] (continue) Enter Choose installation service [1] (DB inst,file) Enter So far, creation of users gives an error during installation in phases OSUSERDBSID_IND_ORA (for creating user orasid) and OSUSERSIDADM_IND_ORA (creating user sidadm). Apart from some problems mentioned below, everything should go straight through up to the point where the &oracle; database software needs to be installed. Installing &oracle; 8.0.5 Please see the corresponding &sap; Notes and &oracle; Readmes regarding Linux and &oracle; DB for possible problems. Most if not all problems stem from incompatible libraries. For more information on installing &oracle;, refer to the Installing &oracle; chapter. Installing the &oracle; 8.0.5 with <command>orainst</command> If &oracle; 8.0.5 is to be used, some additional libraries are needed for successfully relinking, as &oracle; 8.0.5 was linked with an old glibc (RedHat 6.0), but RedHat 6.1 already uses a new glibc. So you have to install the following additional packages to ensure that linking will work: compat-libs-5.2-2.i386.rpm compat-glibc-5.2-2.0.7.2.i386.rpm compat-egcs-5.2-1.0.3a.1.i386.rpm compat-egcs-c++-5.2-1.0.3a.1.i386.rpm compat-binutils-5.2-2.9.1.0.23.1.i386.rpm See the corresponding &sap; Notes or &oracle; Readmes for further information. If this is no option (at the time of installation we did not have enough time to check this), one could use the original binaries, or use the relinked binaries from an original RedHat system. For compiling the intelligent agent, the RedHat Tcl package must be installed. If you cannot get tcl-8.0.3-20.i386.rpm, a newer one like tcl-8.0.5-30.i386.rpm for RedHat 6.1 should also do. Apart from relinking, the installation is straightforward: &prompt.root; su - oraids &prompt.root; export TERM=xterm &prompt.root; export ORACLE_TERM=xterm &prompt.root; export ORACLE_HOME=/oracle/IDS &prompt.root; cd /ORACLE_HOME/orainst_sap &prompt.root; ./orainst Confirm all screens with Enter until the software is installed, except that one has to deselect the &oracle; On-Line Text Viewer, as this is not currently available for Linux. &oracle; then wants to relink with i386-glibc20-linux-gcc instead of the available gcc, egcs or i386-redhat-linux-gcc . Due to time constrains we decided to use the binaries from an &oracle; 8.0.5 PreProduction release, after the first attempt at getting the version from the RDBMS CD working, failed, and finding and accessing the correct RPMs was a nightmare at that time. Installing the &oracle; 8.0.5 Pre-production Release for Linux (Kernel 2.0.33) This installation is quite easy. Mount the CD, start the installer. It will then ask for the location of the &oracle; home directory, and copy all binaries there. We did not delete the remains of our previous RDBMS installation tries, though. Afterwards, &oracle; Database could be started with no problems. Installing the &oracle; 8.1.7 Linux Tarball Take the tarball oracle81732.tgz you produced from the installation directory on a Linux system and untar it to /oracle/SID/817_32/. Continue with &sap.r3; Installation First check the environment settings of users idsamd (sidadm) and oraids (orasid). They should now both have the files .profile, .login and .cshrc which are all using hostname. In case the system's hostname is the fully qualified name, you need to change hostname to hostname -s within all three files. Database Load Afterwards, R3SETUP can either be restarted or continued (depending on whether exit was chosen or not). R3SETUP then creates the tablespaces and loads the data (for 46B IDES, from EXPORT1 to EXPORT6, for 46C from DISK1 to DISK4) with R3load into the database. When the database load is finished (might take a few hours), some passwords are requested. For test installations, one can use the well known default passwords (use different ones if security is an issue!): Question Input Enter Password for sapr3 sapEnter Confirum Password for sapr3 sapEnter Enter Password for sys change_on_installEnter Confirm Password for sys change_on_installEnter Enter Password for system managerEnter Confirm Password for system managerEnter At this point We had a few problems with dipgntab during the 4.6B installation. Listener Start the &oracle; Listener as user orasid as follows: &prompt.user; umask 0; lsnrctl start Otherwise you might get the error ORA-12546 as the sockets will not have the correct permissions. See &sap; Note 072984. Updating MNLS Tables If you plan to import non-Latin-1 languages into the &sap; system, you have to update the Multi National Language Support tables. This is described in the &sap; OSS Notes 15023 and 45619. Otherwise, you can skip this question during &sap; installation. If you do not need MNLS, it is still necessary to check the table TCPDB and initializing it if this has not been done. See &sap; note 0015023 and 0045619 for further information. Post-installation Steps Request &sap.r3; License Key You have to request your &sap.r3; License Key. This is needed, as the temporary license that was installed during installation is only valid for four weeks. First get the hardware key. Log on as user idsadm and call saplicense: &prompt.root; /sapmnt/IDS/exe/saplicense -get Calling saplicense without parameters gives a list of options. Upon receiving the license key, it can be installed using: &prompt.root; /sapmnt/IDS/exe/saplicense -install You are then required to enter the following values: SAP SYSTEM ID = SID, 3 chars CUSTOMER KEY = hardware key, 11 chars INSTALLATION NO = installation, 10 digits EXPIRATION DATE = yyyymmdd, usually "99991231" LICENSE KEY = license key, 24 chars Creating Users Create a user within client 000 (for some tasks required to be done within client 000, but with a user different from users sap* and ddic). As a user name, We usually choose wartung (or service in English). Profiles required are sap_new and sap_all. For additional safety the passwords of default users within all clients should be changed (this includes users sap* and ddic). Configure Transport System, Profile, Operation Modes, Etc. Within client 000, user different from ddic and sap*, do at least the following: Task Transaction Configure Transport System, e.g. as Stand-Alone Transport Domain Entity STMS Create / Edit Profile for System RZ10 Maintain Operation Modes and Instances RZ04 These and all the other post-installation steps are thoroughly described in &sap; installation guides. Edit <filename>init<replaceable>sid</replaceable>.sap</filename> (<filename>initIDS.sap</filename>) The file /oracle/IDS/dbs/initIDS.sap contains the &sap; backup profile. Here the size of the tape to be used, type of compression and so on need to be defined. To get this running with sapdba / brbackup, we changed the following values: compress = hardware archive_function = copy_delete_save cpio_flags = "-ov --format=newc --block-size=128 --quiet" cpio_in_flags = "-iuv --block-size=128 --quiet" tape_size = 38000M tape_address = /dev/nsa0 tape_address_rew = /dev/sa0 Explanations: compress: The tape we use is a HP DLT1 which does hardware compression. archive_function: This defines the default behavior for saving &oracle; archive logs: new logfiles are saved to tape, already saved logfiles are saved again and are then deleted. This prevents lots of trouble if you need to recover the database, and one of the archive-tapes has gone bad. cpio_flags: Default is to use which sets block size to 5120 Bytes. For DLT Tapes, HP recommends at least 32 K block size, so we used for 64 K. is needed because we have inode numbers greater than 65535. The last option is needed as otherwise brbackup complains as soon as cpio outputs the numbers of blocks saved. cpio_in_flags: Flags needed for loading data back from tape. Format is recognized automatically. tape_size: This usually gives the raw storage capability of the tape. For security reason (we use hardware compression), the value is slightly lower than the actual value. tape_address: The non-rewindable device to be used with cpio. tape_address_rew: The rewindable device to be used with cpio. Configuration Issues after Installation The following &sap; parameters should be tuned after installation (examples for IDES 46B, 1 GB memory): Name Value ztta/roll_extension 250000000 abap/heap_area_dia 300000000 abap/heap_area_nondia 400000000 em/initial_size_MB 256 em/blocksize_kB 1024 ipc/shm_psize_40 70000000 &sap; Note 0013026: Name Value ztta/dynpro_area 2500000 &sap; Note 0157246: Name Value rdisp/ROLL_MAXFS 16000 rdisp/PG_MAXFS 30000 With the above parameters, on a system with 1 gigabyte of memory, one may find memory consumption similar to: Mem: 547M Active, 305M Inact, 109M Wired, 40M Cache, 112M Buf, 3492K Free Problems during Installation Restart <command>R3SETUP</command> after Fixing a Problem R3SETUP stops if it encounters an error. If you have looked at the corresponding logfiles and fixed the error, you have to start R3SETUP again, usually selecting REPEAT as option for the last step R3SETUP complained about. To restart R3SETUP, just start it with the corresponding R3S file: &prompt.root; ./R3SETUP -f CENTRDB.R3S for 4.6B, or with &prompt.root; ./R3SETUP -f CENTRAL.R3S for 4.6C, no matter whether the error occurred with CENTRAL.R3S or DATABASE.R3S. At some stages, R3SETUP assumes that both database and &sap; processes are up and running (as those were steps it already completed). Should errors occur and for example the database could not be started, you have to start both database and &sap; by hand after you fixed the errors and before starting R3SETUP again. Do not forget to also start the &oracle; listener again (as orasid with umask 0; lsnrctl start) if it was also stopped (for example due to a necessary reboot of the system). OSUSERSIDADM_IND_ORA during <command>R3SETUP</command> If R3SETUP complains at this stage, edit the template file R3SETUP used at that time (CENTRDB.R3S (4.6B) or either CENTRAL.R3S or DATABASE.R3S (4.6C)). Locate [OSUSERSIDADM_IND_ORA] or search for the only STATUS=ERROR entry and edit the following values: HOME=/home/sidadm (was empty) STATUS=OK (had status ERROR) Then you can restart R3SETUP again. OSUSERDBSID_IND_ORA during <command>R3SETUP</command> Possibly R3SETUP also complains at this stage. The error here is similar to the one in phase OSUSERSIDADM_IND_ORA. Just edit the template file R3SETUP used at that time (CENTRDB.R3S (4.6B) or either CENTRAL.R3S or DATABASE.R3S (4.6C)). Locate [OSUSERDBSID_IND_ORA] or search for the only STATUS=ERROR entry and edit the following value in that section: STATUS=OK Then restart R3SETUP. <errorname>oraview.vrf FILE NOT FOUND</errorname> during &oracle; Installation You have not deselected &oracle; On-Line Text Viewer before starting the installation. This is marked for installation even though this option is currently not available for Linux. Deselect this product inside the &oracle; installation menu and restart installation. <errorname>TEXTENV_INVALID</errorname> during <command>R3SETUP</command>, RFC or SAPgui Start If this error is encountered, the correct locale is missing. &sap; Note 0171356 lists the necessary RPMs that need be installed (e.g. saplocales-1.0-3, saposcheck-1.0-1 for RedHat 6.1). In case you ignored all the related errors and set the corresponding STATUS from ERROR to OK (in CENTRDB.R3S) every time R3SETUP complained and just restarted R3SETUP, the &sap; system will not be properly configured and you will then not be able to connect to the system with a SAPgui, even though the system can be started. Trying to connect with the old Linux SAPgui gave the following messages: Sat May 5 14:23:14 2001 *** ERROR => no valid userarea given [trgmsgo. 0401] Sat May 5 14:23:22 2001 *** ERROR => ERROR NR 24 occured [trgmsgi. 0410] *** ERROR => Error when generating text environment. [trgmsgi. 0435] *** ERROR => function failed [trgmsgi. 0447] *** ERROR => no socket operation allowed [trxio.c 3363] Speicherzugriffsfehler This behavior is due to &sap.r3; being unable to correctly assign a locale and also not being properly configured itself (missing entries in some database tables). To be able to connect to &sap;, add the following entries to file DEFAULT.PFL (see Note 0043288): abap/set_etct_env_at_new_mode = 0 install/collate/active = 0 rscp/TCP0B = TCP0B Restart the &sap; system. Now you can connect to the system, even though country-specific language settings might not work as expected. After correcting country settings (and providing the correct locales), these entries can be removed from DEFAULT.PFL and the &sap; system can be restarted. <errorcode>ORA-00001</errorcode> This error only happened with &oracle; 8.1.7 on FreeBSD 4.5. The reason was that the &oracle; database could not initialize itself properly and crashed, leaving semaphores and shared memory on the system. The next try to start the database then returned ORA-00001. Find them with ipcs -a and remove them with ipcrm. <errorcode>ORA-00445</errorcode> (Background Process PMON Did Not Start) This error happened with &oracle; 8.1.7. This error is reported if the database is started with the usual startsap script (for example startsap_majestix_00) as user prdadm. A possible workaround is to start the database as user oraprd instead with svrmgrl: &prompt.user; svrmgrl SVRMGR> connect internal; SVRMGR> startup; SVRMGR> exit <errorcode>ORA-12546</errorcode> (Start Listener with Correct Permissions) Start the &oracle; listener as user oraids with the following commands: &prompt.root; umask 0; lsnrctl start Otherwise you might get ORA-12546 as the sockets will not have the correct permissions. See &sap; Note 0072984. <errorcode>ORA-27102</errorcode> (Out of Memory) This error happened whilst trying to use values for MAXDSIZ and DFLDSIZ greater than 1 GB (1024x1024x1024). Additionally, we got Linux Error 12: Cannot allocate memory. [DIPGNTAB_IND_IND] during <command>R3SETUP</command> In general, see &sap; Note 0130581 (R3SETUP step DIPGNTAB terminates). During the IDES-specific installation, for some reasons the installation process was not using the proper &sap; system name IDS, but the empty string "" instead. This lead to some minor problems with accessing directories, as the paths are generated dynamically using SID (in this case IDS). So instead of accessing: /usr/sap/IDS/SYS/... /usr/sap/IDS/DVMGS00 the following paths were used: /usr/sap//SYS/... /usr/sap/D00 To continue with the installation, we created a link and an additional directory: &prompt.root; pwd /compat/linux/usr/sap &prompt.root; ls -l total 4 drwxr-xr-x 3 idsadm sapsys 512 May 5 11:20 D00 drwxr-x--x 5 idsadm sapsys 512 May 5 11:35 IDS lrwxr-xr-x 1 root sapsys 7 May 5 11:35 SYS -> IDS/SYS drwxrwxr-x 2 idsadm sapsys 512 May 5 13:00 tmp drwxrwxr-x 11 idsadm sapsys 512 May 4 14:20 trans We also found &sap; Notes (0029227 and 0008401) describing this behavior. We did not encounter any of these problems with the &sap; 4.6C installation. [RFCRSWBOINI_IND_IND] during <command>R3SETUP</command> During installation of &sap; 4.6C, this error was just the result of another error happening earlier during installation. In this case, you have to look through the corresponding logfiles and correct the real problem. If after looking through the logfiles this error is indeed the correct one (check the &sap; Notes), you can set STATUS of the offending step from ERROR to OK (file CENTRDB.R3S) and restart R3SETUP. After installation, you have to execute the report RSWBOINS from transaction SE38. See &sap; Note 0162266 for additional information about phase RFCRSWBOINI and RFCRADDBDIF. [RFCRADDBDIF_IND_IND] during <command>R3SETUP</command> Here the same restrictions apply: make sure by looking through the logfiles, that this error is not caused by some previous problems. If you can confirm that &sap; Note 0162266 applies, just set STATUS of the offending step from ERROR to OK (file CENTRDB.R3S) and restart R3SETUP. After installation, you have to execute the report RADDBDIF from transaction SE38. <errorcode>sigaction sig31: File size limit exceeded</errorcode> This error occurred during start of &sap; processes disp+work. If starting &sap; with the startsap script, subprocesses are then started which detach and do the dirty work of starting all other &sap; processes. As a result, the script itself will not notice if something goes wrong. To check whether the &sap; processes did start properly, have a look at the process status with ps ax | grep SID, which will give you a list of all &oracle; and &sap; processes. If it looks like some processes are missing or if you cannot connect to the &sap; system, look at the corresponding logfiles which can be found at /usr/sap/SID/DVEBMGSnr/work/. The files to look at are dev_ms and dev_disp. Signal 31 happens here if the amount of shared memory used by &oracle; and &sap; exceed the one defined within the kernel configuration file and could be resolved by using a larger value: # larger value for 46C production systems: options SHMMAXPGS=393216 # smaller value sufficient for 46B: #options SHMMAXPGS=262144 Start of <command>saposcol</command> Failed There are some problems with the program saposcol (version 4.6D). The &sap; system is using saposcol to collect data about the system performance. This program is not needed to use the &sap; system, so this problem can be considered a minor one. The older versions (4.6B) does work, but does not collect all the data (many calls will just return 0, for example for CPU usage). Advanced Topics If you are curious as to how the Linux binary compatibility works, this is the section you want to read. Most of what follows is based heavily on an email written to &a.chat; by Terry Lambert tlambert@primenet.com (Message ID: <199906020108.SAA07001@usr09.primenet.com>). How Does It Work? execution class loader FreeBSD has an abstraction called an execution class loader. This is a wedge into the &man.execve.2; system call. What happens is that FreeBSD has a list of loaders, instead of a single loader with a fallback to the #! loader for running any shell interpreters or shell scripts. Historically, the only loader on the &unix; platform examined the magic number (generally the first 4 or 8 bytes of the file) to see if it was a binary known to the system, and if so, invoked the binary loader. If it was not the binary type for the system, the &man.execve.2; call returned a failure, and the shell attempted to start executing it as shell commands. The assumption was a default of whatever the current shell is. Later, a hack was made for &man.sh.1; to examine the first two characters, and if they were :\n, then it invoked the &man.csh.1; shell instead (we believe SCO first made this hack). What FreeBSD does now is go through a list of loaders, with a generic #! loader that knows about interpreters as the characters which follow to the next whitespace next to last, followed by a fallback to /bin/sh. ELF For the Linux ABI support, FreeBSD sees the magic number as an ELF binary (it makes no distinction between FreeBSD, &solaris;, Linux, or any other OS which has an ELF image type, at this point). Solaris The ELF loader looks for a specialized brand, which is a comment section in the ELF image, and which is not present on SVR4/&solaris; ELF binaries. For Linux binaries to function, they must be branded as type Linux from &man.brandelf.1;: &prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux file When this is done, the ELF loader will see the Linux brand on the file. ELF branding When the ELF loader sees the Linux brand, the loader replaces a pointer in the proc structure. All system calls are indexed through this pointer (in a traditional &unix; system, this would be the sysent[] structure array, containing the system calls). In addition, the process is flagged for special handling of the trap vector for the signal trampoline code, and several other (minor) fix-ups that are handled by the Linux kernel module. The Linux system call vector contains, among other things, a list of sysent[] entries whose addresses reside in the kernel module. When a system call is called by the Linux binary, the trap code dereferences the system call function pointer off the proc structure, and gets the Linux, not the FreeBSD, system call entry points. In addition, the Linux mode dynamically reroots lookups; this is, in effect, what the option to file system mounts (not the unionfs file system type!) does. First, an attempt is made to lookup the file in the /compat/linux/original-path directory, then only if that fails, the lookup is done in the /original-path directory. This makes sure that binaries that require other binaries can run (e.g., the Linux toolchain can all run under Linux ABI support). It also means that the Linux binaries can load and execute FreeBSD binaries, if there are no corresponding Linux binaries present, and that you could place a &man.uname.1; command in the /compat/linux directory tree to ensure that the Linux binaries could not tell they were not running on Linux. In effect, there is a Linux kernel in the FreeBSD kernel; the various underlying functions that implement all of the services provided by the kernel are identical to both the FreeBSD system call table entries, and the Linux system call table entries: file system operations, virtual memory operations, signal delivery, System V IPC, etc… The only difference is that FreeBSD binaries get the FreeBSD glue functions, and Linux binaries get the Linux glue functions (most older OS's only had their own glue functions: addresses of functions in a static global sysent[] structure array, instead of addresses of functions dereferenced off a dynamically initialized pointer in the proc structure of the process making the call). Which one is the native FreeBSD ABI? It does not matter. Basically the only difference is that (currently; this could easily be changed in a future release, and probably will be after this) the FreeBSD glue functions are statically linked into the kernel, and the Linux glue functions can be statically linked, or they can be accessed via a kernel module. Yeah, but is this really emulation? No. It is an ABI implementation, not an emulation. There is no emulator (or simulator, to cut off the next question) involved. So why is it sometimes called Linux emulation? To make it hard to sell FreeBSD! Really, it is because the historical implementation was done at a time when there was really no word other than that to describe what was going on; saying that FreeBSD ran Linux binaries was not true, if you did not compile the code in or load a module, and there needed to be a word to describe what was being loaded—hence the Linux emulator. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.sgml index 00099a0e2b..5d428b86cf 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1947 +1,1947 @@ Ross Lippert Edited by Multimedia Synopsis FreeBSD supports a wide variety of sound cards, allowing you to enjoy high fidelity output from your computer. This includes the ability to record and playback audio in the MPEG Audio Layer 3 (MP3), WAV, and Ogg Vorbis formats as well as many other formats. The FreeBSD Ports Collection also contains applications allowing you to edit your recorded audio, add sound effects, and control attached MIDI devices. With some willingness to experiment, FreeBSD can support playback of video files and DVD's. The number of applications to encode, convert, and playback various video media is more limited than the number of sound applications. For example as of this writing, there is no good re-encoding application in the FreeBSD Ports Collection, which could be use to convert between formats, as there is with audio/sox. However, the software landscape in this area is changing rapidly. This chapter will describe the necessary steps to configure your sound card. The configuration and installation of &xfree86; () has already taken care of the hardware issues for your video card, though there may be some tweaks to apply for better playback. After reading this chapter, you will know: How to configure your system so that your sound card is recognized. Methods to test that your card is working using sample applications. How to troubleshoot your sound setup. How to playback and encode MP3s and other audio. How video is supported by &xfree86;. Some video player/encoder ports which give good results. How to playback DVD's, .mpg and .avi files. How to rip CD and DVD information into files. How to configure a TV card. Before reading this chapter, you should: Know how to configure and install a new kernel (). For the video sections, it is assumed that &xfree86; 4.X (x11/XFree86-4) has been installed. &xfree86; 3.X may work, but it has not been tested with what is described in this chapter. If you find that something described here does work with &xfree86; 3.X please let us know. Trying to mount audio CDs with the &man.mount.8; command will result in an error, at least, and a kernel panic, at worst. These media have specialized encodings which differ from the usual ISO-filesystem. Moses Moore Contributed by Setting Up the Sound Card Locating the Correct Device PCI ISA sound cards Before you begin, you should know the model of the card you have, the chip it uses, and whether it is a PCI or ISA card. FreeBSD supports a wide variety of both PCI and ISA cards. If you do not see your card in the following list, check the &man.pcm.4; manual page. This is not a complete list; however, it does list some of the most common cards. Crystal 4237, 4236, 4232, 4231 Yamaha OPL-SAx OPTi931 Ensoniq AudioPCI 1370/1371 ESS Solo-1/1E NeoMagic 256AV/ZX &soundblaster; Pro, 16, 32, AWE64, AWE128, Live Creative ViBRA16 Advanced Asound 100, 110, and Logic ALS120 ES 1868, 1869, 1879, 1888 Gravis UltraSound Aureal Vortex 1 or 2 kernel configuration To use your sound device, you will need to load the proper device driver. This may be accomplished in one of two ways. The easiest way is to simply load a kernel module for your sound card with &man.kldload.8; which can either be done from the command line: &prompt.root; kldload snd_emu10k1.ko or by adding the appropriate line to the file /boot/loader.conf like this: snd_emu10k1_load="YES" These examples are for a Creative &soundblaster; Live! sound card. Other available loadable sound modules are listed in /boot/defaults/loader.conf. If you are not sure which driver to use, you may try to load snd_driver, which is a metadriver loading the most common device drivers at once, this speeds up the search for the correct driver. Alternatively, you may statically compile in support for your sound card in your kernel. The sections below provide the information you need to add support for your hardware in this manner. For more information about recompiling your kernel, please see . Creative, Advance, and ESS Sound Cards If you have one of the above cards, you will need to add: device pcm to your kernel configuration file. If you have a PnP ISA card, you will also need to add: device sbc For a non-PnP ISA card, add: device pcm device sbc0 at isa? port 0x220 irq 5 drq 1 flags 0x15 to your kernel configuration file. The settings shown above are the defaults. You may need to change the IRQ or the other settings to match your card. See the &man.sbc.4; manual page for more information. The Sound Blaster Live is not supported under FreeBSD 4.0 without a patch, which this section will not cover. It is recommended that you update to the latest -STABLE before trying to use this card. Gravis UltraSound Cards For a PnP ISA card, you will need to add: device pcm device gusc to your kernel configuration file. If you have a non-PnP ISA card, you will need to add: device pcm device gus0 at isa? port 0x220 irq 5 drq 1 flags 0x13 to your kernel configuration file. You may need to change the IRQ or the other settings to match your card. See the &man.gusc.4; manual page for more information. Crystal Sound Cards For Crystal cards, you will need to add: device pcm device csa to your kernel configuration file. Generic Support For PnP ISA or PCI cards, you will need to add: device pcm to your kernel configuration file. If you have a non-PnP ISA sound card that does not have a bridge driver, you will need to add: device pcm0 at isa? irq 10 drq 1 flags 0x0 to your kernel configuration file. You may need to change the IRQ or the other settings to match your card. Onboard Sound Some systems with built-in motherboard sound devices may require the following option in your kernel configuration: options PNPBIOS If you are running &os; 5.0 or later the PNPBIOS option is not needed. The option has been removed and the functionality is now always enabled. Creating and Testing the Device Nodes device nodes After you reboot, log in and check for the device in the /var/run/dmesg.boot file, as shown below: &prompt.root; grep pcm /var/run/dmesg.boot pcm0: <SB16 DSP 4.11> on sbc0 The output from your system may look different. If no pcm devices show up, something went wrong earlier. If that happens, go through your kernel configuration file again and make sure you chose the correct device. Common problems are listed in . If you are running FreeBSD 5.0 or later, you can safely skip the rest of this section. These versions use &man.devfs.5; to automatically create devices nodes. If the previous command returned pcm0, you will have to run the following as root: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV snd0 If the command returned pcm1, follow the same steps as shown above, replacing snd0 with snd1. The above commands will not create a - /dev/snd device! + /dev/snd device! MAKEDEV will create a group of device nodes, including: Device Description - /dev/audio + /dev/audio &sparc; compatible audio device - /dev/dsp + /dev/dsp Digitized voice device - /dev/dspW - Like /dev/dsp, but 16 bits + /dev/dspW + Like /dev/dsp, but 16 bits per sample - /dev/midi + /dev/midi Raw midi access device - /dev/mixer + /dev/mixer Control port mixer device - /dev/music + /dev/music Level 2 sequencer interface - /dev/sequencer + /dev/sequencer Sequencer device - /dev/pss + /dev/pss Programmable device interface If all goes well, you should now have a functioning sound card. If your CD-ROM or DVD-ROM drive is properly coupled to your sound card, you can put a CD in the drive and play it with &man.cdcontrol.1;: &prompt.user; cdcontrol -f /dev/acd0c play 1 Various applications, such as audio/workman offer a better interface. You may want to install an application such as audio/mpg123 to listen to MP3 audio files. Common Problems device nodes I/O port IRQ DSP Error Solution unsupported subdevice XX One or more of the device nodes was not created correctly. Repeat the steps above. sb_dspwr(XX) timed out The I/O port is not set correctly. bad irq XX The IRQ is set incorrectly. Make sure that the set IRQ and the sound IRQ are the same. xxx: gus pcm not attached, out of memory There is not enough available memory to use the device. xxx: can't open /dev/dsp! Check with fstat | grep dsp if another application is holding the device open. Noteworthy troublemakers are esound and KDE's sound support. Munish Chopra Contributed by Utilizing Multiple Sound Sources It is often desirable to have multiple sources of sound that are able to play simultaneously, such as when esound or artsd do not support sharing of the sound device with a certain application. FreeBSD lets you do this through Virtual Sound Channels, which can be set with the &man.sysctl.8; facility. Virtual channels allow you to multiplex your sound card's playback channels by mixing sound in the kernel. To set the number of virtual channels, there are two sysctl knobs which, if you are the root user, can be set like this: &prompt.root; sysctl hw.snd.pcm0.vchans=4 &prompt.root; sysctl hw.snd.maxautovchans=4 The above example allocates four virtual channels, which is a practical number for everyday use. hw.snd.pcm0.vchans is the number of virtual channels pcm0 has, and is configurable once a device has been attached. hw.snd.maxautovchans is the number of virtual channels a new audio device is given when it is attached using &man.kldload.8;. Since the pcm module can be loaded independently of the hardware drivers, hw.snd.maxautovchans can store how many virtual channels any devices which are attached later will be given. If you are not using &man.devfs.5;, you will have to point - your applications at /dev/dsp0.x, where + your applications at /dev/dsp0.x, where x is 0 to 3 if hw.snd.pcm.0.vchans is set to 4 as in the above example. On a system using &man.devfs.5;, the above will automatically be allocated transparently to the user. Josef El-Rayes Contributed by Setting Default Values for Mixer Channels The default values for the different mixer channels are hardcoded in the sourcecode of the &man.pcm.4; driver. There are a lot of different applications and daemons that allow you to set values for the mixer they remember and set each time they are started, but this is not a clean solution, we want to have default values at the driver level. This is accomplished by defining the appropriate values in /boot/device.hints. E.g.: hint.pcm.0.vol="100" This will set the volume channel to a default value of 100, as soon as the &man.pcm.4; module gets loaded. Only &os; 5.3 and above support this. Chern Lee Contributed by MP3 Audio MP3 (MPEG Layer 3 Audio) accomplishes near CD-quality sound, leaving no reason to let your FreeBSD workstation fall short of its offerings. MP3 Players By far, the most popular &xfree86; MP3 player is XMMS (X Multimedia System). Winamp skins can be used with XMMS since the GUI is almost identical to that of Nullsoft's Winamp. XMMS also has native plug-in support. XMMS can be installed from the multimedia/xmms port or package. XMMS' interface is intuitive, with a playlist, graphic equalizer, and more. Those familiar with Winamp will find XMMS simple to use. The audio/mpg123 port is an alternative, command-line MP3 player. mpg123 can be run by specifying the sound device and the MP3 file on the command line, as shown below: &prompt.root; mpg123 -a /dev/dsp1.0 Foobar-GreatestHits.mp3 High Performance MPEG 1.0/2.0/2.5 Audio Player for Layer 1, 2 and 3. Version 0.59r (1999/Jun/15). Written and copyrights by Michael Hipp. Uses code from various people. See 'README' for more! THIS SOFTWARE COMES WITH ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY! USE AT YOUR OWN RISK! Playing MPEG stream from Foobar-GreatestHits.mp3 ... MPEG 1.0 layer III, 128 kbit/s, 44100 Hz joint-stereo /dev/dsp1.0 should be replaced with the dsp device entry on your system. Ripping CD Audio Tracks Before encoding a CD or CD track to MP3, the audio data on the CD must be ripped onto the hard drive. This is done by copying the raw CDDA (CD Digital Audio) data to WAV files. The cdda2wav tool, which is a part of the sysutils/cdrtools suite, is used for ripping audio information from CDs and the information associated with them. With the audio CD in the drive, the following command can be issued (as root) to rip an entire CD into individual (per track) WAV files: &prompt.root; cdda2wav -D 0,1,0 -B cdda2wav will support ATAPI (IDE) CDROM drives. To rip from an IDE drive, specify the device name in place of the SCSI unit numbers. For example, to rip track 7 from an IDE drive: &prompt.root; cdda2wav -D /dev/acd0a -t 7 The indicates the SCSI device 0,1,0, which corresponds to the output of cdrecord -scanbus. To rip individual tracks, make use of the option as shown: &prompt.root; cdda2wav -D 0,1,0 -t 7 This example rips track seven of the audio CDROM. To rip a range of tracks, for example, track one to seven, specify a range: &prompt.root; cdda2wav -D 0,1,0 -t 1+7 The utility &man.dd.1; can also be used to extract audio tracks on ATAPI drives, read for more information on that possibility. Encoding MP3s Nowadays, the mp3 encoder of choice is lame. Lame can be found at audio/lame in the ports tree. Using the ripped WAV files, the following command will convert audio01.wav to audio01.mp3: &prompt.root; lame -h -b 128 \ --tt "Foo Song Title" \ --ta "FooBar Artist" \ --tl "FooBar Album" \ --ty "2001" \ --tc "Ripped and encoded by Foo" \ --tg "Genre" \ audio01.wav audio01.mp3 128 kbits seems to be the standard MP3 bitrate in use. Many enjoy the higher quality 160, or 192. The higher the bitrate, the more disk space the resulting MP3 will consume--but the quality will be higher. The option turns on the higher quality but a little slower mode. The options beginning with indicate ID3 tags, which usually contain song information, to be embedded within the MP3 file. Additional encoding options can be found by consulting the lame man page. Decoding MP3s In order to burn an audio CD from MP3s, they must be converted to a non-compressed WAV format. Both XMMS and mpg123 support the output of MP3 to an uncompressed file format. Writing to Disk in XMMS: Launch XMMS. Right-click on the window to bring up the XMMS menu. Select Preference under Options. Change the Output Plugin to Disk Writer Plugin. Press Configure. Enter (or choose browse) a directory to write the uncompressed files to. Load the MP3 file into XMMS as usual, with volume at 100% and EQ settings turned off. Press Play — XMMS will appear as if it is playing the MP3, but no music will be heard. It is actually playing the MP3 to a file. Be sure to set the default Output Plugin back to what it was before in order to listen to MP3s again. Writing to stdout in mpg123: Run mpg123 -s audio01.mp3 > audio01.pcm XMMS writes a file in the WAV format, while mpg123 converts the MP3 into raw PCM audio data. Both of these formats can be used with cdrecord to create audio CDs. You have to use raw PCM with &man.burncd.8;. If you use WAV files, you will notice a small tick sound at the beginning of each track, this sound is the header of the WAV file. You can simply remove the header of a WAV file with the utility SoX (it can be installed from the audio/sox port or package): &prompt.user; sox -t wav -r 44100 -s -w -c 2 track.wav track.raw Read for more information on using a CD burner in FreeBSD. Ross Lippert Contributed by Video Playback Video playback is a very new and rapidly developing application area. Be patient. Not everything is going to work as smoothly as it did with sound. Before you begin, you should know the model of the video card you have and the chip it uses. While &xfree86; supports a wide variety of video cards, fewer give good playback performance. To obtain a list of extensions supported by the X server using your card use the command &man.xdpyinfo.1; while X11 is running. It is a good idea to have a short MPEG file which can be treated as a test file for evaluating various players and options. Since some DVD players will look for DVD media in /dev/dvd by default, or have this device name hardcoded in them, you might find it useful to make symbolic links to the proper devices: &prompt.root; ln -sf /dev/acd0c /dev/dvd &prompt.root; ln -sf /dev/racd0c /dev/rdvd On FreeBSD 5.X, which uses &man.devfs.5; there is a slightly different set of recommended links: &prompt.root; ln -sf /dev/acd0 /dev/dvd &prompt.root; ln -sf /dev/acd0 /dev/rdvd Note that due to the nature of &man.devfs.5;, manually created links like these will not persist if you reboot your system. In order to create the symbolic links automatically whenever you boot your system, add the following lines to /etc/devfs.conf: link acd0 dvd link acd0 rdvd Additionally, DVD decryption, which requires invoking special DVD-ROM functions, requires write permission on the DVD devices. kernel options options CPU_ENABLE_SSE kernel options options USER_LDT Some of the ports discussed rely on the following kernel options to build correctly. Before attempting to build, add these options to the kernel configuration file, build a new kernel, and reboot: option CPU_ENABLE_SSE option USER_LDT option USER_LDT does not exist on &os; 5.X. To enhance the shared memory X11 interface, it is recommended that the values of some &man.sysctl.8; variables should be increased: kern.ipc.shmmax=67108864 kern.ipc.shmall=32768 Determining Video Capabilities XVideo SDL DGA There are several possible ways to display video under X11. What will really work is largely hardware dependent. Each method described below will have varying quality across different hardware. Secondly, the rendering of video in X11 is a topic receiving a lot of attention lately, and with each version of &xfree86; there may be significant improvement. A list of common video interfaces: X11: normal X11 output using shared memory. XVideo: an extension to the X11 interface which supports video in any X11 drawable. SDL: the Simple Directmedia Layer. DGA: the Direct Graphics Access. SVGAlib: low level console graphics layer. XVideo &xfree86; 4.X has an extension called XVideo (aka Xvideo, aka Xv, aka xv) which allows video to be directly displayed in drawable objects through a special acceleration. This extension provides very good quality playback even on low-end machines (for example my PIII 400 Mhz laptop). Unfortunately, the list of cards in which this feature is supported out of the box is currently: 3DFX Voodoo 3 &intel; i810 and i815 some S3 chips (such as Savage/IX and Savage/MX) If your card is not one of these, do not be disappointed yet. &xfree86; 4.X adds new xv capabilities with each release A popular familiar graphics card with generally very good &xfree86; performance, nVidia, has yet to release the specifications on their XVideo support to the &xfree86; team. It may be some time before &xfree86; fully support XVideo for these cards. . To check whether the extension is running, use xvinfo: &prompt.user; xvinfo XVideo is supported for your card if the result looks like: X-Video Extension version 2.2 screen #0 Adaptor #0: "Savage Streams Engine" number of ports: 1 port base: 43 operations supported: PutImage supported visuals: depth 16, visualID 0x22 depth 16, visualID 0x23 number of attributes: 5 "XV_COLORKEY" (range 0 to 16777215) client settable attribute client gettable attribute (current value is 2110) "XV_BRIGHTNESS" (range -128 to 127) client settable attribute client gettable attribute (current value is 0) "XV_CONTRAST" (range 0 to 255) client settable attribute client gettable attribute (current value is 128) "XV_SATURATION" (range 0 to 255) client settable attribute client gettable attribute (current value is 128) "XV_HUE" (range -180 to 180) client settable attribute client gettable attribute (current value is 0) maximum XvImage size: 1024 x 1024 Number of image formats: 7 id: 0x32595559 (YUY2) guid: 59555932-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71 bits per pixel: 16 number of planes: 1 type: YUV (packed) id: 0x32315659 (YV12) guid: 59563132-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71 bits per pixel: 12 number of planes: 3 type: YUV (planar) id: 0x30323449 (I420) guid: 49343230-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71 bits per pixel: 12 number of planes: 3 type: YUV (planar) id: 0x36315652 (RV16) guid: 52563135-0000-0000-0000-000000000000 bits per pixel: 16 number of planes: 1 type: RGB (packed) depth: 0 red, green, blue masks: 0x1f, 0x3e0, 0x7c00 id: 0x35315652 (RV15) guid: 52563136-0000-0000-0000-000000000000 bits per pixel: 16 number of planes: 1 type: RGB (packed) depth: 0 red, green, blue masks: 0x1f, 0x7e0, 0xf800 id: 0x31313259 (Y211) guid: 59323131-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71 bits per pixel: 6 number of planes: 3 type: YUV (packed) id: 0x0 guid: 00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000 bits per pixel: 0 number of planes: 0 type: RGB (packed) depth: 1 red, green, blue masks: 0x0, 0x0, 0x0 Also note that the formats listed (YUV2, YUV12, etc) are not present with every implementation of XVideo and their absence may hinder some players. If the result looks like: X-Video Extension version 2.2 screen #0 no adaptors present Then XVideo is probably not supported for your card. If XVideo is not supported for your card, this only means that it will be more difficult for your display to meet the computational demands of rendering video. Depending on your video card and processor, though, you might still be able to have a satisfying experience. You should probably read about ways of improving performance in the advanced reading . Simple Directmedia Layer The Simple Directmedia Layer, SDL, was intended to be a porting layer between µsoft.windows;, BeOS, and &unix;, allowing cross-platform applications to be developed which made efficient use of sound and graphics. The SDL layer provides a low-level abstraction to the hardware which can sometimes be more efficient than the X11 interface. The SDL can be found at devel/sdl12. Direct Graphics Access Direct Graphics Access is an &xfree86; extension which allows a program to bypass the X server and directly alter the framebuffer. Because it relies on a low level memory mapping to effect this sharing, programs using it must be run as root. The DGA extension can be tested and benchmarked by &man.dga.1;. When dga is running, it changes the colors of the display whenever a key is pressed. To quit, use q. Ports and Packages Dealing with Video video ports video packages This section discusses the software available from the FreeBSD Ports Collection which can be used for video playback. Video playback is a very active area of software development, and the capabilities of various applications are bound to diverge somewhat from the descriptions given here. Firstly, it is important to know that many of the video applications which run on FreeBSD were developed as Linux applications. Many of these applications are still beta-quality. Some of the problems that you may encounter with video packages on FreeBSD include: An application cannot playback a file which another application produced. An application cannot playback a file which the application itself produced. The same application on two different machines, rebuilt on each machine for that machine, plays back the same file differently. A seemingly trivial filter like rescaling of the image size results in very bad artifacts from a buggy rescaling routine. An application frequently dumps core. Documentation is not installed with the port and can be found either on the web or under the port's work directory. Many of these applications may also exhibit Linux-isms. That is, there may be issues resulting from the way some standard libraries are implemented in the Linux distributions, or some features of the Linux kernel which have been assumed by the authors of the applications. These issues are not always noticed and worked around by the port maintainers, which can lead to problems like these: The use of /proc/cpuinfo to detect processor characteristics. A misuse of threads which causes a program to hang upon completion instead of truly terminating. Software not yet in the FreeBSD Ports Collection which is commonly used in conjunction with the application. So far, these application developers have been cooperative with port maintainers to minimize the work-arounds needed for port-ing. MPlayer MPlayer is a recently developed and rapidly developing video player. The goals of the MPlayer team are speed and flexibility on Linux and other Unices. The project was started when the team founder got fed up with bad playback performance on then available players. Some would say that the graphical interface has been sacrificed for a streamlined design. However, once you get used to the command line options and the key-stroke controls, it works very well. Building MPlayer MPlayer making MPlayer resides in multimedia/mplayer. MPlayer performs a variety of hardware checks during the build process, resulting in a binary which will not be portable from one system to another. Therefore, it is important to build it from ports and not to use a binary package. Additionally, a number of options can be specified in the make command line, as described at the start of the build. &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/multimedia/mplayer &prompt.root; make You can enable additional compilation optimizations by defining WITH_OPTIMIZED_CFLAGS You can enable GTK GUI by defining WITH_GUI. You can enable DVD support by defining WITH_DVD. You can enable SVGALIB support by defining WITH_SVGALIB. You can enable VORBIS sound support by defining WITH_VORBIS. You can enable XAnim DLL support by defining WITH_XANIM. If you have x11-toolkits/gtk12 installed, then you might as well enable the GUI. Otherwise, it is not worth the effort. If you intend to play (possibly CSS encoded) DVD's with MPlayer you must enable the DVD support option here Unauthorized DVD playback is a serious criminal act in some countries. Check local laws before enabling this option. . Some reasonable options are: &prompt.root; make WITH_DVD=yes WITH_SVGALIB=yes As of this writing, the MPlayer port will build its HTML documentation and one executable, mplayer. It can also be made to build an encoder, mencoder, which is a tool for re-encoding video. A modification to the Makefile can enable it. It may be enabled by default in subsequent versions of the port. The HTML documentation for MPlayer is very informative. If the reader finds the information on video hardware and interfaces in this chapter lacking, the MPlayer documentation is a very thorough supplement. You should definitely take the time to read the MPlayer documentation if you are looking for information about video support in &unix;. Using MPlayer MPlayer use Any user of MPlayer must set up a .mplayer subdirectory of her home directory. To create this necessary subdirectory, you can type the following: &prompt.user; cd /usr/ports/multimedia/mplayer &prompt.user; make install-user The command options for mplayer are listed in the manual page. For even more detail there is HTML documentation. In this section, we will describe only a few common uses. To play a file, such as testfile.avi, through one of the various video interfaces set the option: &prompt.user; mplayer -vo xv testfile.avi &prompt.user; mplayer -vo sdl testfile.avi &prompt.user; mplayer -vo x11 testfile.avi &prompt.root; mplayer -vo dga testfile.avi &prompt.root; mplayer -vo 'sdl:dga' testfile.avi It is worth trying all of these options, as their relative performance depends on many factors and will vary significantly with hardware. To play from a DVD, replace the testfile.avi with where N is the title number to play and DEVICE is the device node for the DVD-ROM. For example, to play title 3 from /dev/dvd: &prompt.root; mplayer -vo dga -dvd 3 /dev/dvd To stop, pause, advance and so on, consult the keybindings, which are output by running mplayer -h or read the manual page. Additional important options for playback are: which engages the fullscreen mode and which helps performance. In order for the mplayer command line to not become too large, the user can create a file .mplayer/config and set default options there: vo=xv fs=yes zoom=yes Finally, mplayer can be used to rip a DVD title into a .vob file. To dump out the second title from a DVD, type this: &prompt.root; mplayer -dumpstream -dumpfile out.vob -dvd 2 /dev/dvd The output file, out.vob, will be MPEG and can be manipulated by the other packages described in this section. mencoder mencoder If you opt to install mencoder when you build MPlayer, be forewarned that it is still an experimental component. Before using mencoder it is a good idea to familiarize yourself with the options from the HTML documentation. There is a manual page, but it is not very useful without the HTML documentation. There are innumerable ways to improve quality, lower bitrate, and change formats, and some of these tricks may make the difference between good or bad performance. Here are a couple of examples to get you going. First a simple copy: &prompt.user; mencoder input.avi -oac copy -ovc copy -o output.avi Improper combinations of command line options can yield output files that are unplayable even by mplayer. Thus, if you just want to rip to a file, stick to the in mplayer. To convert input.avi to the MPEG4 codec with MPEG3 audio encoding (audio/lame is required): &prompt.user; mencoder input.avi -oac mp3lame -lameopts br=192 \ -ovc lavc -lavcopts vcodec=mpeg4:vhq -o output.avi This has produced output playable by mplayer and xine. input.avi can be replaced with and run as root to re-encode a DVD title directly. Since you are likely to be dissatisfied with your results the first time around, it is recommended you dump the title to a file and work on the file. The xine Video Player The xine video player is a project of wide scope aiming not only at being an all in one video solution, but also in producing a reusable base library and a modular executable which can be extended with plugins. It comes both as a package and as a port, multimedia/xine. The xine player is still very rough around the edges, but it is clearly off to a good start. In practice, xine requires either a fast CPU with a fast video card, or support for the XVideo extension. The GUI is usable, but a bit clumsy. As of this writing, there is no input module shipped with xine which will play CSS encoded DVD's. There are third party builds which do have modules for this built in them, but none of these are in the FreeBSD Ports Collection. Compared to MPlayer, xine does more for the user, but at the same time, takes some of the more fine-grained control away from the user. The xine video player performs best on XVideo interfaces. By default, xine player will start up in a graphical user interface. The menus can then be used to open a specific file: &prompt.user; xine Alternatively, it may be invoked to play a file immediately without the GUI with the command: &prompt.user; xine -g -p mymovie.avi The transcode Utilities The software transcode is not a player, but a suite of tools for re-encoding .avi and .mpg files. With transcode, one has the ability to merge video files, repair broken files, using command line tools with stdin/stdout stream interfaces. Like MPlayer, transcode is very experimental software which must be build from the port multimedia/transcode. Using a great many options to the make command. I recommend: &prompt.root; make WITH_LIBMPEG2=yes If you plan to install multimedia/avifile, then add the WITH_AVIFILE option to your make command line, as shown here: &prompt.root; make WITH_AVIFILE=yes WITH_LIBMPEG2=yes Here are two examples of using transcode for video conversion which produce rescaled output. The first encodes the output to an openDIVX AVI file, while the second encodes to the much more portable MPEG format. &prompt.user; transcode -i input.vob -x vob -V -Z 320x240 \ -y opendivx -N 0x55 -o output.avi &prompt.user; transcode -i input.vob -x vob -V -Z 320x240 \ -y mpeg -N 0x55 -o output.tmp &prompt.user; tcmplex -o output.mpg -i output.tmp.m1v -p output.tmp.mpa -m 1 There is a manual page for transcode, but there is little documentation for the various tc* utilities (such as tcmplex) which are also installed. However, the command line option can always be given to get curt usage instructions for a command. In comparison, transcode runs significantly slower than mencoder, but it has a better chance of producing a more widely playable file. MPEGs created by transcode have been known to play on &windows.media; Player and Apple's &quicktime;, for example. Further Reading The various video software packages for FreeBSD are developing rapidly. It is quite possible that in the near future many of the problems discussed here will have been resolved. In the mean time, those who want to get the very most out of FreeBSD's A/V capabilities will have to cobble together knowledge from several FAQs and tutorials and use a few different applications. This section exists to give the reader pointers to such additional information. The MPlayer documentation is very technically informative. These documents should probably be consulted by anyone wishing to obtain a high level of expertise with &unix; video. The MPlayer mailing list is hostile to anyone who has not bothered to read the documentation, so if you plan on making bug reports to them, RTFM. The xine HOWTO contains a chapter on performance improvement which is general to all players. Finally, there are some other promising applications which the reader may try: Avifile which is also a port multimedia/avifile. Ogle which is also a port multimedia/ogle. Xtheater multimedia/dvdauthor, an open source package for authoring DVD content. Josef El-Rayes Original contribution by Marc Fonvieille Enhanced and adapted by Setting Up TV Cards TV cards Introduction TV cards allow you to watch broadcast or cable TV on your computer. Most of them accept composite video via an RCA or S-video input and some of these cards come with a FM radio tuner. &os; provides support for PCI-based TV cards using a Brooktree Bt848/849/878/879 or a Conexant CN-878/Fusion 878a Video Capture Chip with the &man.bktr.4; driver. You must also ensure the board comes with a supported tuner, consult the &man.bktr.4; manual page for a list of supported tuners. Adding the Driver To use your card, you will need to load the &man.bktr.4; driver, this can be done by adding the following line to the /boot/loader.conf file like this: bktr_load="YES" Alternatively, you may statically compile the support for the TV card in your kernel, in that case add the following lines to your kernel configuration: device bktr device iicbus device iicbb device smbus These additional device drivers are necessary because of the card components being interconnected via an I2C bus. Then build and install a new kernel. Once the support was added to your system, you have to reboot your machine. During the boot process, your TV card should show up, like this: bktr0: <BrookTree 848A> mem 0xd7000000-0xd7000fff irq 10 at device 10.0 on pci0 iicbb0: <I2C bit-banging driver> on bti2c0 iicbus0: <Philips I2C bus> on iicbb0 master-only iicbus1: <Philips I2C bus> on iicbb0 master-only smbus0: <System Management Bus> on bti2c0 bktr0: Pinnacle/Miro TV, Philips SECAM tuner. Of course these messages can differ according to your hardware. However you should check if the tuner is correctly detected; it is still possible to override some of the detected parameters with &man.sysctl.8; MIBs and kernel configuration file options. For example, if you want to force the tuner to a Philips SECAM tuner, you should add the following line to your kernel configuration file: options OVERRIDE_TUNER=6 or you can directly use &man.sysctl.8;: &prompt.root; sysctl hw.bt848.tuner=6 See the &man.bktr.4; manual page and the /usr/src/sys/conf/NOTES file for more details on the available options. (If you are under &os; 4.X, /usr/src/sys/conf/NOTES is replaced with /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT.) Useful Applications To use your TV card you need to install one of the following applications: multimedia/fxtv provides TV-in-a-window and image/audio/video capture capabilities. multimedia/xawtv is also a TV application, with the same features as fxtv. misc/alevt decodes and displays Videotext/Teletext. audio/xmradio, an application to use the FM radio tuner coming with some TV cards. audio/wmtune, a handy desktop application for radio tuners. More applications are available in the &os; Ports Collection. Troubleshooting If you encounter any problem with your TV card, you should check at first if the video capture chip and the tuner are really supported by the &man.bktr.4; driver and if you used the right configuration options. For more support and various questions about your TV card you may want to contact and use the archives of the &a.multimedia.name; mailing list. Marc Fonvieille Written by Image Scanners image scanners Introduction &os;, like any modern operating system, allows the use of image scanners. Standardized access to scanners is provided by the SANE (Scanner Access Now Easy) API available through the &os; Ports Collection. SANE will also use some &os; devices drivers to access to the scanner hardware. &os; supports both SCSI and USB scanners. Be sure your scanner is supported by SANE prior to performing any configuration. SANE has a supported devices list that can provide you with information about the support for a scanner and its status. The &man.uscanner.4; manual page also provides a list of supported USB scanners. Kernel Configuration As mentioned above both SCSI and USB interfaces are supported. According to your scanner interface, different device drivers are required. USB Interface The GENERIC kernel by default includes the device drivers needed to support USB scanners. Should you decide to use a custom kernel, be sure that the following lines are present in your kernel configuration file: device usb device uhci device ohci device uscanner Depending upon the USB chipset on your motherboard, you will only need either device uhci or device ohci, however having both in the kernel configuration file is harmless. If you do not want to rebuild your kernel and your kernel is not the GENERIC one, you can directly load the &man.uscanner.4; device driver module with the &man.kldload.8; command: &prompt.root; kldload uscanner To load this module at each system startup, add the following line to /boot/loader.conf: uscanner_load="YES" After rebooting with the correct kernel, or after loading the required module, plug in your USB scanner. The scanner should appear in your system message buffer (&man.dmesg.8;) as something like: uscanner0: EPSON EPSON Scanner, rev 1.10/3.02, addr 2 This shows that our scanner is using the - /dev/uscanner0 device node. + /dev/uscanner0 device node. On &os; 4.X, the USB daemon (&man.usbd.8;) must be running to be able to see some USB devices. To enable this, add usbd_enable="YES" to your /etc/rc.conf file and reboot the machine. SCSI Interface If your scanner comes with a SCSI interface, it is important to know which SCSI controller board you will use. According to the SCSI chipset used, you will have to tune your kernel configuration file. The GENERIC kernel supports the most common SCSI controllers. Be sure to read the NOTES file (LINT under &os; 4.X) and add the correct line to your kernel configuration file. In addition to the SCSI adapter driver, you need to have the following lines in your kernel configuration file: device scbus device pass Once your kernel has been properly compiled, you should be able to see the devices in your system message buffer, when booting: pass2 at aic0 bus 0 target 2 lun 0 pass2: <AGFA SNAPSCAN 600 1.10> Fixed Scanner SCSI-2 device pass2: 3.300MB/s transfers If your scanner was not powered-on at system boot, it is still possible to manually force the detection by performing a SCSI bus scan with the &man.camcontrol.8; command: &prompt.root; camcontrol rescan all Re-scan of bus 0 was successful Re-scan of bus 1 was successful Re-scan of bus 2 was successful Re-scan of bus 3 was successful Then the scanner will appear in the SCSI devices list: &prompt.root; camcontrol devlist <IBM DDRS-34560 S97B> at scbus0 target 5 lun 0 (pass0,da0) <IBM DDRS-34560 S97B> at scbus0 target 6 lun 0 (pass1,da1) <AGFA SNAPSCAN 600 1.10> at scbus1 target 2 lun 0 (pass3) <PHILIPS CDD3610 CD-R/RW 1.00> at scbus2 target 0 lun 0 (pass2,cd0) More details about SCSI devices, are available in the &man.scsi.4; and &man.camcontrol.8; manual pages. SANE Configuration The SANE system has been splitted in two parts: the backends (graphics/sane-backends) and the frontends (graphics/sane-frontends). The backends part provides access to the scanner itself. The SANE's supported devices list specifies which backend will support your image scanner. It is mandatory to determine the correct backend for your scanner if you want to be able to use your device. The frontends part provides the graphical scanning interface (xscanimage). The first thing to do is install the graphics/sane-backends port or package. Then, use the sane-find-scanner command to check the scanner detection by the SANE system: &prompt.root; sane-find-scanner -q found SCSI scanner "AGFA SNAPSCAN 600 1.10" at /dev/pass3 The output will show the interface type of the scanner and the device node used to attach the scanner to the system. The vendor and the product model may not appear, it is not important. Some USB scanners require you to load a firmware, this is explained in the backend manual page. You should also read &man.sane-find-scanner.1; and &man.sane.7; manual pages. Now we have to check if the scanner will be identified by a scanning frontend. By default, the SANE backends comes with a command line tool called &man.scanimage.1;. This command allows you to list the devices and to perform an image acquisition from the command line. The option is used to list the scanner device: &prompt.root; scanimage -L device `snapscan:/dev/pass3' is a AGFA SNAPSCAN 600 flatbed scanner No output or a message saying that no scanners were identified indicates that &man.scanimage.1; is unable to identify the scanner. If this happens, you will need to edit the backend configuration file and define the scanner device used. The /usr/local/etc/sane.d/ directory contains all backends configuration files. This identification problem does appear with certain USB scanners. For example, with the USB scanner used in the , sane-find-scanner gives us the following information: &prompt.root; sane-find-scanner -q found USB scanner (UNKNOWN vendor and product) at device /dev/uscanner0 The scanner is correctly detected, it uses the USB interface and is attached to the - /dev/uscanner0 device node. We can now + /dev/uscanner0 device node. We can now check if the scanner is correctly identified: &prompt.root; scanimage -L No scanners were identified. If you were expecting something different, check that the scanner is plugged in, turned on and detected by the sane-find-scanner tool (if appropriate). Please read the documentation which came with this software (README, FAQ, manpages). Since the scanner is not identified, we will need to edit the /usr/local/etc/sane.d/epson.conf file. The scanner model used was the EPSON Perfection 1650, so we know the scanner will use the epson backend. Be sure to read the help comments in the backends configuration files. Line changes are quite simple: comment out all lines that have the wrong interface for your scanner (in our case, we will comment out all lines starting with the word scsi as our scanner uses the USB interface), then add at the end of the file a line specifying the interface and the device node used. In this case, we add the following line: usb /dev/uscanner0 Please be sure to read the comments provided in the backend configuration file as well as the backend manual page for more details and correct syntax to use. We can now verify if the scanner is identified: &prompt.root; scanimage -L device `epson:/dev/uscanner0' is a Epson GT-8200 flatbed scanner Our USB scanner has been identified. It is not important if the brand and the model do not match. The key item to be concerned with is the `epson:/dev/uscanner0' field, which give us the right backend name and the right device node. Once the scanimage -L command is able to see the scanner, the configuration is complete. The device is now ready to scan. While &man.scanimage.1; does does allow us to perform an image acquisition from the command line, it is preferable to use a graphical user interface to perform image scanning. SANE offers a simple but efficient graphical interface: xscanimage (graphics/sane-frontends). Xsane (graphics/xsane) is another popular graphical scanning frontend. This frontend offers advanced features such as various scanning mode (photocopy, fax, etc.), color correction, batch scans, etc. Both of these applications are useable as a GIMP plugin. Allowing Scanner Access to Other Users All previous operations have been done with root privileges. You may however, need other users to have access to the scanner. The user will need read and write permissions to the device node used by the scanner. As an example, our USB scanner uses the device node - /dev/uscanner0 which is owned by the + /dev/uscanner0 which is owned by the operator group. Adding the user joe to the operator group will allow him to use the scanner: &prompt.root; pw groupmod operator -m joe For more details read the &man.pw.8; manual page. Of course, for security reasons, you should think twice before adding a user to any group, especially the operator group. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/network-servers/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/network-servers/chapter.sgml index 182eb00b5f..fa74e920b1 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/network-servers/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/network-servers/chapter.sgml @@ -1,4915 +1,4915 @@ Murray Stokely Reorganized by Network Servers Synopsis This chapter will cover some of the more frequently used network services on &unix; systems. We will cover how to install, configure, test, and maintain many different types of network services. Example configuration files are included throughout this chapter for you to benefit from. After reading this chapter, you will know: How to manage the inetd daemon. How to set up a network filesystem. How to set up a network information server for sharing user accounts. How to set up automatic network settings using DHCP. How to set up a domain name server. How to set up the Apache HTTP Server. How to set up a File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Server. How to set up a file and print server for &windows; clients using Samba. How to synchronize the time and date, and set up a time server, with the NTP protocol. Before reading this chapter, you should: Understand the basics of the /etc/rc scripts. Be familiar with basic network terminology. Know how to install additional third-party software (). Chern Lee Contributed by The <application>inetd</application> <quote>Super-Server</quote> Overview &man.inetd.8; is referred to as the Internet Super-Server because it manages connections for several daemons. Programs that provide network service are commonly known as daemons. inetd serves as a managing server for other daemons. When a connection is received by inetd, it determines which daemon the connection is destined for, spawns the particular daemon and delegates the socket to it. Running one instance of inetd reduces the overall system load as compared to running each daemon individually in stand-alone mode. Primarily, inetd is used to spawn other daemons, but several trivial protocols are handled directly, such as chargen, auth, and daytime. This section will cover the basics in configuring inetd through its command-line options and its configuration file, /etc/inetd.conf. Settings inetd is initialized through the /etc/rc.conf system. The inetd_enable option is set to NO by default, but is often times turned on by sysinstall with the medium security profile. Placing: inetd_enable="YES" or inetd_enable="NO" into /etc/rc.conf can enable or disable inetd starting at boot time. Additionally, different command-line options can be passed to inetd via the inetd_flags option. Command-Line Options inetd synopsis: -d Turn on debugging. -l Turn on logging of successful connections. -w Turn on TCP Wrapping for external services (on by default). -W Turn on TCP Wrapping for internal services which are built into inetd (on by default). -c maximum Specify the default maximum number of simultaneous invocations of each service; the default is unlimited. May be overridden on a per-service basis with the parameter. -C rate Specify the default maximum number of times a service can be invoked from a single IP address in one minute; the default is unlimited. May be overridden on a per-service basis with the parameter. -R rate Specify the maximum number of times a service can be invoked in one minute; the default is 256. A rate of 0 allows an unlimited number of invocations. -a Specify one specific IP address to bind to. Alternatively, a hostname can be specified, in which case the IPv4 or IPv6 address which corresponds to that hostname is used. Usually a hostname is specified when inetd is run inside a &man.jail.8;, in which case the hostname corresponds to the &man.jail.8; environment. When hostname specification is used and both IPv4 and IPv6 bindings are desired, one entry with the appropriate protocol type for each binding is required for each service in /etc/inetd.conf. For example, a TCP-based service would need two entries, one using tcp4 for the protocol and the other using tcp6. -p Specify an alternate file in which to store the process ID. These options can be passed to inetd using the inetd_flags option in /etc/rc.conf. By default, inetd_flags is set to -wW, which turns on TCP wrapping for inetd's internal and external services. For novice users, these parameters usually do not need to be modified or even entered in /etc/rc.conf. An external service is a daemon outside of inetd, which is invoked when a connection is received for it. On the other hand, an internal service is one that inetd has the facility of offering within itself. <filename>inetd.conf</filename> Configuration of inetd is controlled through the /etc/inetd.conf file. When a modification is made to /etc/inetd.conf, inetd can be forced to re-read its configuration file by sending a HangUP signal to the inetd process as shown: Sending <application>inetd</application> a HangUP Signal &prompt.root; kill -HUP `cat /var/run/inetd.pid` Each line of the configuration file specifies an individual daemon. Comments in the file are preceded by a #. The format of /etc/inetd.conf is as follows: service-name socket-type protocol {wait|nowait}[/max-child[/max-connections-per-ip-per-minute]] user[:group][/login-class] server-program server-program-arguments An example entry for the ftpd daemon using IPv4: ftp stream tcp nowait root /usr/libexec/ftpd ftpd -l service-name This is the service name of the particular daemon. It must correspond to a service listed in /etc/services. This determines which port inetd must listen to. If a new service is being created, it must be placed in /etc/services first. socket-type Either stream, dgram, raw, or seqpacket. stream must be used for connection-based, TCP daemons, while dgram is used for daemons utilizing the UDP transport protocol. protocol One of the following: Protocol Explanation tcp, tcp4 TCP IPv4 udp, udp4 UDP IPv4 tcp6 TCP IPv6 udp6 UDP IPv6 tcp46 Both TCP IPv4 and v6 udp46 Both UDP IPv4 and v6 {wait|nowait}[/max-child[/max-connections-per-ip-per-minute]] indicates whether the daemon invoked from inetd is able to handle its own socket or not. socket types must use the option, while stream socket daemons, which are usually multi-threaded, should use . usually hands off multiple sockets to a single daemon, while spawns a child daemon for each new socket. The maximum number of child daemons inetd may spawn can be set using the option. If a limit of ten instances of a particular daemon is needed, a /10 would be placed after . In addition to , another option limiting the maximum connections from a single place to a particular daemon can be enabled. does just this. A value of ten here would limit any particular IP address connecting to a particular service to ten attempts per minute. This is useful to prevent intentional or unintentional resource consumption and Denial of Service (DoS) attacks to a machine. In this field, or is mandatory. and are optional. A stream-type multi-threaded daemon without any or limits would simply be: nowait. The same daemon with a maximum limit of ten daemons would read: nowait/10. Additionally, the same setup with a limit of twenty connections per IP address per minute and a maximum total limit of ten child daemons would read: nowait/10/20. These options are all utilized by the default settings of the fingerd daemon, as seen here: finger stream tcp nowait/3/10 nobody /usr/libexec/fingerd fingerd -s user This is the username that the particular daemon should run as. Most commonly, daemons run as the root user. For security purposes, it is common to find some servers running as the daemon user, or the least privileged nobody user. server-program The full path of the daemon to be executed when a connection is received. If the daemon is a service provided by inetd internally, then should be used. server-program-arguments This works in conjunction with by specifying the arguments, starting with argv[0], passed to the daemon on invocation. If mydaemon -d is the command line, mydaemon -d would be the value of . Again, if the daemon is an internal service, use here. Security Depending on the security profile chosen at install, many of inetd's daemons may be enabled by default. If there is no apparent need for a particular daemon, disable it! Place a # in front of the daemon in question in /etc/inetd.conf, and then send a hangup signal to inetd. Some daemons, such as fingerd, may not be desired at all because they provide an attacker with too much information. Some daemons are not security-conscious and have long, or non-existent timeouts for connection attempts. This allows an attacker to slowly send connections to a particular daemon, thus saturating available resources. It may be a good idea to place and limitations on certain daemons. By default, TCP wrapping is turned on. Consult the &man.hosts.access.5; manual page for more information on placing TCP restrictions on various inetd invoked daemons. Miscellaneous daytime, time, echo, discard, chargen, and auth are all internally provided services of inetd. The auth service provides identity (ident, identd) network services, and is configurable to a certain degree. Consult the &man.inetd.8; manual page for more in-depth information. Tom Rhodes Reorganized and enhanced by Bill Swingle Written by Network File System (NFS) NFS Among the many different filesystems that FreeBSD supports is the Network File System, also known as NFS. NFS allows a system to share directories and files with others over a network. By using NFS, users and programs can access files on remote systems almost as if they were local files. Some of the most notable benefits that NFS can provide are: Local workstations use less disk space because commonly used data can be stored on a single machine and still remain accessible to others over the network. There is no need for users to have separate home directories on every network machine. Home directories could be set up on the NFS server and made available throughout the network. Storage devices such as floppy disks, CDROM drives, and ZIP drives can be used by other machines on the network. This may reduce the number of removable media drives throughout the network. How <acronym>NFS</acronym> Works NFS consists of at least two main parts: a server and one or more clients. The client remotely accesses the data that is stored on the server machine. In order for this to function properly a few processes have to be configured and running. In &os; 5.X, the portmap utility has been replaced with the rpcbind utility. Thus, in &os; 5.X the user is required to replace every instance of portmap with rpcbind in the forthcoming examples. The server has to be running the following daemons: NFS server file server unix clients portmap mountd nfsd Daemon Description nfsd The NFS daemon which services requests from the NFS clients. mountd The NFS mount daemon which carries out the requests that &man.nfsd.8; passes on to it. portmap The portmapper daemon allows NFS clients to discover which port the NFS server is using. The client can also run a daemon, known as nfsiod. The nfsiod daemon services the requests from the NFS server. This is optional, and improves performance, but is not required for normal and correct operation. See the &man.nfsiod.8; manual page for more information. Configuring <acronym>NFS</acronym> NFS configuration NFS configuration is a relatively straightforward process. The processes that need to be running can all start at boot time with a few modifications to your /etc/rc.conf file. On the NFS server, make sure that the following options are configured in the /etc/rc.conf file: portmap_enable="YES" nfs_server_enable="YES" mountd_flags="-r" mountd runs automatically whenever the NFS server is enabled. On the client, make sure this option is present in /etc/rc.conf: nfs_client_enable="YES" The /etc/exports file specifies which filesystems NFS should export (sometimes referred to as share). Each line in /etc/exports specifies a filesystem to be exported and which machines have access to that filesystem. Along with what machines have access to that filesystem, access options may also be specified. There are many such options that can be used in this file but only a few will be mentioned here. You can easily discover other options by reading over the &man.exports.5; manual page. Here are a few example /etc/exports entries: NFS export examples The following examples give an idea of how to export filesystems, although the settings may be different depending on your environment and network configuration. For instance, to export the /cdrom directory to three example machines that have the same domain name as the server (hence the lack of a domain name for each) or have entries in your /etc/hosts file. The flag makes the exported filesystem read-only. With this flag, the remote system will not be able to write any changes to the exported filesystem. /cdrom -ro host1 host2 host3 The following line exports /home to three hosts by IP address. This is a useful setup if you have a private network without a DNS server configured. Optionally the /etc/hosts file could be configured for internal hostnames; please review &man.hosts.5; for more information. The flag allows the subdirectories to be mount points. In other words, it will not mount the subdirectories but permit the client to mount only the directories that are required or needed. /home -alldirs 10.0.0.2 10.0.0.3 10.0.0.4 The following line exports /a so that two clients from different domains may access the filesystem. The flag allows the root user on the remote system to write data on the exported filesystem as root. If the -maproot=root flag is not specified, then even if a user has root access on the remote system, he will not be able to modify files on the exported filesystem. /a -maproot=root host.example.com box.example.org In order for a client to access an exported filesystem, the client must have permission to do so. Make sure the client is listed in your /etc/exports file. In /etc/exports, each line represents the export information for one filesystem to one host. A remote host can only be specified once per filesystem, and may only have one default entry. For example, assume that /usr is a single filesystem. The following /etc/exports would be invalid: /usr/src client /usr/ports client One filesystem, /usr, has two lines specifying exports to the same host, client. The correct format for this situation is: /usr/src /usr/ports client The properties of one filesystem exported to a given host must all occur on one line. Lines without a client specified are treated as a single host. This limits how you can export filesystems, but for most people this is not an issue. The following is an example of a valid export list, where /usr and /exports are local filesystems: # Export src and ports to client01 and client02, but only # client01 has root privileges on it /usr/src /usr/ports -maproot=root client01 /usr/src /usr/ports client02 # The client machines have root and can mount anywhere # on /exports. Anyone in the world can mount /exports/obj read-only /exports -alldirs -maproot=root client01 client02 /exports/obj -ro You must restart mountd whenever you modify /etc/exports so the changes can take effect. This can be accomplished by sending the HUP signal to the mountd process: &prompt.root; kill -HUP `cat /var/run/mountd.pid` Alternatively, a reboot will make FreeBSD set everything up properly. A reboot is not necessary though. Executing the following commands as root should start everything up. On the NFS server: &prompt.root; portmap &prompt.root; nfsd -u -t -n 4 &prompt.root; mountd -r On the NFS client: &prompt.root; nfsiod -n 4 Now everything should be ready to actually mount a remote file system. In these examples the server's name will be server and the client's name will be client. If you only want to temporarily mount a remote filesystem or would rather test the configuration, just execute a command like this as root on the client: NFS mounting &prompt.root; mount server:/home /mnt This will mount the /home directory on the server at /mnt on the client. If everything is set up correctly you should be able to enter /mnt on the client and see all the files that are on the server. If you want to automatically mount a remote filesystem each time the computer boots, add the filesystem to the /etc/fstab file. Here is an example: server:/home /mnt nfs rw 0 0 The &man.fstab.5; manual page lists all the available options. Practical Uses NFS has many practical uses. Some of the more common ones are listed below: NFS uses Set several machines to share a CDROM or other media among them. This is cheaper and often a more convenient method to install software on multiple machines. On large networks, it might be more convenient to configure a central NFS server in which to store all the user home directories. These home directories can then be exported to the network so that users would always have the same home directory, regardless of which workstation they log in to. Several machines could have a common /usr/ports/distfiles directory. That way, when you need to install a port on several machines, you can quickly access the source without downloading it on each machine. Wylie Stilwell Contributed by Chern Lee Rewritten by Automatic Mounts with <application>amd</application> amd automatic mounter daemon &man.amd.8; (the automatic mounter daemon) automatically mounts a remote filesystem whenever a file or directory within that filesystem is accessed. Filesystems that are inactive for a period of time will also be automatically unmounted by amd. Using amd provides a simple alternative to permanent mounts, as permanent mounts are usually listed in /etc/fstab. amd operates by attaching itself as an NFS server to the /host and /net directories. When a file is accessed within one of these directories, amd looks up the corresponding remote mount and automatically mounts it. /net is used to mount an exported filesystem from an IP address, while /host is used to mount an export from a remote hostname. An access to a file within /host/foobar/usr would tell amd to attempt to mount the /usr export on the host foobar. Mounting an Export with <application>amd</application> You can view the available mounts of a remote host with the showmount command. For example, to view the mounts of a host named foobar, you can use: &prompt.user; showmount -e foobar Exports list on foobar: /usr 10.10.10.0 /a 10.10.10.0 &prompt.user; cd /host/foobar/usr As seen in the example, the showmount shows /usr as an export. When changing directories to /host/foobar/usr, amd attempts to resolve the hostname foobar and automatically mount the desired export. amd can be started by the startup scripts by placing the following lines in /etc/rc.conf: amd_enable="YES" Additionally, custom flags can be passed to amd from the amd_flags option. By default, amd_flags is set to: amd_flags="-a /.amd_mnt -l syslog /host /etc/amd.map /net /etc/amd.map" The /etc/amd.map file defines the default options that exports are mounted with. The /etc/amd.conf file defines some of the more advanced features of amd. Consult the &man.amd.8; and &man.amd.conf.5; manual pages for more information. John Lind Contributed by Problems Integrating with Other Systems Certain Ethernet adapters for ISA PC systems have limitations which can lead to serious network problems, particularly with NFS. This difficulty is not specific to FreeBSD, but FreeBSD systems are affected by it. The problem nearly always occurs when (FreeBSD) PC systems are networked with high-performance workstations, such as those made by Silicon Graphics, Inc., and Sun Microsystems, Inc. The NFS mount will work fine, and some operations may succeed, but suddenly the server will seem to become unresponsive to the client, even though requests to and from other systems continue to be processed. This happens to the client system, whether the client is the FreeBSD system or the workstation. On many systems, there is no way to shut down the client gracefully once this problem has manifested itself. The only solution is often to reset the client, because the NFS situation cannot be resolved. Though the correct solution is to get a higher performance and capacity Ethernet adapter for the FreeBSD system, there is a simple workaround that will allow satisfactory operation. If the FreeBSD system is the server, include the option on the mount from the client. If the FreeBSD system is the client, then mount the NFS filesystem with the option . These options may be specified using the fourth field of the fstab entry on the client for automatic mounts, or by using the parameter of the &man.mount.8; command for manual mounts. It should be noted that there is a different problem, sometimes mistaken for this one, when the NFS servers and clients are on different networks. If that is the case, make certain that your routers are routing the necessary UDP information, or you will not get anywhere, no matter what else you are doing. In the following examples, fastws is the host (interface) name of a high-performance workstation, and freebox is the host (interface) name of a FreeBSD system with a lower-performance Ethernet adapter. Also, /sharedfs will be the exported NFS filesystem (see &man.exports.5;), and /project will be the mount point on the client for the exported filesystem. In all cases, note that additional options, such as or and may be desirable in your application. Examples for the FreeBSD system (freebox) as the client in /etc/fstab on freebox: fastws:/sharedfs /project nfs rw,-r=1024 0 0 As a manual mount command on freebox: &prompt.root; mount -t nfs -o -r=1024 fastws:/sharedfs /project Examples for the FreeBSD system as the server in /etc/fstab on fastws: freebox:/sharedfs /project nfs rw,-w=1024 0 0 As a manual mount command on fastws: &prompt.root; mount -t nfs -o -w=1024 freebox:/sharedfs /project Nearly any 16-bit Ethernet adapter will allow operation without the above restrictions on the read or write size. For anyone who cares, here is what happens when the failure occurs, which also explains why it is unrecoverable. NFS typically works with a block size of 8 K (though it may do fragments of smaller sizes). Since the maximum Ethernet packet is around 1500 bytes, the NFS block gets split into multiple Ethernet packets, even though it is still a single unit to the upper-level code, and must be received, assembled, and acknowledged as a unit. The high-performance workstations can pump out the packets which comprise the NFS unit one right after the other, just as close together as the standard allows. On the smaller, lower capacity cards, the later packets overrun the earlier packets of the same unit before they can be transferred to the host and the unit as a whole cannot be reconstructed or acknowledged. As a result, the workstation will time out and try again, but it will try again with the entire 8 K unit, and the process will be repeated, ad infinitum. By keeping the unit size below the Ethernet packet size limitation, we ensure that any complete Ethernet packet received can be acknowledged individually, avoiding the deadlock situation. Overruns may still occur when a high-performance workstations is slamming data out to a PC system, but with the better cards, such overruns are not guaranteed on NFS units. When an overrun occurs, the units affected will be retransmitted, and there will be a fair chance that they will be received, assembled, and acknowledged. Bill Swingle Written by Eric Ogren Enhanced by Udo Erdelhoff Network Information System (NIS/YP) What Is It? NIS Solaris HP-UX AIX Linux NetBSD OpenBSD NIS, which stands for Network Information Services, was developed by Sun Microsystems to centralize administration of &unix; (originally &sunos;) systems. It has now essentially become an industry standard; all major &unix; like systems (&solaris;, HP-UX, &aix;, Linux, NetBSD, OpenBSD, FreeBSD, etc) support NIS. yellow pagesNIS NIS was formerly known as Yellow Pages, but because of trademark issues, Sun changed the name. The old term (and yp) is still often seen and used. NIS domains It is a RPC-based client/server system that allows a group of machines within an NIS domain to share a common set of configuration files. This permits a system administrator to set up NIS client systems with only minimal configuration data and add, remove or modify configuration data from a single location. Windows NT It is similar to the &windowsnt; domain system; although the internal implementation of the two are not at all similar, the basic functionality can be compared. Terms/Processes You Should Know There are several terms and several important user processes that you will come across when attempting to implement NIS on FreeBSD, whether you are trying to create an NIS server or act as an NIS client: portmap Term Description NIS domainname An NIS master server and all of its clients (including its slave servers) have a NIS domainname. Similar to an &windowsnt; domain name, the NIS domainname does not have anything to do with DNS. portmap Must be running in order to enable RPC (Remote Procedure Call, a network protocol used by NIS). If portmap is not running, it will be impossible to run an NIS server, or to act as an NIS client. ypbind Binds an NIS client to its NIS server. It will take the NIS domainname from the system, and using RPC, connect to the server. ypbind is the core of client-server communication in an NIS environment; if ypbind dies on a client machine, it will not be able to access the NIS server. ypserv Should only be running on NIS servers; this is the NIS server process itself. If &man.ypserv.8; dies, then the server will no longer be able to respond to NIS requests (hopefully, there is a slave server to take over for it). There are some implementations of NIS (but not the FreeBSD one), that do not try to reconnect to another server if the server it used before dies. Often, the only thing that helps in this case is to restart the server process (or even the whole server) or the ypbind process on the client. rpc.yppasswdd Another process that should only be running on NIS master servers; this is a daemon that will allow NIS clients to change their NIS passwords. If this daemon is not running, users will have to login to the NIS master server and change their passwords there. How Does It Work? There are three types of hosts in an NIS environment: master servers, slave servers, and clients. Servers act as a central repository for host configuration information. Master servers hold the authoritative copy of this information, while slave servers mirror this information for redundancy. Clients rely on the servers to provide this information to them. Information in many files can be shared in this manner. The master.passwd, group, and hosts files are commonly shared via NIS. Whenever a process on a client needs information that would normally be found in these files locally, it makes a query to the NIS server that it is bound to instead. Machine Types NIS master server A NIS master server. This server, analogous to a &windowsnt; primary domain controller, maintains the files used by all of the NIS clients. The passwd, group, and other various files used by the NIS clients live on the master server. It is possible for one machine to be an NIS master server for more than one NIS domain. However, this will not be covered in this introduction, which assumes a relatively small-scale NIS environment. NIS slave server NIS slave servers. Similar to the &windowsnt; backup domain controllers, NIS slave servers maintain copies of the NIS master's data files. NIS slave servers provide the redundancy, which is needed in important environments. They also help to balance the load of the master server: NIS Clients always attach to the NIS server whose response they get first, and this includes slave-server-replies. NIS client NIS clients. NIS clients, like most &windowsnt; workstations, authenticate against the NIS server (or the &windowsnt; domain controller in the &windowsnt; workstations case) to log on. Using NIS/YP This section will deal with setting up a sample NIS environment. This section assumes that you are running FreeBSD 3.3 or later. The instructions given here will probably work for any version of FreeBSD greater than 3.0, but there are no guarantees that this is true. Planning Let us assume that you are the administrator of a small university lab. This lab, which consists of 15 FreeBSD machines, currently has no centralized point of administration; each machine has its own /etc/passwd and /etc/master.passwd. These files are kept in sync with each other only through manual intervention; currently, when you add a user to the lab, you must run adduser on all 15 machines. Clearly, this has to change, so you have decided to convert the lab to use NIS, using two of the machines as servers. Therefore, the configuration of the lab now looks something like: Machine name IP address Machine role ellington 10.0.0.2 NIS master coltrane 10.0.0.3 NIS slave basie 10.0.0.4 Faculty workstation bird 10.0.0.5 Client machine cli[1-11] 10.0.0.[6-17] Other client machines If you are setting up a NIS scheme for the first time, it is a good idea to think through how you want to go about it. No matter what the size of your network, there are a few decisions that need to be made. Choosing a NIS Domain Name NIS domainname This might not be the domainname that you are used to. It is more accurately called the NIS domainname. When a client broadcasts its requests for info, it includes the name of the NIS domain that it is part of. This is how multiple servers on one network can tell which server should answer which request. Think of the NIS domainname as the name for a group of hosts that are related in some way. Some organizations choose to use their Internet domainname for their NIS domainname. This is not recommended as it can cause confusion when trying to debug network problems. The NIS domainname should be unique within your network and it is helpful if it describes the group of machines it represents. For example, the Art department at Acme Inc. might be in the acme-art NIS domain. For this example, assume you have chosen the name test-domain. SunOS However, some operating systems (notably &sunos;) use their NIS domain name as their Internet domain name. If one or more machines on your network have this restriction, you must use the Internet domain name as your NIS domain name. Physical Server Requirements There are several things to keep in mind when choosing a machine to use as a NIS server. One of the unfortunate things about NIS is the level of dependency the clients have on the server. If a client cannot contact the server for its NIS domain, very often the machine becomes unusable. The lack of user and group information causes most systems to temporarily freeze up. With this in mind you should make sure to choose a machine that will not be prone to being rebooted regularly, or one that might be used for development. The NIS server should ideally be a stand alone machine whose sole purpose in life is to be an NIS server. If you have a network that is not very heavily used, it is acceptable to put the NIS server on a machine running other services, just keep in mind that if the NIS server becomes unavailable, it will affect all of your NIS clients adversely. NIS Servers The canonical copies of all NIS information are stored on a single machine called the NIS master server. The databases used to store the information are called NIS maps. In FreeBSD, these maps are stored in /var/yp/[domainname] where [domainname] is the name of the NIS domain being served. A single NIS server can support several domains at once, therefore it is possible to have several such directories, one for each supported domain. Each domain will have its own independent set of maps. NIS master and slave servers handle all NIS requests with the ypserv daemon. ypserv is responsible for receiving incoming requests from NIS clients, translating the requested domain and map name to a path to the corresponding database file and transmitting data from the database back to the client. Setting Up a NIS Master Server NIS server configuration Setting up a master NIS server can be relatively straight forward, depending on your needs. FreeBSD comes with support for NIS out-of-the-box. All you need is to add the following lines to /etc/rc.conf, and FreeBSD will do the rest for you. nisdomainname="test-domain" This line will set the NIS domainname to test-domain upon network setup (e.g. after reboot). nis_server_enable="YES" This will tell FreeBSD to start up the NIS server processes when the networking is next brought up. nis_yppasswdd_enable="YES" This will enable the rpc.yppasswdd daemon which, as mentioned above, will allow users to change their NIS password from a client machine. Depending on your NIS setup, you may need to add further entries. See the section about NIS servers that are also NIS clients, below, for details. Now, all you have to do is to run the command /etc/netstart as superuser. It will set up everything for you, using the values you defined in /etc/rc.conf. Initializing the NIS Maps NIS maps The NIS maps are database files, that are kept in the /var/yp directory. They are generated from configuration files in the /etc directory of the NIS master, with one exception: the /etc/master.passwd file. This is for a good reason, you do not want to propagate passwords to your root and other administrative accounts to all the servers in the NIS domain. Therefore, before we initialize the NIS maps, you should: &prompt.root; cp /etc/master.passwd /var/yp/master.passwd &prompt.root; cd /var/yp &prompt.root; vi master.passwd You should remove all entries regarding system accounts (bin, tty, kmem, games, etc), as well as any accounts that you do not want to be propagated to the NIS clients (for example root and any other UID 0 (superuser) accounts). Make sure the /var/yp/master.passwd is neither group nor world readable (mode 600)! Use the chmod command, if appropriate. Tru64 UNIX When you have finished, it is time to initialize the NIS maps! FreeBSD includes a script named ypinit to do this for you (see its manual page for more information). Note that this script is available on most &unix; Operating Systems, but not on all. On Digital UNIX/Compaq Tru64 UNIX it is called ypsetup. Because we are generating maps for an NIS master, we are going to pass the option to ypinit. To generate the NIS maps, assuming you already performed the steps above, run: ellington&prompt.root; ypinit -m test-domain Server Type: MASTER Domain: test-domain Creating an YP server will require that you answer a few questions. Questions will all be asked at the beginning of the procedure. Do you want this procedure to quit on non-fatal errors? [y/n: n] n Ok, please remember to go back and redo manually whatever fails. If you don't, something might not work. At this point, we have to construct a list of this domains YP servers. rod.darktech.org is already known as master server. Please continue to add any slave servers, one per line. When you are done with the list, type a <control D>. master server : ellington next host to add: coltrane next host to add: ^D The current list of NIS servers looks like this: ellington coltrane Is this correct? [y/n: y] y [..output from map generation..] NIS Map update completed. ellington has been setup as an YP master server without any errors. ypinit should have created /var/yp/Makefile from /var/yp/Makefile.dist. When created, this file assumes that you are operating in a single server NIS environment with only FreeBSD machines. Since test-domain has a slave server as well, you must edit /var/yp/Makefile: ellington&prompt.root; vi /var/yp/Makefile You should comment out the line that says NOPUSH = "True" (if it is not commented out already). Setting up a NIS Slave Server NIS slave server Setting up an NIS slave server is even more simple than setting up the master. Log on to the slave server and edit the file /etc/rc.conf as you did before. The only difference is that we now must use the option when running ypinit. The option requires the name of the NIS master be passed to it as well, so our command line looks like: coltrane&prompt.root; ypinit -s ellington test-domain Server Type: SLAVE Domain: test-domain Master: ellington Creating an YP server will require that you answer a few questions. Questions will all be asked at the beginning of the procedure. Do you want this procedure to quit on non-fatal errors? [y/n: n] n Ok, please remember to go back and redo manually whatever fails. If you don't, something might not work. There will be no further questions. The remainder of the procedure should take a few minutes, to copy the databases from ellington. Transferring netgroup... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring netgroup.byuser... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring netgroup.byhost... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring master.passwd.byuid... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring passwd.byuid... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring passwd.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring group.bygid... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring group.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring services.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring rpc.bynumber... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring rpc.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring protocols.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring master.passwd.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring networks.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring networks.byaddr... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring netid.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring hosts.byaddr... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring protocols.bynumber... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring ypservers... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring hosts.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred coltrane has been setup as an YP slave server without any errors. Don't forget to update map ypservers on ellington. You should now have a directory called /var/yp/test-domain. Copies of the NIS master server's maps should be in this directory. You will need to make sure that these stay updated. The following /etc/crontab entries on your slave servers should do the job: 20 * * * * root /usr/libexec/ypxfr passwd.byname 21 * * * * root /usr/libexec/ypxfr passwd.byuid These two lines force the slave to sync its maps with the maps on the master server. Although these entries are not mandatory, since the master server attempts to ensure any changes to its NIS maps are communicated to its slaves and because password information is vital to systems depending on the server, it is a good idea to force the updates. This is more important on busy networks where map updates might not always complete. Now, run the command /etc/netstart on the slave server as well, which again starts the NIS server. NIS Clients An NIS client establishes what is called a binding to a particular NIS server using the ypbind daemon. ypbind checks the system's default domain (as set by the domainname command), and begins broadcasting RPC requests on the local network. These requests specify the name of the domain for which ypbind is attempting to establish a binding. If a server that has been configured to serve the requested domain receives one of the broadcasts, it will respond to ypbind, which will record the server's address. If there are several servers available (a master and several slaves, for example), ypbind will use the address of the first one to respond. From that point on, the client system will direct all of its NIS requests to that server. ypbind will occasionally ping the server to make sure it is still up and running. If it fails to receive a reply to one of its pings within a reasonable amount of time, ypbind will mark the domain as unbound and begin broadcasting again in the hopes of locating another server. Setting Up a NIS Client NIS client configuration Setting up a FreeBSD machine to be a NIS client is fairly straightforward. Edit the file /etc/rc.conf and add the following lines in order to set the NIS domainname and start ypbind upon network startup: nisdomainname="test-domain" nis_client_enable="YES" To import all possible password entries from the NIS server, remove all user accounts from your /etc/master.passwd file and use vipw to add the following line to the end of the file: +::::::::: This line will afford anyone with a valid account in the NIS server's password maps an account. There are many ways to configure your NIS client by changing this line. See the netgroups section below for more information. For more detailed reading see O'Reilly's book on Managing NFS and NIS. You should keep at least one local account (i.e. not imported via NIS) in your /etc/master.passwd and this account should also be a member of the group wheel. If there is something wrong with NIS, this account can be used to log in remotely, become root, and fix things. To import all possible group entries from the NIS server, add this line to your /etc/group file: +:*:: After completing these steps, you should be able to run ypcat passwd and see the NIS server's passwd map. NIS Security In general, any remote user can issue an RPC to &man.ypserv.8; and retrieve the contents of your NIS maps, provided the remote user knows your domainname. To prevent such unauthorized transactions, &man.ypserv.8; supports a feature called securenets which can be used to restrict access to a given set of hosts. At startup, &man.ypserv.8; will attempt to load the securenets information from a file called /var/yp/securenets. This path varies depending on the path specified with the option. This file contains entries that consist of a network specification and a network mask separated by white space. Lines starting with # are considered to be comments. A sample securenets file might look like this: # allow connections from local host -- mandatory 127.0.0.1 255.255.255.255 # allow connections from any host # on the 192.168.128.0 network 192.168.128.0 255.255.255.0 # allow connections from any host # between 10.0.0.0 to 10.0.15.255 # this includes the machines in the testlab 10.0.0.0 255.255.240.0 If &man.ypserv.8; receives a request from an address that matches one of these rules, it will process the request normally. If the address fails to match a rule, the request will be ignored and a warning message will be logged. If the /var/yp/securenets file does not exist, ypserv will allow connections from any host. The ypserv program also has support for Wietse Venema's tcpwrapper package. This allows the administrator to use the tcpwrapper configuration files for access control instead of /var/yp/securenets. While both of these access control mechanisms provide some security, they, like the privileged port test, are vulnerable to IP spoofing attacks. All NIS-related traffic should be blocked at your firewall. Servers using /var/yp/securenets may fail to serve legitimate NIS clients with archaic TCP/IP implementations. Some of these implementations set all host bits to zero when doing broadcasts and/or fail to observe the subnet mask when calculating the broadcast address. While some of these problems can be fixed by changing the client configuration, other problems may force the retirement of the client systems in question or the abandonment of /var/yp/securenets. Using /var/yp/securenets on a server with such an archaic implementation of TCP/IP is a really bad idea and will lead to loss of NIS functionality for large parts of your network. tcpwrapper The use of the tcpwrapper package increases the latency of your NIS server. The additional delay may be long enough to cause timeouts in client programs, especially in busy networks or with slow NIS servers. If one or more of your client systems suffers from these symptoms, you should convert the client systems in question into NIS slave servers and force them to bind to themselves. Barring Some Users from Logging On In our lab, there is a machine basie that is supposed to be a faculty only workstation. We do not want to take this machine out of the NIS domain, yet the passwd file on the master NIS server contains accounts for both faculty and students. What can we do? There is a way to bar specific users from logging on to a machine, even if they are present in the NIS database. To do this, all you must do is add -username to the end of the /etc/master.passwd file on the client machine, where username is the username of the user you wish to bar from logging in. This should preferably be done using vipw, since vipw will sanity check your changes to /etc/master.passwd, as well as automatically rebuild the password database when you finish editing. For example, if we wanted to bar user bill from logging on to basie we would: basie&prompt.root; vipw [add -bill to the end, exit] vipw: rebuilding the database... vipw: done basie&prompt.root; cat /etc/master.passwd root:[password]:0:0::0:0:The super-user:/root:/bin/csh toor:[password]:0:0::0:0:The other super-user:/root:/bin/sh daemon:*:1:1::0:0:Owner of many system processes:/root:/sbin/nologin operator:*:2:5::0:0:System &:/:/sbin/nologin bin:*:3:7::0:0:Binaries Commands and Source,,,:/:/sbin/nologin tty:*:4:65533::0:0:Tty Sandbox:/:/sbin/nologin kmem:*:5:65533::0:0:KMem Sandbox:/:/sbin/nologin games:*:7:13::0:0:Games pseudo-user:/usr/games:/sbin/nologin news:*:8:8::0:0:News Subsystem:/:/sbin/nologin man:*:9:9::0:0:Mister Man Pages:/usr/share/man:/sbin/nologin bind:*:53:53::0:0:Bind Sandbox:/:/sbin/nologin uucp:*:66:66::0:0:UUCP pseudo-user:/var/spool/uucppublic:/usr/libexec/uucp/uucico xten:*:67:67::0:0:X-10 daemon:/usr/local/xten:/sbin/nologin pop:*:68:6::0:0:Post Office Owner:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin nobody:*:65534:65534::0:0:Unprivileged user:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin +::::::::: -bill basie&prompt.root; Udo Erdelhoff Contributed by Using Netgroups netgroups The method shown in the previous section works reasonably well if you need special rules for a very small number of users and/or machines. On larger networks, you will forget to bar some users from logging onto sensitive machines, or you may even have to modify each machine separately, thus losing the main benefit of NIS: centralized administration. The NIS developers' solution for this problem is called netgroups. Their purpose and semantics can be compared to the normal groups used by &unix; file systems. The main differences are the lack of a numeric ID and the ability to define a netgroup by including both user accounts and other netgroups. Netgroups were developed to handle large, complex networks with hundreds of users and machines. On one hand, this is a Good Thing if you are forced to deal with such a situation. On the other hand, this complexity makes it almost impossible to explain netgroups with really simple examples. The example used in the remainder of this section demonstrates this problem. Let us assume that your successful introduction of NIS in your laboratory caught your superiors' interest. Your next job is to extend your NIS domain to cover some of the other machines on campus. The two tables contain the names of the new users and new machines as well as brief descriptions of them. User Name(s) Description alpha, beta Normal employees of the IT department charlie, delta The new apprentices of the IT department echo, foxtrott, golf, ... Ordinary employees able, baker, ... The current interns Machine Name(s) Description war, death, famine, pollution Your most important servers. Only the IT employees are allowed to log onto these machines. pride, greed, envy, wrath, lust, sloth Less important servers. All members of the IT department are allowed to login onto these machines. one, two, three, four, ... Ordinary workstations. Only the real employees are allowed to use these machines. trashcan A very old machine without any critical data. Even the intern is allowed to use this box. If you tried to implement these restrictions by separately blocking each user, you would have to add one -user line to each system's passwd for each user who is not allowed to login onto that system. If you forget just one entry, you could be in trouble. It may be feasible to do this correctly during the initial setup, however you will eventually forget to add the lines for new users during day-to-day operations. After all, Murphy was an optimist. Handling this situation with netgroups offers several advantages. Each user need not be handled separately; you assign a user to one or more netgroups and allow or forbid logins for all members of the netgroup. If you add a new machine, you will only have to define login restrictions for netgroups. If a new user is added, you will only have to add the user to one or more netgroups. Those changes are independent of each other: no more for each combination of user and machine do... If your NIS setup is planned carefully, you will only have to modify exactly one central configuration file to grant or deny access to machines. The first step is the initialization of the NIS map netgroup. FreeBSD's &man.ypinit.8; does not create this map by default, but its NIS implementation will support it once it has been created. To create an empty map, simply type ellington&prompt.root; vi /var/yp/netgroup and start adding content. For our example, we need at least four netgroups: IT employees, IT apprentices, normal employees and interns. IT_EMP (,alpha,test-domain) (,beta,test-domain) IT_APP (,charlie,test-domain) (,delta,test-domain) USERS (,echo,test-domain) (,foxtrott,test-domain) \ (,golf,test-domain) INTERNS (,able,test-domain) (,baker,test-domain) IT_EMP, IT_APP etc. are the names of the netgroups. Each bracketed group adds one or more user accounts to it. The three fields inside a group are: The name of the host(s) where the following items are valid. If you do not specify a hostname, the entry is valid on all hosts. If you do specify a hostname, you will enter a realm of darkness, horror and utter confusion. The name of the account that belongs to this netgroup. The NIS domain for the account. You can import accounts from other NIS domains into your netgroup if you are one of the unlucky fellows with more than one NIS domain. Each of these fields can contain wildcards. See &man.netgroup.5; for details. netgroups Netgroup names longer than 8 characters should not be used, especially if you have machines running other operating systems within your NIS domain. The names are case sensitive; using capital letters for your netgroup names is an easy way to distinguish between user, machine and netgroup names. Some NIS clients (other than FreeBSD) cannot handle netgroups with a large number of entries. For example, some older versions of &sunos; start to cause trouble if a netgroup contains more than 15 entries. You can circumvent this limit by creating several sub-netgroups with 15 users or less and a real netgroup that consists of the sub-netgroups: BIGGRP1 (,joe1,domain) (,joe2,domain) (,joe3,domain) [...] BIGGRP2 (,joe16,domain) (,joe17,domain) [...] BIGGRP3 (,joe31,domain) (,joe32,domain) BIGGROUP BIGGRP1 BIGGRP2 BIGGRP3 You can repeat this process if you need more than 225 users within a single netgroup. Activating and distributing your new NIS map is easy: ellington&prompt.root; cd /var/yp ellington&prompt.root; make This will generate the three NIS maps netgroup, netgroup.byhost and netgroup.byuser. Use &man.ypcat.1; to check if your new NIS maps are available: ellington&prompt.user; ypcat -k netgroup ellington&prompt.user; ypcat -k netgroup.byhost ellington&prompt.user; ypcat -k netgroup.byuser The output of the first command should resemble the contents of /var/yp/netgroup. The second command will not produce output if you have not specified host-specific netgroups. The third command can be used to get the list of netgroups for a user. The client setup is quite simple. To configure the server war, you only have to start &man.vipw.8; and replace the line +::::::::: with +@IT_EMP::::::::: Now, only the data for the users defined in the netgroup IT_EMP is imported into war's password database and only these users are allowed to login. Unfortunately, this limitation also applies to the ~ function of the shell and all routines converting between user names and numerical user IDs. In other words, cd ~user will not work, ls -l will show the numerical ID instead of the username and find . -user joe -print will fail with No such user. To fix this, you will have to import all user entries without allowing them to login onto your servers. This can be achieved by adding another line to /etc/master.passwd. This line should contain: +:::::::::/sbin/nologin, meaning Import all entries but replace the shell with /sbin/nologin in the imported entries. You can replace any field in the passwd entry by placing a default value in your /etc/master.passwd. Make sure that the line +:::::::::/sbin/nologin is placed after +@IT_EMP:::::::::. Otherwise, all user accounts imported from NIS will have /sbin/nologin as their login shell. After this change, you will only have to change one NIS map if a new employee joins the IT department. You could use a similar approach for the less important servers by replacing the old +::::::::: in their local version of /etc/master.passwd with something like this: +@IT_EMP::::::::: +@IT_APP::::::::: +:::::::::/sbin/nologin The corresponding lines for the normal workstations could be: +@IT_EMP::::::::: +@USERS::::::::: +:::::::::/sbin/nologin And everything would be fine until there is a policy change a few weeks later: The IT department starts hiring interns. The IT interns are allowed to use the normal workstations and the less important servers; and the IT apprentices are allowed to login onto the main servers. You add a new netgroup IT_INTERN, add the new IT interns to this netgroup and start to change the configuration on each and every machine... As the old saying goes: Errors in centralized planning lead to global mess. NIS' ability to create netgroups from other netgroups can be used to prevent situations like these. One possibility is the creation of role-based netgroups. For example, you could create a netgroup called BIGSRV to define the login restrictions for the important servers, another netgroup called SMALLSRV for the less important servers and a third netgroup called USERBOX for the normal workstations. Each of these netgroups contains the netgroups that are allowed to login onto these machines. The new entries for your NIS map netgroup should look like this: BIGSRV IT_EMP IT_APP SMALLSRV IT_EMP IT_APP ITINTERN USERBOX IT_EMP ITINTERN USERS This method of defining login restrictions works reasonably well if you can define groups of machines with identical restrictions. Unfortunately, this is the exception and not the rule. Most of the time, you will need the ability to define login restrictions on a per-machine basis. Machine-specific netgroup definitions are the other possibility to deal with the policy change outlined above. In this scenario, the /etc/master.passwd of each box contains two lines starting with +. The first of them adds a netgroup with the accounts allowed to login onto this machine, the second one adds all other accounts with /sbin/nologin as shell. It is a good idea to use the ALL-CAPS version of the machine name as the name of the netgroup. In other words, the lines should look like this: +@BOXNAME::::::::: +:::::::::/sbin/nologin Once you have completed this task for all your machines, you will not have to modify the local versions of /etc/master.passwd ever again. All further changes can be handled by modifying the NIS map. Here is an example of a possible netgroup map for this scenario with some additional goodies: # Define groups of users first IT_EMP (,alpha,test-domain) (,beta,test-domain) IT_APP (,charlie,test-domain) (,delta,test-domain) DEPT1 (,echo,test-domain) (,foxtrott,test-domain) DEPT2 (,golf,test-domain) (,hotel,test-domain) DEPT3 (,india,test-domain) (,juliet,test-domain) ITINTERN (,kilo,test-domain) (,lima,test-domain) D_INTERNS (,able,test-domain) (,baker,test-domain) # # Now, define some groups based on roles USERS DEPT1 DEPT2 DEPT3 BIGSRV IT_EMP IT_APP SMALLSRV IT_EMP IT_APP ITINTERN USERBOX IT_EMP ITINTERN USERS # # And a groups for a special tasks # Allow echo and golf to access our anti-virus-machine SECURITY IT_EMP (,echo,test-domain) (,golf,test-domain) # # machine-based netgroups # Our main servers WAR BIGSRV FAMINE BIGSRV # User india needs access to this server POLLUTION BIGSRV (,india,test-domain) # # This one is really important and needs more access restrictions DEATH IT_EMP # # The anti-virus-machine mentioned above ONE SECURITY # # Restrict a machine to a single user TWO (,hotel,test-domain) # [...more groups to follow] If you are using some kind of database to manage your user accounts, you should be able to create the first part of the map with your database's report tools. This way, new users will automatically have access to the boxes. One last word of caution: It may not always be advisable to use machine-based netgroups. If you are deploying a couple of dozen or even hundreds of identical machines for student labs, you should use role-based netgroups instead of machine-based netgroups to keep the size of the NIS map within reasonable limits. Important Things to Remember There are still a couple of things that you will need to do differently now that you are in an NIS environment. Every time you wish to add a user to the lab, you must add it to the master NIS server only, and you must remember to rebuild the NIS maps. If you forget to do this, the new user will not be able to login anywhere except on the NIS master. For example, if we needed to add a new user jsmith to the lab, we would: &prompt.root; pw useradd jsmith &prompt.root; cd /var/yp &prompt.root; make test-domain You could also run adduser jsmith instead of pw useradd jsmith. Keep the administration accounts out of the NIS maps. You do not want to be propagating administrative accounts and passwords to machines that will have users that should not have access to those accounts. Keep the NIS master and slave secure, and minimize their downtime. If somebody either hacks or simply turns off these machines, they have effectively rendered many people without the ability to login to the lab. This is the chief weakness of any centralized administration system. If you do not protect your NIS servers, you will have a lot of angry users! NIS v1 Compatibility FreeBSD's ypserv has some support for serving NIS v1 clients. FreeBSD's NIS implementation only uses the NIS v2 protocol, however other implementations include support for the v1 protocol for backwards compatibility with older systems. The ypbind daemons supplied with these systems will try to establish a binding to an NIS v1 server even though they may never actually need it (and they may persist in broadcasting in search of one even after they receive a response from a v2 server). Note that while support for normal client calls is provided, this version of ypserv does not handle v1 map transfer requests; consequently, it cannot be used as a master or slave in conjunction with older NIS servers that only support the v1 protocol. Fortunately, there probably are not any such servers still in use today. NIS Servers That Are Also NIS Clients Care must be taken when running ypserv in a multi-server domain where the server machines are also NIS clients. It is generally a good idea to force the servers to bind to themselves rather than allowing them to broadcast bind requests and possibly become bound to each other. Strange failure modes can result if one server goes down and others are dependent upon it. Eventually all the clients will time out and attempt to bind to other servers, but the delay involved can be considerable and the failure mode is still present since the servers might bind to each other all over again. You can force a host to bind to a particular server by running ypbind with the flag. If you do not want to do this manually each time you reboot your NIS server, you can add the following lines to your /etc/rc.conf: nis_client_enable="YES" # run client stuff as well nis_client_flags="-S NIS domain,server" See &man.ypbind.8; for further information. Password Formats NIS password formats One of the most common issues that people run into when trying to implement NIS is password format compatibility. If your NIS server is using DES encrypted passwords, it will only support clients that are also using DES. For example, if you have &solaris; NIS clients in your network, then you will almost certainly need to use DES encrypted passwords. To check which format your servers and clients are using, look at /etc/login.conf. If the host is configured to use DES encrypted passwords, then the default class will contain an entry like this: default:\ :passwd_format=des:\ :copyright=/etc/COPYRIGHT:\ [Further entries elided] Other possible values for the passwd_format capability include blf and md5 (for Blowfish and MD5 encrypted passwords, respectively). If you have made changes to /etc/login.conf, you will also need to rebuild the login capability database, which is achieved by running the following command as root: &prompt.root; cap_mkdb /etc/login.conf The format of passwords already in /etc/master.passwd will not be updated until a user changes his password for the first time after the login capability database is rebuilt. Next, in order to ensure that passwords are encrypted with the format that you have chosen, you should also check that the crypt_default in /etc/auth.conf gives precedence to your chosen password format. To do this, place the format that you have chosen first in the list. For example, when using DES encrypted passwords, the entry would be: crypt_default = des blf md5 Having followed the above steps on each of the &os; based NIS servers and clients, you can be sure that they all agree on which password format is used within your network. If you have trouble authenticating on an NIS client, this is a pretty good place to start looking for possible problems. Remember: if you want to deploy an NIS server for a heterogenous network, you will probably have to use DES on all systems because it is the lowest common standard. Greg Sutter Written by Automatic Network Configuration (DHCP) What Is DHCP? Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol DHCP Internet Software Consortium (ISC) DHCP, the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, describes the means by which a system can connect to a network and obtain the necessary information for communication upon that network. FreeBSD uses the ISC (Internet Software Consortium) DHCP implementation, so all implementation-specific information here is for use with the ISC distribution. What This Section Covers This section describes both the client-side and server-side components of the ISC DHCP system. The client-side program, dhclient, comes integrated within FreeBSD, and the server-side portion is available from the net/isc-dhcp3-server port. The &man.dhclient.8;, &man.dhcp-options.5;, and &man.dhclient.conf.5; manual pages, in addition to the references below, are useful resources. How It Works UDP When dhclient, the DHCP client, is executed on the client machine, it begins broadcasting requests for configuration information. By default, these requests are on UDP port 68. The server replies on UDP 67, giving the client an IP address and other relevant network information such as netmask, router, and DNS servers. All of this information comes in the form of a DHCP lease and is only valid for a certain time (configured by the DHCP server maintainer). In this manner, stale IP addresses for clients no longer connected to the network can be automatically reclaimed. DHCP clients can obtain a great deal of information from the server. An exhaustive list may be found in &man.dhcp-options.5;. FreeBSD Integration FreeBSD fully integrates the ISC DHCP client, dhclient. DHCP client support is provided within both the installer and the base system, obviating the need for detailed knowledge of network configurations on any network that runs a DHCP server. dhclient has been included in all FreeBSD distributions since 3.2. sysinstall DHCP is supported by sysinstall. When configuring a network interface within sysinstall, the first question asked is: Do you want to try DHCP configuration of this interface?. Answering affirmatively will execute dhclient, and if successful, will fill in the network configuration information automatically. There are two things you must do to have your system use DHCP upon startup: DHCP requirements Make sure that the bpf device is compiled into your kernel. To do this, add device bpf (pseudo-device bpf under &os; 4.X) to your kernel configuration file, and rebuild the kernel. For more information about building kernels, see . The bpf device is already part of the GENERIC kernel that is supplied with FreeBSD, so if you do not have a custom kernel, you should not need to create one in order to get DHCP working. For those who are particularly security conscious, you should be warned that bpf is also the device that allows packet sniffers to work correctly (although they still have to be run as root). bpf is required to use DHCP, but if you are very sensitive about security, you probably should not add bpf to your kernel in the expectation that at some point in the future you will be using DHCP. Edit your /etc/rc.conf to include the following: ifconfig_fxp0="DHCP" Be sure to replace fxp0 with the designation for the interface that you wish to dynamically configure, as described in . If you are using a different location for dhclient, or if you wish to pass additional flags to dhclient, also include the following (editing as necessary): dhcp_program="/sbin/dhclient" dhcp_flags="" DHCP server The DHCP server, dhcpd, is included as part of the net/isc-dhcp3-server port in the ports collection. This port contains the ISC DHCP server and documentation. Files DHCP configuration files /etc/dhclient.conf dhclient requires a configuration file, /etc/dhclient.conf. Typically the file contains only comments, the defaults being reasonably sane. This configuration file is described by the &man.dhclient.conf.5; manual page. /sbin/dhclient dhclient is statically linked and resides in /sbin. The &man.dhclient.8; manual page gives more information about dhclient. /sbin/dhclient-script dhclient-script is the FreeBSD-specific DHCP client configuration script. It is described in &man.dhclient-script.8;, but should not need any user modification to function properly. /var/db/dhclient.leases The DHCP client keeps a database of valid leases in this file, which is written as a log. &man.dhclient.leases.5; gives a slightly longer description. Further Reading The DHCP protocol is fully described in RFC 2131. An informational resource has also been set up at dhcp.org. Installing and Configuring a DHCP Server What This Section Covers This section provides information on how to configure a FreeBSD system to act as a DHCP server using the ISC (Internet Software Consortium) implementation of the DHCP suite. The server portion of the suite is not provided as part of FreeBSD, and so you will need to install the net/isc-dhcp3-server port to provide this service. See for more information on using the ports collection. DHCP Server Installation DHCP installation In order to configure your FreeBSD system as a DHCP server, you will need to ensure that the &man.bpf.4; device is compiled into your kernel. To do this, add device bpf (pseudo-device bpf under &os; 4.X) to your kernel configuration file, and rebuild the kernel. For more information about building kernels, see . The bpf device is already part of the GENERIC kernel that is supplied with FreeBSD, so you do not need to create a custom kernel in order to get DHCP working. Those who are particularly security conscious should note that bpf is also the device that allows packet sniffers to work correctly (although such programs still need privileged access). bpf is required to use DHCP, but if you are very sensitive about security, you probably should not include bpf in your kernel purely because you expect to use DHCP at some point in the future. The next thing that you will need to do is edit the sample dhcpd.conf which was installed by the net/isc-dhcp3-server port. By default, this will be /usr/local/etc/dhcpd.conf.sample, and you should copy this to /usr/local/etc/dhcpd.conf before proceeding to make changes. Configuring the DHCP Server DHCP dhcpd.conf dhcpd.conf is comprised of declarations regarding subnets and hosts, and is perhaps most easily explained using an example : option domain-name "example.com"; option domain-name-servers 192.168.4.100; option subnet-mask 255.255.255.0; default-lease-time 3600; max-lease-time 86400; ddns-update-style none; subnet 192.168.4.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 { range 192.168.4.129 192.168.4.254; option routers 192.168.4.1; } host mailhost { hardware ethernet 02:03:04:05:06:07; fixed-address mailhost.example.com; } This option specifies the domain that will be provided to clients as the default search domain. See &man.resolv.conf.5; for more information on what this means. This option specifies a comma separated list of DNS servers that the client should use. The netmask that will be provided to clients. A client may request a specific length of time that a lease will be valid. Otherwise the server will assign a lease with this expiry value (in seconds). This is the maximum length of time that the server will lease for. Should a client request a longer lease, a lease will be issued, although it will only be valid for max-lease-time seconds. This option specifies whether the DHCP server should attempt to update DNS when a lease is accepted or released. In the ISC implementation, this option is required. This denotes which IP addresses should be used in the pool reserved for allocating to clients. IP addresses between, and including, the ones stated are handed out to clients. Declares the default gateway that will be provided to clients. The hardware MAC address of a host (so that the DHCP server can recognize a host when it makes a request). Specifies that the host should always be given the same IP address. Note that using a hostname is correct here, since the DHCP server will resolve the hostname itself before returning the lease information. Once you have finished writing your dhcpd.conf, you can proceed to start the server by issuing the following command: &prompt.root; /usr/local/etc/rc.d/isc-dhcpd.sh start Should you need to make changes to the configuration of your server in the future, it is important to note that sending a SIGHUP signal to dhcpd does not result in the configuration being reloaded, as it does with most daemons. You will need to send a SIGTERM signal to stop the process, and then restart it using the command above. Files DHCP configuration files /usr/local/sbin/dhcpd dhcpd is statically linked and resides in /usr/local/sbin. The &man.dhcpd.8; manual page installed with the port gives more information about dhcpd. /usr/local/etc/dhcpd.conf dhcpd requires a configuration file, /usr/local/etc/dhcpd.conf before it will start providing service to clients. This file needs to contain all the information that should be provided to clients that are being serviced, along with information regarding the operation of the server. This configuration file is described by the &man.dhcpd.conf.5; manual page installed by the port. /var/db/dhcpd.leases The DHCP server keeps a database of leases it has issued in this file, which is written as a log. The manual page &man.dhcpd.leases.5;, installed by the port gives a slightly longer description. /usr/local/sbin/dhcrelay dhcrelay is used in advanced environments where one DHCP server forwards a request from a client to another DHCP server on a separate network. If you require this functionality, then install the net/isc-dhcp3-server port. The &man.dhcrelay.8; manual page provided with the port contains more detail. Chern Lee Contributed by Domain Name System (DNS) Overview BIND FreeBSD utilizes, by default, a version of BIND (Berkeley Internet Name Domain), which is the most common implementation of the DNS protocol. DNS is the protocol through which names are mapped to IP addresses, and vice versa. For example, a query for www.FreeBSD.org will receive a reply with the IP address of The FreeBSD Project's web server, whereas, a query for ftp.FreeBSD.org will return the IP address of the corresponding FTP machine. Likewise, the opposite can happen. A query for an IP address can resolve its hostname. It is not necessary to run a name server to perform DNS lookups on a system. DNS DNS is coordinated across the Internet through a somewhat complex system of authoritative root name servers, and other smaller-scale name servers who host and cache individual domain information. This document refers to BIND 8.x, as it is the stable version used in FreeBSD. BIND 9.x in FreeBSD can be installed through the net/bind9 port. RFC1034 and RFC1035 dictate the DNS protocol. Currently, BIND is maintained by the Internet Software Consortium (www.isc.org). Terminology To understand this document, some terms related to DNS must be understood. Term Definition Forward DNS Mapping of hostnames to IP addresses Origin Refers to the domain covered in a particular zone file named, BIND, name server Common names for the BIND name server package within FreeBSD resolver Resolver A system process through which a machine queries a name server for zone information reverse DNS Reverse DNS The opposite of forward DNS; mapping of IP addresses to hostnames root zone Root zone The beginning of the Internet zone hierarchy. All zones fall under the root zone, similar to how all files in a file system fall under the root directory. Zone An individual domain, subdomain, or portion of the DNS administered by the same authority zones examples Examples of zones: . is the root zone org. is a zone under the root zone example.org is a zone under the org. zone foo.example.org. is a subdomain, a zone under the example.org. zone 1.2.3.in-addr.arpa is a zone referencing all IP addresses which fall under the 3.2.1.* IP space. As one can see, the more specific part of a hostname appears to its left. For example, example.org. is more specific than org., as org. is more specific than the root zone. The layout of each part of a hostname is much like a filesystem: the /dev directory falls within the root, and so on. Reasons to Run a Name Server Name servers usually come in two forms: an authoritative name server, and a caching name server. An authoritative name server is needed when: one wants to serve DNS information to the world, replying authoritatively to queries. a domain, such as example.org, is registered and IP addresses need to be assigned to hostnames under it. an IP address block requires reverse DNS entries (IP to hostname). a backup name server, called a slave, must reply to queries when the primary is down or inaccessible. A caching name server is needed when: a local DNS server may cache and respond more quickly than querying an outside name server. a reduction in overall network traffic is desired (DNS traffic has been measured to account for 5% or more of total Internet traffic). When one queries for www.FreeBSD.org, the resolver usually queries the uplink ISP's name server, and retrieves the reply. With a local, caching DNS server, the query only has to be made once to the outside world by the caching DNS server. Every additional query will not have to look to the outside of the local network, since the information is cached locally. How It Works In FreeBSD, the BIND daemon is called named for obvious reasons. File Description named the BIND daemon ndc name daemon control program /etc/namedb directory where BIND zone information resides /etc/namedb/named.conf daemon configuration file Zone files are usually contained within the /etc/namedb directory, and contain the DNS zone information served by the name server. Starting BIND BIND starting Since BIND is installed by default, configuring it all is relatively simple. To ensure the named daemon is started at boot, put the following line in /etc/rc.conf: named_enable="YES" To start the daemon manually (after configuring it): &prompt.root; ndc start Configuration Files BIND configuration files Using <command>make-localhost</command> Be sure to: &prompt.root; cd /etc/namedb &prompt.root; sh make-localhost to properly create the local reverse DNS zone file in /etc/namedb/localhost.rev. <filename>/etc/namedb/named.conf</filename> // $FreeBSD$ // // Refer to the named(8) manual page for details. If you are ever going // to setup a primary server, make sure you've understood the hairy // details of how DNS is working. Even with simple mistakes, you can // break connectivity for affected parties, or cause huge amount of // useless Internet traffic. options { directory "/etc/namedb"; // In addition to the "forwarders" clause, you can force your name // server to never initiate queries of its own, but always ask its // forwarders only, by enabling the following line: // // forward only; // If you've got a DNS server around at your upstream provider, enter // its IP address here, and enable the line below. This will make you // benefit from its cache, thus reduce overall DNS traffic in the Internet. /* forwarders { 127.0.0.1; }; */ Just as the comment says, to benefit from an uplink's cache, forwarders can be enabled here. Under normal circumstances, a name server will recursively query the Internet looking at certain name servers until it finds the answer it is looking for. Having this enabled will have it query the uplink's name server (or name server provided) first, taking advantage of its cache. If the uplink name server in question is a heavily trafficked, fast name server, enabling this may be worthwhile. 127.0.0.1 will not work here. Change this IP address to a name server at your uplink. /* * If there is a firewall between you and name servers you want * to talk to, you might need to uncomment the query-source * directive below. Previous versions of BIND always asked * questions using port 53, but BIND 8.1 uses an unprivileged * port by default. */ // query-source address * port 53; /* * If running in a sandbox, you may have to specify a different * location for the dumpfile. */ // dump-file "s/named_dump.db"; }; // Note: the following will be supported in a future release. /* host { any; } { topology { 127.0.0.0/8; }; }; */ // Setting up secondaries is way easier and the rough picture for this // is explained below. // // If you enable a local name server, don't forget to enter 127.0.0.1 // into your /etc/resolv.conf so this server will be queried first. // Also, make sure to enable it in /etc/rc.conf. zone "." { type hint; file "named.root"; }; zone "0.0.127.IN-ADDR.ARPA" { type master; file "localhost.rev"; }; zone "0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.IP6.INT" { type master; file "localhost.rev"; }; // NB: Do not use the IP addresses below, they are faked, and only // serve demonstration/documentation purposes! // // Example secondary config entries. It can be convenient to become // a secondary at least for the zone where your own domain is in. Ask // your network administrator for the IP address of the responsible // primary. // // Never forget to include the reverse lookup (IN-ADDR.ARPA) zone! // (This is the first bytes of the respective IP address, in reverse // order, with ".IN-ADDR.ARPA" appended.) // // Before starting to setup a primary zone, better make sure you fully // understand how DNS and BIND works, however. There are sometimes // unobvious pitfalls. Setting up a secondary is comparably simpler. // // NB: Don't blindly enable the examples below. :-) Use actual names // and addresses instead. // // NOTE!!! FreeBSD runs BIND in a sandbox (see named_flags in rc.conf). // The directory containing the secondary zones must be write accessible // to BIND. The following sequence is suggested: // // mkdir /etc/namedb/s // chown bind:bind /etc/namedb/s // chmod 750 /etc/namedb/s For more information on running BIND in a sandbox, see Running named in a sandbox. /* zone "example.com" { type slave; file "s/example.com.bak"; masters { 192.168.1.1; }; }; zone "0.168.192.in-addr.arpa" { type slave; file "s/0.168.192.in-addr.arpa.bak"; masters { 192.168.1.1; }; }; */ In named.conf, these are examples of slave entries for a forward and reverse zone. For each new zone served, a new zone entry must be added to named.conf. For example, the simplest zone entry for example.org can look like: zone "example.org" { type master; file "example.org"; }; The zone is a master, as indicated by the statement, holding its zone information in /etc/namedb/example.org indicated by the statement. zone "example.org" { type slave; file "example.org"; }; In the slave case, the zone information is transferred from the master name server for the particular zone, and saved in the file specified. If and when the master server dies or is unreachable, the slave name server will have the transferred zone information and will be able to serve it. Zone Files An example master zone file for example.org (existing within /etc/namedb/example.org) is as follows: $TTL 3600 example.org. IN SOA ns1.example.org. admin.example.org. ( 5 ; Serial 10800 ; Refresh 3600 ; Retry 604800 ; Expire 86400 ) ; Minimum TTL ; DNS Servers @ IN NS ns1.example.org. @ IN NS ns2.example.org. ; Machine Names localhost IN A 127.0.0.1 ns1 IN A 3.2.1.2 ns2 IN A 3.2.1.3 mail IN A 3.2.1.10 @ IN A 3.2.1.30 ; Aliases www IN CNAME @ ; MX Record @ IN MX 10 mail.example.org. Note that every hostname ending in a . is an exact hostname, whereas everything without a trailing . is referenced to the origin. For example, www is translated into www.origin. In our fictitious zone file, our origin is example.org., so www would translate to www.example.org. The format of a zone file follows: recordname IN recordtype value DNS records The most commonly used DNS records: SOA start of zone authority NS an authoritative name server A a host address CNAME the canonical name for an alias MX mail exchanger PTR a domain name pointer (used in reverse DNS) example.org. IN SOA ns1.example.org. admin.example.org. ( 5 ; Serial 10800 ; Refresh after 3 hours 3600 ; Retry after 1 hour 604800 ; Expire after 1 week 86400 ) ; Minimum TTL of 1 day example.org. the domain name, also the origin for this zone file. ns1.example.org. the primary/authoritative name server for this zone. admin.example.org. the responsible person for this zone, email address with @ replaced. (admin@example.org becomes admin.example.org) 5 the serial number of the file. This must be incremented each time the zone file is modified. Nowadays, many admins prefer a yyyymmddrr format for the serial number. 2001041002 would mean last modified 04/10/2001, the latter 02 being the second time the zone file has been modified this day. The serial number is important as it alerts slave name servers for a zone when it is updated. @ IN NS ns1.example.org. This is an NS entry. Every name server that is going to reply authoritatively for the zone must have one of these entries. The @ as seen here could have been example.org. The @ translates to the origin. localhost IN A 127.0.0.1 ns1 IN A 3.2.1.2 ns2 IN A 3.2.1.3 mail IN A 3.2.1.10 @ IN A 3.2.1.30 The A record indicates machine names. As seen above, ns1.example.org would resolve to 3.2.1.2. Again, the origin symbol, @, is used here, thus meaning example.org would resolve to 3.2.1.30. www IN CNAME @ The canonical name record is usually used for giving aliases to a machine. In the example, www is aliased to the machine addressed to the origin, or example.org (3.2.1.30). CNAMEs can be used to provide alias hostnames, or round robin one hostname among multiple machines. MX record @ IN MX 10 mail.example.org. The MX record indicates which mail servers are responsible for handling incoming mail for the zone. mail.example.org is the hostname of the mail server, and 10 being the priority of that mail server. One can have several mail servers, with priorities of 3, 2, 1. A mail server attempting to deliver to example.org would first try the highest priority MX, then the second highest, etc, until the mail can be properly delivered. For in-addr.arpa zone files (reverse DNS), the same format is used, except with PTR entries instead of A or CNAME. $TTL 3600 1.2.3.in-addr.arpa. IN SOA ns1.example.org. admin.example.org. ( 5 ; Serial 10800 ; Refresh 3600 ; Retry 604800 ; Expire 3600 ) ; Minimum @ IN NS ns1.example.org. @ IN NS ns2.example.org. 2 IN PTR ns1.example.org. 3 IN PTR ns2.example.org. 10 IN PTR mail.example.org. 30 IN PTR example.org. This file gives the proper IP address to hostname mappings of our above fictitious domain. Caching Name Server BIND caching name server A caching name server is a name server that is not authoritative for any zones. It simply asks queries of its own, and remembers them for later use. To set one up, just configure the name server as usual, omitting any inclusions of zones. Running <application>named</application> in a Sandbox BIND running in a sandbox chroot For added security you may want to run &man.named.8; as an unprivileged user, and configure it to &man.chroot.8; into a sandbox directory. This makes everything outside of the sandbox inaccessible to the named daemon. Should named be compromised, this will help to reduce the damage that can be caused. By default, FreeBSD has a user and a group called bind, intended for this use. Various people would recommend that instead of configuring named to chroot, you should run named inside a &man.jail.8;. This section does not attempt to cover this situation. Since named will not be able to access anything outside of the sandbox (such as shared libraries, log sockets, and so on), there are a number of steps that need to be followed in order to allow named to function correctly. In the following checklist, it is assumed that the path to the sandbox is /etc/namedb and that you have made no prior modifications to the contents of this directory. Perform the following steps as root: Create all directories that named expects to see: &prompt.root; cd /etc/namedb &prompt.root; mkdir -p bin dev etc var/tmp var/run master slave &prompt.root; chown bind:bind slave var/* named only needs write access to these directories, so that is all we give it. Rearrange and create basic zone and configuration files: &prompt.root; cp /etc/localtime etc &prompt.root; mv named.conf etc && ln -sf etc/named.conf &prompt.root; mv named.root master &prompt.root; sh make-localhost && mv localhost.rev localhost-v6.rev master &prompt.root; cat > master/named.localhost $ORIGIN localhost. $TTL 6h @ IN SOA localhost. postmaster.localhost. ( 1 ; serial 3600 ; refresh 1800 ; retry 604800 ; expiration 3600 ) ; minimum IN NS localhost. IN A 127.0.0.1 ^D This allows named to log the correct time to &man.syslogd.8;. syslog logs DNS If you are running a version of &os; prior to 4.9-RELEASE, build a statically linked copy of named-xfer, and copy it into the sandbox: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/lib/libisc &prompt.root; make cleandir && make cleandir && make depend && make all &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/lib/libbind &prompt.root; make cleandir && make cleandir && make depend && make all &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/libexec/named-xfer &prompt.root; make cleandir && make cleandir && make depend && make NOSHARED=yes all &prompt.root; cp named-xfer /etc/namedb/bin && chmod 555 /etc/namedb/bin/named-xfer After your statically linked named-xfer is installed some cleaning up is required, to avoid leaving stale copies of libraries or programs in your source tree: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/lib/libisc &prompt.root; make cleandir &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/lib/libbind &prompt.root; make cleandir &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/libexec/named-xfer &prompt.root; make cleandir This step has been reported to fail occasionally. If this happens to you, then issue the command: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src && make cleandir && make cleandir and delete your /usr/obj tree: &prompt.root; rm -fr /usr/obj && mkdir /usr/obj This will clean out any cruft from your source tree, and retrying the steps above should then work. If you are running &os; version 4.9-RELEASE or later, then the copy of named-xfer in /usr/libexec is statically linked by default, and you can simply use &man.cp.1; to copy it into your sandbox. - Make a dev/null that + Make a dev/null that named can see and write to: &prompt.root; cd /etc/namedb/dev && mknod null c 2 2 &prompt.root; chmod 666 null Symlink /var/run/ndc to /etc/namedb/var/run/ndc: &prompt.root; ln -sf /etc/namedb/var/run/ndc /var/run/ndc This simply avoids having to specify the option to &man.ndc.8; every time you run it. Since the contents of /var/run are deleted on boot, if this is something that you find useful you may wish to add this command to root's crontab, making use of the option. See &man.crontab.5; for more information regarding this. syslog logs named Configure &man.syslogd.8; to create an extra log socket that named can write to. To do this, add -l /etc/namedb/dev/log to the syslogd_flags variable in /etc/rc.conf. chroot Arrange to have named start and chroot itself to the sandbox by adding the following to /etc/rc.conf: named_enable="YES" named_flags="-u bind -g bind -t /etc/namedb /etc/named.conf" Note that the configuration file /etc/named.conf is denoted by a full pathname relative to the sandbox, i.e. in the line above, the file referred to is actually /etc/namedb/etc/named.conf. The next step is to edit /etc/namedb/etc/named.conf so that named knows which zones to load and where to find them on the disk. There follows a commented example (anything not specifically commented here is no different from the setup for a DNS server not running in a sandbox): options { directory "/"; named-xfer "/bin/named-xfer"; version ""; // Don't reveal BIND version query-source address * port 53; }; // ndc control socket controls { unix "/var/run/ndc" perm 0600 owner 0 group 0; }; // Zones follow: zone "localhost" IN { type master; file "master/named.localhost"; allow-transfer { localhost; }; notify no; }; zone "0.0.127.in-addr.arpa" IN { type master; file "master/localhost.rev"; allow-transfer { localhost; }; notify no; }; zone "0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.ip6.int" { type master; file "master/localhost-v6.rev"; allow-transfer { localhost; }; notify no; }; zone "." IN { type hint; file "master/named.root"; }; zone "private.example.net" in { type master; file "master/private.example.net.db"; allow-transfer { 192.168.10.0/24; }; }; zone "10.168.192.in-addr.arpa" in { type slave; masters { 192.168.10.2; }; file "slave/192.168.10.db"; }; The directory statement is specified as /, since all files that named needs are within this directory (recall that this is equivalent to a normal user's /etc/namedb). Specifies the full path to the named-xfer binary (from named's frame of reference). This is necessary since named is compiled to look for named-xfer in /usr/libexec by default. Specifies the filename (relative to the directory statement above) where named can find the zone file for this zone. Specifies the filename (relative to the directory statement above) where named should write a copy of the zone file for this zone after successfully transferring it from the master server. This is why we needed to change the ownership of the directory slave to bind in the setup stages above. After completing the steps above, either reboot your server or restart &man.syslogd.8; and start &man.named.8;, making sure to use the new options specified in syslogd_flags and named_flags. You should now be running a sandboxed copy of named! Security Although BIND is the most common implementation of DNS, there is always the issue of security. Possible and exploitable security holes are sometimes found. It is a good idea to read CERT's security advisories and to subscribe to the &a.security-notifications; to stay up to date with the current Internet and FreeBSD security issues. If a problem arises, keeping sources up to date and having a fresh build of named would not hurt. Further Reading BIND/named manual pages: &man.ndc.8; &man.named.8; &man.named.conf.5; Official ISC BIND Page BIND FAQ O'Reilly DNS and BIND 4th Edition RFC1034 - Domain Names - Concepts and Facilities RFC1035 - Domain Names - Implementation and Specification Murray Stokely Contributed by Apache HTTP Server web server setting up Apache Overview &os; is used to run some of the busiest web sites in the world. The majority of web servers on the Internet are using the Apache HTTP Server. Apache software packages should be included on your FreeBSD installation media. If you did not install Apache when you first installed FreeBSD, then you can install it from the www/apache13 or www/apache2 port. Once Apache has been installed successfully, it must be configured. This section covers version 1.3.X of the Apache HTTP Server as that is the most widely used version for &os;. Apache 2.X introduces many new technologies but they are not discussed here. For more information about Apache 2.X, please see . Configuration Apache configuration file The main Apache HTTP Server configuration file is installed as /usr/local/etc/apache/httpd.conf on &os;. This file is a typical &unix; text configuration file with comment lines beginning with the # character. A comprehensive description of all possible configuration options is outside the scope of this book, so only the most frequently modified directives will be described here. ServerRoot "/usr/local" This specifies the default directory hierarchy for the Apache installation. Binaries are stored in the bin and sbin subdirectories of the server root, and configuration files are stored in etc/apache. ServerAdmin you@your.address The address to which problems with the server should be emailed. This address appears on some server-generated pages, such as error documents. ServerName www.example.com ServerName allows you to set a host name which is sent back to clients for your server if it is different to the one that the host is configured with (i.e., use www instead of the host's real name). DocumentRoot "/usr/local/www/data" DocumentRoot: The directory out of which you will serve your documents. By default, all requests are taken from this directory, but symbolic links and aliases may be used to point to other locations. It is always a good idea to make backup copies of your Apache configuration file before making changes. Once you are satisfied with your initial configuration you are ready to start running Apache. Running <application>Apache</application> Apache starting or stopping Apache does not run from the inetd super server as many other network servers do. It is configured to run standalone for better performance for incoming HTTP requests from client web browsers. A shell script wrapper is included to make starting, stopping, and restarting the server as simple as possible. To start up Apache for the first time, just run: &prompt.root; /usr/local/sbin/apachectl start You can stop the server at any time by typing : &prompt.root; /usr/local/sbin/apachectl stop After making changes to the configuration file for any reason, you will need to restart the server: &prompt.root; /usr/local/sbin/apachectl restart To launch Apache at system startup, add the following line to /etc/rc.conf: apache_enable="YES" If you would like to supply additional command line options for the Apache httpd program started at system boot, you may specify them with an additional line in rc.conf: apache_flags="" Now that the web server is running, you can view your web site by pointing a web browser to http://localhost/. The default web page that is displayed is /usr/local/www/data/index.html. Virtual Hosting Apache supports two different types of Virtual Hosting. The first method is Name-based Virtual Hosting. Name-based virtual hosting uses the clients HTTP/1.1 headers to figure out the hostname. This allows many different domains to share the same IP address. To setup Apache to use Name-based Virtual Hosting add an entry like the following to your httpd.conf: NameVirtualHost * If your webserver was named www.domain.tld and you wanted to setup a virtual domain for www.someotherdomain.tld then you would add the following entries to httpd.conf: <VirtualHost *> ServerName www.domain.tld DocumentRoot /www/domain.tld <VirtualHost> <VirtualHost *> ServerName www.someotherdomain.tld DocumentRoot /www/someotherdomain.tld </VirtualHost> Replace the addresses with the addresses you want to use and the path to the documents with what you are using. For more information about setting up virtual hosts, please consult the official Apache documentation at: Apache Modules Apache modules There are many different Apache modules available to add functionality to the basic server. The FreeBSD Ports Collection provides an easy way to install Apache together with some of the more popular add-on modules. mod_ssl web server secure SSL cryptography The mod_ssl module uses the OpenSSL library to provide strong cryptography via the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL v2/v3) and Transport Layer Security (TLS v1) protocols. This module provides everything necessary to request a signed certificate from a trusted certificate signing authority so that you can run a secure web server on &os;. If you have not yet installed Apache, then a version of Apache that includes mod_ssl may be installed with the www/apache13-modssl port. mod_perl Perl The Apache/Perl integration project brings together the full power of the Perl programming language and the Apache HTTP Server. With the mod_perl module it is possible to write Apache modules entirely in Perl. In addition, the persistent interpreter embedded in the server avoids the overhead of starting an external interpreter and the penalty of Perl start-up time. If you have not yet installed Apache, then a version of Apache that includes mod_perl may be installed with the www/apache13-modperl port. PHP PHP PHP, which stands for PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor is a widely-used Open Source general-purpose scripting language that is especially suited for Web development and can be embedded into HTML. Its syntax draws upon C, &java;, and Perl, and is easy to learn. The main goal of the language is to allow web developers to write dynamically generated webpages quickly, but you can do much more with PHP. PHP may be installed from the lang/php5 port. Murray Stokely Contributed by File Transfer Protocol (FTP) FTP server Overview The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) provides users with a simple way to transfer files to and from an FTP server. &os; includes FTP server software, ftpd, in the base system. This makes setting up and administering an FTP server on FreeBSD very straightforward. Configuration The most important configuration step is deciding which accounts will be allowed access to the FTP server. A normal FreeBSD system has a number of system accounts used for various daemons, but unknown users should not be allowed to log in with these accounts. The /etc/ftpusers file is a list of users disallowed any FTP access. By default, it includes the aforementioned system accounts, but it is possible to add specific users here that should not be allowed access to FTP. You may want to restrict the access of some users without preventing them completely from using FTP. This can be accomplished with the /etc/ftpchroot file. This file lists users and groups subject to FTP access restrictions. The &man.ftpchroot.5; manual page has all of the details so it will not be described in detail here. If you would like to enable anonymous FTP access to your server, then you must create a user named ftp on your &os; system. Users will then be able to log on to your FTP server with a username of ftp or anonymous and with any password (by convention an email address for the user should be used as the password). The FTP server will call &man.chroot.2; when an anonymous user logs in, to restrict access to only the home directory of the ftp user. There are two text files that specify welcome messages to be displayed to FTP clients. The contents of the file /etc/ftpwelcome will be displayed to users before they reach the login prompt. After a successful login, the contents of the file /etc/ftpmotd will be displayed. Note that the path to this file is relative to the login environment, so the file ~ftp/etc/ftpmotd would be displayed for anonymous users. Once the FTP server has been configured properly, it must be enabled in /etc/inetd.conf. All that is required here is to remove the comment symbol # from in front of the existing ftpd line : ftp stream tcp nowait root /usr/libexec/ftpd ftpd -l As explained in , a HangUP Signal must be sent to inetd after this configuration file is changed. You can now log on to your FTP server by typing: &prompt.user; ftp localhost Maintaining syslog logs FTP The ftpd daemon uses &man.syslog.3; to log messages. By default, the system log daemon will put messages related to FTP in the /var/log/xferlog file. The location of the FTP log can be modified by changing the following line in /etc/syslog.conf: ftp.info /var/log/xferlog Be aware of the potential problems involved with running an anonymous FTP server. In particular, you should think twice about allowing anonymous users to upload files. You may find that your FTP site becomes a forum for the trade of unlicensed commercial software or worse. If you do need to allow anonymous FTP uploads, then you should set up the permissions so that these files can not be read by other anonymous users until they have been reviewed. Murray Stokely Contributed by File and Print Services for µsoft.windows; clients (Samba) Samba server Microsoft Windows file server Windows clients print server Windows clients Overview Samba is a popular open source software package that provides file and print services for µsoft.windows; clients. Such clients can connect to and use FreeBSD filespace as if it was a local disk drive, or FreeBSD printers as if they were local printers. Samba software packages should be included on your FreeBSD installation media. If you did not install Samba when you first installed FreeBSD, then you can install it from the net/samba3 port or package. Configuration A default Samba configuration file is installed as /usr/local/etc/smb.conf.default. This file must be copied to /usr/local/etc/smb.conf and customized before Samba can be used. The smb.conf file contains runtime configuration information for Samba, such as definitions of the printers and filesystem shares that you would like to share with &windows; clients. The Samba package includes a web based tool called swat which provides a simple way of configuring the smb.conf file. Using the Samba Web Administration Tool (SWAT) The Samba Web Administration Tool (SWAT) runs as a daemon from inetd. Therefore, the following line in /etc/inetd.conf should be uncommented before swat can be used to configure Samba: swat stream tcp nowait/400 root /usr/local/sbin/swat As explained in , a HangUP Signal must be sent to inetd after this configuration file is changed. Once swat has been enabled in inetd.conf, you can use a browser to connect to . You will first have to log on with the system root account. Once you have successfully logged on to the main Samba configuration page, you can browse the system documentation, or begin by clicking on the Globals tab. The Globals section corresponds to the variables that are set in the [global] section of /usr/local/etc/smb.conf. Global Settings Whether you are using swat or editing /usr/local/etc/smb.conf directly, the first directives you are likely to encounter when configuring Samba are: workgroup NT Domain-Name or Workgroup-Name for the computers that will be accessing this server. netbios name NetBIOS This sets the NetBIOS name by which a Samba server is known. By default it is the same as the first component of the host's DNS name. server string This sets the string that will be displayed with the net view command and some other networking tools that seek to display descriptive text about the server. Security Settings Two of the most important settings in /usr/local/etc/smb.conf are the security model chosen, and the backend password format for client users. The following directives control these options: security The two most common options here are security = share and security = user. If your clients use usernames that are the same as their usernames on your &os; machine then you will want to use user level security. This is the default security policy and it requires clients to first log on before they can access shared resources. In share level security, client do not need to log onto the server with a valid username and password before attempting to connect to a shared resource. This was the default security model for older versions of Samba. passdb backend NIS+ LDAP SQL database Samba has several different backend authentication models. You can authenticate clients with LDAP, NIS+, a SQL database, or a modified password file. The default authentication method is smbpasswd, and that is all that will be covered here. Assuming that the default smbpasswd backend is used, the /usr/local/private/smbpasswd file must be created to allow Samba to authenticate clients. If you would like to give all of your &unix; user accounts access from &windows; clients, use the following command: &prompt.root; cat /etc/passwd | grep -v "^#" | make_smbpasswd > /usr/local/private/smbpasswd &prompt.root; chmod 600 /usr/local/private/smbpasswd Please see the Samba documentation for additional information about configuration options. With the basics outlined here, you should have everything you need to start running Samba. Starting <application>Samba</application> To enable Samba when your system boots, add the following line to /etc/rc.conf: samba_enable="YES" You can then start Samba at any time by typing: &prompt.root; /usr/local/etc/rc.d/samba.sh start Starting SAMBA: removing stale tdbs : Starting nmbd. Starting smbd. Samba actually consists of three separate daemons. You should see that both the nmbd and smbd daemons are started by the samba.sh script. If you enabled winbind name resolution services in smb.conf, then you will also see that the winbindd daemon is started. You can stop Samba at any time by typing : &prompt.root; /usr/local/etc/rc.d/samba.sh stop Samba is a complex software suite with functionality that allows broad integration with µsoft.windows; networks. For more information about functionality beyond the basic installation described here, please see . Tom Hukins Contributed by Clock Synchronization with NTP NTP Overview Over time, a computer's clock is prone to drift. The Network Time Protocol (NTP) is one way to ensure your clock stays accurate. Many Internet services rely on, or greatly benefit from, computers' clocks being accurate. For example, a web server may receive requests to send a file if it has been modified since a certain time. In a local area network environment, it is essential that computers sharing files from the same file server have synchronized clocks so that file timestamps stay consistent. Services such as &man.cron.8; also rely on an accurate system clock to run commands at the specified times. NTP ntpd FreeBSD ships with the &man.ntpd.8; NTP server which can be used to query other NTP servers to set the clock on your machine or provide time services to others. Choosing Appropriate NTP Servers NTP choosing servers In order to synchronize your clock, you will need to find one or more NTP servers to use. Your network administrator or ISP may have set up an NTP server for this purpose—check their documentation to see if this is the case. There is an online list of publicly accessible NTP servers which you can use to find an NTP server near to you. Make sure you are aware of the policy for any servers you choose, and ask for permission if required. Choosing several unconnected NTP servers is a good idea in case one of the servers you are using becomes unreachable or its clock is unreliable. &man.ntpd.8; uses the responses it receives from other servers intelligently—it will favor unreliable servers less than reliable ones. Configuring Your Machine NTP configuration Basic Configuration ntpdate If you only wish to synchronize your clock when the machine boots up, you can use &man.ntpdate.8;. This may be appropriate for some desktop machines which are frequently rebooted and only require infrequent synchronization, but most machines should run &man.ntpd.8;. Using &man.ntpdate.8; at boot time is also a good idea for machines that run &man.ntpd.8;. The &man.ntpd.8; program changes the clock gradually, whereas &man.ntpdate.8; sets the clock, no matter how great the difference between a machine's current clock setting and the correct time. To enable &man.ntpdate.8; at boot time, add ntpdate_enable="YES" to /etc/rc.conf. You will also need to specify all servers you wish to synchronize with and any flags to be passed to &man.ntpdate.8; in ntpdate_flags. NTP ntp.conf General Configuration NTP is configured by the /etc/ntp.conf file in the format described in &man.ntp.conf.5;. Here is a simple example: server ntplocal.example.com prefer server timeserver.example.org server ntp2a.example.net driftfile /var/db/ntp.drift The server option specifies which servers are to be used, with one server listed on each line. If a server is specified with the prefer argument, as with ntplocal.example.com, that server is preferred over other servers. A response from a preferred server will be discarded if it differs significantly from other servers' responses, otherwise it will be used without any consideration to other responses. The prefer argument is normally used for NTP servers that are known to be highly accurate, such as those with special time monitoring hardware. The driftfile option specifies which file is used to store the system clock's frequency offset. The &man.ntpd.8; program uses this to automatically compensate for the clock's natural drift, allowing it to maintain a reasonably correct setting even if it is cut off from all external time sources for a period of time. The driftfile option specifies which file is used to store information about previous responses from the NTP servers you are using. This file contains internal information for NTP. It should not be modified by any other process. Controlling Access to Your Server By default, your NTP server will be accessible to all hosts on the Internet. The restrict option in /etc/ntp.conf allows you to control which machines can access your server. If you want to deny all machines from accessing your NTP server, add the following line to /etc/ntp.conf: restrict default ignore If you only want to allow machines within your own network to synchronize their clocks with your server, but ensure they are not allowed to configure the server or used as peers to synchronize against, add restrict 192.168.1.0 mask 255.255.255.0 notrust nomodify notrap instead, where 192.168.1.0 is an IP address on your network and 255.255.255.0 is your network's netmask. /etc/ntp.conf can contain multiple restrict options. For more details, see the Access Control Support subsection of &man.ntp.conf.5;. Running the NTP Server To ensure the NTP server is started at boot time, add the line xntpd_enable="YES" to /etc/rc.conf. If you wish to pass additional flags to &man.ntpd.8;, edit the xntpd_flags parameter in /etc/rc.conf. To start the server without rebooting your machine, run ntpd being sure to specify any additional parameters from xntpd_flags in /etc/rc.conf. For example: &prompt.root; ntpd -p /var/run/ntpd.pid Under &os; 5.X, various options in /etc/rc.conf have been renamed. Thus, you have to replace every instance of xntpd with ntpd in the options above. Using ntpd with a Temporary Internet Connection The &man.ntpd.8; program does not need a permanent connection to the Internet to function properly. However, if you have a temporary connection that is configured to dial out on demand, it is a good idea to prevent NTP traffic from triggering a dial out or keeping the connection alive. If you are using user PPP, you can use filter directives in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. For example: set filter dial 0 deny udp src eq 123 # Prevent NTP traffic from initiating dial out set filter dial 1 permit 0 0 set filter alive 0 deny udp src eq 123 # Prevent incoming NTP traffic from keeping the connection open set filter alive 1 deny udp dst eq 123 # Prevent outgoing NTP traffic from keeping the connection open set filter alive 2 permit 0/0 0/0 For more details see the PACKET FILTERING section in &man.ppp.8; and the examples in /usr/share/examples/ppp/. Some Internet access providers block low-numbered ports, preventing NTP from functioning since replies never reach your machine. Further Information Documentation for the NTP server can be found in /usr/share/doc/ntp/ in HTML format. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml index 9b80edc00d..996fb7f9e5 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml @@ -1,3271 +1,3276 @@ Jim Mock Restructured, reorganized, and updated by PPP and SLIP Synopsis PPP SLIP FreeBSD has a number of ways to link one computer to another. To establish a network or Internet connection through a dial-up modem, or to allow others to do so through you, requires the use of PPP or SLIP. This chapter describes setting up these modem-based communication services in detail. After reading this chapter, you will know: How to set up user PPP. How to set up kernel PPP. How to set up PPPoE (PPP over Ethernet). How to set up PPPoA (PPP over ATM). How to configure and set up a SLIP client and server. PPP user PPP PPP kernel PPP PPP over Ethernet Before reading this chapter, you should: Be familiar with basic network terminology. Understand the basics and purpose of a dialup connection and PPP and/or SLIP. You may be wondering what the main difference is between user PPP and kernel PPP. The answer is simple: user PPP processes the inbound and outbound data in userland rather than in the kernel. This is expensive in terms of copying the data between the kernel and userland, but allows a far more feature-rich PPP implementation. User PPP uses the tun device to communicate with the outside world whereas kernel PPP uses the ppp device. Throughout in this chapter, user PPP will simply be referred to as ppp unless a distinction needs to be made between it and any other PPP software such as pppd. Unless otherwise stated, all of the commands explained in this chapter should be executed as root. Tom Rhodes Updated and enhanced by Brian Somers Originally contributed by Nik Clayton With input from Dirk Frömberg Peter Childs Using User PPP User PPP Assumptions This document assumes you have the following: ISP PPP An account with an Internet Service Provider (ISP) which you connect to using PPP. You have a modem or other device connected to your system and configured correctly which allows you to connect to your ISP. The dial-up number(s) of your ISP. PAP CHAP UNIX login name password Your login name and password. (Either a regular &unix; style login and password pair, or a PAP or CHAP login and password pair.) nameserver The IP address of one or more name servers. Normally, you will be given two IP addresses by your ISP to use for this. If they have not given you at least one, then you can use the enable dns command in ppp.conf and ppp will set the name servers for you. This feature depends on your ISPs PPP implementation supporting DNS negotiation. The following information may be supplied by your ISP, but is not completely necessary: The IP address of your ISP's gateway. The gateway is the machine to which you will connect and will be set up as your default route. If you do not have this information, we can make one up and your ISP's PPP server will tell us the correct value when we connect. This IP number is referred to as HISADDR by ppp. The netmask you should use. If your ISP has not provided you with one, you can safely use 255.255.255.255. static IP address If your ISP provides you with a static IP address and hostname, you can enter it. Otherwise, we simply let the peer assign whatever IP address it sees fit. If you do not have any of the required information, contact your ISP. Throughout this section, many of the examples showing the contents of configuration files are numbered by line. These numbers serve to aid in the presentation and discussion only and are not meant to be placed in the actual file. Proper indentation with tab and space characters is also important. Creating PPP Device Nodes PPPcreating device nodes Under normal circumstances, most users will only need one tun device - (/dev/tun0). References to + (/dev/tun0). References to tun0 below may be changed to tunN where N is any unit number corresponding to your system. For FreeBSD installations that do not have &man.devfs.5; enabled (FreeBSD 4.X and earlier), the existence of the tun0 device should be verified (this is not necessary if &man.devfs.5; is enabled as device nodes will be created on demand). The easiest way to make sure that the tun0 device is configured correctly is to remake the device. To remake the device, do the following: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV tun0 If you need 16 tunnel devices in your kernel, you will need to create them. This can be done by executing the following commands: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV tun15 Automatic <application>PPP</application> Configuration PPPconfiguration Both ppp and pppd (the kernel level implementation of PPP) use the configuration files located in the /etc/ppp directory. Examples for user ppp can be found in /usr/share/examples/ppp/. Configuring ppp requires that you edit a number of files, depending on your requirements. What you put in them depends to some extent on whether your ISP allocates IP addresses statically (i.e., you get given one IP address, and always use that one) or dynamically (i.e., your IP address changes each time you connect to your ISP). PPP and Static IP Addresses PPPwith static IP addresses You will need to edit the /etc/ppp/ppp.conf configuration file. It should look similar to the example below. Lines that end in a : start in the first column (beginning of the line)— all other lines should be indented as shown using spaces or tabs. 1 default: 2 set log Phase Chat LCP IPCP CCP tun command 3 ident user-ppp VERSION (built COMPILATIONDATE) 4 set device /dev/cuaa0 5 set speed 115200 6 set dial "ABORT BUSY ABORT NO\\sCARRIER TIMEOUT 5 \ 7 \"\" AT OK-AT-OK ATE1Q0 OK \\dATDT\\T TIMEOUT 40 CONNECT" 8 set timeout 180 9 enable dns 10 11 provider: 12 set phone "(123) 456 7890" 13 set authname foo 14 set authkey bar 15 set login "TIMEOUT 10 \"\" \"\" gin:--gin: \\U word: \\P col: ppp" 16 set timeout 300 17 set ifaddr x.x.x.x y.y.y.y 255.255.255.255 0.0.0.0 18 add default HISADDR Line 1: Identifies the default entry. Commands in this entry are executed automatically when ppp is run. Line 2: Enables logging parameters. When the configuration is working satisfactorily, this line should be reduced to saying set log phase tun in order to avoid excessive log file sizes. Line 3: Tells PPP how to identify itself to the peer. PPP identifies itself to the peer if it has any trouble negotiating and setting up the link, providing information that the peers administrator may find useful when investigating such problems. Line 4: Identifies the device to which the modem is connected. COM1 is - /dev/cuaa0 and + /dev/cuaa0 and COM2 is - /dev/cuaa1. + /dev/cuaa1. Line 5: Sets the speed you want to connect at. If 115200 does not work (it should with any reasonably new modem), try 38400 instead. Line 6 & 7: PPPuser PPP The dial string. User PPP uses an expect-send syntax similar to the &man.chat.8; program. Refer to the manual page for information on the features of this language. Note that this command continues onto the next line for readability. Any command in ppp.conf may do this if the last character on the line is a ``\'' character. Line 8: Sets the idle timeout for the link. 180 seconds is the default, so this line is purely cosmetic. Line 9: Tells PPP to ask the peer to confirm the local resolver settings. If you run a local name server, this line should be commented out or removed. Line 10: A blank line for readability. Blank lines are ignored by PPP. Line 11: Identifies an entry for a provider called provider. This could be changed to the name of your ISP so that later you can use the to start the connection. Line 12: Sets the phone number for this provider. Multiple phone numbers may be specified using the colon (:) or pipe character (|)as a separator. The difference between the two separators is described in &man.ppp.8;. To summarize, if you want to rotate through the numbers, use a colon. If you want to always attempt to dial the first number first and only use the other numbers if the first number fails, use the pipe character. Always quote the entire set of phone numbers as shown. You must enclose the phone number in quotation marks (") if there is any intention on using spaces in the phone number. This can cause a simple, yet subtle error. Line 13 & 14: Identifies the user name and password. When connecting using a &unix; style login prompt, these values are referred to by the set login command using the \U and \P variables. When connecting using PAP or CHAP, these values are used at authentication time. Line 15: PAP CHAP If you are using PAP or CHAP, there will be no login at this point, and this line should be commented out or removed. See PAP and CHAP authentication for further details. The login string is of the same chat-like syntax as the dial string. In this example, the string works for a service whose login session looks like this: J. Random Provider login: foo password: bar protocol: ppp You will need to alter this script to suit your own needs. When you write this script for the first time, you should ensure that you have enabled chat logging so you can determine if the conversation is going as expected. Line 16: timeout Sets the default idle timeout (in seconds) for the connection. Here, the connection will be closed automatically after 300 seconds of inactivity. If you never want to timeout, set this value to zero or use the command line switch. Line 17: ISP Sets the interface addresses. The string x.x.x.x should be replaced by the IP address that your provider has allocated to you. The string y.y.y.y should be replaced by the IP address that your ISP indicated for their gateway (the machine to which you connect). If your ISP has not given you a gateway address, use 10.0.0.2/0. If you need to use a guessed address, make sure that you create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup as per the instructions for PPP and Dynamic IP addresses. If this line is omitted, ppp cannot run in mode. Line 18: Adds a default route to your ISP's gateway. The special word HISADDR is replaced with the gateway address specified on line 17. It is important that this line appears after line 17, otherwise HISADDR will not yet be initialized. If you do not wish to run ppp in , this line should be moved to the ppp.linkup file. It is not necessary to add an entry to ppp.linkup when you have a static IP address and are running ppp in mode as your routing table entries are already correct before you connect. You may however wish to create an entry to invoke programs after connection. This is explained later with the sendmail example. Example configuration files can be found in the /usr/share/examples/ppp/ directory. PPP and Dynamic IP Addresses PPPwith dynamic IP addresses IPCP If your service provider does not assign static IP addresses, ppp can be configured to negotiate the local and remote addresses. This is done by guessing an IP address and allowing ppp to set it up correctly using the IP Configuration Protocol (IPCP) after connecting. The ppp.conf configuration is the same as PPP and Static IP Addresses, with the following change: 17 set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0 255.255.255.255 Again, do not include the line number, it is just for reference. Indentation of at least one space is required. Line 17: The number after the / character is the number of bits of the address that ppp will insist on. You may wish to use IP numbers more appropriate to your circumstances, but the above example will always work. The last argument (0.0.0.0) tells PPP to start negotiations using address 0.0.0.0 rather than 10.0.0.1 and is necessary for some ISPs. Do not use 0.0.0.0 as the first argument to set ifaddr as it prevents PPP from setting up an initial route in mode. If you are not running in mode, you will need to create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. ppp.linkup is used after a connection has been established. At this point, ppp will have assigned the interface addresses and it will now be possible to add the routing table entries: 1 provider: 2 add default HISADDR Line 1: On establishing a connection, ppp will look for an entry in ppp.linkup according to the following rules: First, try to match the same label as we used in ppp.conf. If that fails, look for an entry for the IP address of our gateway. This entry is a four-octet IP style label. If we still have not found an entry, look for the MYADDR entry. Line 2: This line tells ppp to add a default route that points to HISADDR. HISADDR will be replaced with the IP number of the gateway as negotiated by the IPCP. See the pmdemand entry in the files /usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.conf.sample and /usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.linkup.sample for a detailed example. Receiving Incoming Calls PPPreceiving incoming calls When you configure ppp to receive incoming calls on a machine connected to a LAN, you must decide if you wish to forward packets to the LAN. If you do, you should allocate the peer an IP number from your LAN's subnet, and use the command enable proxy in your /etc/ppp/ppp.conf file. You should also confirm that the /etc/rc.conf file contains the following: gateway_enable="YES" Which getty? Configuring FreeBSD for Dial-up Services provides a good description on enabling dial-up services using &man.getty.8;. An alternative to getty is mgetty, a smarter version of getty designed with dial-up lines in mind. The advantages of using mgetty is that it actively talks to modems, meaning if port is turned off in /etc/ttys then your modem will not answer the phone. Later versions of mgetty (from 0.99beta onwards) also support the automatic detection of PPP streams, allowing your clients script-less access to your server. Refer to Mgetty and AutoPPP for more information on mgetty. <application>PPP</application> Permissions The ppp command must normally be run as the root user. If however, you wish to allow ppp to run in server mode as a normal user by executing ppp as described below, that user must be given permission to run ppp by adding them to the network group in /etc/group. You will also need to give them access to one or more sections of the configuration file using the allow command: allow users fred mary If this command is used in the default section, it gives the specified users access to everything. PPP Shells for Dynamic-IP Users PPP shells Create a file called /etc/ppp/ppp-shell containing the following: #!/bin/sh IDENT=`echo $0 | sed -e 's/^.*-\(.*\)$/\1/'` CALLEDAS="$IDENT" TTY=`tty` if [ x$IDENT = xdialup ]; then IDENT=`basename $TTY` fi echo "PPP for $CALLEDAS on $TTY" echo "Starting PPP for $IDENT" exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct $IDENT This script should be executable. Now make a symbolic link called ppp-dialup to this script using the following commands: &prompt.root; ln -s ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-dialup You should use this script as the shell for all of your dialup users. This is an example from /etc/password for a dialup PPP user with username pchilds (remember do not directly edit the password file, use vipw). pchilds:*:1011:300:Peter Childs PPP:/home/ppp:/etc/ppp/ppp-dialup Create a /home/ppp directory that is world readable containing the following 0 byte files: -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27 02:23 .hushlogin -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27 02:22 .rhosts which prevents /etc/motd from being displayed. PPP Shells for Static-IP Users PPP shells Create the ppp-shell file as above, and for each account with statically assigned IPs create a symbolic link to ppp-shell. For example, if you have three dialup customers, fred, sam, and mary, that you route class C networks for, you would type the following: &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-fred &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-sam &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-mary Each of these users dialup accounts should have their shell set to the symbolic link created above (for example, mary's shell should be /etc/ppp/ppp-mary). Setting Up <filename>ppp.conf</filename> for Dynamic-IP Users The /etc/ppp/ppp.conf file should contain something along the lines of: default: set debug phase lcp chat set timeout 0 ttyd0: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20 255.255.255.255 enable proxy ttyd1: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.21 255.255.255.255 enable proxy The indenting is important. The default: section is loaded for each session. For each dialup line enabled in /etc/ttys create an entry similar to the one for ttyd0: above. Each line should get a unique IP address from your pool of IP addresses for dynamic users. Setting Up <filename>ppp.conf</filename> for Static-IP Users Along with the contents of the sample /usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.conf above you should add a section for each of the statically assigned dialup users. We will continue with our fred, sam, and mary example. fred: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.101.1 255.255.255.255 sam: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.102.1 255.255.255.255 mary: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.103.1 255.255.255.255 The file /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup should also contain routing information for each static IP user if required. The line below would add a route for the 203.14.101.0 class C via the client's ppp link. fred: add 203.14.101.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR sam: add 203.14.102.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR mary: add 203.14.103.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR <command>mgetty</command> and AutoPPP mgetty AutoPPP LCP Configuring and compiling mgetty with the AUTO_PPP option enabled allows mgetty to detect the LCP phase of PPP connections and automatically spawn off a ppp shell. However, since the default login/password sequence does not occur it is necessary to authenticate users using either PAP or CHAP. This section assumes the user has successfully configured, compiled, and installed a version of mgetty with the AUTO_PPP option (v0.99beta or later). Make sure your /usr/local/etc/mgetty+sendfax/login.config file has the following in it: /AutoPPP/ - - /etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup This will tell mgetty to run the ppp-pap-dialup script for detected PPP connections. Create a file called /etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup containing the following (the file should be executable): #!/bin/sh exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pap$IDENT For each dialup line enabled in /etc/ttys, create a corresponding entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. This will happily co-exist with the definitions we created above. pap: enable pap set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20-203.14.100.40 enable proxy Each user logging in with this method will need to have a username/password in /etc/ppp/ppp.secret file, or alternatively add the following option to authenticate users via PAP from /etc/password file. enable passwdauth If you wish to assign some users a static IP number, you can specify the number as the third argument in /etc/ppp/ppp.secret. See /usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.secret.sample for examples. MS Extensions DNS NetBIOS PPPMicrosoft extensions It is possible to configure PPP to supply DNS and NetBIOS nameserver addresses on demand. To enable these extensions with PPP version 1.x, the following lines might be added to the relevant section of /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. enable msext set ns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2 set nbns 203.14.100.5 And for PPP version 2 and above: accept dns set dns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2 set nbns 203.14.100.5 This will tell the clients the primary and secondary name server addresses, and a NetBIOS nameserver host. In version 2 and above, if the set dns line is omitted, PPP will use the values found in /etc/resolv.conf. PAP and CHAP Authentication PAP CHAP Some ISPs set their system up so that the authentication part of your connection is done using either of the PAP or CHAP authentication mechanisms. If this is the case, your ISP will not give a login: prompt when you connect, but will start talking PPP immediately. PAP is less secure than CHAP, but security is not normally an issue here as passwords, although being sent as plain text with PAP, are being transmitted down a serial line only. There is not much room for crackers to eavesdrop. Referring back to the PPP and Static IP addresses or PPP and Dynamic IP addresses sections, the following alterations must be made: 13 set authname MyUserName 14 set authkey MyPassword 15 set login Line 13: This line specifies your PAP/CHAP user name. You will need to insert the correct value for MyUserName. Line 14: password This line specifies your PAP/CHAP password. You will need to insert the correct value for MyPassword. You may want to add an additional line, such as: 16 accept PAP or 16 accept CHAP to make it obvious that this is the intention, but PAP and CHAP are both accepted by default. Line 15: Your ISP will not normally require that you log into the server if you are using PAP or CHAP. You must therefore disable your set login string. Changing Your <command>ppp</command> Configuration on the Fly It is possible to talk to the ppp program while it is running in the background, but only if a suitable diagnostic port has been set up. To do this, add the following line to your configuration: set server /var/run/ppp-tun%d DiagnosticPassword 0177 This will tell PPP to listen to the specified &unix; domain socket, asking clients for the specified password before allowing access. The %d in the name is replaced with the tun device number that is in use. Once a socket has been set up, the &man.pppctl.8; program may be used in scripts that wish to manipulate the running program. Using PPP Network Address Translation Capability PPPNAT PPP has ability to use internal NAT without kernel diverting capabilities. This functionality may be enabled by the following line in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf: nat enable yes Alternatively, PPP NAT may be enabled by command-line option -nat. There is also /etc/rc.conf knob named ppp_nat, which is enabled by default. If you use this feature, you may also find useful the following /etc/ppp/ppp.conf options to enable incoming connections forwarding: nat port tcp 10.0.0.2:ftp ftp nat port tcp 10.0.0.2:http http or do not trust the outside at all nat deny_incoming yes Final System Configuration PPPconfiguration You now have ppp configured, but there are a few more things to do before it is ready to work. They all involve editing the /etc/rc.conf file. Working from the top down in this file, make sure the hostname= line is set, e.g.: hostname="foo.example.com" If your ISP has supplied you with a static IP address and name, it is probably best that you use this name as your host name. Look for the network_interfaces variable. If you want to configure your system to dial your ISP on demand, make sure the tun0 device is added to the list, otherwise remove it. network_interfaces="lo0 tun0" ifconfig_tun0= The ifconfig_tun0 variable should be empty, and a file called /etc/start_if.tun0 should be created. This file should contain the line: ppp -auto mysystem This script is executed at network configuration time, starting your ppp daemon in automatic mode. If you have a LAN for which this machine is a gateway, you may also wish to use the switch. Refer to the manual page for further details. Make sure the router program set to NO with following line in your /etc/rc.conf: router_enable="NO" routed It is important that the routed daemon is not started (it is by default), as routed tends to delete the default routing table entries created by ppp. It is probably worth your while ensuring that the sendmail_flags line does not include the option, otherwise sendmail will attempt to do a network lookup every now and then, possibly causing your machine to dial out. You may try: sendmail_flags="-bd" sendmail The downside of this is that you must force sendmail to re-examine the mail queue whenever the ppp link is up by typing: &prompt.root; /usr/sbin/sendmail -q You may wish to use the !bg command in ppp.linkup to do this automatically: 1 provider: 2 delete ALL 3 add 0 0 HISADDR 4 !bg sendmail -bd -q30m SMTP If you do not like this, it is possible to set up a dfilter to block SMTP traffic. Refer to the sample files for further details. All that is left is to reboot the machine. After rebooting, you can now either type: &prompt.root; ppp and then dial provider to start the PPP session, or, if you want ppp to establish sessions automatically when there is outbound traffic (and you have not created the start_if.tun0 script), type: &prompt.root; ppp -auto provider Summary To recap, the following steps are necessary when setting up ppp for the first time: Client side: Ensure that the tun device is built into your kernel. Ensure that the tunN device file is available in the /dev directory. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The pmdemand example should suffice for most ISPs. If you have a dynamic IP address, create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. Update your /etc/rc.conf file. Create a start_if.tun0 script if you require demand dialing. Server side: Ensure that the tun device is built into your kernel. Ensure that the tunN device file is available in the /dev directory. Create an entry in /etc/passwd (using the &man.vipw.8; program). Create a profile in this users home directory that runs ppp -direct direct-server or similar. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The direct-server example should suffice. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. Update your /etc/rc.conf file. Gennady B. Sorokopud Parts originally contributed by Robert Huff Using Kernel PPP Setting Up Kernel PPP PPPkernel PPP Before you start setting up PPP on your machine, make sure that pppd is located in /usr/sbin and the directory /etc/ppp exists. pppd can work in two modes: As a client — you want to connect your machine to the outside world via a PPP serial connection or modem line. PPPserver As a server — your machine is located on the network, and is used to connect other computers using PPP. In both cases you will need to set up an options file (/etc/ppp/options or ~/.ppprc if you have more than one user on your machine that uses PPP). You will also need some modem/serial software (preferably comms/kermit), so you can dial and establish a connection with the remote host. Trev Roydhouse Based on information provided by Using <command>pppd</command> as a Client PPPclient Cisco The following /etc/ppp/options might be used to connect to a Cisco terminal server PPP line. crtscts # enable hardware flow control modem # modem control line noipdefault # remote PPP server must supply your IP address # if the remote host does not send your IP during IPCP # negotiation, remove this option passive # wait for LCP packets domain ppp.foo.com # put your domain name here :<remote_ip> # put the IP of remote PPP host here # it will be used to route packets via PPP link # if you didn't specified the noipdefault option # change this line to <local_ip>:<remote_ip> defaultroute # put this if you want that PPP server will be your # default router To connect: kermit modem Dial to the remote host using kermit (or some other modem program), and enter your user name and password (or whatever is needed to enable PPP on the remote host). Exit kermit (without hanging up the line). Enter the following: &prompt.root; /usr/src/usr.sbin/pppd.new/pppd /dev/tty01 19200 Be sure to use the appropriate speed and device name. Now your computer is connected with PPP. If the connection fails, you can add the option to the /etc/ppp/options file, and check console messages to track the problem. Following /etc/ppp/pppup script will make all 3 stages automatic: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.dial pppd /dev/tty01 19200 kermit /etc/ppp/kermit.dial is a kermit script that dials and makes all necessary authorization on the remote host (an example of such a script is attached to the end of this document). Use the following /etc/ppp/pppdown script to disconnect the PPP line: #!/bin/sh pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill -TERM ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi /sbin/ifconfig ppp0 down /sbin/ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.hup /etc/ppp/ppptest Check to see if pppd is still running by executing /usr/etc/ppp/ppptest, which should look like this: #!/bin/sh pid=`ps ax| grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then echo 'pppd running: PID=' ${pid-NONE} else echo 'No pppd running.' fi set -x netstat -n -I ppp0 ifconfig ppp0 To hang up the modem, execute /etc/ppp/kermit.hup, which should contain: set line /dev/tty01 ; put your modem device here set speed 19200 set file type binary set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none pau 1 out +++ inp 5 OK out ATH0\13 echo \13 exit Here is an alternate method using chat instead of kermit: The following two files are sufficient to accomplish a pppd connection. /etc/ppp/options: /dev/cuaa1 115200 crtscts # enable hardware flow control modem # modem control line connect "/usr/bin/chat -f /etc/ppp/login.chat.script" noipdefault # remote PPP serve must supply your IP address # if the remote host doesn't send your IP during # IPCP negotiation, remove this option passive # wait for LCP packets domain <your.domain> # put your domain name here : # put the IP of remote PPP host here # it will be used to route packets via PPP link # if you didn't specified the noipdefault option # change this line to <local_ip>:<remote_ip> defaultroute # put this if you want that PPP server will be # your default router /etc/ppp/login.chat.script: The following should go on a single line. ABORT BUSY ABORT 'NO CARRIER' "" AT OK ATDT<phone.number> CONNECT "" TIMEOUT 10 ogin:-\\r-ogin: <login-id> TIMEOUT 5 sword: <password> Once these are installed and modified correctly, all you need to do is run pppd, like so: &prompt.root; pppd Using <command>pppd</command> as a Server /etc/ppp/options should contain something similar to the following: crtscts # Hardware flow control netmask 255.255.255.0 # netmask (not required) 192.114.208.20:192.114.208.165 # IP's of local and remote hosts # local ip must be different from one # you assigned to the Ethernet (or other) # interface on your machine. # remote IP is IP address that will be # assigned to the remote machine domain ppp.foo.com # your domain passive # wait for LCP modem # modem line The following /etc/ppp/pppserv script will tell pppd to behave as a server: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi # reset ppp interface ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete # enable autoanswer mode kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.ans # run ppp pppd /dev/tty01 19200 Use this /etc/ppp/pppservdown script to stop the server: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.noans The following kermit script (/etc/ppp/kermit.ans) will enable/disable autoanswer mode on your modem. It should look like this: set line /dev/tty01 set speed 19200 set file type binary set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none pau 1 out +++ inp 5 OK out ATH0\13 inp 5 OK echo \13 out ATS0=1\13 ; change this to out ATS0=0\13 if you want to disable ; autoanswer mode inp 5 OK echo \13 exit A script named /etc/ppp/kermit.dial is used for dialing and authenticating on the remote host. You will need to customize it for your needs. Put your login and password in this script; you will also need to change the input statement depending on responses from your modem and remote host. ; ; put the com line attached to the modem here: ; set line /dev/tty01 ; ; put the modem speed here: ; set speed 19200 set file type binary ; full 8 bit file xfer set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none set modem hayes set dial hangup off set carrier auto ; Then SET CARRIER if necessary, set dial display on ; Then SET DIAL if necessary, set input echo on set input timeout proceed set input case ignore def \%x 0 ; login prompt counter goto slhup :slcmd ; put the modem in command mode echo Put the modem in command mode. clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer pause 1 output +++ ; hayes escape sequence input 1 OK\13\10 ; wait for OK if success goto slhup output \13 pause 1 output at\13 input 1 OK\13\10 if fail goto slcmd ; if modem doesn't answer OK, try again :slhup ; hang up the phone clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer pause 1 echo Hanging up the phone. output ath0\13 ; hayes command for on hook input 2 OK\13\10 if fail goto slcmd ; if no OK answer, put modem in command mode :sldial ; dial the number pause 1 echo Dialing. output atdt9,550311\13\10 ; put phone number here assign \%x 0 ; zero the time counter :look clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer increment \%x ; Count the seconds input 1 {CONNECT } if success goto sllogin reinput 1 {NO CARRIER\13\10} if success goto sldial reinput 1 {NO DIALTONE\13\10} if success goto slnodial reinput 1 {\255} if success goto slhup reinput 1 {\127} if success goto slhup if < \%x 60 goto look else goto slhup :sllogin ; login assign \%x 0 ; zero the time counter pause 1 echo Looking for login prompt. :slloop increment \%x ; Count the seconds clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer output \13 ; ; put your expected login prompt here: ; input 1 {Username: } if success goto sluid reinput 1 {\255} if success goto slhup reinput 1 {\127} if success goto slhup if < \%x 10 goto slloop ; try 10 times to get a login prompt else goto slhup ; hang up and start again if 10 failures :sluid ; ; put your userid here: ; output ppp-login\13 input 1 {Password: } ; ; put your password here: ; output ppp-password\13 input 1 {Entering SLIP mode.} echo quit :slnodial echo \7No dialtone. Check the telephone line!\7 exit 1 ; local variables: ; mode: csh ; comment-start: "; " ; comment-start-skip: "; " ; end: Tom Rhodes Contributed by Troubleshooting <acronym>PPP</acronym> Connections PPPtroubleshooting This section covers a few issues which may arise when using PPP over a modem connection. For instance, perhaps you need to know exactly what prompts the system you are dialing into will present. Some ISPs present the ssword prompt, and others will present password; if the ppp script is not written accordingly, the login attempt will fail. The most common way to debug ppp connections is by connecting manually. The following information will walk you through a manual connection step by step. Check the Device Nodes If you reconfigured your kernel then you recall the sio device. If you did not configure your kernel, there is no reason to worry. Just check the dmesg output for the modem device with: &prompt.root;dmesg | grep sio You should get some pertinent output about the sio devices. These are the COM ports we need. If your modem acts like a standard serial port then you should see it listed on sio1, or COM2. If so, you are not required to rebuild the kernel, you just need to make the serial device. You can do this by changing your directory to /dev and running the MAKEDEV script like above. Now make the serial devices with: &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV cuaa0 cuaa1 cuaa2 cuaa3 which will create the serial devices for your system. When matching up sio modem is on sio1 or COM2 if you are in DOS, then your - modem device would be /dev/cuaa1. + modem device would be /dev/cuaa1. Connecting Manually Connecting to the Internet by manually controlling ppp is quick, easy, and a great way to debug a connection or just get information on how your ISP treats ppp client connections. Lets start PPP from the command line. Note that in all of our examples we will use example as the hostname of the machine running PPP. You start ppp by just typing ppp: &prompt.root; ppp We have now started ppp. - ppp ON example> set device /dev/cuaa1 + ppp ON example> set device /dev/cuaa1 We set our modem device, in this case it is cuaa1. ppp ON example> set speed 115200 Set the connection speed, in this case we are using 115,200 kbps. ppp ON example> enable dns Tell ppp to configure our resolver and add the nameserver lines to /etc/resolv.conf. If ppp cannot determine our hostname, we can set one manually later. ppp ON example> term Switch to terminal mode so that we can manually control the modem. - deflink: Entering terminal mode on /dev/cuaa1 + deflink: Entering terminal mode on /dev/cuaa1 type '~h' for help at OK atdt123456789 Use at to initialize the modem, then use atdt and the number for your ISP to begin the dial in process. CONNECT Confirmation of the connection, if we are going to have any connection problems, unrelated to hardware, here is where we will attempt to resolve them. ISP Login:myusername Here you are prompted for a username, return the prompt with the username that was provided by the ISP. ISP Pass:mypassword This time we are prompted for a password, just reply with the password that was provided by the ISP. Just like logging into &os;, the password will not echo. Shell or PPP:ppp Depending on your ISP this prompt may never appear. Here we are being asked if we wish to use a shell on the provider, or to start ppp. In this example, we have chosen to use ppp as we want an Internet connection. Ppp ON example> Notice that in this example the first has been capitalized. This shows that we have successfully connected to the ISP. PPp ON example> We have successfully authenticated with our ISP and are waiting for the assigned IP address. PPP ON example> We have made an agreement on an IP address and successfully completed our connection. PPP ON example>add default HISADDR Here we add our default route, we need to do this before we can talk to the outside world as currently the only established connection is with the peer. If this fails due to existing routes you can put a bang character ! in front of the . Alternatively, you can set this before making the actual connection and it will negotiate a new route accordingly. If everything went good we should now have an active connection to the Internet, which could be thrown into the background using CTRL z If you notice the PPP return to ppp then we have lost our connection. This is good to know because it shows our connection status. Capital P's show that we have a connection to the ISP and lowercase p's show that the connection has been lost for whatever reason. ppp only has these 2 states. Debugging If you have a direct line and cannot seem to make a connection, then turn hardware flow CTS/RTS to off with the . This is mainly the case if you are connected to some PPP capable terminal servers, where PPP hangs when it tries to write data to your communication link, so it would be waiting for a CTS, or Clear To Send signal which may never come. If you use this option however, you should also use the option, which may be required to defeat hardware dependent on passing certain characters from end to end, most of the time XON/XOFF. See the &man.ppp.8; manual page for more information on this option, and how it is used. If you have an older modem, you may need to use the . Parity is set at none be default, but is used for error checking (with a large increase in traffic) on older modems and some ISPs. You may need this option for the Compuserve ISP. PPP may not return to the command mode, which is usually a negotiation error where the ISP is waiting for your side to start negotiating. At this point, using the ~p command will force ppp to start sending the configuration information. If you never obtain a login prompt, then most likely you need to use PAP or CHAP authentication instead of the &unix; style in the example above. To use PAP or CHAP just add the following options to PPP before going into terminal mode: ppp ON example> set authname myusername Where myusername should be replaced with the username that was assigned by the ISP. ppp ON example> set authkey mypassword Where mypassword should be replaced with the password that was assigned by the ISP. If you connect fine, but cannot seem to find any domain name, try to use &man.ping.8; with an IP address and see if you can get any return information. If you experience 100 percent (100%) packet loss, then it is most likely that you were not assigned a default route. Double check that the option was set during the connection. If you can connect to a remote IP address then it is possible that a resolver address has not been added to the /etc/resolv.conf. This file should look like: domain example.com nameserver x.x.x.x nameserver y.y.y.y Where x.x.x.x and y.y.y.y should be replaced with the IP address of your ISP's DNS servers. This information may or may not have been provided when you signed up, but a quick call to your ISP should remedy that. You could also have &man.syslog.3; provide a logging function for your PPP connection. Just add: !ppp *.* /var/log/ppp.log to /etc/syslog.conf. In most cases, this functionality already exists. Jim Mock Contributed (from http://node.to/freebsd/how-tos/how-to-freebsd-pppoe.html) by Using PPP over Ethernet (PPPoE) PPPover Ethernet PPPoE PPP, over Ethernet This section describes how to set up PPP over Ethernet (PPPoE). Configuring the Kernel No kernel configuration is necessary for PPPoE any longer. If the necessary netgraph support is not built into the kernel, it will be dynamically loaded by ppp. Setting Up <filename>ppp.conf</filename> Here is an example of a working ppp.conf: default: set log Phase tun command # you can add more detailed logging if you wish set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0 name_of_service_provider: set device PPPoE:xl1 # replace xl1 with your Ethernet device set authname YOURLOGINNAME set authkey YOURPASSWORD set dial set login add default HISADDR Running <application>ppp</application> As root, you can run: &prompt.root; ppp -ddial name_of_service_provider Starting <application>ppp</application> at Boot Add the following to your /etc/rc.conf file: ppp_enable="YES" ppp_mode="ddial" ppp_nat="YES" # if you want to enable nat for your local network, otherwise NO ppp_profile="name_of_service_provider" Using a PPPoE Service Tag Sometimes it will be necessary to use a service tag to establish your connection. Service tags are used to distinguish between different PPPoE servers attached to a given network. You should have been given any required service tag information in the documentation provided by your ISP. If you cannot locate it there, ask your ISP's tech support personnel. As a last resort, you could try the method suggested by the Roaring Penguin PPPoE program which can be found in the ports collection. Bear in mind however, this may de-program your modem and render it useless, so think twice before doing it. Simply install the program shipped with the modem by your provider. Then, access the System menu from the program. The name of your profile should be listed there. It is usually ISP. The profile name (service tag) will be used in the PPPoE configuration entry in ppp.conf as the provider part of the set device command (see the &man.ppp.8; manual page for full details). It should look like this: set device PPPoE:xl1:ISP Do not forget to change xl1 to the proper device for your Ethernet card. Do not forget to change ISP to the profile you have just found above. For additional information, see: Cheaper Broadband with FreeBSD on DSL by Renaud Waldura. Nutzung von T-DSL und T-Online mit FreeBSD by Udo Erdelhoff (in German). PPPoE with a &tm.3com; <trademark class="registered">HomeConnect</trademark> ADSL Modem Dual Link This modem does not follow RFC 2516 (A Method for transmitting PPP over Ethernet (PPPoE), written by L. Mamakos, K. Lidl, J. Evarts, D. Carrel, D. Simone, and R. Wheeler). Instead, different packet type codes have been used for the Ethernet frames. Please complain to 3Com if you think it should comply with the PPPoE specification. In order to make FreeBSD capable of communicating with this device, a sysctl must be set. This can be done automatically at boot time by updating /etc/sysctl.conf: net.graph.nonstandard_pppoe=1 or can be done for immediate effect with the command sysctl net.graph.nonstandard_pppoe=1. Unfortunately, because this is a system-wide setting, it is not possible to talk to a normal PPPoE client or server and a &tm.3com; HomeConnect ADSL Modem at the same time. Using <application>PPP</application> over ATM (PPPoA) PPPover ATM PPPoA PPP, over ATM The following describes how to set up PPP over ATM (PPPoA). PPPoA is a popular choice among European DSL providers. Using PPPoA with the Alcatel &speedtouch; USB PPPoA support for this device is supplied as a port in FreeBSD because the firmware is distributed under Alcatel's license agreement and can not be redistributed freely with the base system of FreeBSD. To install the software, simply use the ports collection. Install the net/pppoa port and follow the instructions provided with it. Like many USB devices, the Alcatel &speedtouch; USB needs to download firmware from the host computer to operate properly. It is possible to automate this process in &os; so that this transfer takes place whenever the device is plugged into a USB port. The following information can be added to the /etc/usbd.conf file to enable this automatic firmware transfer. This file must be edited as the root user. device "Alcatel SpeedTouch USB" devname "ugen[0-9]+" vendor 0x06b9 product 0x4061 attach "/usr/local/sbin/modem_run -f /usr/local/libdata/mgmt.o" To enable the USB daemon, usbd, put the following the line into /etc/rc.conf: usbd_enable="YES" It is also possible to set up ppp to dial up at startup. To do this add the following lines to /etc/rc.conf. Again, for this procedure you will need to be logged in as the root user. ppp_enable="YES" ppp_mode="ddial" ppp_profile="adsl" For this to work correctly you will need to have used the sample ppp.conf which is supplied with the net/pppoa port. Using mpd You can use mpd to connect to a variety of services, in particular PPTP services. You can find mpd in the ports collection, net/mpd. Many ADSL modems require that a PPTP tunnel is created between the modem and computer, one such modem is the Alcatel &speedtouch; Home. First you must install the port, and then you can configure mpd to suit your requirements and provider settings. The port places a set of sample configuration files which are well documented in PREFIX/etc/mpd/. Note here that PREFIX means the directory into which your ports are installed, this defaults to /usr/local/. A complete guide to configure mpd is available in HTML format once the port has been installed. It is placed in PREFIX/share/doc/mpd/. Here is a sample configuration for connecting to an ADSL service with mpd. The configuration is spread over two files, first the mpd.conf: default: load adsl adsl: new -i ng0 adsl adsl set bundle authname username set bundle password password set bundle disable multilink set link no pap acfcomp protocomp set link disable chap set link accept chap set link keep-alive 30 10 set ipcp no vjcomp set ipcp ranges 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0 set iface route default set iface disable on-demand set iface enable proxy-arp set iface idle 0 open The username used to authenticate with your ISP. The password used to authenticate with your ISP. The mpd.links file contains information about the link, or links, you wish to establish. An example mpd.links to accompany the above example is given beneath: adsl: set link type pptp set pptp mode active set pptp enable originate outcall set pptp self 10.0.0.1 set pptp peer 10.0.0.138 The IP address of your &os; computer which you will be using mpd from. The IP address of your ADSL modem. For the Alcatel &speedtouch; Home this address defaults to 10.0.0.138. It is possible to initialize the connection easily by issuing the following command as root: &prompt.root; mpd -b adsl You can see the status of the connection with the following command: &prompt.user; ifconfig ng0 ng0: flags=88d1<UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,NOARP,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 inet 216.136.204.117 --> 204.152.186.171 netmask 0xffffffff Using mpd is the recommended way to connect to an ADSL service with &os;. Using pptpclient It is also possible to use FreeBSD to connect to other PPPoA services using net/pptpclient. To use net/pptpclient to connect to a DSL service, install the port or package and edit your /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. You will need to be root to perform both of these operations. An example section of ppp.conf is given below. For further information on ppp.conf options consult the ppp manual page, &man.ppp.8;. adsl: set log phase chat lcp ipcp ccp tun command set timeout 0 enable dns set authname username set authkey password set ifaddr 0 0 add default HISADDR The username of your account with the DSL provider. The password for your account. Because you must put your account's password in the ppp.conf file in plain text form you should make sure than nobody can read the contents of this file. The following series of commands will make sure the file is only readable by the root account. Refer to the manual pages for &man.chmod.1; and &man.chown.8; for further information. &prompt.root; chown root:wheel /etc/ppp/ppp.conf &prompt.root; chmod 600 /etc/ppp/ppp.conf This will open a tunnel for a PPP session to your DSL router. Ethernet DSL modems have a preconfigured LAN IP address which you connect to. In the case of the Alcatel &speedtouch; Home this address is 10.0.0.138. Your router documentation should tell you which address your device uses. To open the tunnel and start a PPP session execute the following command: &prompt.root; pptp address adsl You may wish to add an ampersand (&) to the end of the previous command because pptp will not return your prompt to you otherwise. A tun virtual tunnel device will be created for interaction between the pptp and ppp processes. Once you have been returned to your prompt, or the pptp process has confirmed a connection you can examine the tunnel like so: &prompt.user; ifconfig tun0 tun0: flags=8051<UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 inet 216.136.204.21 --> 204.152.186.171 netmask 0xffffff00 Opened by PID 918 If you are unable to connect, check the configuration of your router, which is usually accessible via telnet or with a web browser. If you still cannot connect you should examine the output of the pptp command and the contents of the ppp log file, /var/log/ppp.log for clues. Satoshi Asami Originally contributed by Guy Helmer With input from Piero Serini Using SLIP SLIP Setting Up a SLIP Client SLIPclient The following is one way to set up a FreeBSD machine for SLIP on a static host network. For dynamic hostname assignments (your address changes each time you dial up), you probably need to have a more complex setup. First, determine which serial port your modem is connected to. Many people set up a symbolic link, such as - /dev/modem, to point to the real device name, - /dev/cuaaN. This allows you to + /dev/modem, to point to the real device name, + /dev/cuaaN. This allows you to abstract the actual device name should you ever need to move the modem to a different port. It can become quite cumbersome when you need to fix a bunch of files in /etc and .kermrc files all over the system! /dev/cuaa0 is COM1, cuaa1 is COM2, etc. Make sure you have the following in your kernel configuration file: pseudo-device sl 1 + Under &os; 5.X, use instead the folowing + line: + + device sl + It is included in the GENERIC kernel, so this should not be a problem unless you have deleted it. Things You Have to Do Only Once Add your home machine, the gateway and nameservers to your /etc/hosts file. Mine looks like this: 127.0.0.1 localhost loghost 136.152.64.181 water.CS.Example.EDU water.CS water 136.152.64.1 inr-3.CS.Example.EDU inr-3 slip-gateway 128.32.136.9 ns1.Example.EDU ns1 128.32.136.12 ns2.Example.EDU ns2 Make sure you have before in your /etc/host.conf on FreeBSD versions prior to 5.0. Since FreeBSD 5.0, the system uses the file /etc/nsswitch.conf instead, make sure you have before in the line of this file. Without these parameters funny things may happen. Edit the /etc/rc.conf file. Set your hostname by editing the line that says: hostname="myname.my.domain" Your machine's full Internet hostname should be placed here. Add sl0 to the list of network interfaces by changing the line that says: network_interfaces="lo0" to: network_interfaces="lo0 sl0" Set the startup flags of sl0 by adding a line: ifconfig_sl0="inet ${hostname} slip-gateway netmask 0xffffff00 up" default route Designate the default router by changing the line: defaultrouter="NO" to: defaultrouter="slip-gateway" Make a file /etc/resolv.conf which contains: domain CS.Example.EDU nameserver 128.32.136.9 nameserver 128.32.136.12 nameserver domain name As you can see, these set up the nameserver hosts. Of course, the actual domain names and addresses depend on your environment. Set the password for root and toor (and any other accounts that do not have a password). Reboot your machine and make sure it comes up with the correct hostname. Making a SLIP Connection SLIPconnecting with Dial up, type slip at the prompt, enter your machine name and password. What is required to be entered depends on your environment. If you use kermit, you can try a script like this: # kermit setup set modem hayes set line /dev/modem set speed 115200 set parity none set flow rts/cts set terminal bytesize 8 set file type binary # The next macro will dial up and login define slip dial 643-9600, input 10 =>, if failure stop, - output slip\x0d, input 10 Username:, if failure stop, - output silvia\x0d, input 10 Password:, if failure stop, - output ***\x0d, echo \x0aCONNECTED\x0a Of course, you have to change the hostname and password to fit yours. After doing so, you can just type slip from the kermit prompt to connect. Leaving your password in plain text anywhere in the filesystem is generally a bad idea. Do it at your own risk. Leave the kermit there (you can suspend it by Ctrl z ) and as root, type: &prompt.root; slattach -h -c -s 115200 /dev/modem If you are able to ping hosts on the other side of the router, you are connected! If it does not work, you might want to try instead of as an argument to slattach. How to Shutdown the Connection Do the following: &prompt.root; kill -INT `cat /var/run/slattach.modem.pid` to kill slattach. Keep in mind you must be root to do the above. Then go back to kermit (by running fg if you suspended it) and exit from it (q). The slattach manual page says you have to use ifconfig sl0 down to mark the interface down, but this does not seem to make any difference for me. (ifconfig sl0 reports the same thing.) Some times, your modem might refuse to drop the carrier (mine often does). In that case, simply start kermit and quit it again. It usually goes out on the second try. Troubleshooting If it does not work, feel free to ask me. The things that people tripped over so far: Not using or in slattach (This should not be fatal, but some users have reported that this solves their problems.) Using instead of (might be hard to see the difference on some fonts). Try ifconfig sl0 to see your interface status. For example, you might get: &prompt.root; ifconfig sl0 sl0: flags=10<POINTOPOINT> inet 136.152.64.181 --> 136.152.64.1 netmask ffffff00 If you get no route to host messages from ping, there may be a problem with your routing table. You can use the netstat -r command to display the current routes : &prompt.root; netstat -r Routing tables Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use IfaceMTU Rtt Netmasks: (root node) (root node) Route Tree for Protocol Family inet: (root node) => default inr-3.Example.EDU UG 8 224515 sl0 - - localhost.Exampl localhost.Example. UH 5 42127 lo0 - 0.438 inr-3.Example.ED water.CS.Example.E UH 1 0 sl0 - - water.CS.Example localhost.Example. UGH 34 47641234 lo0 - 0.438 (root node) The preceding examples are from a relatively busy system. The numbers on your system will vary depending on network activity. Setting Up a SLIP Server SLIPserver This document provides suggestions for setting up SLIP Server services on a FreeBSD system, which typically means configuring your system to automatically startup connections upon login for remote SLIP clients. Prerequisites TCP/IP networking This section is very technical in nature, so background knowledge is required. It is assumed that you are familiar with the TCP/IP network protocol, and in particular, network and node addressing, network address masks, subnetting, routing, and routing protocols, such as RIP. Configuring SLIP services on a dial-up server requires a knowledge of these concepts, and if you are not familiar with them, please read a copy of either Craig Hunt's TCP/IP Network Administration published by O'Reilly & Associates, Inc. (ISBN Number 0-937175-82-X), or Douglas Comer's books on the TCP/IP protocol. modem It is further assumed that you have already set up your modem(s) and configured the appropriate system files to allow logins through your modems. If you have not prepared your system for this yet, please see the tutorial for configuring dialup services; if you have a World-Wide Web browser available, browse the list of tutorials at http://www.FreeBSD.org/. You may also want to check the manual pages for &man.sio.4; for information on the serial port device driver and &man.ttys.5;, &man.gettytab.5;, &man.getty.8;, & &man.init.8; for information relevant to configuring the system to accept logins on modems, and perhaps &man.stty.1; for information on setting serial port parameters (such as clocal for directly-connected serial interfaces). Quick Overview In its typical configuration, using FreeBSD as a SLIP server works as follows: a SLIP user dials up your FreeBSD SLIP Server system and logs in with a special SLIP login ID that uses /usr/sbin/sliplogin as the special user's shell. The sliplogin program browses the file /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts to find a matching line for the special user, and if it finds a match, connects the serial line to an available SLIP interface and then runs the shell script /etc/sliphome/slip.login to configure the SLIP interface. An Example of a SLIP Server Login For example, if a SLIP user ID were Shelmerg, Shelmerg's entry in /etc/master.passwd would look something like this: Shelmerg:password:1964:89::0:0:Guy Helmer - SLIP:/usr/users/Shelmerg:/usr/sbin/sliplogin When Shelmerg logs in, sliplogin will search /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts for a line that had a matching user ID; for example, there may be a line in /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts that reads: Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmer 0xfffffc00 autocomp sliplogin will find that matching line, hook the serial line into the next available SLIP interface, and then execute /etc/sliphome/slip.login like this: /etc/sliphome/slip.login 0 19200 Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmer 0xfffffc00 autocomp If all goes well, /etc/sliphome/slip.login will issue an ifconfig for the SLIP interface to which sliplogin attached itself (slip interface 0, in the above example, which was the first parameter in the list given to slip.login) to set the local IP address (dc-slip), remote IP address (sl-helmer), network mask for the SLIP interface (0xfffffc00), and any additional flags (autocomp). If something goes wrong, sliplogin usually logs good informational messages via the daemon syslog facility, which usually logs to /var/log/messages (see the manual pages for &man.syslogd.8; and &man.syslog.conf.5; and perhaps check /etc/syslog.conf to see to what syslogd is logging and where it is logging to). OK, enough of the examples — let us dive into setting up the system. Kernel Configuration kernelconfiguration FreeBSD's default kernels usually come with two SLIP interfaces defined (sl0 and sl1); you can use netstat -i to see whether these interfaces are defined in your kernel. Sample output from netstat -i: Name Mtu Network Address Ipkts Ierrs Opkts Oerrs Coll ed0 1500 <Link>0.0.c0.2c.5f.4a 291311 0 174209 0 133 ed0 1500 138.247.224 ivory 291311 0 174209 0 133 lo0 65535 <Link> 79 0 79 0 0 lo0 65535 loop localhost 79 0 79 0 0 sl0* 296 <Link> 0 0 0 0 0 sl1* 296 <Link> 0 0 0 0 0 The sl0 and sl1 interfaces shown from netstat -i indicate that there are two SLIP interfaces built into the kernel. (The asterisks after the sl0 and sl1 indicate that the interfaces are down.) However, FreeBSD's default kernel does not come configured to forward packets (by default, your FreeBSD machine will not act as a router) due to Internet RFC requirements for Internet hosts (see RFCs 1009 [Requirements for Internet Gateways], 1122 [Requirements for Internet Hosts — Communication Layers], and perhaps 1127 [A Perspective on the Host Requirements RFCs]). If you want your FreeBSD SLIP Server to act as a router, you will have to edit the /etc/rc.conf file and change the setting of the gateway_enable variable to . You will then need to reboot for the new settings to take effect. You will notice that near the end of the default kernel configuration file (/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC) is a line that reads: pseudo-device sl 2 SLIP This is the line that defines the number of SLIP devices available in the kernel; the number at the end of the line is the maximum number of SLIP connections that may be operating simultaneously. Please refer to on Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel for help in reconfiguring your kernel. Sliplogin Configuration As mentioned earlier, there are three files in the /etc/sliphome directory that are part of the configuration for /usr/sbin/sliplogin (see &man.sliplogin.8; for the actual manual page for sliplogin): slip.hosts, which defines the SLIP users and their associated IP addresses; slip.login, which usually just configures the SLIP interface; and (optionally) slip.logout, which undoes slip.login's effects when the serial connection is terminated. <filename>slip.hosts</filename> Configuration /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts contains lines which have at least four items separated by whitespace: SLIP user's login ID Local address (local to the SLIP server) of the SLIP link Remote address of the SLIP link Network mask The local and remote addresses may be host names (resolved to IP addresses by /etc/hosts or by the domain name service, depending on your specifications in the file /etc/nsswitch.conf on FreeBSD 5.X, in /etc/host.conf if you use FreeBSD 4.X), and the network mask may be a name that can be resolved by a lookup into /etc/networks. On a sample system, /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts looks like this: # # login local-addr remote-addr mask opt1 opt2 # (normal,compress,noicmp) # Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmerg 0xfffffc00 autocomp At the end of the line is one or more of the options. — no header compression — compress headers — compress headers if the remote end allows it — disable ICMP packets (so any ping packets will be dropped instead of using up your bandwidth) SLIP TCP/IP networking Your choice of local and remote addresses for your SLIP links depends on whether you are going to dedicate a TCP/IP subnet or if you are going to use proxy ARP on your SLIP server (it is not true proxy ARP, but that is the terminology used in this section to describe it). If you are not sure which method to select or how to assign IP addresses, please refer to the TCP/IP books referenced in the SLIP Prerequisites () and/or consult your IP network manager. If you are going to use a separate subnet for your SLIP clients, you will need to allocate the subnet number out of your assigned IP network number and assign each of your SLIP client's IP numbers out of that subnet. Then, you will probably need to configure a static route to the SLIP subnet via your SLIP server on your nearest IP router. Ethernet Otherwise, if you will use the proxy ARP method, you will need to assign your SLIP client's IP addresses out of your SLIP server's Ethernet subnet, and you will also need to adjust your /etc/sliphome/slip.login and /etc/sliphome/slip.logout scripts to use &man.arp.8; to manage the proxy-ARP entries in the SLIP server's ARP table. <filename>slip.login</filename> Configuration The typical /etc/sliphome/slip.login file looks like this: #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.login 5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90 # # generic login file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6 This slip.login file merely runs ifconfig for the appropriate SLIP interface with the local and remote addresses and network mask of the SLIP interface. If you have decided to use the proxy ARP method (instead of using a separate subnet for your SLIP clients), your /etc/sliphome/slip.login file will need to look something like this: #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.login 5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90 # # generic login file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6 # Answer ARP requests for the SLIP client with our Ethernet addr /usr/sbin/arp -s $5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pub The additional line in this slip.login, arp -s $5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pub, creates an ARP entry in the SLIP server's ARP table. This ARP entry causes the SLIP server to respond with the SLIP server's Ethernet MAC address whenever another IP node on the Ethernet asks to speak to the SLIP client's IP address. EthernetMAC address When using the example above, be sure to replace the Ethernet MAC address (00:11:22:33:44:55) with the MAC address of your system's Ethernet card, or your proxy ARP will definitely not work! You can discover your SLIP server's Ethernet MAC address by looking at the results of running netstat -i; the second line of the output should look something like: ed0 1500 <Link>0.2.c1.28.5f.4a 191923 0 129457 0 116 This indicates that this particular system's Ethernet MAC address is 00:02:c1:28:5f:4a — the periods in the Ethernet MAC address given by netstat -i must be changed to colons and leading zeros should be added to each single-digit hexadecimal number to convert the address into the form that &man.arp.8; desires; see the manual page on &man.arp.8; for complete information on usage. When you create /etc/sliphome/slip.login and /etc/sliphome/slip.logout, the execute bit (chmod 755 /etc/sliphome/slip.login /etc/sliphome/slip.logout) must be set, or sliplogin will be unable to execute it. <filename>slip.logout</filename> Configuration /etc/sliphome/slip.logout is not strictly needed (unless you are implementing proxy ARP), but if you decide to create it, this is an example of a basic slip.logout script: #!/bin/sh - # # slip.logout # # logout file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 down If you are using proxy ARP, you will want to have /etc/sliphome/slip.logout remove the ARP entry for the SLIP client: #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.logout # # logout file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 down # Quit answering ARP requests for the SLIP client /usr/sbin/arp -d $5 The arp -d $5 removes the ARP entry that the proxy ARP slip.login added when the SLIP client logged in. It bears repeating: make sure /etc/sliphome/slip.logout has the execute bit set after you create it (ie, chmod 755 /etc/sliphome/slip.logout). Routing Considerations SLIP routing If you are not using the proxy ARP method for routing packets between your SLIP clients and the rest of your network (and perhaps the Internet), you will probably have to add static routes to your closest default router(s) to route your SLIP client subnet via your SLIP server. Static Routes static routes Adding static routes to your nearest default routers can be troublesome (or impossible if you do not have authority to do so...). If you have a multiple-router network in your organization, some routers, such as those made by Cisco and Proteon, may not only need to be configured with the static route to the SLIP subnet, but also need to be told which static routes to tell other routers about, so some expertise and troubleshooting/tweaking may be necessary to get static-route-based routing to work. Running <application>&gated;</application> gated &gated; is proprietary software now and will not be available as source code to the public anymore (more info on the &gated; website). This section only exists to ensure backwards compatibility for those that are still using an older version. An alternative to the headaches of static routes is to install &gated; on your FreeBSD SLIP server and configure it to use the appropriate routing protocols (RIP/OSPF/BGP/EGP) to tell other routers about your SLIP subnet. You'll need to write a /etc/gated.conf file to configure your gated; here is a sample, similar to what the author used on a FreeBSD SLIP server: # # gated configuration file for dc.dsu.edu; for gated version 3.5alpha5 # Only broadcast RIP information for xxx.xxx.yy out the ed Ethernet interface # # # tracing options # traceoptions "/var/tmp/gated.output" replace size 100k files 2 general ; rip yes { interface sl noripout noripin ; interface ed ripin ripout version 1 ; traceoptions route ; } ; # # Turn on a bunch of tracing info for the interface to the kernel: kernel { traceoptions remnants request routes info interface ; } ; # # Propagate the route to xxx.xxx.yy out the Ethernet interface via RIP # export proto rip interface ed { proto direct { xxx.xxx.yy mask 255.255.252.0 metric 1; # SLIP connections } ; } ; # # Accept routes from RIP via ed Ethernet interfaces import proto rip interface ed { all ; } ; RIP The above sample gated.conf file broadcasts routing information regarding the SLIP subnet xxx.xxx.yy via RIP onto the Ethernet; if you are using a different Ethernet driver than the ed driver, you will need to change the references to the ed interface appropriately. This sample file also sets up tracing to /var/tmp/gated.output for debugging &gated;'s activity; you can certainly turn off the tracing options if &gated; works OK for you. You will need to change the xxx.xxx.yy's into the network address of your own SLIP subnet (be sure to change the net mask in the proto direct clause as well). Once you have installed and configured &gated; on your system, you will need to tell the FreeBSD startup scripts to run &gated; in place of routed. The easiest way to accomplish this is to set the router and router_flags variables in /etc/rc.conf. Please see the manual page for &gated; for information on command-line parameters. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml index ade35da5ed..9fb1ee781e 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml @@ -1,5325 +1,5325 @@ Matthew Dillon Much of this chapter has been taken from the security(7) manual page by Security security Synopsis This chapter will provide a basic introduction to system security concepts, some general good rules of thumb, and some advanced topics under &os;. A lot of the topics covered here can be applied to system and Internet security in general as well. The Internet is no longer a friendly place in which everyone wants to be your kind neighbor. Securing your system is imperative to protect your data, intellectual property, time, and much more from the hands of hackers and the like. FreeBSD provides an array of utilities and mechanisms to ensure the integrity and security of your system and network. After reading this chapter, you will know: Basic system security concepts, in respect to &os;. About the various crypt mechanisms available in &os;, such as DES and MD5. How to set up one-time password authentication. How to set up KerberosIV on &os; releases prior to 5.0. How to set up Kerberos5 on post &os; 5.0 releases. How to create firewalls using IPFW. How to configure IPsec and create a VPN between &os;/&windows; machines. How to configure and use OpenSSH, &os;'s SSH implementation. How to configure and load access control extension modules using the TrustedBSD MAC Framework. What file system ACLs are and how to use them. How to utililize the &os; security advisories publications. Before reading this chapter, you should: Understand basic &os; and Internet concepts. Introduction Security is a function that begins and ends with the system administrator. While all BSD &unix; multi-user systems have some inherent security, the job of building and maintaining additional security mechanisms to keep those users honest is probably one of the single largest undertakings of the sysadmin. Machines are only as secure as you make them, and security concerns are ever competing with the human necessity for convenience. &unix; systems, in general, are capable of running a huge number of simultaneous processes and many of these processes operate as servers — meaning that external entities can connect and talk to them. As yesterday's mini-computers and mainframes become today's desktops, and as computers become networked and internetworked, security becomes an even bigger issue. Security is best implemented through a layered onion approach. In a nutshell, what you want to do is to create as many layers of security as are convenient and then carefully monitor the system for intrusions. You do not want to overbuild your security or you will interfere with the detection side, and detection is one of the single most important aspects of any security mechanism. For example, it makes little sense to set the schg flags (see &man.chflags.1;) on every system binary because while this may temporarily protect the binaries, it prevents an attacker who has broken in from making an easily detectable change that may result in your security mechanisms not detecting the attacker at all. System security also pertains to dealing with various forms of attack, including attacks that attempt to crash, or otherwise make a system unusable, but do not attempt to compromise the root account (break root). Security concerns can be split up into several categories: Denial of service attacks. User account compromises. Root compromise through accessible servers. Root compromise via user accounts. Backdoor creation. DoS attacks Denial of Service (DoS) security DoS attacks Denial of Service (DoS) Denial of Service (DoS) A denial of service attack is an action that deprives the machine of needed resources. Typically, DoS attacks are brute-force mechanisms that attempt to crash or otherwise make a machine unusable by overwhelming its servers or network stack. Some DoS attacks try to take advantage of bugs in the networking stack to crash a machine with a single packet. The latter can only be fixed by applying a bug fix to the kernel. Attacks on servers can often be fixed by properly specifying options to limit the load the servers incur on the system under adverse conditions. Brute-force network attacks are harder to deal with. A spoofed-packet attack, for example, is nearly impossible to stop, short of cutting your system off from the Internet. It may not be able to take your machine down, but it can saturate your Internet connection. security account compromises A user account compromise is even more common than a DoS attack. Many sysadmins still run standard telnetd, rlogind, rshd, and ftpd servers on their machines. These servers, by default, do not operate over encrypted connections. The result is that if you have any moderate-sized user base, one or more of your users logging into your system from a remote location (which is the most common and convenient way to login to a system) will have his or her password sniffed. The attentive system admin will analyze his remote access logs looking for suspicious source addresses even for successful logins. One must always assume that once an attacker has access to a user account, the attacker can break root. However, the reality is that in a well secured and maintained system, access to a user account does not necessarily give the attacker access to root. The distinction is important because without access to root the attacker cannot generally hide his tracks and may, at best, be able to do nothing more than mess with the user's files, or crash the machine. User account compromises are very common because users tend not to take the precautions that sysadmins take. security backdoors System administrators must keep in mind that there are potentially many ways to break root on a machine. The attacker may know the root password, the attacker may find a bug in a root-run server and be able to break root over a network connection to that server, or the attacker may know of a bug in a suid-root program that allows the attacker to break root once he has broken into a user's account. If an attacker has found a way to break root on a machine, the attacker may not have a need to install a backdoor. Many of the root holes found and closed to date involve a considerable amount of work by the attacker to cleanup after himself, so most attackers install backdoors. A backdoor provides the attacker with a way to easily regain root access to the system, but it also gives the smart system administrator a convenient way to detect the intrusion. Making it impossible for an attacker to install a backdoor may actually be detrimental to your security, because it will not close off the hole the attacker found to break in the first place. Security remedies should always be implemented with a multi-layered onion peel approach and can be categorized as follows: Securing root and staff accounts. Securing root — root-run servers and suid/sgid binaries. Securing user accounts. Securing the password file. Securing the kernel core, raw devices, and filesystems. Quick detection of inappropriate changes made to the system. Paranoia. The next section of this chapter will cover the above bullet items in greater depth. Securing FreeBSD security securing FreeBSD Command vs. Protocol Throughout this document, we will use bold text to refer to a command or application. This is used for instances such as ssh, since it is a protocol as well as command. The sections that follow will cover the methods of securing your FreeBSD system that were mentioned in the last section of this chapter. Securing the <username>root</username> Account and Staff Accounts su First off, do not bother securing staff accounts if you have not secured the root account. Most systems have a password assigned to the root account. The first thing you do is assume that the password is always compromised. This does not mean that you should remove the password. The password is almost always necessary for console access to the machine. What it does mean is that you should not make it possible to use the password outside of the console or possibly even with the &man.su.1; command. For example, make sure that your pty's are specified as being insecure in the /etc/ttys file so that direct root logins via telnet or rlogin are disallowed. If using other login services such as sshd, make sure that direct root logins are disabled there as well. You can do this by editing your /etc/ssh/sshd_config file, and making sure that PermitRootLogin is set to NO. Consider every access method — services such as FTP often fall through the cracks. Direct root logins should only be allowed via the system console. wheel Of course, as a sysadmin you have to be able to get to root, so we open up a few holes. But we make sure these holes require additional password verification to operate. One way to make root accessible is to add appropriate staff accounts to the wheel group (in /etc/group). The staff members placed in the wheel group are allowed to su to root. You should never give staff members native wheel access by putting them in the wheel group in their password entry. Staff accounts should be placed in a staff group, and then added to the wheel group via the /etc/group file. Only those staff members who actually need to have root access should be placed in the wheel group. It is also possible, when using an authentication method such as Kerberos, to use Kerberos' .k5login file in the root account to allow a &man.ksu.1; to root without having to place anyone at all in the wheel group. This may be the better solution since the wheel mechanism still allows an intruder to break root if the intruder has gotten hold of your password file and can break into a staff account. While having the wheel mechanism is better than having nothing at all, it is not necessarily the safest option. An indirect way to secure staff accounts, and ultimately root access is to use an alternative login access method and do what is known as starring out the encrypted password for the staff accounts. Using the &man.vipw.8; command, one can replace each instance of an encrypted password with a single * character. This command will update the /etc/master.passwd file and user/password database to disable password-authenticated logins. A staff account entry such as: foobar:R9DT/Fa1/LV9U:1000:1000::0:0:Foo Bar:/home/foobar:/usr/local/bin/tcsh Should be changed to this: foobar:*:1000:1000::0:0:Foo Bar:/home/foobar:/usr/local/bin/tcsh This change will prevent normal logins from occurring, since the encrypted password will never match *. With this done, staff members must use another mechanism to authenticate themselves such as &man.kerberos.1; or &man.ssh.1; using a public/private key pair. When using something like Kerberos, one generally must secure the machines which run the Kerberos servers and your desktop workstation. When using a public/private key pair with ssh, one must generally secure the machine used to login from (typically one's workstation). An additional layer of protection can be added to the key pair by password protecting the key pair when creating it with &man.ssh-keygen.1;. Being able to star out the passwords for staff accounts also guarantees that staff members can only login through secure access methods that you have set up. This forces all staff members to use secure, encrypted connections for all of their sessions, which closes an important hole used by many intruders: sniffing the network from an unrelated, less secure machine. The more indirect security mechanisms also assume that you are logging in from a more restrictive server to a less restrictive server. For example, if your main box is running all sorts of servers, your workstation should not be running any. In order for your workstation to be reasonably secure you should run as few servers as possible, up to and including no servers at all, and you should run a password-protected screen blanker. Of course, given physical access to a workstation an attacker can break any sort of security you put on it. This is definitely a problem that you should consider, but you should also consider the fact that the vast majority of break-ins occur remotely, over a network, from people who do not have physical access to your workstation or servers. KerberosIV Using something like Kerberos also gives you the ability to disable or change the password for a staff account in one place, and have it immediately affect all the machines on which the staff member may have an account. If a staff member's account gets compromised, the ability to instantly change his password on all machines should not be underrated. With discrete passwords, changing a password on N machines can be a mess. You can also impose re-passwording restrictions with Kerberos: not only can a Kerberos ticket be made to timeout after a while, but the Kerberos system can require that the user choose a new password after a certain period of time (say, once a month). Securing Root-run Servers and SUID/SGID Binaries ntalk comsat finger sandboxes sshd telnetd rshd rlogind The prudent sysadmin only runs the servers he needs to, no more, no less. Be aware that third party servers are often the most bug-prone. For example, running an old version of imapd or popper is like giving a universal root ticket out to the entire world. Never run a server that you have not checked out carefully. Many servers do not need to be run as root. For example, the ntalk, comsat, and finger daemons can be run in special user sandboxes. A sandbox is not perfect, unless you go through a large amount of trouble, but the onion approach to security still stands: If someone is able to break in through a server running in a sandbox, they still have to break out of the sandbox. The more layers the attacker must break through, the lower the likelihood of his success. Root holes have historically been found in virtually every server ever run as root, including basic system servers. If you are running a machine through which people only login via sshd and never login via telnetd or rshd or rlogind, then turn off those services! FreeBSD now defaults to running ntalkd, comsat, and finger in a sandbox. Another program which may be a candidate for running in a sandbox is &man.named.8;. /etc/defaults/rc.conf includes the arguments necessary to run named in a sandbox in a commented-out form. Depending on whether you are installing a new system or upgrading an existing system, the special user accounts used by these sandboxes may not be installed. The prudent sysadmin would research and implement sandboxes for servers whenever possible. sendmail There are a number of other servers that typically do not run in sandboxes: sendmail, popper, imapd, ftpd, and others. There are alternatives to some of these, but installing them may require more work than you are willing to perform (the convenience factor strikes again). You may have to run these servers as root and rely on other mechanisms to detect break-ins that might occur through them. The other big potential root holes in a system are the suid-root and sgid binaries installed on the system. Most of these binaries, such as rlogin, reside in /bin, /sbin, /usr/bin, or /usr/sbin. While nothing is 100% safe, the system-default suid and sgid binaries can be considered reasonably safe. Still, root holes are occasionally found in these binaries. A root hole was found in Xlib in 1998 that made xterm (which is typically suid) vulnerable. It is better to be safe than sorry and the prudent sysadmin will restrict suid binaries, that only staff should run, to a special group that only staff can access, and get rid of (chmod 000) any suid binaries that nobody uses. A server with no display generally does not need an xterm binary. Sgid binaries can be almost as dangerous. If an intruder can break an sgid-kmem binary, the intruder might be able to read /dev/kmem and thus read the encrypted password file, potentially compromising any passworded account. Alternatively an intruder who breaks group kmem can monitor keystrokes sent through pty's, including pty's used by users who login through secure methods. An intruder that breaks the tty group can write to almost any user's tty. If a user is running a terminal program or emulator with a keyboard-simulation feature, the intruder can potentially generate a data stream that causes the user's terminal to echo a command, which is then run as that user. Securing User Accounts User accounts are usually the most difficult to secure. While you can impose Draconian access restrictions on your staff and star out their passwords, you may not be able to do so with any general user accounts you might have. If you do have sufficient control, then you may win out and be able to secure the user accounts properly. If not, you simply have to be more vigilant in your monitoring of those accounts. Use of ssh and Kerberos for user accounts is more problematic, due to the extra administration and technical support required, but still a very good solution compared to a crypted password file. Securing the Password File The only sure fire way is to * out as many passwords as you can and use ssh or Kerberos for access to those accounts. Even though the encrypted password file (/etc/spwd.db) can only be read by root, it may be possible for an intruder to obtain read access to that file even if the attacker cannot obtain root-write access. Your security scripts should always check for and report changes to the password file (see the Checking file integrity section below). Securing the Kernel Core, Raw Devices, and Filesystems If an attacker breaks root he can do just about anything, but there are certain conveniences. For example, most modern kernels have a packet sniffing device driver built in. Under FreeBSD it is called the bpf device. An intruder will commonly attempt to run a packet sniffer on a compromised machine. You do not need to give the intruder the capability and most systems do not have the need for the bpf device compiled in. sysctl But even if you turn off the bpf device, you still have - /dev/mem and - /dev/kmem + /dev/mem and + /dev/kmem to worry about. For that matter, the intruder can still write to raw disk devices. Also, there is another kernel feature called the module loader, &man.kldload.8;. An enterprising intruder can use a KLD module to install his own bpf device, or other sniffing device, on a running kernel. To avoid these problems you have to run the kernel at a higher secure level, at least securelevel 1. The securelevel can be set with a sysctl on the kern.securelevel variable. Once you have set the securelevel to 1, write access to raw devices will be denied and special chflags flags, such as schg, will be enforced. You must also ensure that the schg flag is set on critical startup binaries, directories, and script files — everything that gets run up to the point where the securelevel is set. This might be overdoing it, and upgrading the system is much more difficult when you operate at a higher secure level. You may compromise and run the system at a higher secure level but not set the schg flag for every system file and directory under the sun. Another possibility is to simply mount / and /usr read-only. It should be noted that being too Draconian in what you attempt to protect may prevent the all-important detection of an intrusion. Checking File Integrity: Binaries, Configuration Files, Etc. When it comes right down to it, you can only protect your core system configuration and control files so much before the convenience factor rears its ugly head. For example, using chflags to set the schg bit on most of the files in / and /usr is probably counterproductive, because while it may protect the files, it also closes a detection window. The last layer of your security onion is perhaps the most important — detection. The rest of your security is pretty much useless (or, worse, presents you with a false sense of safety) if you cannot detect potential incursions. Half the job of the onion is to slow down the attacker, rather than stop him, in order to give the detection side of the equation a chance to catch him in the act. The best way to detect an incursion is to look for modified, missing, or unexpected files. The best way to look for modified files is from another (often centralized) limited-access system. Writing your security scripts on the extra-secure limited-access system makes them mostly invisible to potential attackers, and this is important. In order to take maximum advantage you generally have to give the limited-access box significant access to the other machines in the business, usually either by doing a read-only NFS export of the other machines to the limited-access box, or by setting up ssh key-pairs to allow the limited-access box to ssh to the other machines. Except for its network traffic, NFS is the least visible method — allowing you to monitor the filesystems on each client box virtually undetected. If your limited-access server is connected to the client boxes through a switch, the NFS method is often the better choice. If your limited-access server is connected to the client boxes through a hub, or through several layers of routing, the NFS method may be too insecure (network-wise) and using ssh may be the better choice even with the audit-trail tracks that ssh lays. Once you give a limited-access box, at least read access to the client systems it is supposed to monitor, you must write scripts to do the actual monitoring. Given an NFS mount, you can write scripts out of simple system utilities such as &man.find.1; and &man.md5.1;. It is best to physically md5 the client-box files at least once a day, and to test control files such as those found in /etc and /usr/local/etc even more often. When mismatches are found, relative to the base md5 information the limited-access machine knows is valid, it should scream at a sysadmin to go check it out. A good security script will also check for inappropriate suid binaries and for new or deleted files on system partitions such as / and /usr. When using ssh rather than NFS, writing the security script is much more difficult. You essentially have to scp the scripts to the client box in order to run them, making them visible, and for safety you also need to scp the binaries (such as find) that those scripts use. The ssh client on the client box may already be compromised. All in all, using ssh may be necessary when running over insecure links, but it is also a lot harder to deal with. A good security script will also check for changes to user and staff members access configuration files: .rhosts, .shosts, .ssh/authorized_keys and so forth… files that might fall outside the purview of the MD5 check. If you have a huge amount of user disk space, it may take too long to run through every file on those partitions. In this case, setting mount flags to disallow suid binaries and devices on those partitions is a good idea. The nodev and nosuid options (see &man.mount.8;) are what you want to look into. You should probably scan them anyway, at least once a week, since the object of this layer is to detect a break-in whether or not the break-in is effective. Process accounting (see &man.accton.8;) is a relatively low-overhead feature of the operating system which might help as a post-break-in evaluation mechanism. It is especially useful in tracking down how an intruder has actually broken into a system, assuming the file is still intact after the break-in occurs. Finally, security scripts should process the log files, and the logs themselves should be generated in as secure a manner as possible — remote syslog can be very useful. An intruder tries to cover his tracks, and log files are critical to the sysadmin trying to track down the time and method of the initial break-in. One way to keep a permanent record of the log files is to run the system console to a serial port and collect the information on a continuing basis through a secure machine monitoring the consoles. Paranoia A little paranoia never hurts. As a rule, a sysadmin can add any number of security features, as long as they do not affect convenience, and can add security features that do affect convenience with some added thought. Even more importantly, a security administrator should mix it up a bit — if you use recommendations such as those given by this document verbatim, you give away your methodologies to the prospective attacker who also has access to this document. Denial of Service Attacks Denial of Service (DoS) This section covers Denial of Service attacks. A DoS attack is typically a packet attack. While there is not much you can do about modern spoofed packet attacks that saturate your network, you can generally limit the damage by ensuring that the attacks cannot take down your servers. Limiting server forks. Limiting springboard attacks (ICMP response attacks, ping broadcast, etc.). Kernel Route Cache. A common DoS attack is against a forking server that attempts to cause the server to eat processes, file descriptors, and memory, until the machine dies. inetd (see &man.inetd.8;) has several options to limit this sort of attack. It should be noted that while it is possible to prevent a machine from going down, it is not generally possible to prevent a service from being disrupted by the attack. Read the inetd manual page carefully and pay specific attention to the , , and options. Note that spoofed-IP attacks will circumvent the option to inetd, so typically a combination of options must be used. Some standalone servers have self-fork-limitation parameters. Sendmail has its option, which tends to work much better than trying to use sendmail's load limiting options due to the load lag. You should specify a MaxDaemonChildren parameter, when you start sendmail, high enough to handle your expected load, but not so high that the computer cannot handle that number of sendmails without falling on its face. It is also prudent to run sendmail in queued mode () and to run the daemon (sendmail -bd) separate from the queue-runs (sendmail -q15m). If you still want real-time delivery you can run the queue at a much lower interval, such as , but be sure to specify a reasonable MaxDaemonChildren option for that sendmail to prevent cascade failures. Syslogd can be attacked directly and it is strongly recommended that you use the option whenever possible, and the option otherwise. You should also be fairly careful with connect-back services such as tcpwrapper's reverse-identd, which can be attacked directly. You generally do not want to use the reverse-ident feature of tcpwrappers for this reason. It is a very good idea to protect internal services from external access by firewalling them off at your border routers. The idea here is to prevent saturation attacks from outside your LAN, not so much to protect internal services from network-based root compromise. Always configure an exclusive firewall, i.e., firewall everything except ports A, B, C, D, and M-Z. This way you can firewall off all of your low ports except for certain specific services such as named (if you are primary for a zone), ntalkd, sendmail, and other Internet-accessible services. If you try to configure the firewall the other way — as an inclusive or permissive firewall, there is a good chance that you will forget to close a couple of services, or that you will add a new internal service and forget to update the firewall. You can still open up the high-numbered port range on the firewall, to allow permissive-like operation, without compromising your low ports. Also take note that FreeBSD allows you to control the range of port numbers used for dynamic binding, via the various net.inet.ip.portrange sysctl's (sysctl -a | fgrep portrange), which can also ease the complexity of your firewall's configuration. For example, you might use a normal first/last range of 4000 to 5000, and a hiport range of 49152 to 65535, then block off everything under 4000 in your firewall (except for certain specific Internet-accessible ports, of course). ICMP_BANDLIM Another common DoS attack is called a springboard attack — to attack a server in a manner that causes the server to generate responses which overloads the server, the local network, or some other machine. The most common attack of this nature is the ICMP ping broadcast attack. The attacker spoofs ping packets sent to your LAN's broadcast address with the source IP address set to the actual machine they wish to attack. If your border routers are not configured to stomp on ping's to broadcast addresses, your LAN winds up generating sufficient responses to the spoofed source address to saturate the victim, especially when the attacker uses the same trick on several dozen broadcast addresses over several dozen different networks at once. Broadcast attacks of over a hundred and twenty megabits have been measured. A second common springboard attack is against the ICMP error reporting system. By constructing packets that generate ICMP error responses, an attacker can saturate a server's incoming network and cause the server to saturate its outgoing network with ICMP responses. This type of attack can also crash the server by running it out of mbuf's, especially if the server cannot drain the ICMP responses it generates fast enough. The FreeBSD kernel has a new kernel compile option called which limits the effectiveness of these sorts of attacks. The last major class of springboard attacks is related to certain internal inetd services such as the udp echo service. An attacker simply spoofs a UDP packet with the source address being server A's echo port, and the destination address being server B's echo port, where server A and B are both on your LAN. The two servers then bounce this one packet back and forth between each other. The attacker can overload both servers and their LANs simply by injecting a few packets in this manner. Similar problems exist with the internal chargen port. A competent sysadmin will turn off all of these inetd-internal test services. Spoofed packet attacks may also be used to overload the kernel route cache. Refer to the net.inet.ip.rtexpire, rtminexpire, and rtmaxcache sysctl parameters. A spoofed packet attack that uses a random source IP will cause the kernel to generate a temporary cached route in the route table, viewable with netstat -rna | fgrep W3. These routes typically timeout in 1600 seconds or so. If the kernel detects that the cached route table has gotten too big it will dynamically reduce the rtexpire but will never decrease it to less than rtminexpire. There are two problems: The kernel does not react quickly enough when a lightly loaded server is suddenly attacked. The rtminexpire is not low enough for the kernel to survive a sustained attack. If your servers are connected to the Internet via a T3 or better, it may be prudent to manually override both rtexpire and rtminexpire via &man.sysctl.8;. Never set either parameter to zero (unless you want to crash the machine). Setting both parameters to 2 seconds should be sufficient to protect the route table from attack. Access Issues with Kerberos and SSH ssh KerberosIV There are a few issues with both Kerberos and ssh that need to be addressed if you intend to use them. Kerberos V is an excellent authentication protocol, but there are bugs in the kerberized telnet and rlogin applications that make them unsuitable for dealing with binary streams. Also, by default Kerberos does not encrypt a session unless you use the option. ssh encrypts everything by default. ssh works quite well in every respect except that it forwards encryption keys by default. What this means is that if you have a secure workstation holding keys that give you access to the rest of the system, and you ssh to an insecure machine, your keys are usable. The actual keys themselves are not exposed, but ssh installs a forwarding port for the duration of your login, and if an attacker has broken root on the insecure machine he can utilize that port to use your keys to gain access to any other machine that your keys unlock. We recommend that you use ssh in combination with Kerberos whenever possible for staff logins. ssh can be compiled with Kerberos support. This reduces your reliance on potentially exposable ssh keys while at the same time protecting passwords via Kerberos. ssh keys should only be used for automated tasks from secure machines (something that Kerberos is unsuited to do). We also recommend that you either turn off key-forwarding in the ssh configuration, or that you make use of the from=IP/DOMAIN option that ssh allows in its authorized_keys file to make the key only usable to entities logging in from specific machines. Bill Swingle Parts rewritten and updated by DES, MD5, and Crypt security crypt crypt DES MD5 Every user on a &unix; system has a password associated with their account. It seems obvious that these passwords need to be known only to the user and the actual operating system. In order to keep these passwords secret, they are encrypted with what is known as a one-way hash, that is, they can only be easily encrypted but not decrypted. In other words, what we told you a moment ago was obvious is not even true: the operating system itself does not really know the password. It only knows the encrypted form of the password. The only way to get the plain-text password is by a brute force search of the space of possible passwords. Unfortunately the only secure way to encrypt passwords when &unix; came into being was based on DES, the Data Encryption Standard. This was not such a problem for users resident in the US, but since the source code for DES could not be exported outside the US, FreeBSD had to find a way to both comply with US law and retain compatibility with all the other &unix; variants that still used DES. The solution was to divide up the encryption libraries so that US users could install the DES libraries and use DES but international users still had an encryption method that could be exported abroad. This is how FreeBSD came to use MD5 as its default encryption method. MD5 is believed to be more secure than DES, so installing DES is offered primarily for compatibility reasons. Recognizing Your Crypt Mechanism Before FreeBSD 4.4 libcrypt.a was a symbolic link pointing to the library which was used for encryption. FreeBSD 4.4 changed libcrypt.a to provide a configurable password authentication hash library. Currently the library supports DES, MD5 and Blowfish hash functions. By default FreeBSD uses MD5 to encrypt passwords. It is pretty easy to identify which encryption method FreeBSD is set up to use. Examining the encrypted passwords in the /etc/master.passwd file is one way. Passwords encrypted with the MD5 hash are longer than those encrypted with the DES hash and also begin with the characters $1$. Passwords starting with $2a$ are encrypted with the Blowfish hash function. DES password strings do not have any particular identifying characteristics, but they are shorter than MD5 passwords, and are coded in a 64-character alphabet which does not include the $ character, so a relatively short string which does not begin with a dollar sign is very likely a DES password. The password format used for new passwords is controlled by the passwd_format login capability in /etc/login.conf, which takes values of des, md5 or blf. See the &man.login.conf.5; manual page for more information about login capabilities. One-time Passwords one-time passwords security one-time passwords S/Key is a one-time password scheme based on a one-way hash function. FreeBSD uses the MD4 hash for compatibility but other systems have used MD5 and DES-MAC. S/Key has been part of the FreeBSD base system since version 1.1.5 and is also used on a growing number of other operating systems. S/Key is a registered trademark of Bell Communications Research, Inc. From version 5.0 of FreeBSD, S/Key has been replaced with the functionally equivalent OPIE (One-time Passwords In Everything). OPIE uses the MD5 hash by default. There are three different sorts of passwords which we will discuss below. The first is your usual &unix; style or Kerberos password; we will call this a &unix; password. The second sort is the one-time password which is generated by the S/Key key program or the OPIE &man.opiekey.1; program and accepted by the keyinit or &man.opiepasswd.1; programs and the login prompt; we will call this a one-time password. The final sort of password is the secret password which you give to the key/opiekey programs (and sometimes the keyinit/opiepasswd programs) which it uses to generate one-time passwords; we will call it a secret password or just unqualified password. The secret password does not have anything to do with your &unix; password; they can be the same but this is not recommended. S/Key and OPIE secret passwords are not limited to 8 characters like old &unix; passwordsUnder &os; the standard login password may be up to 128 characters in length., they can be as long as you like. Passwords of six or seven word long phrases are fairly common. For the most part, the S/Key or OPIE system operates completely independently of the &unix; password system. Besides the password, there are two other pieces of data that are important to S/Key and OPIE. One is what is known as the seed or key, consisting of two letters and five digits. The other is what is called the iteration count, a number between 1 and 100. S/Key creates the one-time password by concatenating the seed and the secret password, then applying the MD4/MD5 hash as many times as specified by the iteration count and turning the result into six short English words. These six English words are your one-time password. The authentication system (primarily PAM) keeps track of the last one-time password used, and the user is authenticated if the hash of the user-provided password is equal to the previous password. Because a one-way hash is used it is impossible to generate future one-time passwords if a successfully used password is captured; the iteration count is decremented after each successful login to keep the user and the login program in sync. When the iteration count gets down to 1, S/Key and OPIE must be reinitialized. There are three programs involved in each system which we will discuss below. The key and opiekey programs accept an iteration count, a seed, and a secret password, and generate a one-time password or a consecutive list of one-time passwords. The keyinit and opiepasswd programs are used to initialize S/Key and OPIE respectively, and to change passwords, iteration counts, or seeds; they take either a secret passphrase, or an iteration count, seed, and one-time password. The keyinfo and opieinfo programs examine the relevant credentials files (/etc/skeykeys or /etc/opiekeys) and print out the invoking user's current iteration count and seed. There are four different sorts of operations we will cover. The first is using keyinit or opiepasswd over a secure connection to set up one-time-passwords for the first time, or to change your password or seed. The second operation is using keyinit or opiepasswd over an insecure connection, in conjunction with key or opiekey over a secure connection, to do the same. The third is using key/opiekey to log in over an insecure connection. The fourth is using key or opiekey to generate a number of keys which can be written down or printed out to carry with you when going to some location without secure connections to anywhere. Secure Connection Initialization To initialize S/Key for the first time, change your password, or change your seed while logged in over a secure connection (e.g., on the console of a machine or via ssh), use the keyinit command without any parameters while logged in as yourself: &prompt.user; keyinit Adding unfurl: Reminder - Only use this method if you are directly connected. If you are using telnet or rlogin exit with no password and use keyinit -s. Enter secret password: Again secret password: ID unfurl s/key is 99 to17757 DEFY CLUB PRO NASH LACE SOFT For OPIE, opiepasswd is used instead: &prompt.user; opiepasswd -c [grimreaper] ~ $ opiepasswd -f -c Adding unfurl: Only use this method from the console; NEVER from remote. If you are using telnet, xterm, or a dial-in, type ^C now or exit with no password. Then run opiepasswd without the -c parameter. Using MD5 to compute responses. Enter new secret pass phrase: Again new secret pass phrase: ID unfurl OTP key is 499 to4268 MOS MALL GOAT ARM AVID COED At the Enter new secret pass phrase: or Enter secret password: prompts, you should enter a password or phrase. Remember, this is not the password that you will use to login with, this is used to generate your one-time login keys. The ID line gives the parameters of your particular instance: your login name, the iteration count, and seed. When logging in the system will remember these parameters and present them back to you so you do not have to remember them. The last line gives the particular one-time password which corresponds to those parameters and your secret password; if you were to re-login immediately, this one-time password is the one you would use. Insecure Connection Initialization To initialize or change your secret password over an insecure connection, you will need to already have a secure connection to some place where you can run key or opiekey; this might be in the form of a desk accessory on a &macintosh;, or a shell prompt on a machine you trust. You will also need to make up an iteration count (100 is probably a good value), and you may make up your own seed or use a randomly-generated one. Over on the insecure connection (to the machine you are initializing), use the keyinit -s command: &prompt.user; keyinit -s Updating unfurl: Old key: to17758 Reminder you need the 6 English words from the key command. Enter sequence count from 1 to 9999: 100 Enter new key [default to17759]: s/key 100 to 17759 s/key access password: s/key access password:CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GORE For OPIE, you need to use opiepasswd: &prompt.user; opiepasswd Updating unfurl: You need the response from an OTP generator. Old secret pass phrase: otp-md5 498 to4268 ext Response: GAME GAG WELT OUT DOWN CHAT New secret pass phrase: otp-md5 499 to4269 Response: LINE PAP MILK NELL BUOY TROY ID mark OTP key is 499 gr4269 LINE PAP MILK NELL BUOY TROY To accept the default seed (which the keyinit program confusingly calls a key), press Return. Then before entering an access password, move over to your secure connection or S/Key desk accessory, and give it the same parameters: &prompt.user; key 100 to17759 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: <secret password> CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GORE Or for OPIE: &prompt.user; opiekey 498 to4268 Using the MD5 algorithm to compute response. Reminder: Don't use opiekey from telnet or dial-in sessions. Enter secret pass phrase: GAME GAG WELT OUT DOWN CHAT Now switch back over to the insecure connection, and copy the one-time password generated over to the relevant program. Generating a Single One-time Password Once you have initialized S/Key or OPIE, when you login you will be presented with a prompt like this: &prompt.user; telnet example.com Trying 10.0.0.1... Connected to example.com Escape character is '^]'. FreeBSD/i386 (example.com) (ttypa) login: <username> s/key 97 fw13894 Password: Or for OPIE: &prompt.user; telnet example.com Trying 10.0.0.1... Connected to example.com Escape character is '^]'. FreeBSD/i386 (example.com) (ttypa) login: <username> otp-md5 498 gr4269 ext Password: As a side note, the S/Key and OPIE prompts have a useful feature (not shown here): if you press Return at the password prompt, the prompter will turn echo on, so you can see what you are typing. This can be extremely useful if you are attempting to type in a password by hand, such as from a printout. MS-DOS Windows MacOS At this point you need to generate your one-time password to answer this login prompt. This must be done on a trusted system that you can run key or opiekey on. (There are versions of these for DOS, &windows; and &macos; as well.) They need both the iteration count and the seed as command line options. You can cut-and-paste these right from the login prompt on the machine that you are logging in to. On the trusted system: &prompt.user; key 97 fw13894 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: WELD LIP ACTS ENDS ME HAAG For OPIE: &prompt.user; opiekey 498 to4268 Using the MD5 algorithm to compute response. Reminder: Don't use opiekey from telnet or dial-in sessions. Enter secret pass phrase: GAME GAG WELT OUT DOWN CHAT Now that you have your one-time password you can continue logging in: login: <username> s/key 97 fw13894 Password: <return to enable echo> s/key 97 fw13894 Password [echo on]: WELD LIP ACTS ENDS ME HAAG Last login: Tue Mar 21 11:56:41 from 10.0.0.2 ... Generating Multiple One-time Passwords Sometimes you have to go places where you do not have access to a trusted machine or secure connection. In this case, it is possible to use the key and opiekey commands to generate a number of one-time passwords beforehand to be printed out and taken with you. For example: &prompt.user; key -n 5 30 zz99999 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: <secret password> 26: SODA RUDE LEA LIND BUDD SILT 27: JILT SPY DUTY GLOW COWL ROT 28: THEM OW COLA RUNT BONG SCOT 29: COT MASH BARR BRIM NAN FLAG 30: CAN KNEE CAST NAME FOLK BILK Or for OPIE: &prompt.user; opiekey -n 5 30 zz99999 Using the MD5 algorithm to compute response. Reminder: Don't use opiekey from telnet or dial-in sessions. Enter secret pass phrase: <secret password> 26: JOAN BORE FOSS DES NAY QUIT 27: LATE BIAS SLAY FOLK MUCH TRIG 28: SALT TIN ANTI LOON NEAL USE 29: RIO ODIN GO BYE FURY TIC 30: GREW JIVE SAN GIRD BOIL PHI The requests five keys in sequence, the specifies what the last iteration number should be. Note that these are printed out in reverse order of eventual use. If you are really paranoid, you might want to write the results down by hand; otherwise you can cut-and-paste into lpr. Note that each line shows both the iteration count and the one-time password; you may still find it handy to scratch off passwords as you use them. Restricting Use of &unix; Passwords S/Key can place restrictions on the use of &unix; passwords based on the host name, user name, terminal port, or IP address of a login session. These restrictions can be found in the configuration file /etc/skey.access. The &man.skey.access.5; manual page has more information on the complete format of the file and also details some security cautions to be aware of before depending on this file for security. If there is no /etc/skey.access file (this is the default on FreeBSD 4.X systems), then all users will be allowed to use &unix; passwords. If the file exists, however, then all users will be required to use S/Key unless explicitly permitted to do otherwise by configuration statements in the skey.access file. In all cases, &unix; passwords are permitted on the console. Here is a sample skey.access configuration file which illustrates the three most common sorts of configuration statements: permit internet 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0 permit user fnord permit port ttyd0 The first line (permit internet) allows users whose IP source address (which is vulnerable to spoofing) matches the specified value and mask, to use &unix; passwords. This should not be considered a security mechanism, but rather, a means to remind authorized users that they are using an insecure network and need to use S/Key for authentication. The second line (permit user) allows the specified username, in this case fnord, to use &unix; passwords at any time. Generally speaking, this should only be used for people who are either unable to use the key program, like those with dumb terminals, or those who are uneducable. The third line (permit port) allows all users logging in on the specified terminal line to use &unix; passwords; this would be used for dial-ups. OPIE can restrict the use of &unix; passwords based on the IP address of a login session just like S/Key does. The relevant file is /etc/opieaccess, which is present by default on FreeBSD 5.0 and newer systems. Please check &man.opieaccess.5; for more information on this file and which security considerations you should be aware of when using it. Here is a sample opieaccess file: permit 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0 This line allows users whose IP source address (which is vulnerable to spoofing) matches the specified value and mask, to use &unix; passwords at any time. If no rules in opieaccess are matched, the default is to deny non-OPIE logins. Mark Murray Contributed by Mark Dapoz Based on a contribution by KerberosIV Kerberos is a network add-on system/protocol that allows users to authenticate themselves through the services of a secure server. Services such as remote login, remote copy, secure inter-system file copying and other high-risk tasks are made considerably safer and more controllable. The following instructions can be used as a guide on how to set up Kerberos as distributed for FreeBSD. However, you should refer to the relevant manual pages for a complete description. Installing KerberosIV MIT KerberosIV Installing Kerberos is an optional component of &os;. The easiest way to install this software is by selecting the krb4 or krb5 distribution in sysinstall during the initial installation of FreeBSD. This will install the eBones (KerberosIV) or Heimdal (Kerberos5) implementation of Kerberos. These implementations are included because they are developed outside the USA/Canada and were thus available to system owners outside those countries during the era of restrictive export controls on cryptographic code from the USA. Alternatively, the MIT implementation of Kerberos is available from the ports collection as security/krb5. Creating the Initial Database This is done on the Kerberos server only. First make sure that you do not have any old Kerberos databases around. You should change to the directory /etc/kerberosIV and check that only the following files are present: &prompt.root; cd /etc/kerberosIV &prompt.root; ls README krb.conf krb.realms If any additional files (such as principal.* or master_key) exist, then use the kdb_destroy command to destroy the old Kerberos database, or if Kerberos is not running, simply delete the extra files. You should now edit the krb.conf and krb.realms files to define your Kerberos realm. In this case the realm will be EXAMPLE.COM and the server is grunt.example.com. We edit or create the krb.conf file: &prompt.root; cat krb.conf EXAMPLE.COM EXAMPLE.COM grunt.example.com admin server CS.BERKELEY.EDU okeeffe.berkeley.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-1.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-2.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-3.mit.edu LCS.MIT.EDU kerberos.lcs.mit.edu TELECOM.MIT.EDU bitsy.mit.edu ARC.NASA.GOV trident.arc.nasa.gov In this case, the other realms do not need to be there. They are here as an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple realms. You may wish to not include them for simplicity. The first line names the realm in which this system works. The other lines contain realm/host entries. The first item on a line is a realm, and the second is a host in that realm that is acting as a key distribution center. The words admin server following a host's name means that host also provides an administrative database server. For further explanation of these terms, please consult the Kerberos manual pages. Now we have to add grunt.example.com to the EXAMPLE.COM realm and also add an entry to put all hosts in the .example.com domain in the EXAMPLE.COM realm. The krb.realms file would be updated as follows: &prompt.root; cat krb.realms grunt.example.com EXAMPLE.COM .example.com EXAMPLE.COM .berkeley.edu CS.BERKELEY.EDU .MIT.EDU ATHENA.MIT.EDU .mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU Again, the other realms do not need to be there. They are here as an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple realms. You may wish to remove them to simplify things. The first line puts the specific system into the named realm. The rest of the lines show how to default systems of a particular subdomain to a named realm. Now we are ready to create the database. This only needs to run on the Kerberos server (or Key Distribution Center). Issue the kdb_init command to do this: &prompt.root; kdb_init Realm name [default ATHENA.MIT.EDU ]: EXAMPLE.COM You will be prompted for the database Master Password. It is important that you NOT FORGET this password. Enter Kerberos master key: Now we have to save the key so that servers on the local machine can pick it up. Use the kstash command to do this: &prompt.root; kstash Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! This saves the encrypted master password in /etc/kerberosIV/master_key. Making It All Run KerberosIV Inital Startup Two principals need to be added to the database for each system that will be secured with Kerberos. Their names are kpasswd and rcmd. These two principals are made for each system, with the instance being the name of the individual system. These daemons, kpasswd and rcmd allow other systems to change Kerberos passwords and run commands like &man.rcp.1;, &man.rlogin.1; and &man.rsh.1;. Now let us add these entries: &prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: passwd Instance: grunt <Not found>, Create [y] ? y Principal: passwd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Verifying password New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Random password [y] ? y Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: rcmd Instance: grunt <Not found>, Create [y] ? Principal: rcmd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Verifying password New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Random password [y] ? Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Creating the Server File We now have to extract all the instances which define the services on each machine. For this we use the ext_srvtab command. This will create a file which must be copied or moved by secure means to each Kerberos client's /etc/kerberosIV directory. This file must be present on each server and client, and is crucial to the operation of Kerberos. &prompt.root; ext_srvtab grunt Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Generating 'grunt-new-srvtab'.... Now, this command only generates a temporary file which must be renamed to srvtab so that all the servers can pick it up. Use the &man.mv.1; command to move it into place on the original system: &prompt.root; mv grunt-new-srvtab srvtab If the file is for a client system, and the network is not deemed safe, then copy the client-new-srvtab to removable media and transport it by secure physical means. Be sure to rename it to srvtab in the client's /etc/kerberosIV directory, and make sure it is mode 600: &prompt.root; mv grumble-new-srvtab srvtab &prompt.root; chmod 600 srvtab Populating the Database We now have to add some user entries into the database. First let us create an entry for the user jane. Use the kdb_edit command to do this: &prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: jane Instance: <Not found>, Create [y] ? y Principal: jane, Instance: , kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter a secure password here Verifying password New Password: <---- re-enter the password here Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Testing It All Out First we have to start the Kerberos daemons. Note that if you have correctly edited your /etc/rc.conf then this will happen automatically when you reboot. This is only necessary on the Kerberos server. Kerberos clients will automatically get what they need from the /etc/kerberosIV directory. &prompt.root; kerberos & Kerberos server starting Sleep forever on error Log file is /var/log/kerberos.log Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Current Kerberos master key version is 1 Local realm: EXAMPLE.COM &prompt.root; kadmind -n & KADM Server KADM0.0A initializing Please do not use 'kill -9' to kill this job, use a regular kill instead Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Now we can try using the kinit command to get a ticket for the ID jane that we created above: &prompt.user; kinit jane MIT Project Athena (grunt.example.com) Kerberos Initialization for "jane" Password: Try listing the tokens using klist to see if we really have them: &prompt.user; klist Ticket file: /tmp/tkt245 Principal: jane@EXAMPLE.COM Issued Expires Principal Apr 30 11:23:22 Apr 30 19:23:22 krbtgt.EXAMPLE.COM@EXAMPLE.COM Now try changing the password using &man.passwd.1; to check if the kpasswd daemon can get authorization to the Kerberos database: &prompt.user; passwd realm EXAMPLE.COM Old password for jane: New Password for jane: Verifying password New Password for jane: Password changed. Adding <command>su</command> Privileges Kerberos allows us to give each user who needs root privileges their own separate &man.su.1; password. We could now add an ID which is authorized to &man.su.1; to root. This is controlled by having an instance of root associated with a principal. Using kdb_edit we can create the entry jane.root in the Kerberos database: &prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: jane Instance: root <Not found>, Create [y] ? y Principal: jane, Instance: root, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter a SECURE password here Verifying password New Password: <---- re-enter the password here Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? 12 <--- Keep this short! Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Now try getting tokens for it to make sure it works: &prompt.root; kinit jane.root MIT Project Athena (grunt.example.com) Kerberos Initialization for "jane.root" Password: Now we need to add the user to root's .klogin file: &prompt.root; cat /root/.klogin jane.root@EXAMPLE.COM Now try doing the &man.su.1;: &prompt.user; su Password: and take a look at what tokens we have: &prompt.root; klist Ticket file: /tmp/tkt_root_245 Principal: jane.root@EXAMPLE.COM Issued Expires Principal May 2 20:43:12 May 3 04:43:12 krbtgt.EXAMPLE.COM@EXAMPLE.COM Using Other Commands In an earlier example, we created a principal called jane with an instance root. This was based on a user with the same name as the principal, and this is a Kerberos default; that a <principal>.<instance> of the form <username>.root will allow that <username> to &man.su.1; to root if the necessary entries are in the .klogin file in root's home directory: &prompt.root; cat /root/.klogin jane.root@EXAMPLE.COM Likewise, if a user has in their own home directory lines of the form: &prompt.user; cat ~/.klogin jane@EXAMPLE.COM jack@EXAMPLE.COM This allows anyone in the EXAMPLE.COM realm who has authenticated themselves as jane or jack (via kinit, see above) to access to jane's account or files on this system (grunt) via &man.rlogin.1;, &man.rsh.1; or &man.rcp.1;. For example, jane now logs into another system using Kerberos: &prompt.user; kinit MIT Project Athena (grunt.example.com) Password: &prompt.user; rlogin grunt Last login: Mon May 1 21:14:47 from grumble Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994 The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995 Or jack logs into jane's account on the same machine (jane having set up the .klogin file as above, and the person in charge of Kerberos having set up principal jack with a null instance): &prompt.user; kinit &prompt.user; rlogin grunt -l jane MIT Project Athena (grunt.example.com) Password: Last login: Mon May 1 21:16:55 from grumble Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994 The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995 Tillman Hodgson Contributed by Mark Murray Based on a contribution by <application>Kerberos5</application> Every &os; release beyond &os;-5.1 includes support only for Kerberos5. Hence Kerberos5 is the only version included, and its configuration is similar in many aspects to that of KerberosIV. The following information only applies to Kerberos5 in post &os;-5.0 releases. Users who wish to use the KerberosIV package may install the security/krb4 port. Kerberos is a network add-on system/protocol that allows users to authenticate themselves through the services of a secure server. Services such as remote login, remote copy, secure inter-system file copying and other high-risk tasks are made considerably safer and more controllable. Kerberos can be described as an identity-verifying proxy system. It can also be described as a trusted third-party authentication system. Kerberos provides only one function — the secure authentication of users on the network. It does not provide authorization functions (what users are allowed to do) or auditing functions (what those users did). After a client and server have used Kerberos to prove their identity, they can also encrypt all of their communications to assure privacy and data integrity as they go about their business. Therefore it is highly recommended that Kerberos be used with other security methods which provide authorization and audit services. The following instructions can be used as a guide on how to set up Kerberos as distributed for &os;. However, you should refer to the relevant manual pages for a complete description. For purposes of demonstrating a Kerberos installation, the various namespaces will be handled as follows: The DNS domain (zone) will be example.org. The Kerberos realm will be EXAMPLE.ORG. Please use real domain names when setting up Kerberos even if you intend to run it internally. This avoids DNS problems and assures inter-operation with other Kerberos realms. History Kerberos5 History Kerberos was created by MIT as a solution to network security problems. The Kerberos protocol uses strong cryptography so that a client can prove its identity to a server (and vice versa) across an insecure network connection. Kerberos is both the name of a network authentication protocol and an adjective to describe programs that implement the program (Kerberos telnet, for example). The current version of the protocol is version 5, described in RFC 1510. Several free implementations of this protocol are available, covering a wide range of operating systems. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where Kerberos was originally developed, continues to develop their Kerberos package. It is commonly used in the US as a cryptography product, as such it has historically been affected by US export regulations. The MIT Kerberos is available as a port (security/krb5). Heimdal Kerberos is another version 5 implementation, and was explicitly developed outside of the US to avoid export regulations (and is thus often included in non-commercial &unix; variants). The Heimdal Kerberos distribution is available as a port (security/heimdal), and a minimal installation of it is included in the base &os; install. In order to reach the widest audience, these instructions assume the use of the Heimdal distribution included in &os;. Setting up a Heimdal <acronym>KDC</acronym> Kerberos5 Key Distribution Center Configuration The Key Distribution Center (KDC) is the centralized authentication service that Kerberos provides — it is the computer that issues Kerberos tickets. The KDC is considered trusted by all other computers in the Kerberos realm, and thus has heightened security concerns. Note that while running the Kerberos server requires very few computing resources, a dedicated machine acting only as a KDC is recommended for security reasons. To begin setting up a KDC, ensure that your /etc/rc.conf file contains the correct settings to act as a KDC (you may need to adjust paths to reflect your own system): kerberos5_server_enable="YES" kadmind5_server_enable="YES" kerberos_stash="YES" The is only available in &os; 4.X. Next we will set up your Kerberos config file, /etc/krb5.conf: [libdefaults] default_realm = EXAMPLE.ORG [realms] EXAMPLE.ORG = { kdc = kerberos.example.org } [domain_realm] .example.org = EXAMPLE.ORG Note that this /etc/krb5.conf file implies that your KDC will have the fully-qualified hostname of kerberos.example.org. You will need to add a CNAME (alias) entry to your zone file to accomplish this if your KDC has a different hostname. For large networks with a properly configured BIND DNS server, the above example could be trimmed to: [libdefaults] default_realm = EXAMPLE.ORG With the following lines being appended to the example.org zonefile: _kerberos._udp IN SRV 01 00 88 kerberos.example.org. _kerberos._tcp IN SRV 01 00 88 kerberos.example.org. _kpasswd._udp IN SRV 01 00 464 kerberos.example.org. _kerberos-adm._tcp IN SRV 01 00 749 kerberos.example.org. _kerberos IN TXT EXAMPLE.ORG. Next we will create the Kerberos database. This database contains the keys of all principals encrypted with a master password. You are not required to remember this password, it will be stored in a file (/var/heimdal/m-key). To create the master key, run kstash and enter a password. Once the master key has been created, you can initialize the database using the kadmin program with the -l option (standing for local). This option instructs kadmin to modify the database files directly rather than going through the kadmind network service. This handles the chicken-and-egg problem of trying to connect to the database before it is created. Once you have the kadmin prompt, use the init command to create your realms initial database. Lastly, while still in kadmin, create your first principal using the add command. Stick to the defaults options for the principal for now, you can always change them later with the modify command. Note that you can use the ? command at any prompt to see the available options. A sample database creation session is shown below: &prompt.root; kstash Master key: xxxxxxxx Verifying password - Master key: xxxxxxxx &prompt.root; kadmin -l kadmin> init EXAMPLE.ORG Realm max ticket life [unlimited]: kadmin> add tillman Max ticket life [unlimited]: Max renewable life [unlimited]: Attributes []: Password: xxxxxxxx Verifying password - Password: xxxxxxxx Now it is time to start up the KDC services. Run /etc/rc.d/kerberos start and /etc/rc.d/kadmind start to bring up the services. Note that you won't have any kerberized daemons running at this point but you should be able to confirm the that the KDC is functioning by obtaining and listing a ticket for the principal (user) that you just created from the command-line of the KDC itself: &prompt.user; k5init tillman tillman@EXAMPLE.ORG's Password: &prompt.user; k5list Credentials cache: FILE:/tmp/krb5cc_500 Principal: tillman@EXAMPLE.ORG Issued Expires Principal Aug 27 15:37:58 Aug 28 01:37:58 krbtgt/EXAMPLE.ORG@EXAMPLE.ORG <application>Kerberos</application> enabling a server with Heimdal services Kerberos5 Enabling Services First, we need a copy of the Kerberos configuration file, /etc/krb5.conf. To do so, simply copy it over to the client computer from the KDC in a secure fashion (using network utilities, such as &man.scp.1;, or physically via a floppy disk). Next you need a /etc/krb5.keytab file. This is the major difference between a server providing Kerberos enabled daemons and a workstation — the server must have a keytab file. This file contains the servers host key, which allows it and the KDC to verify each others identity. It must be transmitted to the server in a secure fashion, as the security of the server can be broken if the key is made public. This explicitly means that transferring it via a clear text channel, such as FTP, is a very bad idea. Typically, you transfer to the keytab to the server using the kadmin program. This is handy because you also need to create the host principal (the KDC end of the krb5.keytab) using kadmin. Note that you must have already obtained a ticket and that this ticket must be allowed to use the kadmin interface in the kadmind.acl. See the section titled Remote administration in the Heimdal info pages (info heimdal) for details on designing access control lists. If you do not want to enable remote kadmin access, you can simply securely connect to the KDC (via local console, &man.ssh.1; or Kerberos &man.telnet.1;) and perform administration locally using kadmin -l. After installing the /etc/krb5.conf file, you can use kadmin from the Kerberos server. The add --random-key command will let you add the servers host principal, and the ext command will allow you to extract the servers host principal to its own keytab. For example: &prompt.root; kadmin kadmin> add --random-key host/myserver.example.org Max ticket life [unlimited]: Max renewable life [unlimited]: Attributes []: kadmin> ext host/myserver.example.org kadmin> exit Note that the ext command (short for extract) stores the extracted key in /etc/krb5.keytab by default. If you do not have kadmind running on the KDC (possibly for security reasons) and thus do not have access to kadmin remotely, you can add the host principal (host/myserver.EXAMPLE.ORG) directly on the KDC and then extract it to a temporary file (to avoid over-writing the /etc/krb5.keytab on the KDC) using something like this: &prompt.root; kadmin kadmin> ext --keytab=/tmp/example.keytab host/myserver.example.org kadmin> exit You can then securely copy the keytab to the server computer (using scp or a floppy, for example). Be sure to specify a non-default keytab name to avoid over-writing the keytab on the KDC. At this point your server can communicate with the KDC (due to its krb5.conf file) and it can prove its own identity (due to the krb5.keytab file). It is now ready for you to enable some Kerberos services. For this example we will enable the telnet service by putting a line like this into your /etc/inetd.conf and then restarting the &man.inetd.8; service with /etc/rc.d/inetd restart: telnet stream tcp nowait root /usr/libexec/telnetd telnetd -a user The critical bit is that the -a (for authentication) type is set to user. Consult the &man.telnetd.8; manual page for more details. <application>Kerberos</application> enabling a client with Heimdal Kerberos5 Client Configuration Setting up a client computer is almost trivially easy. As far as Kerberos configuration goes, you only need the Kerberos configuration file, located at /etc/krb5.conf. Simply securely copy it over to the client computer from the KDC. Test your client computer by attempting to use kinit, klist, and kdestroy from the client to obtain, show, and then delete a ticket for the principal you created above. You should also be able to use Kerberos applications to connect to Kerberos enabled servers, though if that does not work and obtaining a ticket does the problem is likely with the server and not with the client or the KDC. When testing an application like telnet, try using a packet sniffer (such as &man.tcpdump.1;) to confirm that your password is not sent in the clear. Try using telnet with the -x option, which encrypts the entire data stream (similar to ssh). The core Kerberos client applications (traditionally named kinit, klist, kdestroy, and kpasswd) are installed in the base &os; install. Note that &os; versions prior to 5.0 renamed them to k5init, k5list, k5destroy, k5passwd, and k5stash (though it is typically only used once). Various non-core Kerberos client applications are also installed by default. This is where the minimal nature of the base Heimdal installation is felt: telnet is the only Kerberos enabled service. The Heimdal port adds some of the missing client applications: Kerberos enabled versions of ftp, rsh, rcp, rlogin, and a few other less common programs. The MIT port also contains a full suite of Kerberos client applications. User configuration files: <filename>.k5login</filename> and <filename>.k5users</filename> Kerberos5 User Configuration Files Users within a realm typically have their Kerberos principal (such as tillman@EXAMPLE.ORG) mapped to a local user account (such as a local account named tillman). Client applications such as telnet usually do not require a user name or a principal. Occasionally, however, you want to grant access to a local user account to someone who does not have a matching Kerberos principal. For example, tillman@EXAMPLE.ORG may need access to the local user account webdevelopers. Other principals may also need access to that local account. The .k5login and .k5users files, placed in a users home directory, can be used similar to a powerful combination of .hosts and .rhosts, solving this problem. For example, if a .k5login with the following contents: tillman@example.org jdoe@example.org Were to be placed into the home directory of the local user webdevelopers then both principals listed would have access to that account without requiring a shared password. Reading the manual pages for these commands is recommended. Note that the ksu manual page covers .k5users. <application>Kerberos</application> Tips, Tricks, and Troubleshooting Kerberos5 Troubleshooting When using either the Heimdal or MIT Kerberos ports ensure that your PATH environment variable lists the Kerberos versions of the client applications before the system versions. Is your time in sync? Are you sure? If the time is not in sync (typically within five minutes) authentication will fail. MIT and Heimdal inter-operate nicely. Except for kadmin, the protocol for which is not standardized. If you change your hostname, you also need to change your host/ principal and update your keytab. This also applies to special keytab entries like the www/ principal used for Apache's www/mod_auth_kerb. All hosts in your realm must be resolvable (both forwards and reverse) in DNS (or /etc/hosts as a minimum). CNAMEs will work, but the A and PTR records must be correct and in place. The error message isn't very intuitive: Kerberos5 refuses authentication because Read req failed: Key table entry not found. Some operating systems that may being acting as clients to your KDC do not set the permissions for ksu to be setuid root. This means that ksu does not work, which is a good security idea but annoying. This is not a KDC error. With MIT Kerberos, if you want to allow a principal to have a ticket life longer than the default ten hours, you must use modify_principal in kadmin to change the maxlife of both the principal in question and the krbtgt principal. Then the principal can use the -l option with kinit to request a ticket with a longer lifetime. If you run a packet sniffer on your KDC to add in troubleshooting and then run kinit from a workstation, you will notice that your TGT is sent immediately upon running kinit — even before you type your password! The explanation is that the Kerberos server freely transmits a TGT (Ticket Granting Ticket) to any unauthorized request; however, every TGT is encrypted in a key derived from the user's password. Therefore, when a user types their password it is not being sent to the KDC, it is being used to decrypt the TGT that kinit already obtained. If the decryption process results in a valid ticket with a valid time stamp, the user has valid Kerberos credentials. These credentials include a session key for establishing secure communications with the Kerberos server in the future, as well as the actual ticket-granting ticket, which is actually encrypted with the Kerberos server's own key. This second layer of encryption is unknown to the user, but it is what allows the Kerberos server to verify the authenticity of each TGT. You have to keep the time in sync between all the computers in your realm. NTP is perfect for this. For more information on NTP, see . If you want to use long ticket lifetimes (a week, for example) and you are using OpenSSH to connect to the machine where your ticket is stored, make sure that Kerberos is set to no in your sshd_config or else your tickets will be deleted when you log out. Remember that host principals can have a longer ticket lifetime as well. If your user principal has a lifetime of a week but the host you are connecting to has a lifetime of nine hours, you will have an expired host principal in your cache and the ticket cache will not work as expected. When setting up a krb5.dict file to prevent specific bad passwords from being used (the manual page for kadmind covers this briefly), remember that it only applies to principals that have a password policy assigned to them. The krb5.dict files format is simple: one string per line. Creating a symbolic link to /usr/share/dict/words might be useful. Differences with the <acronym>MIT</acronym> port The major difference between the MIT and Heimdal installs relates to the kadmin program which has a different (but equivalent) set of commands and uses a different protocol. This has a large implications if your KDC is MIT as you will not be able to use the Heimdal kadmin program to administer your KDC remotely (or vice versa, for that matter). The client applications may also take slightly different command line options to accomplish the same tasks. Following the instructions on the MIT Kerberos web site () is recommended. Be careful of path issues: the MIT port installs into /usr/local/ by default, and the normal system applications may be run instead of MIT if your PATH environment variable lists the system directories first. With the MIT security/krb5 port that is provided by &os;, be sure to read the /usr/local/share/doc/krb5/README.FreeBSD file installed by the port if you want to understand why logins via telnetd and klogind behave somewhat oddly. Most importantly, correcting the incorrect permissions on cache file behavior requires that the login.krb5 binary be used for authentication so that it can properly change ownership for the forwarded credentials. Mitigating limitations found in <application>Kerberos</application> Kerberos5 Limitations and Shortcomings <application>Kerberos</application> is an all-or-nothing approach Every service enabled on the network must be modified to work with Kerberos (or be otherwise secured against network attacks) or else the users credentials could be stolen and re-used. An example of this would be Kerberos enabling all remote shells (via rsh and telnet, for example) but not converting the POP3 mail server which sends passwords in plaintext. <application>Kerberos</application> is intended for single-user workstations In a multi-user environment, Kerberos is less secure. This is because it stores the tickets in the /tmp directory, which is readable by all users. If a user is sharing a computer with several other people simultaneously (i.e. multi-user), it is possible that the user's tickets can be stolen (copied) by another user. This can be overcome with the -c filename command-line option or (preferably) the KRB5CCNAME environment variable, but this is rarely done. In principal, storing the ticket in the users home directory and using simple file permissions can mitigate this problem. The KDC is a single point of failure By design, the KDC must be as secure as the master password database is contained on it. The KDC should have absolutely no other services running on it and should be physically secured. The danger is high because Kerberos stores all passwords encrypted with the same key (the master key), which in turn is stored as a file on the KDC. As a side note, a compromised master key is not quite as bad as one might normally fear. The master key is only used to encrypt the Kerberos database and as a seed for the random number generator. As long as access to your KDC is secure, an attacker cannot do much with the master key. Additionally, if the KDC is unavailable (perhaps due to a denial of service attack or network problems) the network services are unusable as authentication can not be performed, a recipe for a denial-of-service attack. This can alleviated with multiple KDCs (a single master and one or more slaves) and with careful implementation of secondary or fall-back authentication (PAM is excellent for this). <application>Kerberos</application> Shortcomings Kerberos allows users, hosts and services to authenticate between themselves. It does not have a mechanism to authenticate the KDC to the users, hosts or services. This means that a trojanned kinit (for example) could record all user names and passwords. Something like security/tripwire or other file system integrity checking tools can alleviate this. Resources and further information Kerberos5 External Resources The Kerberos FAQ Designing an Authentication System: a Dialogue in Four Scenes RFC 1510, The Kerberos Network Authentication Service (V5) MIT Kerberos home page Heimdal Kerberos home page Gary Palmer Contributed by Alex Nash Firewalls firewall security firewalls Firewalls are an area of increasing interest for people who are connected to the Internet, and are even finding applications on private networks to provide enhanced security. This section will hopefully explain what firewalls are, how to use them, and how to use the facilities provided in the FreeBSD kernel to implement them. People often think that having a firewall between your internal network and the Big Bad Internet will solve all your security problems. It may help, but a poorly set up firewall system is more of a security risk than not having one at all. A firewall can add another layer of security to your systems, but it cannot stop a really determined cracker from penetrating your internal network. If you let internal security lapse because you believe your firewall to be impenetrable, you have just made the crackers job that much easier. What Is a Firewall? There are currently two distinct types of firewalls in common use on the Internet today. The first type is more properly called a packet filtering router. This type of firewall utilizes a multi-homed machine and a set of rules to determine whether to forward or block individual packets. A multi-homed machine is simply a device with multiple network interfaces. The second type, known as a proxy server, relies on daemons to provide authentication and to forward packets, possibly on a multi-homed machine which has kernel packet forwarding disabled. Sometimes sites combine the two types of firewalls, so that only a certain machine (known as a bastion host) is allowed to send packets through a packet filtering router onto an internal network. Proxy services are run on the bastion host, which are generally more secure than normal authentication mechanisms. FreeBSD comes with a kernel packet filter (known as IPFW), which is what the rest of this section will concentrate on. Proxy servers can be built on FreeBSD from third party software, but there is such a variety of proxy servers available that it would be impossible to cover them in this section. Packet Filtering Routers A router is a machine which forwards packets between two or more networks. A packet filtering router is programmed to compare each packet to a list of rules before deciding if it should be forwarded or not. Most modern IP routing software includes packet filtering functionality that defaults to forwarding all packets. To enable the filters, you need to define a set of rules. To decide whether a packet should be passed on, the firewall looks through its set of rules for a rule which matches the contents of the packet's headers. Once a match is found, the rule action is obeyed. The rule action could be to drop the packet, to forward the packet, or even to send an ICMP message back to the originator. Only the first match counts, as the rules are searched in order. Hence, the list of rules can be referred to as a rule chain. The packet-matching criteria varies depending on the software used, but typically you can specify rules which depend on the source IP address of the packet, the destination IP address, the source port number, the destination port number (for protocols which support ports), or even the packet type (UDP, TCP, ICMP, etc). Proxy Servers Proxy servers are machines which have had the normal system daemons (telnetd, ftpd, etc) replaced with special servers. These servers are called proxy servers, as they normally only allow onward connections to be made. This enables you to run (for example) a proxy telnet server on your firewall host, and people can telnet in to your firewall from the outside, go through some authentication mechanism, and then gain access to the internal network (alternatively, proxy servers can be used for signals coming from the internal network and heading out). Proxy servers are normally more secure than normal servers, and often have a wider variety of authentication mechanisms available, including one-shot password systems so that even if someone manages to discover what password you used, they will not be able to use it to gain access to your systems as the password expires immediately after the first use. As they do not actually give users access to the host machine, it becomes a lot more difficult for someone to install backdoors around your security system. Proxy servers often have ways of restricting access further, so that only certain hosts can gain access to the servers. Most will also allow the administrator to specify which users can talk to which destination machines. Again, what facilities are available depends largely on what proxy software you choose. What Does IPFW Allow Me to Do? ipfw IPFW, the software supplied with FreeBSD, is a packet filtering and accounting system which resides in the kernel, and has a user-land control utility, &man.ipfw.8;. Together, they allow you to define and query the rules used by the kernel in its routing decisions. There are two related parts to IPFW. The firewall section performs packet filtering. There is also an IP accounting section which tracks usage of the router, based on rules similar to those used in the firewall section. This allows the administrator to monitor how much traffic the router is getting from a certain machine, or how much WWW traffic it is forwarding, for example. As a result of the way that IPFW is designed, you can use IPFW on non-router machines to perform packet filtering on incoming and outgoing connections. This is a special case of the more general use of IPFW, and the same commands and techniques should be used in this situation. Enabling IPFW on FreeBSD ipfw enabling As the main part of the IPFW system lives in the kernel, you will need to add one or more options to your kernel configuration file, depending on what facilities you want, and recompile your kernel. See "Reconfiguring your Kernel" () for more details on how to recompile your kernel. IPFW defaults to a policy of deny ip from any to any. If you do not add other rules during startup to allow access, you will lock yourself out of the server upon rebooting into a firewall-enabled kernel. We suggest that you set firewall_type=open in your /etc/rc.conf file when first enabling this feature, then refining the firewall rules in /etc/rc.firewall after you have tested that the new kernel feature works properly. To be on the safe side, you may wish to consider performing the initial firewall configuration from the local console rather than via ssh. Another option is to build a kernel using both the IPFIREWALL and IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT options. This will change the default rule of IPFW to allow ip from any to any and avoid the possibility of a lockout. There are currently four kernel configuration options relevant to IPFW: options IPFIREWALL Compiles into the kernel the code for packet filtering. options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE Enables code to allow logging of packets through &man.syslogd.8;. Without this option, even if you specify that packets should be logged in the filter rules, nothing will happen. options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT=10 Limits the number of packets logged through &man.syslogd.8; on a per entry basis. You may wish to use this option in hostile environments in which you want to log firewall activity, but do not want to be open to a denial of service attack via syslog flooding. When a chain entry reaches the packet limit specified, logging is turned off for that particular entry. To resume logging, you will need to reset the associated counter using the &man.ipfw.8; utility: &prompt.root; ipfw zero 4500 Where 4500 is the chain entry you wish to continue logging. options IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT This changes the default rule action from deny to allow. This avoids the possibility of locking yourself out if you happen to boot a kernel with IPFIREWALL support but have not configured your firewall yet. It is also very useful if you often use &man.ipfw.8; as a filter for specific problems as they arise. Use with care though, as this opens up the firewall and changes the way it works. Previous versions of FreeBSD contained an IPFIREWALL_ACCT option. This is now obsolete as the firewall code automatically includes accounting facilities. Configuring IPFW ipfw configuring The configuration of the IPFW software is done through the &man.ipfw.8; utility. The syntax for this command looks quite complicated, but it is relatively simple once you understand its structure. There are currently four different command categories used by the utility: addition/deletion, listing, flushing, and clearing. Addition/deletion is used to build the rules that control how packets are accepted, rejected, and logged. Listing is used to examine the contents of your rule set (otherwise known as the chain) and packet counters (accounting). Flushing is used to remove all entries from the chain. Clearing is used to zero out one or more accounting entries. Altering the IPFW Rules The syntax for this form of the command is: ipfw -N command index action log protocol addresses options There is one valid flag when using this form of the command: -N Resolve addresses and service names in output. The command given can be shortened to the shortest unique form. The valid commands are: add Add an entry to the firewall/accounting rule list delete Delete an entry from the firewall/accounting rule list Previous versions of IPFW used separate firewall and accounting entries. The present version provides packet accounting with each firewall entry. If an index value is supplied, it is used to place the entry at a specific point in the chain. Otherwise, the entry is placed at the end of the chain at an index 100 greater than the last chain entry (this does not include the default policy, rule 65535, deny). The log option causes matching rules to be output to the system console if the kernel was compiled with IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE. Valid actions are: reject Drop the packet, and send an ICMP host or port unreachable (as appropriate) packet to the source. allow Pass the packet on as normal. (aliases: pass, permit, and accept) deny Drop the packet. The source is not notified via an ICMP message (thus it appears that the packet never arrived at the destination). count Update packet counters but do not allow/deny the packet based on this rule. The search continues with the next chain entry. Each action will be recognized by the shortest unambiguous prefix. The protocols which can be specified are: all Matches any IP packet icmp Matches ICMP packets tcp Matches TCP packets udp Matches UDP packets The address specification is: from address/maskport to address/maskport via interface You can only specify port in conjunction with protocols which support ports (UDP and TCP). The is optional and may specify the IP address or domain name of a local IP interface, or an interface name (e.g. ed0) to match only packets coming through this interface. Interface unit numbers can be specified with an optional wildcard. For example, ppp* would match all kernel PPP interfaces. The syntax used to specify an address/mask is: address or address/mask-bits or address:mask-pattern A valid hostname may be specified in place of the IP address. is a decimal number representing how many bits in the address mask should be set. e.g. specifying 192.216.222.1/24 will create a mask which will allow any address in a class C subnet (in this case, 192.216.222) to be matched. is an IP address which will be logically AND'ed with the address given. The keyword any may be used to specify any IP address. The port numbers to be blocked are specified as: port,port,port… to specify either a single port or a list of ports, or port-port to specify a range of ports. You may also combine a single range with a list, but the range must always be specified first. The options available are: frag Matches if the packet is not the first fragment of the datagram. in Matches if the packet is on the way in. out Matches if the packet is on the way out. ipoptions spec Matches if the IP header contains the comma separated list of options specified in spec. The supported IP options are: ssrr (strict source route), lsrr (loose source route), rr (record packet route), and ts (time stamp). The absence of a particular option may be specified with a leading !. established Matches if the packet is part of an already established TCP connection (i.e. it has the RST or ACK bits set). You can optimize the performance of the firewall by placing established rules early in the chain. setup Matches if the packet is an attempt to establish a TCP connection (the SYN bit is set but the ACK bit is not). tcpflags flags Matches if the TCP header contains the comma separated list of flags. The supported flags are fin, syn, rst, psh, ack, and urg. The absence of a particular flag may be indicated by a leading !. icmptypes types Matches if the ICMP type is present in the list types. The list may be specified as any combination of ranges and/or individual types separated by commas. Commonly used ICMP types are: 0 echo reply (ping reply), 3 destination unreachable, 5 redirect, 8 echo request (ping request), and 11 time exceeded (used to indicate TTL expiration as with &man.traceroute.8;). Listing the IPFW Rules The syntax for this form of the command is: ipfw -a -c -d -e -t -N -S list There are seven valid flags when using this form of the command: -a While listing, show counter values. This option is the only way to see accounting counters. -c List rules in compact form. -d Show dynamic rules in addition to static rules. -e If was specified, also show expired dynamic rules. -t Display the last match times for each chain entry. The time listing is incompatible with the input syntax used by the &man.ipfw.8; utility. -N Attempt to resolve given addresses and service names. -S Show the set each rule belongs to. If this flag is not specified, disabled rules will not be listed. Flushing the IPFW Rules The syntax for flushing the chain is: ipfw flush This causes all entries in the firewall chain to be removed except the fixed default policy enforced by the kernel (index 65535). Use caution when flushing rules; the default deny policy will leave your system cut off from the network until allow entries are added to the chain. Clearing the IPFW Packet Counters The syntax for clearing one or more packet counters is: ipfw zero index When used without an index argument, all packet counters are cleared. If an index is supplied, the clearing operation only affects a specific chain entry. Example Commands for <application>ipfw</application> This command will deny all packets from the host evil.crackers.org to the telnet port of the host nice.people.org: &prompt.root; ipfw add deny tcp from evil.crackers.org to nice.people.org 23 The next example denies and logs any TCP traffic from the entire crackers.org network (a class C) to the nice.people.org machine (any port). &prompt.root; ipfw add deny log tcp from evil.crackers.org/24 to nice.people.org If you do not want people sending X sessions to your internal network (a subnet of a class C), the following command will do the necessary filtering: &prompt.root; ipfw add deny tcp from any to my.org/28 6000 setup To see the accounting records: &prompt.root; ipfw -a list or in the short form &prompt.root; ipfw -a l You can also see the last time a chain entry was matched with: &prompt.root; ipfw -at l Building a Packet Filtering Firewall The following suggestions are just that: suggestions. The requirements of each firewall are different and we cannot tell you how to build a firewall to meet your particular requirements. When initially setting up your firewall, unless you have a test bench setup where you can configure your firewall host in a controlled environment, it is strongly recommend you use the logging version of the commands and enable logging in the kernel. This will allow you to quickly identify problem areas and cure them without too much disruption. Even after the initial setup phase is complete, I recommend using the logging for `deny' as it allows tracing of possible attacks and also modification of the firewall rules if your requirements alter. If you use the logging versions of the accept command, be aware that it can generate large amounts of log data. One log entry will be generated for every packet that passes through the firewall, so large FTP/http transfers, etc, will really slow the system down. It also increases the latencies on those packets as it requires more work to be done by the kernel before the packet can be passed on. syslogd will also start using up a lot more processor time as it logs all the extra data to disk, and it could quite easily fill the partition /var/log is located on. You should enable your firewall from /etc/rc.conf.local or /etc/rc.conf. The associated manual page explains which knobs to fiddle and lists some preset firewall configurations. If you do not use a preset configuration, ipfw list will output the current ruleset into a file that you can pass to rc.conf. If you do not use /etc/rc.conf.local or /etc/rc.conf to enable your firewall, it is important to make sure your firewall is enabled before any IP interfaces are configured. The next problem is what your firewall should actually do! This is largely dependent on what access to your network you want to allow from the outside, and how much access to the outside world you want to allow from the inside. Some general rules are: Block all incoming access to ports below 1024 for TCP. This is where most of the security sensitive services are, like finger, SMTP (mail) and telnet. Block all incoming UDP traffic. There are very few useful services that travel over UDP, and what useful traffic there is, is normally a security threat (e.g. Suns RPC and NFS protocols). This has its disadvantages also, since UDP is a connectionless protocol, denying incoming UDP traffic also blocks the replies to outgoing UDP traffic. This can cause a problem for people (on the inside) using external archie (prospero) servers. If you want to allow access to archie, you will have to allow packets coming from ports 191 and 1525 to any internal UDP port through the firewall. ntp is another service you may consider allowing through, which comes from port 123. Block traffic to port 6000 from the outside. Port 6000 is the port used for access to X11 servers, and can be a security threat (especially if people are in the habit of doing xhost + on their workstations). X11 can actually use a range of ports starting at 6000, the upper limit being how many X displays you can run on the machine. The upper limit as defined by RFC 1700 (Assigned Numbers) is 6063. Check what ports any internal servers use (e.g. SQL servers, etc). It is probably a good idea to block those as well, as they normally fall outside the 1-1024 range specified above. Another checklist for firewall configuration is available from CERT at As stated above, these are only guidelines. You will have to decide what filter rules you want to use on your firewall yourself. We cannot accept ANY responsibility if someone breaks into your network, even if you follow the advice given above. IPFW Overhead and Optimization Many people want to know how much overhead IPFW adds to a system. The answer to this depends mostly on your rule set and processor speed. For most applications dealing with Ethernet and small rule sets, the answer is negligible. For those of you that need actual measurements to satisfy your curiosity, read on. The following measurements were made using 2.2.5-STABLE on a 486-66. (While IPFW has changed slightly in later releases of FreeBSD, it still performs with similar speed.) IPFW was modified to measure the time spent within the ip_fw_chk routine, displaying the results to the console every 1000 packets. Two rule sets, each with 1000 rules, were tested. The first set was designed to demonstrate a worst case scenario by repeating the rule: &prompt.root; ipfw add deny tcp from any to any 55555 This demonstrates a worst case scenario by causing most of IPFW's packet check routine to be executed before finally deciding that the packet does not match the rule (by virtue of the port number). Following the 999th iteration of this rule was an allow ip from any to any. The second set of rules were designed to abort the rule check quickly: &prompt.root; ipfw add deny ip from 1.2.3.4 to 1.2.3.4 The non-matching source IP address for the above rule causes these rules to be skipped very quickly. As before, the 1000th rule was an allow ip from any to any. The per-packet processing overhead in the former case was approximately 2.703 ms/packet, or roughly 2.7 microseconds per rule. Thus the theoretical packet processing limit with these rules is around 370 packets per second. Assuming 10 Mbps Ethernet and a ~1500 byte packet size, we would only be able to achieve 55.5% bandwidth utilization. For the latter case each packet was processed in approximately 1.172 ms, or roughly 1.2 microseconds per rule. The theoretical packet processing limit here would be about 853 packets per second, which could consume 10 Mbps Ethernet bandwidth. The excessive number of rules tested and the nature of those rules do not provide a real-world scenario -- they were used only to generate the timing information presented here. Here are a few things to keep in mind when building an efficient rule set: Place an established rule early on to handle the majority of TCP traffic. Do not put any allow tcp statements before this rule. Place heavily triggered rules earlier in the rule set than those rarely used (without changing the permissiveness of the firewall, of course). You can see which rules are used most often by examining the packet counting statistics with ipfw -a l. OpenSSL security OpenSSL OpenSSL As of FreeBSD 4.0, the OpenSSL toolkit is a part of the base system. OpenSSL provides a general-purpose cryptography library, as well as the Secure Sockets Layer v2/v3 (SSLv2/SSLv3) and Transport Layer Security v1 (TLSv1) network security protocols. However, one of the algorithms (specifically IDEA) included in OpenSSL is protected by patents in the USA and elsewhere, and is not available for unrestricted use. IDEA is included in the OpenSSL sources in FreeBSD, but it is not built by default. If you wish to use it, and you comply with the license terms, enable the MAKE_IDEA switch in /etc/make.conf and rebuild your sources using make world. Today, the RSA algorithm is free for use in USA and other countries. In the past it was protected by a patent. OpenSSL install Source Code Installations OpenSSL is part of the src-crypto and src-secure CVSup collections. See the Obtaining FreeBSD section for more information about obtaining and updating FreeBSD source code. Nik Clayton
nik@FreeBSD.org
 Written by VPN over IPsec Creating a VPN between two networks, separated by the Internet, using FreeBSD gateways. Hiten M. Pandya
hmp@FreeBSD.org
 Written by Understanding IPsec This section will guide you through the process of setting up IPsec, and to use it in an environment which consists of FreeBSD and µsoft.windows; 2000/XP machines, to make them communicate securely. In order to set up IPsec, it is necessary that you are familiar with the concepts of building a custom kernel (see ). IPsec is a protocol which sits on top of the Internet Protocol (IP) layer. It allows two or more hosts to communicate in a secure manner (hence the name). The FreeBSD IPsec network stack is based on the KAME implementation, which has support for both protocol families, IPv4 and IPv6. FreeBSD 5.X contains a hardware accelerated IPsec stack, known as Fast IPsec, that was obtained from OpenBSD. It employs cryptographic hardware (whenever possible) via the &man.crypto.4; subsystem to optimize the performance of IPsec. This subsystem is new, and does not support all the features that are available in the KAME version of IPsec. However, in order to enable hardware-accelerated IPsec, the following kernel option has to be added to your kernel configuration file: options FAST_IPSEC # new IPsec (cannot define w/ IPSEC) Note, that it is not currently possible to use the Fast IPsec subsystem in lue with the KAME implementation of IPsec. Consult the &man.fast.ipsec.4; manual page for more information. IPsec consists of two sub-protocols: Encapsulated Security Payload (ESP), protects the IP packet data from third party interference, by encrypting the contents using symmetric cryptography algorithms (like Blowfish, 3DES). Authentication Header (AH), protects the IP packet header from third party interference and spoofing, by computing a cryptographic checksum and hashing the IP packet header fields with a secure hashing function. This is then followed by an additional header that contains the hash, to allow the information in the packet to be authenticated. ESP and AH can either be used together or separately, depending on the environment. IPsec can either be used to directly encrypt the traffic between two hosts (known as Transport Mode); or to build virtual tunnels between two subnets, which could be used for secure communication between two corporate networks (known as Tunnel Mode). The latter is more commonly known as a Virtual Private Network (VPN). The &man.ipsec.4; manual page should be consulted for detailed information on the IPsec subsystem in FreeBSD. To add IPsec support to your kernel, add the following options to your kernel configuration file: options IPSEC #IP security options IPSEC_ESP #IP security (crypto; define w/ IPSEC) If IPsec debugging support is desired, the following kernel option should also be added: options IPSEC_DEBUG #debug for IP security The Problem There's no standard for what constitutes a VPN. VPNs can be implemented using a number of different technologies, each of which have their own strengths and weaknesses. This article presents a number of scenarios, and strategies for implementing a VPN for each scenario. Scenario #1: Two networks, connected to the Internet, to behave as one This is the scenario that caused me to first investigating VPNs. The premise is as follows: You have at least two sites Both sites are using IP internally Both sites are connected to the Internet, through a gateway that is running FreeBSD. The gateway on each network has at least one public IP address. The internal addresses of the two networks can be public or private IP addresses, it doesn't matter. You can be running NAT on the gateway machine if necessary. The internal IP addresses of the two networks do not collide. While I expect it is theoretically possible to use a combination of VPN technology and NAT to get this to work, I expect it to be a configuration nightmare. If you find that you are trying to connect two networks, both of which, internally, use the same private IP address range (e.g., both of them use 192.168.1.x), then one of the networks will have to be renumbered. The network topology might look something like this: Network #1 [ Internal Hosts ] Private Net, 192.168.1.2-254 [ Win9x/NT/2K ] [ UNIX ] | | .---[fxp1]---. Private IP, 192.168.1.1 | FreeBSD | `---[fxp0]---' Public IP, A.B.C.D | | -=-=- Internet -=-=- | | .---[fxp0]---. Public IP, W.X.Y.Z | FreeBSD | `---[fxp1]---' Private IP, 192.168.2.1 | | Network #2 [ Internal Hosts ] [ Win9x/NT/2K ] Private Net, 192.168.2.2-254 [ UNIX ] Notice the two public IP addresses. I'll use the letters to refer to them in the rest of this article. Anywhere you see those letters in this article, replace them with your own public IP addresses. Note also that internally, the two gateway machines have .1 IP addresses, and that the two networks have different private IP addresses (192.168.1.x and 192.168.2.x respectively). All the machines on the private networks have been configured to use the .1 machine as their default gateway. The intention is that, from a network point of view, each network should view the machines on the other network as though they were directly attached the same router -- albeit a slightly slow router with an occasional tendency to drop packets. This means that (for example), machine 192.168.1.20 should be able to run ping 192.168.2.34 and have it work, transparently. &windows; machines should be able to see the machines on the other network, browse file shares, and so on, in exactly the same way that they can browse machines on the local network. And the whole thing has to be secure. This means that traffic between the two networks has to be encrypted. Creating a VPN between these two networks is a multi-step process. The stages are as follows: Create a virtual network link between the two networks, across the Internet. Test it, using tools like &man.ping.8;, to make sure it works. Apply security policies to ensure that traffic between the two networks is transparently encrypted and decrypted as necessary. Test this, using tools like &man.tcpdump.1;, to ensure that traffic is encrypted. Configure additional software on the FreeBSD gateways, to allow &windows; machines to see one another across the VPN. Step 1: Creating and testing a <quote>virtual</quote> network link Suppose that you were logged in to the gateway machine on network #1 (with public IP address A.B.C.D, private IP address 192.168.1.1), and you ran ping 192.168.2.1, which is the private address of the machine with IP address W.X.Y.Z. What needs to happen in order for this to work? The gateway machine needs to know how to reach 192.168.2.1. In other words, it needs to have a route to 192.168.2.1. Private IP addresses, such as those in the 192.168.x range are not supposed to appear on the Internet at large. Instead, each packet you send to 192.168.2.1 will need to be wrapped up inside another packet. This packet will need to appear to be from A.B.C.D, and it will have to be sent to W.X.Y.Z. This process is called encapsulation. Once this packet arrives at W.X.Y.Z it will need to unencapsulated, and delivered to 192.168.2.1. You can think of this as requiring a tunnel between the two networks. The two tunnel mouths are the IP addresses A.B.C.D and W.X.Y.Z, and the tunnel must be told the addresses of the private IP addresses that will be allowed to pass through it. The tunnel is used to transfer traffic with private IP addresses across the public Internet. This tunnel is created by using the generic interface, or gif devices on FreeBSD. As you can imagine, the gif interface on each gateway host must be configured with four IP addresses; two for the public IP addresses, and two for the private IP addresses. Support for the gif device must be compiled in to the FreeBSD kernel on both machines. You can do this by adding the line: pseudo-device gif to the kernel configuration files on both machines, and then compile, install, and reboot as normal. Configuring the tunnel is a two step process. First the tunnel must be told what the outside (or public) IP addresses are, using &man.gifconfig.8;. Then the private IP addresses must be configured using &man.ifconfig.8;. In &os; 5.X, the functionality provided by the &man.gifconfig.8; utility has been merged into &man.ifconfig.8;. On the gateway machine on network #1 you would run the following two commands to configure the tunnel. gifconfig gif0 A.B.C.D W.X.Y.Z ifconfig gif0 inet 192.168.1.1 192.168.2.1 netmask 0xffffffff On the other gateway machine you run the same commands, but with the order of the IP addresses reversed. gifconfig gif0 W.X.Y.Z A.B.C.D ifconfig gif0 inet 192.168.2.1 192.168.1.1 netmask 0xffffffff You can then run: gifconfig gif0 to see the configuration. For example, on the network #1 gateway, you would see this: &prompt.root; gifconfig gif0 gif0: flags=8011<UP,POINTTOPOINT,MULTICAST> mtu 1280 inet 192.168.1.1 --> 192.168.2.1 netmask 0xffffffff physical address inet A.B.C.D --> W.X.Y.Z As you can see, a tunnel has been created between the physical addresses A.B.C.D and W.X.Y.Z, and the traffic allowed through the tunnel is that between 192.168.1.1 and 192.168.2.1. This will also have added an entry to the routing table on both machines, which you can examine with the command netstat -rn. This output is from the gateway host on network #1. &prompt.root; netstat -rn Routing tables Internet: Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use Netif Expire ... 192.168.2.1 192.168.1.1 UH 0 0 gif0 ... As the Flags value indicates, this is a host route, which means that each gateway knows how to reach the other gateway, but they do not know how to reach the rest of their respective networks. That problem will be fixed shortly. It is likely that you are running a firewall on both machines. This will need to be circumvented for your VPN traffic. You might want to allow all traffic between both networks, or you might want to include firewall rules that protect both ends of the VPN from one another. It greatly simplifies testing if you configure the firewall to allow all traffic through the VPN. You can always tighten things up later. If you are using &man.ipfw.8; on the gateway machines then a command like ipfw add 1 allow ip from any to any via gif0 will allow all traffic between the two end points of the VPN, without affecting your other firewall rules. Obviously you will need to run this command on both gateway hosts. This is sufficient to allow each gateway machine to ping the other. On 192.168.1.1, you should be able to run ping 192.168.2.1 and get a response, and you should be able to do the same thing on the other gateway machine. However, you will not be able to reach internal machines on either network yet. This is because of the routing -- although the gateway machines know how to reach one another, they do not know how to reach the network behind each one. To solve this problem you must add a static route on each gateway machine. The command to do this on the first gateway would be: route add 192.168.2.0 192.168.2.1 netmask 0xffffff00 This says In order to reach the hosts on the network 192.168.2.0, send the packets to the host 192.168.2.1. You will need to run a similar command on the other gateway, but with the 192.168.1.x addresses instead. IP traffic from hosts on one network will now be able to reach hosts on the other network. That has now created two thirds of a VPN between the two networks, in as much as it is virtual and it is a network. It is not private yet. You can test this using &man.ping.8; and &man.tcpdump.1;. Log in to the gateway host and run tcpdump dst host 192.168.2.1 In another log in session on the same host run ping 192.168.2.1 You will see output that looks something like this: 16:10:24.018080 192.168.1.1 > 192.168.2.1: icmp: echo request 16:10:24.018109 192.168.1.1 > 192.168.2.1: icmp: echo reply 16:10:25.018814 192.168.1.1 > 192.168.2.1: icmp: echo request 16:10:25.018847 192.168.1.1 > 192.168.2.1: icmp: echo reply 16:10:26.028896 192.168.1.1 > 192.168.2.1: icmp: echo request 16:10:26.029112 192.168.1.1 > 192.168.2.1: icmp: echo reply As you can see, the ICMP messages are going back and forth unencrypted. If you had used the parameter to &man.tcpdump.1; to grab more bytes of data from the packets you would see more information. Obviously this is unacceptable. The next section will discuss securing the link between the two networks so that it all traffic is automatically encrypted. Summary: Configure both kernels with pseudo-device gif. Edit /etc/rc.conf on gateway host #1 and add the following lines (replacing IP addresses as necessary). gifconfig_gif0="A.B.C.D W.X.Y.Z" ifconfig_gif0="inet 192.168.1.1 192.168.2.1 netmask 0xffffffff" static_routes="vpn" route_vpn="192.168.2.0 192.168.2.1 netmask 0xffffff00" Edit your firewall script (/etc/rc.firewall, or similar) on both hosts, and add ipfw add 1 allow ip from any to any via gif0 Make similar changes to /etc/rc.conf on gateway host #2, reversing the order of IP addresses. Step 2: Securing the link To secure the link we will be using IPsec. IPsec provides a mechanism for two hosts to agree on an encryption key, and to then use this key in order to encrypt data between the two hosts. The are two areas of configuration to be considered here. There must be a mechanism for two hosts to agree on the encryption mechanism to use. Once two hosts have agreed on this mechanism there is said to be a security association between them. There must be a mechanism for specifying which traffic should be encrypted. Obviously, you don't want to encrypt all your outgoing traffic -- you only want to encrypt the traffic that is part of the VPN. The rules that you put in place to determine what traffic will be encrypted are called security policies. Security associations and security policies are both maintained by the kernel, and can be modified by userland programs. However, before you can do this you must configure the kernel to support IPsec and the Encapsulated Security Payload (ESP) protocol. This is done by configuring a kernel with: options IPSEC options IPSEC_ESP and recompiling, reinstalling, and rebooting. As before you will need to do this to the kernels on both of the gateway hosts. You have two choices when it comes to setting up security associations. You can configure them by hand between two hosts, which entails choosing the encryption algorithm, encryption keys, and so forth, or you can use daemons that implement the Internet Key Exchange protocol (IKE) to do this for you. I recommend the latter. Apart from anything else, it is easier to set up. Editing and displaying security policies is carried out using &man.setkey.8;. By analogy, setkey is to the kernel's security policy tables as &man.route.8; is to the kernel's routing tables. setkey can also display the current security associations, and to continue the analogy further, is akin to netstat -r in that respect. There are a number of choices for daemons to manage security associations with FreeBSD. This article will describe how to use one of these, racoon. racoon is in the FreeBSD ports collection, in the security/ category, and is installed in the usual way. racoon must be run on both gateway hosts. On each host it is configured with the IP address of the other end of the VPN, and a secret key (which you choose, and must be the same on both gateways). The two daemons then contact one another, confirm that they are who they say they are (by using the secret key that you configured). The daemons then generate a new secret key, and use this to encrypt the traffic over the VPN. They periodically change this secret, so that even if an attacker were to crack one of the keys (which is as theoretically close to unfeasible as it gets) it won't do them much good -- by the time they've cracked the key the two daemons have chosen another one. racoon's configuration is stored in ${PREFIX}/etc/racoon. You should find a configuration file there, which should not need to be changed too much. The other component of racoon's configuration, which you will need to change, is the pre-shared key. The default racoon configuration expects to find this in the file ${PREFIX}/etc/racoon/psk.txt. It is important to note that the pre-shared key is not the key that will be used to encrypt your traffic across the VPN link, it is simply a token that allows the key management daemons to trust one another. psk.txt contains a line for each remote site you are dealing with. In this example, where there are two sites, each psk.txt file will contain one line (because each end of the VPN is only dealing with one other end). On gateway host #1 this line should look like this: W.X.Y.Z secret That is, the public IP address of the remote end, whitespace, and a text string that provides the secret. Obviously, you shouldn't use secret as your key -- the normal rules for choosing a password apply. On gateway host #2 the line would look like this A.B.C.D secret That is, the public IP address of the remote end, and the same secret key. psk.txt must be mode 0600 (i.e., only read/write to root) before racoon will run. You must run racoon on both gateway machines. You will also need to add some firewall rules to allow the IKE traffic, which is carried over UDP to the ISAKMP (Internet Security Association Key Management Protocol) port. Again, this should be fairly early in your firewall ruleset. ipfw add 1 allow udp from A.B.C.D to W.X.Y.Z isakmp ipfw add 1 allow udp from W.X.Y.Z to A.B.C.D isakmp Once racoon is running you can try pinging one gateway host from the other. The connection is still not encrypted, but racoon will then set up the security associations between the two hosts -- this might take a moment, and you may see this as a short delay before the ping commands start responding. Once the security association has been set up you can view it using &man.setkey.8;. Run setkey -D on either host to view the security association information. That's one half of the problem. They other half is setting your security policies. To create a sensible security policy, let's review what's been set up so far. This discussions hold for both ends of the link. Each IP packet that you send out has a header that contains data about the packet. The header includes the IP addresses of both the source and destination. As we already know, private IP addresses, such as the 192.168.x.y range are not supposed to appear on the public Internet. Instead, they must first be encapsulated inside another packet. This packet must have the public source and destination IP addresses substituted for the private addresses. So if your outgoing packet started looking like this: .----------------------. | Src: 192.168.1.1 | | Dst: 192.168.2.1 | | <other header info> | +----------------------+ | <packet data> | `----------------------' Then it will be encapsulated inside another packet, looking something like this: .--------------------------. | Src: A.B.C.D | | Dst: W.X.Y.Z | | <other header info> | +--------------------------+ | .----------------------. | | | Src: 192.168.1.1 | | | | Dst: 192.168.2.1 | | | | <other header info> | | | +----------------------+ | | | <packet data> | | | `----------------------' | `--------------------------' This encapsulation is carried out by the gif device. As you can see, the packet now has real IP addresses on the outside, and our original packet has been wrapped up as data inside the packet that will be put out on the Internet. Obviously, we want all traffic between the VPNs to be encrypted. You might try putting this in to words, as: If a packet leaves from A.B.C.D, and it is destined for W.X.Y.Z, then encrypt it, using the necessary security associations. If a packet arrives from W.X.Y.Z, and it is destined for A.B.C.D, then decrypt it, using the necessary security associations. That's close, but not quite right. If you did this, all traffic to and from W.X.Y.Z, even traffic that was not part of the VPN, would be encrypted. That's not quite what you want. The correct policy is as follows If a packet leaves from A.B.C.D, and that packet is encapsulating another packet, and it is destined for W.X.Y.Z, then encrypt it, using the necessary security associations. If a packet arrives from W.X.Y.Z, and that packet is encapsulating another packet, and it is destined for A.B.C.D, then encrypt it, using the necessary security associations. A subtle change, but a necessary one. Security policies are also set using &man.setkey.8;. &man.setkey.8; features a configuration language for defining the policy. You can either enter configuration instructions via stdin, or you can use the option to specify a filename that contains configuration instructions. The configuration on gateway host #1 (which has the public IP address A.B.C.D) to force all outbound traffic to W.X.Y.Z to be encrypted is: spdadd A.B.C.D/32 W.X.Y.Z/32 ipencap -P out ipsec esp/tunnel/A.B.C.D-W.X.Y.Z/require; Put these commands in a file (e.g., /etc/ipsec.conf) and then run &prompt.root; setkey -f /etc/ipsec.conf tells &man.setkey.8; that we want to add a rule to the secure policy database. The rest of this line specifies which packets will match this policy. A.B.C.D/32 and W.X.Y.Z/32 are the IP addresses and netmasks that identify the network or hosts that this policy will apply to. In this case, we want it to apply to traffic between these two hosts. tells the kernel that this policy should only apply to packets that encapsulate other packets. says that this policy applies to outgoing packets, and says that the packet will be secured. The second line specifies how this packet will be encrypted. is the protocol that will be used, while indicates that the packet will be further encapsulated in an IPsec packet. The repeated use of A.B.C.D and W.X.Y.Z is used to select the security association to use, and the final mandates that packets must be encrypted if they match this rule. This rule only matches outgoing packets. You will need a similar rule to match incoming packets. spdadd W.X.Y.Z/32 A.B.C.D/32 ipencap -P in ipsec esp/tunnel/W.X.Y.Z-A.B.C.D/require; Note the instead of in this case, and the necessary reversal of the IP addresses. The other gateway host (which has the public IP address W.X.Y.Z) will need similar rules. spdadd W.X.Y.Z/32 A.B.C.D/32 ipencap -P out ipsec esp/tunnel/W.X.Y.Z-A.B.C.D/require; spdadd A.B.C.D/32 W.X.Y.Z/32 ipencap -P in ipsec esp/tunnel/A.B.C.D-W.X.Y.Z/require; Finally, you need to add firewall rules to allow ESP and IPENCAP packets back and forth. These rules will need to be added to both hosts. ipfw add 1 allow esp from A.B.C.D to W.X.Y.Z ipfw add 1 allow esp from W.X.Y.Z to A.B.C.D ipfw add 1 allow ipencap from A.B.C.D to W.X.Y.Z ipfw add 1 allow ipencap from W.X.Y.Z to A.B.C.D Because the rules are symmetric you can use the same rules on each gateway host. Outgoing packets will now look something like this: .------------------------------. --------------------------. | Src: A.B.C.D | | | Dst: W.X.Y.Z | | | <other header info> | | Encrypted +------------------------------+ | packet. | .--------------------------. | -------------. | contents | | Src: A.B.C.D | | | | are | | Dst: W.X.Y.Z | | | | completely | | <other header info> | | | |- secure | +--------------------------+ | | Encap'd | from third | | .----------------------. | | -. | packet | party | | | Src: 192.168.1.1 | | | | Original |- with real | snooping | | | Dst: 192.168.2.1 | | | | packet, | IP addr | | | | <other header info> | | | |- private | | | | +----------------------+ | | | IP addr | | | | | <packet data> | | | | | | | | `----------------------' | | -' | | | `--------------------------' | -------------' | `------------------------------' --------------------------' When they are received by the far end of the VPN they will first be decrypted (using the security associations that have been negotiated by racoon). Then they will enter the gif interface, which will unwrap the second layer, until you are left with the innermost packet, which can then travel in to the inner network. You can check the security using the same &man.ping.8; test from earlier. First, log in to the A.B.C.D gateway machine, and run: tcpdump dst host 192.168.2.1 In another log in session on the same host run ping 192.168.2.1 This time you should see output like the following: XXX tcpdump output Now, as you can see, &man.tcpdump.1; shows the ESP packets. If you try to examine them with the option you will see (apparently) gibberish, because of the encryption. Congratulations. You have just set up a VPN between two remote sites. Summary Configure both kernels with: options IPSEC options IPSEC_ESP Install security/racoon. Edit ${PREFIX}/etc/racoon/psk.txt on both gateway hosts, adding an entry for the remote host's IP address and a secret key that they both know. Make sure this file is mode 0600. Add the following lines to /etc/rc.conf on each host: ipsec_enable="YES" ipsec_file="/etc/ipsec.conf" Create an /etc/ipsec.conf on each host that contains the necessary spdadd lines. On gateway host #1 this would be: spdadd A.B.C.D/32 W.X.Y.Z/32 ipencap -P out ipsec esp/tunnel/A.B.C.D-W.X.Y.Z/require; spdadd W.X.Y.Z/32 A.B.C.D/32 ipencap -P in ipsec esp/tunnel/W.X.Y.Z-A.B.C.D/require; On gateway host #2 this would be: spdadd W.X.Y.Z/32 A.B.C.D/32 ipencap -P out ipsec esp/tunnel/W.X.Y.Z-A.B.C.D/require; spdadd A.B.C.D/32 W.X.Y.Z/32 ipencap -P in ipsec esp/tunnel/A.B.C.D-W.X.Y.Z/require; Add firewall rules to allow IKE, ESP, and IPENCAP traffic to both hosts: ipfw add 1 allow udp from A.B.C.D to W.X.Y.Z isakmp ipfw add 1 allow udp from W.X.Y.Z to A.B.C.D isakmp ipfw add 1 allow esp from A.B.C.D to W.X.Y.Z ipfw add 1 allow esp from W.X.Y.Z to A.B.C.D ipfw add 1 allow ipencap from A.B.C.D to W.X.Y.Z ipfw add 1 allow ipencap from W.X.Y.Z to A.B.C.D The previous two steps should suffice to get the VPN up and running. Machines on each network will be able to refer to one another using IP addresses, and all traffic across the link will be automatically and securely encrypted. Chern Lee Contributed by OpenSSH OpenSSH security OpenSSH OpenSSH is a set of network connectivity tools used to access remote machines securely. It can be used as a direct replacement for rlogin, rsh, rcp, and telnet. Additionally, any other TCP/IP connections can be tunneled/forwarded securely through SSH. OpenSSH encrypts all traffic to effectively eliminate eavesdropping, connection hijacking, and other network-level attacks. OpenSSH is maintained by the OpenBSD project, and is based upon SSH v1.2.12 with all the recent bug fixes and updates. It is compatible with both SSH protocols 1 and 2. OpenSSH has been in the base system since FreeBSD 4.0. Advantages of Using OpenSSH Normally, when using &man.telnet.1; or &man.rlogin.1;, data is sent over the network in an clear, un-encrypted form. Network sniffers anywhere in between the client and server can steal your user/password information or data transferred in your session. OpenSSH offers a variety of authentication and encryption methods to prevent this from happening. Enabling sshd OpenSSH enabling Be sure to make the following addition to your rc.conf file: sshd_enable="YES" This will load &man.sshd.8;, the daemon program for OpenSSH, the next time your system initializes. Alternatively, you can simply run directly the sshd daemon by typing sshd on the command line. SSH Client OpenSSH client The &man.ssh.1; utility works similarly to &man.rlogin.1;. &prompt.root; ssh user@example.com Host key not found from the list of known hosts. Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no)? yes Host 'example.com' added to the list of known hosts. user@example.com's password: ******* The login will continue just as it would have if a session was created using rlogin or telnet. SSH utilizes a key fingerprint system for verifying the authenticity of the server when the client connects. The user is prompted to enter yes only when connecting for the first time. Future attempts to login are all verified against the saved fingerprint key. The SSH client will alert you if the saved fingerprint differs from the received fingerprint on future login attempts. The fingerprints are saved in ~/.ssh/known_hosts, or ~/.ssh/known_hosts2 for SSH v2 fingerprints. By default, OpenSSH servers are configured to accept both SSH v1 and SSH v2 connections. The client, however, can choose between the two. Version 2 is known to be more robust and secure than its predecessor. The &man.ssh.1; command can be forced to use either protocol by passing it the or argument for v1 and v2, respectively. Secure Copy OpenSSH secure copy scp The &man.scp.1; command works similarly to &man.rcp.1;; it copies a file to or from a remote machine, except in a secure fashion. &prompt.root; scp user@example.com:/COPYRIGHT COPYRIGHT user@example.com's password: ******* COPYRIGHT 100% |*****************************| 4735 00:00 &prompt.root; Since the fingerprint was already saved for this host in the previous example, it is verified when using &man.scp.1; here. The arguments passed to &man.scp.1; are similar to &man.cp.1;, with the file or files in the first argument, and the destination in the second. Since the file is fetched over the network, through SSH, one or more of the file arguments takes on the form . Configuration OpenSSH configuration The system-wide configuration files for both the OpenSSH daemon and client reside within the /etc/ssh directory. ssh_config configures the client settings, while sshd_config configures the daemon. Additionally, the (/usr/sbin/sshd by default), and rc.conf options can provide more levels of configuration. ssh-keygen Instead of using passwords, &man.ssh-keygen.1; can be used to generate RSA keys to authenticate a user: &prompt.user; ssh-keygen -t rsa1 Initializing random number generator... Generating p: .++ (distance 66) Generating q: ..............................++ (distance 498) Computing the keys... Key generation complete. Enter file in which to save the key (/home/user/.ssh/identity): Enter passphrase: Enter the same passphrase again: Your identification has been saved in /home/user/.ssh/identity. ... &man.ssh-keygen.1; will create a public and private key pair for use in authentication. The private key is stored in ~/.ssh/identity, whereas the public key is stored in ~/.ssh/identity.pub. The public key must be placed in ~/.ssh/authorized_keys of the remote machine in order for the setup to work. This will allow connection to the remote machine based upon RSA authentication instead of passwords. The option will create RSA keys for use by SSH protocol version 1. If you want to use RSA keys with the SSH protocol version 2, you have to use the command ssh-keygen -t rsa. If a passphrase is used in &man.ssh-keygen.1;, the user will be prompted for a password each time in order to use the private key. A SSH protocol version 2 DSA key can be created for the same purpose by using the ssh-keygen -t dsa command. This will create a public/private DSA key for use in SSH protocol version 2 sessions only. The public key is stored in ~/.ssh/id_dsa.pub, while the private key is in ~/.ssh/id_dsa. DSA public keys are also placed in ~/.ssh/authorized_keys on the remote machine. &man.ssh-agent.1; and &man.ssh-add.1; are utilities used in managing multiple passworded private keys. The various options and files can be different according to the OpenSSH version you have on your system, to avoid problems you should consult the &man.ssh-keygen.1; manual page. SSH Tunneling OpenSSH tunneling OpenSSH has the ability to create a tunnel to encapsulate another protocol in an encrypted session. The following command tells &man.ssh.1; to create a tunnel for telnet: &prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 5023:localhost:23 user@foo.example.com &prompt.user; The ssh command is used with the following options: Forces ssh to use version 2 of the protocol. (Do not use if you are working with older SSH servers) Indicates no command, or tunnel only. If omitted, ssh would initiate a normal session. Forces ssh to run in the background. Indicates a local tunnel in localport:remotehost:remoteport fashion. The remote SSH server. An SSH tunnel works by creating a listen socket on localhost on the specified port. It then forwards any connection received on the local host/port via the SSH connection to the specified remote host and port. In the example, port 5023 on localhost is being forwarded to port 23 on localhost of the remote machine. Since 23 is telnet, this would create a secure telnet session through an SSH tunnel. This can be used to wrap any number of insecure TCP protocols such as SMTP, POP3, FTP, etc. Using SSH to Create a Secure Tunnel for SMTP &prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 5025:localhost:25 user@mailserver.example.com user@mailserver.example.com's password: ***** &prompt.user; telnet localhost 5025 Trying 127.0.0.1... Connected to localhost. Escape character is '^]'. 220 mailserver.example.com ESMTP This can be used in conjunction with an &man.ssh-keygen.1; and additional user accounts to create a more seamless/hassle-free SSH tunneling environment. Keys can be used in place of typing a password, and the tunnels can be run as a separate user. Practical SSH Tunneling Examples Secure Access of a POP3 Server At work, there is an SSH server that accepts connections from the outside. On the same office network resides a mail server running a POP3 server. The network, or network path between your home and office may or may not be completely trustable. Because of this, you need to check your e-mail in a secure manner. The solution is to create an SSH connection to your office's SSH server, and tunnel through to the mail server. &prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 2110:mail.example.com:110 user@ssh-server.example.com user@ssh-server.example.com's password: ****** When the tunnel is up and running, you can point your mail client to send POP3 requests to localhost port 2110. A connection here will be forwarded securely across the tunnel to mail.example.com. Bypassing a Draconian Firewall Some network administrators impose extremely draconian firewall rules, filtering not only incoming connections, but outgoing connections. You may be only given access to contact remote machines on ports 22 and 80 for SSH and web surfing. You may wish to access another (perhaps non-work related) service, such as an Ogg Vorbis server to stream music. If this Ogg Vorbis server is streaming on some other port than 22 or 80, you will not be able to access it. The solution is to create an SSH connection to a machine outside of your network's firewall, and use it to tunnel to the Ogg Vorbis server. &prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 8888:music.example.com:8000 user@unfirewalled-system.example.org user@unfirewalled-system.example.org's password: ******* Your streaming client can now be pointed to localhost port 8888, which will be forwarded over to music.example.com port 8000, successfully evading the firewall. Further Reading OpenSSH &man.ssh.1; &man.scp.1; &man.ssh-keygen.1; &man.ssh-agent.1; &man.ssh-add.1; &man.sshd.8; &man.sftp-server.8; Tom Rhodes Contributed by ACL File System Access Control Lists In conjunction with file system enhancements like snapshots, FreeBSD 5.0 and later offers the security of File System Access Control Lists (ACLs). Access Control Lists extend the standard &unix; permission model in a highly compatible (&posix;.1e) way. This feature permits an administrator to make use of and take advantage of a more sophisticated security model. To enable ACL support for UFS file systems, the following: options UFS_ACL must be compiled into the kernel. If this option has not been compiled in, a warning message will be displayed when attempting to mount a file system supporting ACLs. This option is included in the GENERIC kernel. ACLs rely on extended attributes being enabled on the file system. Extended attributes are natively supported in the next generation &unix; file system, UFS2. A higher level of administrative overhead is required to configure extended attributes on UFS1 than on UFS2. The performance of extended attributes on UFS2 is also substantially higher. As a result, UFS2 is generally recommended in preference to UFS1 for use with access control lists. ACLs are enabled by the mount-time administrative flag, , which may be added to /etc/fstab. The mount-time flag can also be automatically set in a persistent manner using &man.tunefs.8; to modify a superblock ACLs flag in the file system header. In general, it is preferred to use the superblock flag for several reasons: The mount-time ACLs flag cannot be changed by a remount (&man.mount.8; ), only by means of a complete &man.umount.8; and fresh &man.mount.8;. This means that ACLs cannot be enabled on the root file system after boot. It also means that you cannot change the disposition of a file system once it is in use. Setting the superblock flag will cause the file system to always be mounted with ACLs enabled even if there is not an fstab entry or if the devices re-order. This prevents accidental mounting of the file system without ACLs enabled, which can result in ACLs being improperly enforced, and hence security problems. We may change the ACLs behavior to allow the flag to be enabled without a complete fresh &man.mount.8;, but we consider it desirable to discourage accidental mounting without ACLs enabled, because you can shoot your feet quite nastily if you enable ACLs, then disable them, then re-enable them without flushing the extended attributes. In general, once you have enabled ACLs on a file system, they should not be disabled, as the resulting file protections may not be compatible with those intended by the users of the system, and re-enabling ACLs may re-attach the previous ACLs to files that have since had their permissions changed, resulting in other unpredictable behavior. File systems with ACLs enabled will show a + (plus) sign in their permission settings when viewed. For example: drwx------ 2 robert robert 512 Dec 27 11:54 private drwxrwx---+ 2 robert robert 512 Dec 23 10:57 directory1 drwxrwx---+ 2 robert robert 512 Dec 22 10:20 directory2 drwxrwx---+ 2 robert robert 512 Dec 27 11:57 directory3 drwxr-xr-x 2 robert robert 512 Nov 10 11:54 public_html Here we see that the directory1, directory2, and directory3 directories are all taking advantage of ACLs. The public_html directory is not. Making Use of <acronym>ACL</acronym>s The file system ACLs can be viewed by the &man.getfacl.1; utility. For instance, to view the ACL settings on the test file, one would use the command: &prompt.user; getfacl test #file:test #owner:1001 #group:1001 user::rw- group::r-- other::r-- To change the ACL settings on this file, invoke the &man.setfacl.1; utility. Observe: &prompt.user; setfacl -k test The flag will remove all of the currently defined ACLs from a file or file system. The more preferable method would be to use as it leaves the basic fields required for ACLs to work. &prompt.user; setfacl -m u:trhodes:rwx,group:web:r--,o::--- test In the aforementioned command, the option was used to modify the default ACL entries. Since there were no pre-defined entries, as they were removed by the previous command, this will restore the default options and assign the options listed. Take care to notice that if you add a user or group which does not exist on the system, an Invalid argument error will be printed to stdout. Tom Rhodes Contributed by FreeBSD Security Advisories &os; Security Advisories Like many production quality operating systems, &os; publishes Security Advisories. These advisories are usually mailed to the security lists and noted in the Errata only after the appropriate releases have been patched. This section will work to explain what an advisory is, how to understand it, and what measures to take in order to patch a system. What does an advisory look like? The &os; security advisories look similar to the one below, taken from the &a.security-notifications.name; mailing list. ============================================================================= &os;-SA-XX:XX.UTIL Security Advisory The &os; Project Topic: denial of service due to some problem Category: core Module: sys Announced: 2003-09-23 Credits: Person@EMAIL-ADDRESS Affects: All releases of &os; &os; 4-STABLE prior to the correction date Corrected: 2003-09-23 16:42:59 UTC (RELENG_4, 4.9-PRERELEASE) 2003-09-23 20:08:42 UTC (RELENG_5_1, 5.1-RELEASE-p6) 2003-09-23 20:07:06 UTC (RELENG_5_0, 5.0-RELEASE-p15) 2003-09-23 16:44:58 UTC (RELENG_4_8, 4.8-RELEASE-p8) 2003-09-23 16:47:34 UTC (RELENG_4_7, 4.7-RELEASE-p18) 2003-09-23 16:49:46 UTC (RELENG_4_6, 4.6-RELEASE-p21) 2003-09-23 16:51:24 UTC (RELENG_4_5, 4.5-RELEASE-p33) 2003-09-23 16:52:45 UTC (RELENG_4_4, 4.4-RELEASE-p43) 2003-09-23 16:54:39 UTC (RELENG_4_3, 4.3-RELEASE-p39) &os; only: NO For general information regarding FreeBSD Security Advisories, including descriptions of the fields above, security branches, and the following sections, please visit http://www.FreeBSD.org/security/. I. Background II. Problem Description III. Impact IV. Workaround V. Solution VI. Correction details VII. References The Topic field indicates exactly what the problem is. It is basically an introduction to the current security advisory and notes the utility with the vulnerability. The Category refers to the affected part of the system which may be one of core, contrib, or ports. The core category means that the vulnerability affects a core component of the &os; operating system. The contrib category means that the vulnerability affects software contributed to the &os; Project, such as sendmail. Finally the ports category indicates that the vulnerability affects add on software available as part of the ports collection. The Module field refers to the component location, for instance sys. In this example, we see that the module, sys, is affected; therefore, this vulnerability affects a component used within the kernel. The Announced field reflects the date said security advisory was published, or announced to the world. This means that the security team has verified that the problem does exist and that a patch has been committed to the &os; source code repository. The Credits field gives credit to the individual or organization who noticed the vulnerability and reported it. The Affects field explains which releases of &os; are affected by this vulnerability. For the kernel, a quick look over the output from ident on the affected files will help in determining the revision. For ports, the version number is listed after the port name in /var/db/pkg. If the system does not sync with the &os; CVS repository and rebuild daily, chances are that it is affected. The Corrected field indicates the date, time, time offset, and release that was corrected. The &os; only field indicates whether this vulnerability affects just &os;, or if it affects other operating systems as well. The Background field gives information on exactly what the affected utility is. Most of the time this is why the utility exists in &os;, what it is used for, and a bit of information on how the utility came to be. The Problem Description field explains the security hole in depth. This can include information on flawed code, or even how the utility could be maliciously used to open a security hole. The Impact field describes what type of impact the problem could have on a system. For example, this could be anything from a denial of service attack, to extra privileges available to users, or even giving the attacker superuser access. The Workaround field offers a feasible workaround to system administrators who may be incapable of upgrading the system. This may be due to time constraints, network availability, or a slew of other reasons. Regardless, security should not be taken lightly, and an affected system should either be patched or the security hole workaround should be implemented. The Solution field offers instructions on patching the affected system. This is a step by step tested and verified method for getting a system patched and working securely. The Correction Details field displays the CVS branch or release name with the periods changed to underscore characters. It also shows the revision number of the affected files within each branch. The References field usually offers sources of other information. This can included web URLs, books, mailing lists, and newsgroups. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml index bbdda1767c..1d769abfc9 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml @@ -1,2667 +1,2667 @@ Serial Communications Synopsis serial communications &unix; has always had support for serial communications. In fact, the very first &unix; machines relied on serial lines for user input and output. Things have changed a lot from the days when the average terminal consisted of a 10-character-per-second serial printer and a keyboard. This chapter will cover some of the ways in which FreeBSD uses serial communications. After reading this chapter, you will know: How to connect terminals to your FreeBSD system. How to use a modem to dial out to remote hosts. How to allow remote users to login to your system with a modem. How to boot your system from a serial console. Before reading this chapter, you should: Know how to configure and install a new kernel (). Understand &unix; permissions and processes (). Have access to the technical manual for the serial hardware (modem or multi-port card) that you would like to use with FreeBSD. Introduction Terminology bits-per-second bps Bits per Second — the rate at which data is transmitted DTE DTE Data Terminal Equipment — for example, your computer DCE DCE Data Communications Equipment — your modem RS-232 RS-232C cables EIA standard for hardware serial communications When talking about communications data rates, this section does not use the term baud. Baud refers to the number of electrical state transitions that may be made in a period of time, while bps (bits per second) is the correct term to use (at least it does not seem to bother the curmudgeons quite as much). Cables and Ports To connect a modem or terminal to your FreeBSD system, you will need a serial port on your computer and the proper cable to connect to your serial device. If you are already familiar with your hardware and the cable it requires, you can safely skip this section. Cables There are several different kinds of serial cables. The two most common types for our purposes are null-modem cables and standard (straight) RS-232 cables. The documentation for your hardware should describe the type of cable required. Null-modem Cables null-modem cable A null-modem cable passes some signals, such as signal ground, straight through, but switches other signals. For example, the send data pin on one end goes to the receive data pin on the other end. If you like making your own cables, you can construct a null-modem cable for use with terminals. This table shows the RS-232C signal names and the pin numbers on a DB-25 connector. Signal Pin # Pin # Signal SG 7 connects to 7 SG TD 2 connects to 3 RD RD 3 connects to 2 TD RTS 4 connects to 5 CTS CTS 5 connects to 4 RTS DTR 20 connects to 6 DSR DCD 8 6 DSR DSR 6 connects to 20 DTR Connect Data Set Ready (DSR) and Data Carrier Detect (DCD) internally in the connector hood, and then to Data Terminal Ready (DTR) in the remote hood. Standard RS-232C Cables RS-232C cables A standard serial cable passes all the RS-232C signals straight-through. That is, the send data pin on one end of the cable goes to the send data pin on the other end. This is the type of cable to use to connect a modem to your FreeBSD system, and is also appropriate for some terminals. Ports Serial ports are the devices through which data is transferred between the FreeBSD host computer and the terminal. This section describes the kinds of ports that exist and how they are addressed in FreeBSD. Kinds of Ports Several kinds of serial ports exist. Before you purchase or construct a cable, you need to make sure it will fit the ports on your terminal and on the FreeBSD system. Most terminals will have DB25 ports. Personal computers, including PCs running FreeBSD, will have DB25 or DB9 ports. If you have a multiport serial card for your PC, you may have RJ-12 or RJ-45 ports. See the documentation that accompanied the hardware for specifications on the kind of port in use. A visual inspection of the port often works too. Port Names In FreeBSD, you access each serial port through an entry in the /dev directory. There are two different kinds of entries: Call-in ports are named /dev/ttydN where N is the port number, starting from zero. Generally, you use the call-in port for terminals. Call-in ports require that the serial line assert the data carrier detect (DCD) signal to work correctly. Call-out ports are named /dev/cuaaN. You usually do not use the call-out port for terminals, just for modems. You may use the call-out port if the serial cable or the terminal does not support the carrier detect signal. If you have connected a terminal to the first serial port (COM1 in &ms-dos;), then you will use /dev/ttyd0 to refer to the terminal. If the terminal is on the second serial port (also known as COM2), use /dev/ttyd1, and so forth. Kernel Configuration FreeBSD supports four serial ports by default. In the &ms-dos; world, these are known as COM1, COM2, COM3, and COM4. FreeBSD currently supports dumb multiport serial interface cards, such as the BocaBoard 1008 and 2016, as well as more intelligent multi-port cards such as those made by Digiboard and Stallion Technologies. However, the default kernel only looks for the standard COM ports. To see if your kernel recognizes any of your serial ports, watch for messages while the kernel is booting, or use the /sbin/dmesg command to replay the kernel's boot messages. In particular, look for messages that start with the characters sio. To view just the messages that have the word sio, use the command: &prompt.root; /sbin/dmesg | grep 'sio' For example, on a system with four serial ports, these are the serial-port specific kernel boot messages: sio0 at 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 on isa sio0: type 16550A sio1 at 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa sio1: type 16550A sio2 at 0x3e8-0x3ef irq 5 on isa sio2: type 16550A sio3 at 0x2e8-0x2ef irq 9 on isa sio3: type 16550A If your kernel does not recognize all of your serial ports, you will probably need to configure a custom FreeBSD kernel for your system. For detailed information on configuring your kernel, please see . The relevant device lines for your kernel configuration file would look like this, for FreeBSD 4.X: device sio0 at isa? port IO_COM1 irq 4 device sio1 at isa? port IO_COM2 irq 3 device sio2 at isa? port IO_COM3 irq 5 device sio3 at isa? port IO_COM4 irq 9 and like this, for FreeBSD 5.X: device sio You can comment-out or completely remove lines for devices you do not have in the case of FreeBSD 4.X; for FreeBSD 5.X you have to edit your /boot/device.hints file to configure your serial ports. Please refer to the &man.sio.4; manual page for more information on serial ports and multiport boards configuration. Be careful if you are using a configuration file that was previously used for a different version of FreeBSD because the device flags and the syntax have changed between versions. port IO_COM1 is a substitution for port 0x3f8, IO_COM2 is 0x2f8, IO_COM3 is 0x3e8, and IO_COM4 is 0x2e8, which are fairly common port addresses for their respective serial ports; interrupts 4, 3, 5, and 9 are fairly common interrupt request lines. Also note that regular serial ports cannot share interrupts on ISA-bus PCs (multiport boards have on-board electronics that allow all the 16550A's on the board to share one or two interrupt request lines). Device Special Files Most devices in the kernel are accessed through device special files, which are located in the /dev directory. The sio devices are accessed through the /dev/ttydN (dial-in) and /dev/cuaaN (call-out) devices. FreeBSD also provides initialization devices (/dev/ttyidN and /dev/cuaiaN) and locking devices (/dev/ttyldN and /dev/cualaN). The initialization devices are used to initialize communications port parameters each time a port is opened, such as crtscts for modems which use RTS/CTS signaling for flow control. The locking devices are used to lock flags on ports to prevent users or programs changing certain parameters; see the manual pages &man.termios.4;, &man.sio.4;, and &man.stty.1; for information on the terminal settings, locking and initializing devices, and setting terminal options, respectively. Making Device Special Files FreeBSD 5.0 includes the &man.devfs.5; filesystem which automatically creates device nodes as needed. If you are running a version of FreeBSD with devfs enabled then you can safely skip this section. A shell script called MAKEDEV in the /dev directory manages the device special files. To use MAKEDEV to make dial-up device special files for COM1 (port 0), cd to /dev and issue the command MAKEDEV ttyd0. Likewise, to make dial-up device special files for COM2 (port 1), use MAKEDEV ttyd1. MAKEDEV not only creates the - /dev/ttydN device + /dev/ttydN device special files, but also the - /dev/cuaaN, - /dev/cuaiaN, - /dev/cualaN, - /dev/ttyldN, + /dev/cuaaN, + /dev/cuaiaN, + /dev/cualaN, + /dev/ttyldN, and - /dev/ttyidN + /dev/ttyidN nodes. After making new device special files, be sure to check the permissions on the files (especially the /dev/cua* files) to make sure that only users who should have access to those device special files can read and write on them — you probably do not want to allow your average user to use your modems to dial-out. The default permissions on the /dev/cua* files should be sufficient: crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 129 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cuaa1 crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 161 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cuaia1 crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 193 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cuala1 These permissions allow the user uucp and users in the group dialer to use the call-out devices. Serial Port Configuration ttyd cuaa The ttydN (or cuaaN) device is the regular device you will want to open for your applications. When a process opens the device, it will have a default set of terminal I/O settings. You can see these settings with the command &prompt.root; stty -a -f /dev/ttyd1 When you change the settings to this device, the settings are in effect until the device is closed. When it is reopened, it goes back to the default set. To make changes to the default set, you can open and adjust the settings of the initial state device. For example, to turn on mode, 8 bit communication, and flow control by default for ttyd5, type: &prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyid5 clocal cs8 ixon ixoff rc files rc.serial System-wide initialization of the serial devices is controlled in /etc/rc.serial. This file affects the default settings of serial devices. To prevent certain settings from being changed by an application, make adjustments to the lock state device. For example, to lock the speed of ttyd5 to 57600 bps, type: &prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyld5 57600 Now, an application that opens ttyd5 and tries to change the speed of the port will be stuck with 57600 bps. MAKEDEV Naturally, you should make the initial state and lock state devices writable only by the root account. Sean Kelly Contributed by Terminals terminals Terminals provide a convenient and low-cost way to access your FreeBSD system when you are not at the computer's console or on a connected network. This section describes how to use terminals with FreeBSD. Uses and Types of Terminals The original &unix; systems did not have consoles. Instead, people logged in and ran programs through terminals that were connected to the computer's serial ports. It is quite similar to using a modem and terminal software to dial into a remote system to do text-only work. Today's PCs have consoles capable of high quality graphics, but the ability to establish a login session on a serial port still exists in nearly every &unix; style operating system today; FreeBSD is no exception. By using a terminal attached to an unused serial port, you can log in and run any text program that you would normally run on the console or in an xterm window in the X Window System. For the business user, you can attach many terminals to a FreeBSD system and place them on your employees' desktops. For a home user, a spare computer such as an older IBM PC or a &macintosh; can be a terminal wired into a more powerful computer running FreeBSD. You can turn what might otherwise be a single-user computer into a powerful multiple user system. For FreeBSD, there are three kinds of terminals: Dumb terminals PCs acting as terminals X terminals The remaining subsections describe each kind. Dumb Terminals Dumb terminals are specialized pieces of hardware that let you connect to computers over serial lines. They are called dumb because they have only enough computational power to display, send, and receive text. You cannot run any programs on them. It is the computer to which you connect them that has all the power to run text editors, compilers, email, games, and so forth. There are hundreds of kinds of dumb terminals made by many manufacturers, including Digital Equipment Corporation's VT-100 and Wyse's WY-75. Just about any kind will work with FreeBSD. Some high-end terminals can even display graphics, but only certain software packages can take advantage of these advanced features. Dumb terminals are popular in work environments where workers do not need access to graphical applications such as those provided by the X Window System. PCs Acting as Terminals If a dumb terminal has just enough ability to display, send, and receive text, then certainly any spare personal computer can be a dumb terminal. All you need is the proper cable and some terminal emulation software to run on the computer. Such a configuration is popular in homes. For example, if your spouse is busy working on your FreeBSD system's console, you can do some text-only work at the same time from a less powerful personal computer hooked up as a terminal to the FreeBSD system. X Terminals X terminals are the most sophisticated kind of terminal available. Instead of connecting to a serial port, they usually connect to a network like Ethernet. Instead of being relegated to text-only applications, they can display any X application. We introduce X terminals just for the sake of completeness. However, this chapter does not cover setup, configuration, or use of X terminals. Configuration This section describes what you need to configure on your FreeBSD system to enable a login session on a terminal. It assumes you have already configured your kernel to support the serial port to which the terminal is connected—and that you have connected it. Recall from that the init process is responsible for all process control and initialization at system startup. One of the tasks performed by init is to read the /etc/ttys file and start a getty process on the available terminals. The getty process is responsible for reading a login name and starting the login program. Thus, to configure terminals for your FreeBSD system the following steps should be taken as root: Add a line to /etc/ttys for the entry in the /dev directory for the serial port if it is not already there. Specify that /usr/libexec/getty be run on the port, and specify the appropriate getty type from the /etc/gettytab file. Specify the default terminal type. Set the port to on. Specify whether the port should be secure. Force init to reread the /etc/ttys file. As an optional step, you may wish to create a custom getty type for use in step 2 by making an entry in /etc/gettytab. This chapter does not explain how to do so; you are encouraged to see the &man.gettytab.5; and the &man.getty.8; manual pages for more information. Adding an Entry to <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> The /etc/ttys file lists all of the ports on your FreeBSD system where you want to allow logins. For example, the first virtual console ttyv0 has an entry in this file. You can log in on the console using this entry. This file also contains entries for the other virtual consoles, serial ports, and pseudo-ttys. For a hardwired terminal, just list the serial port's /dev entry without the /dev part (for example, - /dev/ttyv0 would be listed as + /dev/ttyv0 would be listed as ttyv0). A default FreeBSD install includes an /etc/ttys file with support for the first four serial ports: ttyd0 through ttyd3. If you are attaching a terminal to one of those ports, you do not need to add another entry. Adding Terminal Entries to <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> Suppose we would like to connect two terminals to the system: a Wyse-50 and an old 286 IBM PC running Procomm terminal software emulating a VT-100 terminal. We connect the Wyse to the second serial port and the 286 to the sixth serial port (a port on a multiport serial card). The corresponding entries in the /etc/ttys file would look like this: ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wy50 on insecure ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" vt100 on insecure The first field normally specifies the name of the terminal special file as it is found in /dev. The second field is the command to execute for this line, which is usually &man.getty.8;. getty initializes and opens the line, sets the speed, prompts for a user name and then executes the &man.login.1; program. The getty program accepts one (optional) parameter on its command line, the getty type. A getty type configures characteristics on the terminal line, like bps rate and parity. The getty program reads these characteristics from the file /etc/gettytab. The file /etc/gettytab contains lots of entries for terminal lines both old and new. In almost all cases, the entries that start with the text std will work for hardwired terminals. These entries ignore parity. There is a std entry for each bps rate from 110 to 115200. Of course, you can add your own entries to this file. The &man.gettytab.5; manual page provides more information. When setting the getty type in the /etc/ttys file, make sure that the communications settings on the terminal match. For our example, the Wyse-50 uses no parity and connects at 38400 bps. The 286 PC uses no parity and connects at 19200 bps. The third field is the type of terminal usually connected to that tty line. For dial-up ports, unknown or dialup is typically used in this field since users may dial up with practically any type of terminal or software. For hardwired terminals, the terminal type does not change, so you can put a real terminal type from the &man.termcap.5; database file in this field. For our example, the Wyse-50 uses the real terminal type while the 286 PC running Procomm will be set to emulate at VT-100. The fourth field specifies if the port should be enabled. Putting on here will have the init process start the program in the second field, getty. If you put off in this field, there will be no getty, and hence no logins on the port. The final field is used to specify whether the port is secure. Marking a port as secure means that you trust it enough to allow the root account (or any account with a user ID of 0) to login from that port. Insecure ports do not allow root logins. On an insecure port, users must login from unprivileged accounts and then use &man.su.1; or a similar mechanism to gain superuser privileges. It is highly recommended that you use insecure even for terminals that are behind locked doors. It is quite easy to login and use su if you need superuser privileges. Force <command>init</command> to Reread <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> After making the necessary changes to the /etc/ttys file you should send a SIGHUP (hangup) signal to the init process to force it to re-read its configuration file. For example: &prompt.root; kill -HUP 1 init is always the first process run on a system, therefore it will always have PID 1. If everything is set up correctly, all cables are in place, and the terminals are powered up, then a getty process should be running on each terminal and you should see login prompts on your terminals at this point. Troubleshooting Your Connection Even with the most meticulous attention to detail, something could still go wrong while setting up a terminal. Here is a list of symptoms and some suggested fixes. No Login Prompt Appears Make sure the terminal is plugged in and powered up. If it is a personal computer acting as a terminal, make sure it is running terminal emulation software on the correct serial port. Make sure the cable is connected firmly to both the terminal and the FreeBSD computer. Make sure it is the right kind of cable. Make sure the terminal and FreeBSD agree on the bps rate and parity settings. If you have a video display terminal, make sure the contrast and brightness controls are turned up. If it is a printing terminal, make sure paper and ink are in good supply. Make sure that a getty process is running and serving the terminal. For example, to get a list of running getty processes with ps, type: &prompt.root; ps -axww|grep getty You should see an entry for the terminal. For example, the following display shows that a getty is running on the second serial port ttyd1 and is using the std.38400 entry in /etc/gettytab: 22189 d1 Is+ 0:00.03 /usr/libexec/getty std.38400 ttyd1 If no getty process is running, make sure you have enabled the port in /etc/ttys. Also remember to run kill -HUP 1 after modifying the ttys file. If the getty process is running but the terminal still does not display a login prompt, or if it displays a prompt but will not allow you to type, your terminal or cable may not support hardware handshaking. Try changing the entry in /etc/ttys from std.38400 to 3wire.38400 remember to run kill -HUP 1 after modifying /etc/ttys). The 3wire entry is similar to std, but ignores hardware handshaking. You may need to reduce the baud rate or enable software flow control when using 3wire to prevent buffer overflows. If Garbage Appears Instead of a Login Prompt Make sure the terminal and FreeBSD agree on the bps rate and parity settings. Check the getty processes to make sure the correct getty type is in use. If not, edit /etc/ttys and run kill -HUP 1. Characters Appear Doubled; the Password Appears When Typed Switch the terminal (or the terminal emulation software) from half duplex or local echo to full duplex. Guy Helmer Contributed by Sean Kelly Additions by Dial-in Service dial-in service Configuring your FreeBSD system for dial-in service is very similar to connecting terminals except that you are dealing with modems instead of terminals. External vs. Internal Modems External modems seem to be more convenient for dial-up, because external modems often can be semi-permanently configured via parameters stored in non-volatile RAM and they usually provide lighted indicators that display the state of important RS-232 signals. Blinking lights impress visitors, but lights are also very useful to see whether a modem is operating properly. Internal modems usually lack non-volatile RAM, so their configuration may be limited only to setting DIP switches. If your internal modem has any signal indicator lights, it is probably difficult to view the lights when the system's cover is in place. Modems and Cables modem If you are using an external modem, then you will of course need the proper cable. A standard RS-232C serial cable should suffice as long as all of the normal signals are wired: Transmitted Data (TD) Received Data (RD) Request to Send (RTS) Clear to Send (CTS) Data Set Ready (DSR) Data Terminal Ready (DTR) Carrier Detect (CD) Signal Ground (SG) FreeBSD needs the RTS and CTS signals for flow-control at speeds above 2400 bps, the CD signal to detect when a call has been answered or the line has been hung up, and the DTR signal to reset the modem after a session is complete. Some cables are wired without all of the needed signals, so if you have problems, such as a login session not going away when the line hangs up, you may have a problem with your cable. Like other &unix; like operating systems, FreeBSD uses the hardware signals to find out when a call has been answered or a line has been hung up and to hangup and reset the modem after a call. FreeBSD avoids sending commands to the modem or watching for status reports from the modem. If you are familiar with connecting modems to PC-based bulletin board systems, this may seem awkward. Serial Interface Considerations FreeBSD supports NS8250-, NS16450-, NS16550-, and NS16550A-based EIA RS-232C (CCITT V.24) communications interfaces. The 8250 and 16450 devices have single-character buffers. The 16550 device provides a 16-character buffer, which allows for better system performance. (Bugs in plain 16550's prevent the use of the 16-character buffer, so use 16550A's if possible). Because single-character-buffer devices require more work by the operating system than the 16-character-buffer devices, 16550A-based serial interface cards are much preferred. If the system has many active serial ports or will have a heavy load, 16550A-based cards are better for low-error-rate communications. Quick Overview getty As with terminals, init spawns a getty process for each configured serial port for dial-in connections. For example, if a modem is attached to /dev/ttyd0, the command ps ax might show this: 4850 ?? I 0:00.09 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0 When a user dials the modem's line and the modems connect, the CD (Carrier Detect) line is reported by the modem. The kernel notices that carrier has been detected and completes getty's open of the port. getty sends a login: prompt at the specified initial line speed. getty watches to see if legitimate characters are received, and, in a typical configuration, if it finds junk (probably due to the modem's connection speed being different than getty's speed), getty tries adjusting the line speeds until it receives reasonable characters. /usr/bin/login After the user enters his/her login name, getty executes /usr/bin/login, which completes the login by asking for the user's password and then starting the user's shell. Configuration Files There are three system configuration files in the /etc directory that you will probably need to edit to allow dial-up access to your FreeBSD system. The first, /etc/gettytab, contains configuration information for the /usr/libexec/getty daemon. Second, /etc/ttys holds information that tells /sbin/init what tty devices should have getty processes running on them. Lastly, you can place port initialization commands in the /etc/rc.serial script. There are two schools of thought regarding dial-up modems on &unix;. One group likes to configure their modems and systems so that no matter at what speed a remote user dials in, the local computer-to-modem RS-232 interface runs at a locked speed. The benefit of this configuration is that the remote user always sees a system login prompt immediately. The downside is that the system does not know what a user's true data rate is, so full-screen programs like Emacs will not adjust their screen-painting methods to make their response better for slower connections. The other school configures their modems' RS-232 interface to vary its speed based on the remote user's connection speed. For example, V.32bis (14.4 Kbps) connections to the modem might make the modem run its RS-232 interface at 19.2 Kbps, while 2400 bps connections make the modem's RS-232 interface run at 2400 bps. Because getty does not understand any particular modem's connection speed reporting, getty gives a login: message at an initial speed and watches the characters that come back in response. If the user sees junk, it is assumed that they know they should press the Enter key until they see a recognizable prompt. If the data rates do not match, getty sees anything the user types as junk, tries going to the next speed and gives the login: prompt again. This procedure can continue ad nauseam, but normally only takes a keystroke or two before the user sees a good prompt. Obviously, this login sequence does not look as clean as the former locked-speed method, but a user on a low-speed connection should receive better interactive response from full-screen programs. This section will try to give balanced configuration information, but is biased towards having the modem's data rate follow the connection rate. <filename>/etc/gettytab</filename> /etc/gettytab /etc/gettytab is a &man.termcap.5;-style file of configuration information for &man.getty.8;. Please see the &man.gettytab.5; manual page for complete information on the format of the file and the list of capabilities. Locked-speed Config If you are locking your modem's data communications rate at a particular speed, you probably will not need to make any changes to /etc/gettytab. Matching-speed Config You will need to set up an entry in /etc/gettytab to give getty information about the speeds you wish to use for your modem. If you have a 2400 bps modem, you can probably use the existing D2400 entry. # # Fast dialup terminals, 2400/1200/300 rotary (can start either way) # D2400|d2400|Fast-Dial-2400:\ :nx=D1200:tc=2400-baud: 3|D1200|Fast-Dial-1200:\ :nx=D300:tc=1200-baud: 5|D300|Fast-Dial-300:\ :nx=D2400:tc=300-baud: If you have a higher speed modem, you will probably need to add an entry in /etc/gettytab; here is an entry you could use for a 14.4 Kbps modem with a top interface speed of 19.2 Kbps: # # Additions for a V.32bis Modem # um|V300|High Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\ :nx=V19200:tc=std.300: un|V1200|High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\ :nx=V300:tc=std.1200: uo|V2400|High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\ :nx=V1200:tc=std.2400: up|V9600|High Speed Modem at 9600,8-bit:\ :nx=V2400:tc=std.9600: uq|V19200|High Speed Modem at 19200,8-bit:\ :nx=V9600:tc=std.19200: This will result in 8-bit, no parity connections. The example above starts the communications rate at 19.2 Kbps (for a V.32bis connection), then cycles through 9600 bps (for V.32), 2400 bps, 1200 bps, 300 bps, and back to 19.2 Kbps. Communications rate cycling is implemented with the nx= (next table) capability. Each of the lines uses a tc= (table continuation) entry to pick up the rest of the standard settings for a particular data rate. If you have a 28.8 Kbps modem and/or you want to take advantage of compression on a 14.4 Kbps modem, you need to use a higher communications rate than 19.2 Kbps. Here is an example of a gettytab entry starting a 57.6 Kbps: # # Additions for a V.32bis or V.34 Modem # Starting at 57.6 Kbps # vm|VH300|Very High Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\ :nx=VH57600:tc=std.300: vn|VH1200|Very High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\ :nx=VH300:tc=std.1200: vo|VH2400|Very High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\ :nx=VH1200:tc=std.2400: vp|VH9600|Very High Speed Modem at 9600,8-bit:\ :nx=VH2400:tc=std.9600: vq|VH57600|Very High Speed Modem at 57600,8-bit:\ :nx=VH9600:tc=std.57600: If you have a slow CPU or a heavily loaded system and do not have 16550A-based serial ports, you may receive sio silo errors at 57.6 Kbps. <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> /etc/ttys Configuration of the /etc/ttys file was covered in . Configuration for modems is similar but we must pass a different argument to getty and specify a different terminal type. The general format for both locked-speed and matching-speed configurations is: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty xxx" dialup on The first item in the above line is the device special file for this entry — ttyd0 means /dev/ttyd0 is the file that this getty will be watching. The second item, "/usr/libexec/getty xxx" (xxx will be replaced by the initial gettytab capability) is the process init will run on the device. The third item, dialup, is the default terminal type. The fourth parameter, on, indicates to init that the line is operational. There can be a fifth parameter, secure, but it should only be used for terminals which are physically secure (such as the system console). The default terminal type (dialup in the example above) may depend on local preferences. dialup is the traditional default terminal type on dial-up lines so that users may customize their login scripts to notice when the terminal is dialup and automatically adjust their terminal type. However, the author finds it easier at his site to specify vt102 as the default terminal type, since the users just use VT102 emulation on their remote systems. After you have made changes to /etc/ttys, you may send the init process a HUP signal to re-read the file. You can use the command &prompt.root; kill -HUP 1 to send the signal. If this is your first time setting up the system, you may want to wait until your modem(s) are properly configured and connected before signaling init. Locked-speed Config For a locked-speed configuration, your ttys entry needs to have a fixed-speed entry provided to getty. For a modem whose port speed is locked at 19.2 Kbps, the ttys entry might look like this: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" dialup on If your modem is locked at a different data rate, substitute the appropriate value for std.speed instead of std.19200. Make sure that you use a valid type listed in /etc/gettytab. Matching-speed Config In a matching-speed configuration, your ttys entry needs to reference the appropriate beginning auto-baud (sic) entry in /etc/gettytab. For example, if you added the above suggested entry for a matching-speed modem that starts at 19.2 Kbps (the gettytab entry containing the V19200 starting point), your ttys entry might look like this: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty V19200" dialup on <filename>/etc/rc.serial</filename> rc files rc.serial High-speed modems, like V.32, V.32bis, and V.34 modems, need to use hardware (RTS/CTS) flow control. You can add stty commands to /etc/rc.serial to set the hardware flow control flag in the FreeBSD kernel for the modem ports. For example to set the termios flag crtscts on serial port #1's (COM2) dial-in and dial-out initialization devices, the following lines could be added to /etc/rc.serial: # Serial port initial configuration stty -f /dev/ttyid1 crtscts stty -f /dev/cuaia1 crtscts Modem Settings If you have a modem whose parameters may be permanently set in non-volatile RAM, you will need to use a terminal program (such as Telix under &ms-dos; or tip under FreeBSD) to set the parameters. Connect to the modem using the same communications speed as the initial speed getty will use and configure the modem's non-volatile RAM to match these requirements: CD asserted when connected DTR asserted for operation; dropping DTR hangs up line and resets modem CTS transmitted data flow control Disable XON/XOFF flow control RTS received data flow control Quiet mode (no result codes) No command echo Please read the documentation for your modem to find out what commands and/or DIP switch settings you need to give it. For example, to set the above parameters on a &usrobotics; &sportster; 14,400 external modem, one could give these commands to the modem: ATZ AT&C1&D2&H1&I0&R2&W You might also want to take this opportunity to adjust other settings in the modem, such as whether it will use V.42bis and/or MNP5 compression. The &usrobotics; &sportster; 14,400 external modem also has some DIP switches that need to be set; for other modems, perhaps you can use these settings as an example: Switch 1: UP — DTR Normal Switch 2: N/A (Verbal Result Codes/Numeric Result Codes) Switch 3: UP — Suppress Result Codes Switch 4: DOWN — No echo, offline commands Switch 5: UP — Auto Answer Switch 6: UP — Carrier Detect Normal Switch 7: UP — Load NVRAM Defaults Switch 8: N/A (Smart Mode/Dumb Mode) Result codes should be disabled/suppressed for dial-up modems to avoid problems that can occur if getty mistakenly gives a login: prompt to a modem that is in command mode and the modem echoes the command or returns a result code. This sequence can result in a extended, silly conversation between getty and the modem. Locked-speed Config For a locked-speed configuration, you will need to configure the modem to maintain a constant modem-to-computer data rate independent of the communications rate. On a &usrobotics; &sportster; 14,400 external modem, these commands will lock the modem-to-computer data rate at the speed used to issue the commands: ATZ AT&B1&W Matching-speed Config For a variable-speed configuration, you will need to configure your modem to adjust its serial port data rate to match the incoming call rate. On a &usrobotics; &sportster; 14,400 external modem, these commands will lock the modem's error-corrected data rate to the speed used to issue the commands, but allow the serial port rate to vary for non-error-corrected connections: ATZ AT&B2&W Checking the Modem's Configuration Most high-speed modems provide commands to view the modem's current operating parameters in a somewhat human-readable fashion. On the &usrobotics; &sportster; 14,400 external modems, the command ATI5 displays the settings that are stored in the non-volatile RAM. To see the true operating parameters of the modem (as influenced by the modem's DIP switch settings), use the commands ATZ and then ATI4. If you have a different brand of modem, check your modem's manual to see how to double-check your modem's configuration parameters. Troubleshooting Here are a few steps you can follow to check out the dial-up modem on your system. Checking Out the FreeBSD System Hook up your modem to your FreeBSD system, boot the system, and, if your modem has status indication lights, watch to see whether the modem's DTR indicator lights when the login: prompt appears on the system's console — if it lights up, that should mean that FreeBSD has started a getty process on the appropriate communications port and is waiting for the modem to accept a call. If the DTR indicator does not light, login to the FreeBSD system through the console and issue a ps ax to see if FreeBSD is trying to run a getty process on the correct port. You should see lines like these among the processes displayed: 114 ?? I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0 115 ?? I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd1 If you see something different, like this: 114 d0 I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0 and the modem has not accepted a call yet, this means that getty has completed its open on the communications port. This could indicate a problem with the cabling or a mis-configured modem, because getty should not be able to open the communications port until CD (carrier detect) has been asserted by the modem. If you do not see any getty processes waiting to open the desired ttydN port, double-check your entries in /etc/ttys to see if there are any mistakes there. Also, check the log file /var/log/messages to see if there are any log messages from init or getty regarding any problems. If there are any messages, triple-check the configuration files /etc/ttys and /etc/gettytab, as well as the appropriate device special files /dev/ttydN, for any mistakes, missing entries, or missing device special files. Try Dialing In Try dialing into the system; be sure to use 8 bits, no parity, and 1 stop bit on the remote system. If you do not get a prompt right away, or get garbage, try pressing Enter about once per second. If you still do not see a login: prompt after a while, try sending a BREAK. If you are using a high-speed modem to do the dialing, try dialing again after locking the dialing modem's interface speed (via AT&B1 on a &usrobotics; &sportster; modem, for example). If you still cannot get a login: prompt, check /etc/gettytab again and double-check that The initial capability name specified in /etc/ttys for the line matches a name of a capability in /etc/gettytab Each nx= entry matches another gettytab capability name Each tc= entry matches another gettytab capability name If you dial but the modem on the FreeBSD system will not answer, make sure that the modem is configured to answer the phone when DTR is asserted. If the modem seems to be configured correctly, verify that the DTR line is asserted by checking the modem's indicator lights (if it has any). If you have gone over everything several times and it still does not work, take a break and come back to it later. If it still does not work, perhaps you can send an electronic mail message to the &a.questions; describing your modem and your problem, and the good folks on the list will try to help. Dial-out Service dial-out service The following are tips for getting your host to be able to connect over the modem to another computer. This is appropriate for establishing a terminal session with a remote host. This is useful to log onto a BBS. This kind of connection can be extremely helpful to get a file on the Internet if you have problems with PPP. If you need to FTP something and PPP is broken, use the terminal session to FTP it. Then use zmodem to transfer it to your machine. My Stock Hayes Modem Is Not Supported, What Can I Do? Actually, the manual page for tip is out of date. There is a generic Hayes dialer already built in. Just use at=hayes in your /etc/remote file. The Hayes driver is not smart enough to recognize some of the advanced features of newer modems—messages like BUSY, NO DIALTONE, or CONNECT 115200 will just confuse it. You should turn those messages off when you use tip (using ATX0&W). Also, the dial timeout for tip is 60 seconds. Your modem should use something less, or else tip will think there is a communication problem. Try ATS7=45&W. As shipped, tip does not yet support Hayes modems fully. The solution is to edit the file tipconf.h in the directory /usr/src/usr.bin/tip/tip. Obviously you need the source distribution to do this. Edit the line #define HAYES 0 to #define HAYES 1. Then make and make install. Everything works nicely after that. How Am I Expected to Enter These AT Commands? /etc/remote Make what is called a direct entry in your /etc/remote file. For example, if your modem is hooked up to the first serial port, /dev/cuaa0, then put in the following line: cuaa0:dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#19200:pa=none Use the highest bps rate your modem supports in the br capability. Then, type tip cuaa0 and you will be connected to your modem. If there is no /dev/cuaa0 on your system, do this: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV cuaa0 Or use cu as root with the following command: &prompt.root; cu -lline -sspeed line is the serial port (e.g./dev/cuaa0) and speed is the speed (e.g.57600). When you are done entering the AT commands hit ~. to exit. The <literal>@</literal> Sign for the pn Capability Does Not Work! The @ sign in the phone number capability tells tip to look in /etc/phones for a phone number. But the @ sign is also a special character in capability files like /etc/remote. Escape it with a backslash: pn=\@ How Can I Dial a Phone Number on the Command Line? Put what is called a generic entry in your /etc/remote file. For example: tip115200|Dial any phone number at 115200 bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#115200:at=hayes:pa=none:du: tip57600|Dial any phone number at 57600 bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du: Then you can do things like: &prompt.root; tip -115200 5551234 If you prefer cu over tip, use a generic cu entry: cu115200|Use cu to dial any number at 115200bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa1:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du: and type: &prompt.root; cu 5551234 -s 115200 Do I Have to Type in the bps Rate Every Time I Do That? Put in an entry for tip1200 or cu1200, but go ahead and use whatever bps rate is appropriate with the br capability. tip thinks a good default is 1200 bps which is why it looks for a tip1200 entry. You do not have to use 1200 bps, though. I Access a Number of Hosts Through a Terminal Server Rather than waiting until you are connected and typing CONNECT <host> each time, use tip's cm capability. For example, these entries in /etc/remote: pain|pain.deep13.com|Forrester's machine:\ :cm=CONNECT pain\n:tc=deep13: muffin|muffin.deep13.com|Frank's machine:\ :cm=CONNECT muffin\n:tc=deep13: deep13:Gizmonics Institute terminal server:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa2:br#38400:at=hayes:du:pa=none:pn=5551234: will let you type tip pain or tip muffin to connect to the hosts pain or muffin, and tip deep13 to get to the terminal server. Can Tip Try More Than One Line for Each Site? This is often a problem where a university has several modem lines and several thousand students trying to use them. Make an entry for your university in /etc/remote and use @ for the pn capability: big-university:\ :pn=\@:tc=dialout dialout:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa3:br#9600:at=courier:du:pa=none: Then, list the phone numbers for the university in /etc/phones: big-university 5551111 big-university 5551112 big-university 5551113 big-university 5551114 tip will try each one in the listed order, then give up. If you want to keep retrying, run tip in a while loop. Why Do I Have to Hit <keycombo action="simul"> <keycap>Ctrl</keycap> <keycap>P</keycap> </keycombo> Twice to Send <keycombo action="simul"> <keycap>Ctrl</keycap> <keycap>P</keycap> </keycombo> Once? CtrlP is the default force character, used to tell tip that the next character is literal data. You can set the force character to any other character with the ~s escape, which means set a variable. Type ~sforce=single-char followed by a newline. single-char is any single character. If you leave out single-char, then the force character is the nul character, which you can get by typing Ctrl2 or CtrlSpace . A pretty good value for single-char is Shift Ctrl 6 , which is only used on some terminal servers. You can have the force character be whatever you want by specifying the following in your $HOME/.tiprc file: force=<single-char> Suddenly Everything I Type Is in Upper Case?? You must have pressed Ctrl A , tip's raise character, specially designed for people with broken caps-lock keys. Use ~s as above and set the variable raisechar to something reasonable. In fact, you can set it to the same as the force character, if you never expect to use either of these features. Here is a sample .tiprc file perfect for Emacs users who need to type Ctrl2 and CtrlA a lot: force=^^ raisechar=^^ The ^^ is ShiftCtrl6 . How Can I Do File Transfers with <command>tip</command>? If you are talking to another &unix; system, you can send and receive files with ~p (put) and ~t (take). These commands run cat and echo on the remote system to accept and send files. The syntax is: ~p local-file remote-file ~t remote-file local-file There is no error checking, so you probably should use another protocol, like zmodem. How Can I Run zmodem with <command>tip</command>? To receive files, start the sending program on the remote end. Then, type ~C rz to begin receiving them locally. To send files, start the receiving program on the remote end. Then, type ~C sz files to send them to the remote system. Kazutaka YOKOTA Contributed by Bill Paul Based on a document by Setting Up the Serial Console serial console Introduction FreeBSD has the ability to boot on a system with only a dumb terminal on a serial port as a console. Such a configuration should be useful for two classes of people: system administrators who wish to install FreeBSD on machines that have no keyboard or monitor attached, and developers who want to debug the kernel or device drivers. As described in , FreeBSD employs a three stage bootstrap. The first two stages are in the boot block code which is stored at the beginning of the FreeBSD slice on the boot disk. The boot block will then load and run the boot loader (/boot/loader) as the third stage code. In order to set up the serial console you must configure the boot block code, the boot loader code and the kernel. Serial Console Configuration, Terse Version This section assumes that you are using the default setup, know how to connect serial ports and just want a fast overview of a serial console. If you encounter difficulty with these steps, please see the more extensive explanation of all the options and advanced settings in . Connect the serial port. The serial console will be on COM1. echo -h > /boot.config to enable the serial console for the boot loader and kernel. Edit /etc/ttys and change off to on for the ttyd0 entry. This enables a login prompt on the serial console, which mirrors how video consoles are typically setup. shutdown -r now will reboot the system with the serial console. Serial Console Configuration Prepare a serial cable. null-modem cable You will need either a null-modem cable or a standard serial cable and a null-modem adapter. See for a discussion on serial cables. Unplug your keyboard. Most PC systems probe for the keyboard during the Power-On Self-Test (POST) and will generate an error if the keyboard is not detected. Some machines complain loudly about the lack of a keyboard and will not continue to boot until it is plugged in. If your computer complains about the error, but boots anyway, then you do not have to do anything special. (Some machines with Phoenix BIOS installed merely say Keyboard failed and continue to boot normally.) If your computer refuses to boot without a keyboard attached then you will have to configure the BIOS so that it ignores this error (if it can). Consult your motherboard's manual for details on how to do this. Setting the keyboard to Not installed in the BIOS setup does not mean that you will not be able to use your keyboard. All this does is tell the BIOS not to probe for a keyboard at power-on, so it will not complain if the keyboard is not plugged in. You can leave the keyboard plugged in even with this flag set to Not installed and the keyboard will still work. If your system has a &ps2; mouse, chances are very good that you may have to unplug your mouse as well as your keyboard. This is because &ps2; mice share some hardware with the keyboard and leaving the mouse plugged in can fool the keyboard probe into thinking the keyboard is still there. It is said that a Gateway 2000 Pentium 90 MHz system with an AMI BIOS that behaves this way. In general, this is not a problem since the mouse is not much good without the keyboard anyway. Plug a dumb terminal into COM1 (sio0). If you do not have a dumb terminal, you can use an old PC/XT with a modem program, or the serial port on another &unix; box. If you do not have a COM1 (sio0), get one. At this time, there is no way to select a port other than COM1 for the boot blocks without recompiling the boot blocks. If you are already using COM1 for another device, you will have to temporarily remove that device and install a new boot block and kernel once you get FreeBSD up and running. (It is assumed that COM1 will be available on a file/compute/terminal server anyway; if you really need COM1 for something else (and you cannot switch that something else to COM2 (sio1)), then you probably should not even be bothering with all this in the first place.) Make sure the configuration file of your kernel has appropriate flags set for COM1 (sio0). Relevant flags are: 0x10 Enables console support for this unit. The other console flags are ignored unless this is set. Currently, at most one unit can have console support; the first one (in config file order) with this flag set is preferred. This option alone will not make the serial port the console. Set the following flag or use the option described below, together with this flag. 0x20 Forces this unit to be the console (unless there is another higher priority console), regardless of the option discussed below. This flag replaces the COMCONSOLE option in FreeBSD versions 2.X. The flag 0x20 must be used together with the flag. 0x40 Reserves this unit (in conjunction with 0x10) and makes the unit unavailable for normal access. You should not set this flag to the serial port unit which you want to use as the serial console. The only use of this flag is to designate the unit for kernel remote debugging. See The Developer's Handbook for more information on remote debugging. In FreeBSD 4.0 or later the semantics of the flag 0x40 are slightly different and there is another flag to specify a serial port for remote debugging. Example: device sio0 at isa? port IO_COM1 flags 0x10 irq 4 See the &man.sio.4; manual page for more details. If the flags were not set, you need to run UserConfig (on a different console) or recompile the kernel. Create boot.config in the root directory of the a partition on the boot drive. This file will instruct the boot block code how you would like to boot the system. In order to activate the serial console, you need one or more of the following options—if you want multiple options, include them all on the same line: Toggles internal and serial consoles. You can use this to switch console devices. For instance, if you boot from the internal (video) console, you can use to direct the boot loader and the kernel to use the serial port as its console device. Alternatively, if you boot from the serial port, you can use the to tell the boot loader and the kernel to use the video display as the console instead. Toggles single and dual console configurations. In the single configuration the console will be either the internal console (video display) or the serial port, depending on the state of the option above. In the dual console configuration, both the video display and the serial port will become the console at the same time, regardless of the state of the option. However, note that the dual console configuration takes effect only during the boot block is running. Once the boot loader gets control, the console specified by the option becomes the only console. Makes the boot block probe the keyboard. If no keyboard is found, the and options are automatically set. Due to space constraints in the current version of the boot blocks, the option is capable of detecting extended keyboards only. Keyboards with less than 101 keys (and without F11 and F12 keys) may not be detected. Keyboards on some laptop computers may not be properly found because of this limitation. If this is the case with your system, you have to abandon using the option. Unfortunately there is no workaround for this problem. Use either the option to select the console automatically, or the option to activate the serial console. You may include other options described in &man.boot.8; as well. The options, except for , will be passed to the boot loader (/boot/loader). The boot loader will determine which of the internal video or the serial port should become the console by examining the state of the option alone. This means that if you specify the option but not the option in /boot.config, you can use the serial port as the console only during the boot block; the boot loader will use the internal video display as the console. Boot the machine. When you start your FreeBSD box, the boot blocks will echo the contents of /boot.config to the console. For example: /boot.config: -P Keyboard: no The second line appears only if you put in /boot.config and indicates presence/absence of the keyboard. These messages go to either serial or internal console, or both, depending on the option in /boot.config. Options Message goes to none internal console serial console serial and internal consoles serial and internal consoles , keyboard present internal console , keyboard absent serial console After the above messages, there will be a small pause before the boot blocks continue loading the boot loader and before any further messages printed to the console. Under normal circumstances, you do not need to interrupt the boot blocks, but you may want to do so in order to make sure things are set up correctly. Hit any key, other than Enter, at the console to interrupt the boot process. The boot blocks will then prompt you for further action. You should now see something like: >> FreeBSD/i386 BOOT Default: 0:ad(0,a)/boot/loader boot: Verify the above message appears on either the serial or internal console or both, according to the options you put in /boot.config. If the message appears in the correct console, hit Enter to continue the boot process. If you want the serial console but you do not see the prompt on the serial terminal, something is wrong with your settings. In the meantime, you enter and hit Enter/Return (if possible) to tell the boot block (and then the boot loader and the kernel) to choose the serial port for the console. Once the system is up, go back and check what went wrong. After the boot loader is loaded and you are in the third stage of the boot process you can still switch between the internal console and the serial console by setting appropriate environment variables in the boot loader. See . Summary Here is the summary of various settings discussed in this section and the console eventually selected. Case 1: You Set the Flags to 0x10 for <devicename>sio0</devicename> device sio0 at isa? port IO_COM1 flags 0x10 irq 4 Options in /boot.config Console during boot blocks Console during boot loader Console in kernel nothing internal internal internal serial serial serial serial and internal internal internal serial and internal serial serial , keyboard present internal internal internal , keyboard absent serial and internal serial serial Case 2: You Set the Flags to 0x30 for sio0 device sio0 at isa? port IO_COM1 flags 0x30 irq 4 Options in /boot.config Console during boot blocks Console during boot loader Console in kernel nothing internal internal serial serial serial serial serial and internal internal serial serial and internal serial serial , keyboard present internal internal serial , keyboard absent serial and internal serial serial Tips for the Serial Console Setting a Faster Serial Port Speed By default, the serial port settings are: 9600 baud, 8 bits, no parity, and 1 stop bit. If you wish to change the speed, you need to recompile at least the boot blocks. Add the following line to /etc/make.conf and compile new boot blocks: BOOT_COMCONSOLE_SPEED=19200 See for detailed instructions about building and installing new boot blocks. If the serial console is configured in some other way than by booting with , or if the serial console used by the kernel is different from the one used by the boot blocks, then you must also add the following option to the kernel configuration file and compile a new kernel: options CONSPEED=19200 Using Serial Port Other Than <devicename>sio0</devicename> for the Console Using a port other than sio0 as the console requires some recompiling. If you want to use another serial port for whatever reasons, recompile the boot blocks, the boot loader and the kernel as follows. Get the kernel source. (See ) Edit /etc/make.conf and set BOOT_COMCONSOLE_PORT to the address of the port you want to use (0x3F8, 0x2F8, 0x3E8 or 0x2E8). Only sio0 through sio3 (COM1 through COM4) can be used; multiport serial cards will not work. No interrupt setting is needed. Create a custom kernel configuration file and add appropriate flags for the serial port you want to use. For example, if you want to make sio1 (COM2) the console: device sio1 at isa? port IO_COM2 flags 0x10 irq 3 or device sio1 at isa? port IO_COM2 flags 0x30 irq 3 The console flags for the other serial ports should not be set. Recompile and install the boot blocks and the boot loader: &prompt.root; cd /sys/boot &prompt.root; make &prompt.root; make install Rebuild and install the kernel. Write the boot blocks to the boot disk with &man.disklabel.8; and boot from the new kernel. Entering the DDB Debugger from the Serial Line If you wish to drop into the kernel debugger from the serial console (useful for remote diagnostics, but also dangerous if you generate a spurious BREAK on the serial port!) then you should compile your kernel with the following options: options BREAK_TO_DEBUGGER options DDB Getting a Login Prompt on the Serial Console While this is not required, you may wish to get a login prompt over the serial line, now that you can see boot messages and can enter the kernel debugging session through the serial console. Here is how to do it. Open the file /etc/ttys with an editor and locate the lines: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd2 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd3 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd0 through ttyd3 corresponds to COM1 through COM4. Change off to on for the desired port. If you have changed the speed of the serial port, you need to change std.9600 to match the current setting, e.g. std.19200. You may also want to change the terminal type from unknown to the actual type of your serial terminal. After editing the file, you must kill -HUP 1 to make this change take effect. Changing Console from the Boot Loader Previous sections described how to set up the serial console by tweaking the boot block. This section shows that you can specify the console by entering some commands and environment variables in the boot loader. As the boot loader is invoked at the third stage of the boot process, after the boot block, the settings in the boot loader will override the settings in the boot block. Setting Up the Serial Console You can easily specify the boot loader and the kernel to use the serial console by writing just one line in /boot/loader.rc: set console=comconsole This will take effect regardless of the settings in the boot block discussed in the previous section. You had better put the above line as the first line of /boot/loader.rc so as to see boot messages on the serial console as early as possible. Likewise, you can specify the internal console as: set console=vidconsole If you do not set the boot loader environment variable console, the boot loader, and subsequently the kernel, will use whichever console indicated by the option in the boot block. In versions 3.2 or later, you may specify the console in /boot/loader.conf.local or /boot/loader.conf, rather than in /boot/loader.rc. In this method your /boot/loader.rc should look like: include /boot/loader.4th start Then, create /boot/loader.conf.local and put the following line there. console=comconsole or console=vidconsole See &man.loader.conf.5; for more information. At the moment, the boot loader has no option equivalent to the option in the boot block, and there is no provision to automatically select the internal console and the serial console based on the presence of the keyboard. Using a Serial Port Other Than <devicename>sio0</devicename> for the Console You need to recompile the boot loader to use a serial port other than sio0 for the serial console. Follow the procedure described in . Caveats The idea here is to allow people to set up dedicated servers that require no graphics hardware or attached keyboards. Unfortunately, while most systems will let you boot without a keyboard, there are quite a few that will not let you boot without a graphics adapter. Machines with AMI BIOSes can be configured to boot with no graphics adapter installed simply by changing the graphics adapter setting in the CMOS configuration to Not installed. However, many machines do not support this option and will refuse to boot if you have no display hardware in the system. With these machines, you will have to leave some kind of graphics card plugged in, (even if it is just a junky mono board) although you will not have to attach a monitor. You might also try installing an AMI BIOS. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/vinum/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/vinum/chapter.sgml index f7ecc4c83f..e8a1293ca8 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/vinum/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/vinum/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1470 +1,1470 @@ Greg Lehey Originally written by The Vinum Volume Manager Synopsis No matter what disks you have, there are always potential problems: They can be too small. They can be too slow. They can be too unreliable. One way some users safeguard themselves against such issues is through the use of multiple, and sometimes redundant, disks. In addition to supporting various cards and controllers for hardware RAID systems, the base FreeBSD system includes the Vinum Volume Manager, a block device driver that implements virtual disk drives. Vinum provides more flexibility, performance, and reliability than traditional disk storage, and implements RAID-0, RAID-1, and RAID-5 models both individually and in combination. This chapter provides an overview of potential problems with traditional disk storage, and an introduction to the Vinum Volume Manager. Disks Are Too Small Vinum RAID Software Vinum is a so-called Volume Manager, a virtual disk driver that addresses these three problems. Let us look at them in more detail. Various solutions to these problems have been proposed and implemented: Disks are getting bigger, but so are data storage requirements. Often you will find you want a file system that is bigger than the disks you have available. Admittedly, this problem is not as acute as it was ten years ago, but it still exists. Some systems have solved this by creating an abstract device which stores its data on a number of disks. Access Bottlenecks Modern systems frequently need to access data in a highly concurrent manner. For example, large FTP or HTTP servers can maintain thousands of concurrent sessions and have multiple 100 Mbit/s connections to the outside world, well beyond the sustained transfer rate of most disks. Current disk drives can transfer data sequentially at up to 70 MB/s, but this value is of little importance in an environment where many independent processes access a drive, where they may achieve only a fraction of these values. In such cases it is more interesting to view the problem from the viewpoint of the disk subsystem: the important parameter is the load that a transfer places on the subsystem, in other words the time for which a transfer occupies the drives involved in the transfer. In any disk transfer, the drive must first position the heads, wait for the first sector to pass under the read head, and then perform the transfer. These actions can be considered to be atomic: it does not make any sense to interrupt them. Consider a typical transfer of about 10 kB: the current generation of high-performance disks can position the heads in an average of 3.5 ms. The fastest drives spin at 15,000 rpm, so the average rotational latency (half a revolution) is 2 ms. At 70 MB/s, the transfer itself takes about 150 μs, almost nothing compared to the positioning time. In such a case, the effective transfer rate drops to a little over 1 MB/s and is clearly highly dependent on the transfer size. The traditional and obvious solution to this bottleneck is more spindles: rather than using one large disk, it uses several smaller disks with the same aggregate storage space. Each disk is capable of positioning and transferring independently, so the effective throughput increases by a factor close to the number of disks used. The exact throughput improvement is, of course, smaller than the number of disks involved: although each drive is capable of transferring in parallel, there is no way to ensure that the requests are evenly distributed across the drives. Inevitably the load on one drive will be higher than on another. disk concatenation Vinum concatenation The evenness of the load on the disks is strongly dependent on the way the data is shared across the drives. In the following discussion, it is convenient to think of the disk storage as a large number of data sectors which are addressable by number, rather like the pages in a book. The most obvious method is to divide the virtual disk into groups of consecutive sectors the size of the individual physical disks and store them in this manner, rather like taking a large book and tearing it into smaller sections. This method is called concatenation and has the advantage that the disks are not required to have any specific size relationships. It works well when the access to the virtual disk is spread evenly about its address space. When access is concentrated on a smaller area, the improvement is less marked. illustrates the sequence in which storage units are allocated in a concatenated organization.
Concatenated Organization
disk striping Vinum striping An alternative mapping is to divide the address space into smaller, equal-sized components and store them sequentially on different devices. For example, the first 256 sectors may be stored on the first disk, the next 256 sectors on the next disk and so on. After filling the last disk, the process repeats until the disks are full. This mapping is called striping or RAID-0 RAID RAID stands for Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks and offers various forms of fault tolerance, though the latter term is somewhat misleading: it provides no redundancy. . Striping requires somewhat more effort to locate the data, and it can cause additional I/O load where a transfer is spread over multiple disks, but it can also provide a more constant load across the disks. illustrates the sequence in which storage units are allocated in a striped organization.
Striped Organization
Data Integrity The final problem with current disks is that they are unreliable. Although disk drive reliability has increased tremendously over the last few years, they are still the most likely core component of a server to fail. When they do, the results can be catastrophic: replacing a failed disk drive and restoring data to it can take days. disk mirroring Vinum mirroring RAID-1 The traditional way to approach this problem has been mirroring, keeping two copies of the data on different physical hardware. Since the advent of the RAID levels, this technique has also been called RAID level 1 or RAID-1. Any write to the volume writes to both locations; a read can be satisfied from either, so if one drive fails, the data is still available on the other drive. Mirroring has two problems: The price. It requires twice as much disk storage as a non-redundant solution. The performance impact. Writes must be performed to both drives, so they take up twice the bandwidth of a non-mirrored volume. Reads do not suffer from a performance penalty: it even looks as if they are faster. RAID-5An alternative solution is parity, implemented in the RAID levels 2, 3, 4 and 5. Of these, RAID-5 is the most interesting. As implemented in Vinum, it is a variant on a striped organization which dedicates one block of each stripe to parity of the other blocks. As implemented by Vinum, a RAID-5 plex is similar to a striped plex, except that it implements RAID-5 by including a parity block in each stripe. As required by RAID-5, the location of this parity block changes from one stripe to the next. The numbers in the data blocks indicate the relative block numbers.
RAID-5 Organization
Compared to mirroring, RAID-5 has the advantage of requiring significantly less storage space. Read access is similar to that of striped organizations, but write access is significantly slower, approximately 25% of the read performance. If one drive fails, the array can continue to operate in degraded mode: a read from one of the remaining accessible drives continues normally, but a read from the failed drive is recalculated from the corresponding block from all the remaining drives. Vinum Objects In order to address these problems, Vinum implements a four-level hierarchy of objects: The most visible object is the virtual disk, called a volume. Volumes have essentially the same properties as a &unix; disk drive, though there are some minor differences. They have no size limitations. Volumes are composed of plexes, each of which represent the total address space of a volume. This level in the hierarchy thus provides redundancy. Think of plexes as individual disks in a mirrored array, each containing the same data. Since Vinum exists within the &unix; disk storage framework, it would be possible to use &unix; partitions as the building block for multi-disk plexes, but in fact this turns out to be too inflexible: &unix; disks can have only a limited number of partitions. Instead, Vinum subdivides a single &unix; partition (the drive) into contiguous areas called subdisks, which it uses as building blocks for plexes. Subdisks reside on Vinum drives, currently &unix; partitions. Vinum drives can contain any number of subdisks. With the exception of a small area at the beginning of the drive, which is used for storing configuration and state information, the entire drive is available for data storage. The following sections describe the way these objects provide the functionality required of Vinum. Volume Size Considerations Plexes can include multiple subdisks spread over all drives in the Vinum configuration. As a result, the size of an individual drive does not limit the size of a plex, and thus of a volume. Redundant Data Storage Vinum implements mirroring by attaching multiple plexes to a volume. Each plex is a representation of the data in a volume. A volume may contain between one and eight plexes. Although a plex represents the complete data of a volume, it is possible for parts of the representation to be physically missing, either by design (by not defining a subdisk for parts of the plex) or by accident (as a result of the failure of a drive). As long as at least one plex can provide the data for the complete address range of the volume, the volume is fully functional. Performance Issues Vinum implements both concatenation and striping at the plex level: A concatenated plex uses the address space of each subdisk in turn. A striped plex stripes the data across each subdisk. The subdisks must all have the same size, and there must be at least two subdisks in order to distinguish it from a concatenated plex. Which Plex Organization? The version of Vinum supplied with FreeBSD &rel.current; implements two kinds of plex: Concatenated plexes are the most flexible: they can contain any number of subdisks, and the subdisks may be of different length. The plex may be extended by adding additional subdisks. They require less CPU time than striped plexes, though the difference in CPU overhead is not measurable. On the other hand, they are most susceptible to hot spots, where one disk is very active and others are idle. The greatest advantage of striped (RAID-0) plexes is that they reduce hot spots: by choosing an optimum sized stripe (about 256 kB), you can even out the load on the component drives. The disadvantages of this approach are (fractionally) more complex code and restrictions on subdisks: they must be all the same size, and extending a plex by adding new subdisks is so complicated that Vinum currently does not implement it. Vinum imposes an additional, trivial restriction: a striped plex must have at least two subdisks, since otherwise it is indistinguishable from a concatenated plex. summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of each plex organization. Vinum Plex Organizations Plex type Minimum subdisks Can add subdisks Must be equal size Application concatenated 1 yes no Large data storage with maximum placement flexibility and moderate performance striped 2 no yes High performance in combination with highly concurrent access
Some Examples Vinum maintains a configuration database which describes the objects known to an individual system. Initially, the user creates the configuration database from one or more configuration files with the aid of the &man.vinum.8; utility program. Vinum stores a copy of its configuration database on each disk slice (which Vinum calls a device) under its control. This database is updated on each state change, so that a restart accurately restores the state of each Vinum object. The Configuration File The configuration file describes individual Vinum objects. The definition of a simple volume might be: drive a device /dev/da3h volume myvol plex org concat sd length 512m drive a This file describes four Vinum objects: The drive line describes a disk partition (drive) and its location relative to the underlying hardware. It is given the symbolic name a. This separation of the symbolic names from the device names allows disks to be moved from one location to another without confusion. The volume line describes a volume. The only required attribute is the name, in this case myvol. The plex line defines a plex. The only required parameter is the organization, in this case concat. No name is necessary: the system automatically generates a name from the volume name by adding the suffix .px, where x is the number of the plex in the volume. Thus this plex will be called myvol.p0. The sd line describes a subdisk. The minimum specifications are the name of a drive on which to store it, and the length of the subdisk. As with plexes, no name is necessary: the system automatically assigns names derived from the plex name by adding the suffix .sx, where x is the number of the subdisk in the plex. Thus Vinum gives this subdisk the name myvol.p0.s0. After processing this file, &man.vinum.8; produces the following output: &prompt.root; vinum -> create config1 Configuration summary Drives: 1 (4 configured) Volumes: 1 (4 configured) Plexes: 1 (8 configured) Subdisks: 1 (16 configured) D a State: up Device /dev/da3h Avail: 2061/2573 MB (80%) V myvol State: up Plexes: 1 Size: 512 MB P myvol.p0 C State: up Subdisks: 1 Size: 512 MB S myvol.p0.s0 State: up PO: 0 B Size: 512 MB This output shows the brief listing format of &man.vinum.8;. It is represented graphically in .
A Simple Vinum Volume
This figure, and the ones which follow, represent a volume, which contains the plexes, which in turn contain the subdisks. In this trivial example, the volume contains one plex, and the plex contains one subdisk. This particular volume has no specific advantage over a conventional disk partition. It contains a single plex, so it is not redundant. The plex contains a single subdisk, so there is no difference in storage allocation from a conventional disk partition. The following sections illustrate various more interesting configuration methods. Increased Resilience: Mirroring The resilience of a volume can be increased by mirroring. When laying out a mirrored volume, it is important to ensure that the subdisks of each plex are on different drives, so that a drive failure will not take down both plexes. The following configuration mirrors a volume: drive b device /dev/da4h volume mirror plex org concat sd length 512m drive a plex org concat sd length 512m drive b In this example, it was not necessary to specify a definition of drive a again, since Vinum keeps track of all objects in its configuration database. After processing this definition, the configuration looks like: Drives: 2 (4 configured) Volumes: 2 (4 configured) Plexes: 3 (8 configured) Subdisks: 3 (16 configured) D a State: up Device /dev/da3h Avail: 1549/2573 MB (60%) D b State: up Device /dev/da4h Avail: 2061/2573 MB (80%) V myvol State: up Plexes: 1 Size: 512 MB V mirror State: up Plexes: 2 Size: 512 MB P myvol.p0 C State: up Subdisks: 1 Size: 512 MB P mirror.p0 C State: up Subdisks: 1 Size: 512 MB P mirror.p1 C State: initializing Subdisks: 1 Size: 512 MB S myvol.p0.s0 State: up PO: 0 B Size: 512 MB S mirror.p0.s0 State: up PO: 0 B Size: 512 MB S mirror.p1.s0 State: empty PO: 0 B Size: 512 MB shows the structure graphically.
A Mirrored Vinum Volume
In this example, each plex contains the full 512 MB of address space. As in the previous example, each plex contains only a single subdisk. Optimizing Performance The mirrored volume in the previous example is more resistant to failure than an unmirrored volume, but its performance is less: each write to the volume requires a write to both drives, using up a greater proportion of the total disk bandwidth. Performance considerations demand a different approach: instead of mirroring, the data is striped across as many disk drives as possible. The following configuration shows a volume with a plex striped across four disk drives: drive c device /dev/da5h drive d device /dev/da6h volume stripe plex org striped 512k sd length 128m drive a sd length 128m drive b sd length 128m drive c sd length 128m drive d As before, it is not necessary to define the drives which are already known to Vinum. After processing this definition, the configuration looks like: Drives: 4 (4 configured) Volumes: 3 (4 configured) Plexes: 4 (8 configured) Subdisks: 7 (16 configured) D a State: up Device /dev/da3h Avail: 1421/2573 MB (55%) D b State: up Device /dev/da4h Avail: 1933/2573 MB (75%) D c State: up Device /dev/da5h Avail: 2445/2573 MB (95%) D d State: up Device /dev/da6h Avail: 2445/2573 MB (95%) V myvol State: up Plexes: 1 Size: 512 MB V mirror State: up Plexes: 2 Size: 512 MB V striped State: up Plexes: 1 Size: 512 MB P myvol.p0 C State: up Subdisks: 1 Size: 512 MB P mirror.p0 C State: up Subdisks: 1 Size: 512 MB P mirror.p1 C State: initializing Subdisks: 1 Size: 512 MB P striped.p1 State: up Subdisks: 1 Size: 512 MB S myvol.p0.s0 State: up PO: 0 B Size: 512 MB S mirror.p0.s0 State: up PO: 0 B Size: 512 MB S mirror.p1.s0 State: empty PO: 0 B Size: 512 MB S striped.p0.s0 State: up PO: 0 B Size: 128 MB S striped.p0.s1 State: up PO: 512 kB Size: 128 MB S striped.p0.s2 State: up PO: 1024 kB Size: 128 MB S striped.p0.s3 State: up PO: 1536 kB Size: 128 MB
A Striped Vinum Volume
This volume is represented in . The darkness of the stripes indicates the position within the plex address space: the lightest stripes come first, the darkest last. Resilience and Performance With sufficient hardware, it is possible to build volumes which show both increased resilience and increased performance compared to standard &unix; partitions. A typical configuration file might be: volume raid10 plex org striped 512k sd length 102480k drive a sd length 102480k drive b sd length 102480k drive c sd length 102480k drive d sd length 102480k drive e plex org striped 512k sd length 102480k drive c sd length 102480k drive d sd length 102480k drive e sd length 102480k drive a sd length 102480k drive b The subdisks of the second plex are offset by two drives from those of the first plex: this helps ensure that writes do not go to the same subdisks even if a transfer goes over two drives. represents the structure of this volume.
A Mirrored, Striped Vinum Volume
Object Naming As described above, Vinum assigns default names to plexes and subdisks, although they may be overridden. Overriding the default names is not recommended: experience with the VERITAS volume manager, which allows arbitrary naming of objects, has shown that this flexibility does not bring a significant advantage, and it can cause confusion. Names may contain any non-blank character, but it is recommended to restrict them to letters, digits and the underscore characters. The names of volumes, plexes and subdisks may be up to 64 characters long, and the names of drives may be up to 32 characters long. Vinum objects are assigned device nodes in the hierarchy /dev/vinum. The configuration shown above would cause Vinum to create the following device nodes: The control devices - /dev/vinum/control and - /dev/vinum/controld, which are used + /dev/vinum/control and + /dev/vinum/controld, which are used by &man.vinum.8; and the Vinum daemon respectively. Block and character device entries for each volume. These are the main devices used by Vinum. The block device names are the name of the volume, while the character device names follow the BSD tradition of prepending the letter r to the name. Thus the configuration above would include the block devices - /dev/vinum/myvol, - /dev/vinum/mirror, - /dev/vinum/striped, - /dev/vinum/raid5 and - /dev/vinum/raid10, and the + /dev/vinum/myvol, + /dev/vinum/mirror, + /dev/vinum/striped, + /dev/vinum/raid5 and + /dev/vinum/raid10, and the character devices - /dev/vinum/rmyvol, - /dev/vinum/rmirror, - /dev/vinum/rstriped, - /dev/vinum/rraid5 and - /dev/vinum/rraid10. There is + /dev/vinum/rmyvol, + /dev/vinum/rmirror, + /dev/vinum/rstriped, + /dev/vinum/rraid5 and + /dev/vinum/rraid10. There is obviously a problem here: it is possible to have two volumes called r and rr, but there will be a conflict creating the device node - /dev/vinum/rr: is it a character + /dev/vinum/rr: is it a character device for volume r or a block device for volume rr? Currently Vinum does not address this conflict: the first-defined volume will get the name. - A directory /dev/vinum/drive + A directory /dev/vinum/drive with entries for each drive. These entries are in fact symbolic links to the corresponding disk nodes. A directory /dev/vinum/volume with entries for each volume. It contains subdirectories for each plex, which in turn contain subdirectories for their component subdisks. The directories - /dev/vinum/plex, - /dev/vinum/sd, and - /dev/vinum/rsd, which contain block + /dev/vinum/plex, + /dev/vinum/sd, and + /dev/vinum/rsd, which contain block device nodes for each plex and block and character device nodes respectively for each subdisk. For example, consider the following configuration file: drive drive1 device /dev/sd1h drive drive2 device /dev/sd2h drive drive3 device /dev/sd3h drive drive4 device /dev/sd4h volume s64 setupstate plex org striped 64k sd length 100m drive drive1 sd length 100m drive drive2 sd length 100m drive drive3 sd length 100m drive drive4 After processing this file, &man.vinum.8; creates the following structure in /dev/vinum: brwx------ 1 root wheel 25, 0x40000001 Apr 13 16:46 Control brwx------ 1 root wheel 25, 0x40000002 Apr 13 16:46 control brwx------ 1 root wheel 25, 0x40000000 Apr 13 16:46 controld drwxr-xr-x 2 root wheel 512 Apr 13 16:46 drive drwxr-xr-x 2 root wheel 512 Apr 13 16:46 plex crwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 91, 2 Apr 13 16:46 rs64 drwxr-xr-x 2 root wheel 512 Apr 13 16:46 rsd drwxr-xr-x 2 root wheel 512 Apr 13 16:46 rvol brwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 25, 2 Apr 13 16:46 s64 drwxr-xr-x 2 root wheel 512 Apr 13 16:46 sd drwxr-xr-x 3 root wheel 512 Apr 13 16:46 vol /dev/vinum/drive: total 0 lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 9 Apr 13 16:46 drive1 -> /dev/sd1h lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 9 Apr 13 16:46 drive2 -> /dev/sd2h lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 9 Apr 13 16:46 drive3 -> /dev/sd3h lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 9 Apr 13 16:46 drive4 -> /dev/sd4h /dev/vinum/plex: total 0 brwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 25, 0x10000002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0 /dev/vinum/rsd: total 0 crwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 91, 0x20000002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s0 crwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 91, 0x20100002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s1 crwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 91, 0x20200002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s2 crwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 91, 0x20300002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s3 /dev/vinum/rvol: total 0 crwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 91, 2 Apr 13 16:46 s64 /dev/vinum/sd: total 0 brwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 25, 0x20000002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s0 brwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 25, 0x20100002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s1 brwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 25, 0x20200002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s2 brwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 25, 0x20300002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s3 /dev/vinum/vol: total 1 brwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 25, 2 Apr 13 16:46 s64 drwxr-xr-x 3 root wheel 512 Apr 13 16:46 s64.plex /dev/vinum/vol/s64.plex: total 1 brwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 25, 0x10000002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0 drwxr-xr-x 2 root wheel 512 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.sd /dev/vinum/vol/s64.plex/s64.p0.sd: total 0 brwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 25, 0x20000002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s0 brwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 25, 0x20100002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s1 brwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 25, 0x20200002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s2 brwxr-xr-- 1 root wheel 25, 0x20300002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s3 Although it is recommended that plexes and subdisks should not be allocated specific names, Vinum drives must be named. This makes it possible to move a drive to a different location and still recognize it automatically. Drive names may be up to 32 characters long. Creating File Systems Volumes appear to the system to be identical to disks, with one exception. Unlike &unix; drives, Vinum does not partition volumes, which thus do not contain a partition table. This has required modification to some disk utilities, notably &man.newfs.8;, which previously tried to interpret the last letter of a Vinum volume name as a partition identifier. For example, a disk drive may have a - name like /dev/ad0a or - /dev/da2h. These names represent + name like /dev/ad0a or + /dev/da2h. These names represent the first partition (a) on the first (0) IDE disk (ad) and the eighth partition (h) on the third (2) SCSI disk (da) respectively. By contrast, a Vinum volume might be called - /dev/vinum/concat, a name which has + /dev/vinum/concat, a name which has no relationship with a partition name. Normally, &man.newfs.8; interprets the name of the disk and complains if it cannot understand it. For example: &prompt.root; newfs /dev/vinum/concat newfs: /dev/vinum/concat: can't figure out file system partition The following is only valid for FreeBSD versions prior to 5.0: In order to create a file system on this volume, use the option to &man.newfs.8;: &prompt.root; newfs -v /dev/vinum/concat Configuring Vinum The GENERIC kernel does not contain Vinum. It is possible to build a special kernel which includes Vinum, but this is not recommended. The standard way to start Vinum is as a kernel module (kld). You do not even need to use &man.kldload.8; for Vinum: when you start &man.vinum.8;, it checks whether the module has been loaded, and if it is not, it loads it automatically. Startup Vinum stores configuration information on the disk slices in essentially the same form as in the configuration files. When reading from the configuration database, Vinum recognizes a number of keywords which are not allowed in the configuration files. For example, a disk configuration might contain the following text: volume myvol state up volume bigraid state down plex name myvol.p0 state up org concat vol myvol plex name myvol.p1 state up org concat vol myvol plex name myvol.p2 state init org striped 512b vol myvol plex name bigraid.p0 state initializing org raid5 512b vol bigraid sd name myvol.p0.s0 drive a plex myvol.p0 state up len 1048576b driveoffset 265b plexoffset 0b sd name myvol.p0.s1 drive b plex myvol.p0 state up len 1048576b driveoffset 265b plexoffset 1048576b sd name myvol.p1.s0 drive c plex myvol.p1 state up len 1048576b driveoffset 265b plexoffset 0b sd name myvol.p1.s1 drive d plex myvol.p1 state up len 1048576b driveoffset 265b plexoffset 1048576b sd name myvol.p2.s0 drive a plex myvol.p2 state init len 524288b driveoffset 1048841b plexoffset 0b sd name myvol.p2.s1 drive b plex myvol.p2 state init len 524288b driveoffset 1048841b plexoffset 524288b sd name myvol.p2.s2 drive c plex myvol.p2 state init len 524288b driveoffset 1048841b plexoffset 1048576b sd name myvol.p2.s3 drive d plex myvol.p2 state init len 524288b driveoffset 1048841b plexoffset 1572864b sd name bigraid.p0.s0 drive a plex bigraid.p0 state initializing len 4194304b driveoff set 1573129b plexoffset 0b sd name bigraid.p0.s1 drive b plex bigraid.p0 state initializing len 4194304b driveoff set 1573129b plexoffset 4194304b sd name bigraid.p0.s2 drive c plex bigraid.p0 state initializing len 4194304b driveoff set 1573129b plexoffset 8388608b sd name bigraid.p0.s3 drive d plex bigraid.p0 state initializing len 4194304b driveoff set 1573129b plexoffset 12582912b sd name bigraid.p0.s4 drive e plex bigraid.p0 state initializing len 4194304b driveoff set 1573129b plexoffset 16777216b The obvious differences here are the presence of explicit location information and naming (both of which are also allowed, but discouraged, for use by the user) and the information on the states (which are not available to the user). Vinum does not store information about drives in the configuration information: it finds the drives by scanning the configured disk drives for partitions with a Vinum label. This enables Vinum to identify drives correctly even if they have been assigned different &unix; drive IDs. Automatic Startup In order to start Vinum automatically when you boot the system, ensure that you have the following line in your /etc/rc.conf: start_vinum="YES" # set to YES to start vinum If you do not have a file /etc/rc.conf, create one with this content. This will cause the system to load the Vinum kld at startup, and to start any objects mentioned in the configuration. This is done before mounting file systems, so it is possible to automatically &man.fsck.8; and mount file systems on Vinum volumes. When you start Vinum with the vinum start command, Vinum reads the configuration database from one of the Vinum drives. Under normal circumstances, each drive contains an identical copy of the configuration database, so it does not matter which drive is read. After a crash, however, Vinum must determine which drive was updated most recently and read the configuration from this drive. It then updates the configuration if necessary from progressively older drives. Using Vinum for the Root Filesystem For a machine that has fully-mirrored filesystems using Vinum, it is desirable to also mirror the root filesystem. Setting up such a configuration is less trivial than mirroring an arbitrary filesystem because: The root filesystem must be available very early during the boot process, so the Vinum infrastructure must already be available at this time. The volume containing the root filesystem also contains the system bootstrap and the kernel, which must be read using the host system's native utilities (e. g. the BIOS on PC-class machines) which often cannot be taught about the details of Vinum. In the following sections, the term root volume is generally used to describe the Vinum volume that contains the root filesystem. It is probably a good idea to use the name "root" for this volume, but this is not technically required in any way. All command examples in the following sections assume this name though. Starting up Vinum Early Enough for the Root Filesystem There are several measures to take for this to happen: Vinum must be available in the kernel at boot-time. Thus, the method to start Vinum automatically described in is not applicable to accomplish this task, and the start_vinum parameter must actually not be set when the following setup is being arranged. The first option would be to compile Vinum statically into the kernel, so it is available all the time, but this is usually not desirable. There is another option as well, to have /boot/loader () load the vinum kernel module early, before starting the kernel. This can be accomplished by putting the line vinum_load="YES" into the file /boot/loader.conf. Vinum must be initialized early since it needs to supply the volume for the root filesystem. By default, the Vinum kernel part is not looking for drives that might contain Vinum volume information until the administrator (or one of the startup scripts) issues a vinum start command. The following paragraphs are outlining the steps needed for FreeBSD 5.x and above. The setup required for FreeBSD 4.x differs, and is described below in . By placing the line: vinum.autostart="YES" into /boot/loader.conf, Vinum is instructed to automatically scan all drives for Vinum information as part of the kernel startup. Note that it is not necessary to instruct the kernel where to look for the root filesystem. /boot/loader looks up the name of the root device in /etc/fstab, and passes this information on to the kernel. When it comes to mount the root filesystem, the kernel figures out from the devicename provided which driver to ask to translate this into the internal device ID (major/minor number). Making a Vinum-based Root Volume Accessible to the Bootstrap Since the current FreeBSD bootstrap is only 7.5 KB of code, and already has the burden of reading files (like /boot/loader) from the UFS filesystem, it is sheer impossible to also teach it about internal Vinum structures so it could parse the Vinum configuration data, and figure out about the elements of a boot volume itself. Thus, some tricks are necessary to provide the bootstrap code with the illusion of a standard "a" partition that contains the root filesystem. For this to be possible at all, the following requirements must be met for the root volume: The root volume must not be striped or RAID-5. The root volume must not contain more than one concatenated subdisk per plex. Note that it is desirable and possible that there are multiple plexes, each containing one replica of the root filesystem. The bootstrap process will, however, only use one of these replica for finding the bootstrap and all the files, until the kernel will eventually mount the root filesystem itself. Each single subdisk within these plexes will then need its own "a" partition illusion, for the respective device to become bootable. It is not strictly needed that each of these faked "a" partitions is located at the same offset within its device, compared with other devices containing plexes of the root volume. However, it is probably a good idea to create the Vinum volumes that way so the resulting mirrored devices are symmetric, to avoid confusion. In order to set up these "a" partitions, for each device containing part of the root volume, the following needs to be done: The location (offset from the beginning of the device) and size of this device's subdisk that is part of the root volume need to be examined, using the command vinum l -rv root Note that Vinum offsets and sizes are measured in bytes. They must be divided by 512 in order to obtain the block numbers that are to be used in the disklabel command. Run the command disklabel -e devname for each device that participates in the root volume. devname must be either the name of the disk (like da0) for disks without a slice (aka. fdisk) table, or the name of the slice (like ad0s1). If there is already an "a" partition on the device (presumably, containing a pre-Vinum root filesystem), it should be renamed to something else, so it remains accessible (just in case), but will no longer be used by default to bootstrap the system. Note that active partitions (like a root filesystem currently mounted) cannot be renamed, so this must be executed either when being booted from a Fixit medium, or in a two-step process, where (in a mirrored situation) the disk that has not been currently booted is being manipulated first. Then, the offset the Vinum partition on this device (if any) must be added to the offset of the respective root volume subdisk on this device. The resulting value will become the "offset" value for the new "a" partition. The "size" value for this partition can be taken verbatim from the calculation above. The "fstype" should be 4.2BSD. The "fsize", "bsize", and "cpg" values should best be chosen to match the actual filesystem, though they are fairly unimportant within this context. That way, a new "a" partition will be established that overlaps the Vinum partition on this device. Note that the disklabel will only allow for this overlap if the Vinum partition has properly been marked using the "vinum" fstype. That's all! A faked "a" partition does exist now on each device that has one replica of the root volume. It is highly recommendable to verify the result again, using a command like fsck -n /dev/devnamea It should be remembered that all files containing control information must be relative to the root filesystem in the Vinum volume which, when setting up a new Vinum root volume, might not match the root filesystem that is currently active. So in particular, the files /etc/fstab and /boot/loader.conf need to be taken care of. At next reboot, the bootstrap should figure out the appropriate control information from the new Vinum-based root filesystem, and act accordingly. At the end of the kernel initialization process, after all devices have been announced, the prominent notice that shows the success of this setup is a message like: Mounting root from ufs:/dev/vinum/root Example of a Vinum-based Root Setup After the Vinum root volume has been set up, the output of vinum l -rv root could look like: ... Subdisk root.p0.s0: Size: 125829120 bytes (120 MB) State: up Plex root.p0 at offset 0 (0 B) Drive disk0 (/dev/da0h) at offset 135680 (132 kB) Subdisk root.p1.s0: Size: 125829120 bytes (120 MB) State: up Plex root.p1 at offset 0 (0 B) Drive disk1 (/dev/da1h) at offset 135680 (132 kB) The values to note are 135680 for the offset (relative to partition /dev/da0h). This translates to 265 512-byte disk blocks in disklabel's terms. Likewise, the size of this root volume is 245760 512-byte blocks. /dev/da1h, containing the second replica of this root volume, has a symmetric setup. The disklabel for these devices might look like: ... 8 partitions: # size offset fstype [fsize bsize bps/cpg] a: 245760 281 4.2BSD 2048 16384 0 # (Cyl. 0*- 15*) c: 71771688 0 unused 0 0 # (Cyl. 0 - 4467*) h: 71771672 16 vinum # (Cyl. 0*- 4467*) It can be observed that the "size" parameter for the faked "a" partition matches the value outlined above, while the "offset" parameter is the sum of the offset within the Vinum partition "h", and the offset of this partition within the device (or slice). This is a typical setup that is necessary to avoid the problem described in . It can also be seen that the entire "a" partition is completely within the "h" partition containing all the Vinum data for this device. Note that in the above example, the entire device is dedicated to Vinum, and there is no leftover pre-Vinum root partition, since this has been a newly set-up disk that was only meant to be part of a Vinum configuration, ever. Troubleshooting If something goes wrong, a way is needed to recover from the situation. The following list contains few known pitfalls and solutions. System Bootstrap Loads, but System Does Not Boot If for any reason the system does not continue to boot, the bootstrap can be interrupted with by pressing the space key at the 10-seconds warning. The loader variables (like vinum.autostart) can be examined using the show, and manipulated using set or unset commands. If the only problem was that the Vinum kernel module was not yet in the list of modules to load automatically, a simple load vinum will help. When ready, the boot process can be continued with a boot -as. The options will request the kernel to ask for the root filesystem to mount (), and make the boot process stop in single-user mode (), where the root filesystem is mounted read-only. That way, even if only one plex of a multi-plex volume has been mounted, no data inconsistency between plexes is being risked. At the prompt asking for a root filesystem to mount, any device that contains a valid root filesystem can be entered. If /etc/fstab had been set up correctly, the default should be something like ufs:/dev/vinum/root. A typical alternate choice would be something like ufs:da0d which could be a hypothetical partition that contains the pre-Vinum root filesystem. Care should be taken if one of the alias "a" partitions are entered here that are actually reference to the subdisks of the Vinum root device, because in a mirrored setup, this would only mount one piece of a mirrored root device. If this filesystem is to be mounted read-write later on, it is necessary to remove the other plex(es) of the Vinum root volume since these plexes would otherwise carry inconsistent data. Only Primary Bootstrap Loads If /boot/loader fails to load, but the primary bootstrap still loads (visible by a single dash in the left column of the screen right after the boot process starts), an attempt can be made to interrupt the primary bootstrap at this point, using the space key. This will make the bootstrap stop in stage two, see . An attempt can be made here to boot off an alternate partition, like the partition containing the previous root filesystem that has been moved away from "a" above. Nothing Boots, the Bootstrap Panics This situation will happen if the bootstrap had been destroyed by the Vinum installation. Unfortunately, Vinum accidentally currently leaves only 4 KB at the beginning of its partition free before starting to write its Vinum header information. However, the stage one and two bootstraps plus the disklabel embedded between them currently require 8 KB. So if a Vinum partition was started at offset 0 within a slice or disk that was meant to be bootable, the Vinum setup will trash the bootstrap. Similarly, if the above situation has been recovered, for example by booting from a Fixit medium, and the bootstrap has been re-installed using disklabel -B as described in , the bootstrap will trash the Vinum header, and Vinum will no longer find its disk(s). Though no actual Vinum configuration data or data in Vinum volumes will be trashed by this, and it would be possible to recover all the data by entering exact the same Vinum configuration data again, the situation is hard to fix at all. It would be necessary to move the entire Vinum partition by at least 4 KB off, in order to have the Vinum header and the system bootstrap no longer collide. Differences for FreeBSD 4.x Under FreeBSD 4.x, some internal functions required to make Vinum automatically scan all disks are missing, and the code that figures out the internal ID of the root device is not smart enough to handle a name like - /dev/vinum/root automatically. + /dev/vinum/root automatically. Therefore, things are a little different here. Vinum must explicitly be told which disks to scan, using a line like the following one in /boot/loader.conf: vinum.drives="/dev/da0 /dev/da1" It is important that all drives are mentioned that could possibly contain Vinum data. It does not harm if more drives are listed, nor is it necessary to add each slice and/or partition explicitly, since Vinum will scan all slices and partitions of the named drives for valid Vinum headers. Since the routines used to parse the name of the root filesystem, and derive the device ID (major/minor number) are only prepared to handle classical device names - like /dev/ad0s1a, they cannot make + like /dev/ad0s1a, they cannot make any sense out of a root volume name like - /dev/vinum/root. For that reason, + /dev/vinum/root. For that reason, Vinum itself needs to pre-setup the internal kernel parameter that holds the ID of the root device during its own initialization. This is requested by passing the name of the root volume in the loader variable vinum.root. The entry in /boot/loader.conf to accomplish this looks like: vinum.root="root" Now, when the kernel initialization tries to find out the root device to mount, it sees whether some kernel module has already pre-initialized the kernel parameter for it. If that is the case, and the device claiming the root device matches the major number of the driver as figured out from the name of the root device string being passed (that is, "vinum" in our case), it will use the pre-allocated device ID, instead of trying to figure out one itself. That way, during the usual automatic startup, it can continue to mount the Vinum root volume for the root filesystem. However, when boot -a has been requesting to ask for entering the name of the root device manually, it must be noted that this routine still cannot actually parse a name entered there that refers to a Vinum volume. If any device name is entered that does not refer to a Vinum device, the mismatch between the major numbers of the pre-allocated root parameter and the driver as figured out from the given name will make this routine enter its normal parser, so entering a string like ufs:da0d will work as expected. Note that if this fails, it is however no longer possible to re-enter a string like ufs:vinum/root again, since it cannot be parsed. The only way out is to reboot again, and start over then. (At the askroot prompt, the initial - /dev/ can always be omitted.) + /dev/ can always be omitted.)