diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/advanced-networking/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/advanced-networking/chapter.sgml index 0e4861fcc3..c91f780a66 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/advanced-networking/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/advanced-networking/chapter.sgml @@ -1,4987 +1,4987 @@ Advanced Networking Synopsis This chapter will cover some of the more frequently used network services on Unix systems. We will cover how to define, setup, test and maintain all of the network services that FreeBSD utilizes. In addition, there have been example configuration files included throughout this chapter for you to benefit from. - After reading this chapter you will know: + After reading this chapter, you will know: The basics of gateways and routes. How to make FreeBSD act as a bridge. How to setup a network file system. How to setup network booting on a diskless machine. How to setup a network information server for sharing user accounts. How to setup automatic network settings using DHCP. How to setup a domain name server. How to setup network address translation. How to manage the inetd daemon. - Before reading this chapter you should: + Before reading this chapter, you should: understand the basics of the /etc/rc scripts. be familiar with basic network terminology. Coranth Gryphon Contributed by Gateways and Routes routing gateway subnet For one machine to be able to find another over a network, there must be a mechanism in place to describe how to get from one to the other. This is called routing. A route is a defined pair of addresses: a destination and a gateway. The pair indicates that if you are trying to get to this destination, communicate through this gateway. There are three types of destinations: individual hosts, subnets, and default. The default route is used if none of the other routes apply. We will talk a little bit more about default routes later on. There are also three types of gateways: individual hosts, interfaces (also called links), and Ethernet hardware addresses (MAC addresses). An Example To illustrate different aspects of routing, we will use the following example from netstat: &prompt.user; netstat -r Routing tables Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use Netif Expire default outside-gw UGSc 37 418 ppp0 localhost localhost UH 0 181 lo0 test0 0:e0:b5:36:cf:4f UHLW 5 63288 ed0 77 10.20.30.255 link#1 UHLW 1 2421 foobar.com link#1 UC 0 0 host1 0:e0:a8:37:8:1e UHLW 3 4601 lo0 host2 0:e0:a8:37:8:1e UHLW 0 5 lo0 => host2.foobar.com link#1 UC 0 0 224 link#1 UC 0 0 default route The first two lines specify the default route (which we will cover in the next section) and the localhost route. loopback device The interface (Netif column) that it specifies to use for localhost is lo0, also known as the loopback device. This says to keep all traffic for this destination internal, rather than sending it out over the LAN, since it will only end up back where it started. Ethernet MAC address The next thing that stands out are the addresses beginning with 0:e0:. These are Ethernet hardware addresses, which are also known as MAC addresses. FreeBSD will automatically identify any hosts (test0 in the example) on the local Ethernet and add a route for that host, directly to it over the Ethernet interface, ed0. There is also a timeout (Expire column) associated with this type of route, which is used if we fail to hear from the host in a specific amount of time. In this case the route will be automatically deleted. These hosts are identified using a mechanism known as RIP (Routing Information Protocol), which figures out routes to local hosts based upon a shortest path determination. subnet FreeBSD will also add subnet routes for the local subnet (10.20.30.255 is the broadcast address for the subnet 10.20.30, and foobar.com is the domain name associated with that subnet). The designation link#1 refers to the first Ethernet card in the machine. You will notice no additional interface is specified for those. Both of these groups (local network hosts and local subnets) have their routes automatically configured by a daemon called routed. If this is not run, then only routes which are statically defined (ie. entered explicitly) will exist. The host1 line refers to our host, which it knows by Ethernet address. Since we are the sending host, FreeBSD knows to use the loopback interface (lo0) rather than sending it out over the Ethernet interface. The two host2 lines are an example of what happens when we use an &man.ifconfig.8; alias (see the section of Ethernet for reasons why we would do this). The => symbol after the lo0 interface says that not only are we using the loopback (since this is address also refers to the local host), but specifically it is an alias. Such routes only show up on the host that supports the alias; all other hosts on the local network will simply have a link#1 line for such. The final line (destination subnet 224) deals with MultiCasting, which will be covered in a another section. The other column that we should talk about are the Flags. Each route has different attributes that are described in the column. Below is a short table of some of these flags and their meanings: U Up: The route is active. H Host: The route destination is a single host. G Gateway: Send anything for this destination on to this remote system, which will figure out from there where to send it. S Static: This route was configured manually, not automatically generated by the system. C Clone: Generates a new route based upon this route for machines we connect to. This type of route is normally used for local networks. W WasCloned: Indicated a route that was auto-configured based upon a local area network (Clone) route. L Link: Route involves references to Ethernet hardware. Default Routes default route When the local system needs to make a connection to remote host, it checks the routing table to determine if a known path exists. If the remote host falls into a subnet that we know how to reach (Cloned routes), then the system checks to see if it can connect along that interface. If all known paths fail, the system has one last option: the default route. This route is a special type of gateway route (usually the only one present in the system), and is always marked with a c in the flags field. For hosts on a local area network, this gateway is set to whatever machine has a direct connection to the outside world (whether via PPP link, DSL, cable modem, T1, or another network interface). If you are configuring the default route for a machine which itself is functioning as the gateway to the outside world, then the default route will be the gateway machine at your Internet Service Provider's (ISP) site. Let us look at an example of default routes. This is a common configuration: [Local2] <--ether--> [Local1] <--PPP--> [ISP-Serv] <--ether--> [T1-GW] The hosts Local1 and Local2 are at your site. Local1 is connected to an ISP via a dial up PPP connection. This PPP server computer is connected through a local area network to another gateway computer with an external interface to the ISPs Internet feed. The default routes for each of your machines will be: Host Default Gateway Interface Local2 Local1 Ethernet Local1 T1-GW PPP A common question is Why (or how) would we set the T1-GW to be the default gateway for Local1, rather than the ISP server it is connected to?. Remember, since the PPP interface is using an address on the ISP's local network for your side of the connection, routes for any other machines on the ISP's local network will be automatically generated. Hence, you will already know how to reach the T1-GW machine, so there is no need for the intermediate step of sending traffic to the ISP server. As a final note, it is common to use the address X.X.X.1 as the gateway address for your local network. So (using the same example), if your local class-C address space was 10.20.30 and your ISP was using 10.9.9 then the default routes would be: Host Default Route Local2 (10.20.3.2) Local1 (10.20.30.1) Local1 (10.20.30.1, 10.9.9.30) T1-GW (10.9.9.1) Dual Homed Hosts dual homed hosts There is one other type of configuration that we should cover, and that is a host that sits on two different networks. Technically, any machine functioning as a gateway (in the example above, using a PPP connection) counts as a dual-homed host. But the term is really only used to refer to a machine that sits on two local-area networks. In one case, the machine has two Ethernet cards, each having an address on the separate subnets. Alternately, the machine may only have one Ethernet card, and be using &man.ifconfig.8; aliasing. The former is used if two physically separate Ethernet networks are in use, the latter if there is one physical network segment, but two logically separate subnets. Either way, routing tables are set up so that each subnet knows that this machine is the defined gateway (inbound route) to the other subnet. This configuration, with the machine acting as a Bridge between the two subnets, is often used when we need to implement packet filtering or firewall security in either or both directions. Routing Propagation routing propagation We have already talked about how we define our routes to the outside world, but not about how the outside world finds us. We already know that routing tables can be set up so that all traffic for a particular address space (in our examples, a class-C subnet) can be sent to a particular host on that network, which will forward the packets inbound. When you get an address space assigned to your site, your service provider will set up their routing tables so that all traffic for your subnet will be sent down your PPP link to your site. But how do sites across the country know to send to your ISP? There is a system (much like the distributed DNS information) that keeps track of all assigned address-spaces, and defines their point of connection to the Internet Backbone. The Backbone are the main trunk lines that carry Internet traffic across the country, and around the world. Each backbone machine has a copy of a master set of tables, which direct traffic for a particular network to a specific backbone carrier, and from there down the chain of service providers until it reaches your network. It is the task of your service provider to advertise to the backbone sites that they are the point of connection (and thus the path inward) for your site. This is known as route propagation. Troubleshooting traceroute Sometimes, there is a problem with routing propagation, and some sites are unable to connect to you. Perhaps the most useful command for trying to figure out where a routing is breaking down is the &man.traceroute.8; command. It is equally useful if you cannot seem to make a connection to a remote machine (i.e. &man.ping.8; fails). The &man.traceroute.8; command is run with the name of the remote host you are trying to connect to. It will show the gateway hosts along the path of the attempt, eventually either reaching the target host, or terminating because of a lack of connection. For more information, see the manual page for &man.traceroute.8;. Steve Peterson Written by Bridging Introduction IP subnet bridge It is sometimes useful to divide one physical network (such as an Ethernet segment) into two separate network segments without having to create IP subnets and use a router to connect the segments together. A device that connects two networks together in this fashion is called a bridge. A FreeBSD system with two network interface cards can act as a bridge. The bridge works by learning the MAC layer addresses (Ethernet addresses) of the devices on each of its network interfaces. It forwards traffic between two networks only when its source and destination are on different networks. In many respects, a bridge is like an Ethernet switch with very few ports. Situations Where Bridging Is Appropriate There are two common situations in which a bridge is used today. High Traffic on a Segment Situation one is where your physical network segment is overloaded with traffic, but you do not want for whatever reason to subnet the network and interconnect the subnets with a router. Let us consider an example of a newspaper where the Editorial and Production departments are on the same subnetwork. The Editorial users all use server A for file service, and the Production users are on server B. An Ethernet is used to connect all users together, and high loads on the network are slowing things down. If the Editorial users could be segregated on one network segment and the Production users on another, the two network segments could be connected with a bridge. Only the network traffic destined for interfaces on the "other" side of the bridge would be sent to the other network, reducing congestion on each network segment. Filtering/Traffic Shaping Firewall firewall IP Masquerading The second common situation is where firewall functionality is needed without IP Masquerading (NAT). An example is a small company that is connected via DSL or ISDN to their ISP. They have a 13 globally-accessible IP addresses from their ISP and have 10 PCs on their network. In this situation, using a router-based firewall is difficult because of subnetting issues. router DSL ISDN A bridge-based firewall can be configured and dropped into the path just downstream of their DSL/ISDN router without any IP numbering issues. Configuring a Bridge Network Interface Card Selection A bridge requires at least two network cards to function. Unfortunately, not all network interface cards as of FreeBSD 4.0 support bridging. Read &man.bridge.4; for details on the cards that are supported. Install and test the two network cards before continuing. Kernel Configuration Changes kernel configuration kernel configuration options BRIDGE To enable kernel support for bridging, add the: options BRIDGE statement to your kernel configuration file, and rebuild your kernel. Firewall Support firewall If you are planning to use the bridge as a firewall, you will need to add the IPFIREWALL option as well. Read for general information on configuring the bridge as a firewall. If you need to allow non-IP packets (such as ARP) to flow through the bridge, there is an undocumented firewall option that must be set. This option is IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT. Note that this changes the default rule for the firewall to accept any packet. Make sure you know how this changes the meaning of your ruleset before you set it. Traffic Shaping Support If you want to use the bridge as a traffic shaper, you will need to add the DUMMYNET option to your kernel configuration. Read &man.dummynet.4; for further information. Enabling the Bridge Add the line: net.link.ether.bridge=1 to /etc/sysctl.conf to enable the bridge at runtime. If you want the bridged packets to be filtered by &man.ipfw.8;, you should also add: net.link.ether.bridge_ipfw=1 as well. Performance My bridge/firewall is a Pentium 90 with one 3Com 3C900B and one 3C905B. The protected side of the network runs at 10mbps half duplex and the connection between the bridge and my router (a Cisco 675) runs at 100mbps full duplex. With no filtering enabled, I have found that the bridge adds about 0.4 milliseconds of latency to pings from the protected 10mbps network to the Cisco 675. Other Information If you want to be able to telnet into the bridge from the network, it is OK to assign one of the network cards an IP address. The consensus is that assigning both cards an address is a bad idea. If you have multiple bridges on your network, there cannot be more than one path between any two workstations. Technically, this means that there is no support for spanning tree link management. Bill Swingle Written by NFS NFS Among the many different file systems that FreeBSD supports is the Network File System or NFS. NFS allows you to share directories and files on one machine with others via the network they are attached to. Using NFS, users and programs can access files on remote systems as if they were local files. NFS has several benefits: Local workstations do not need as much disk space because commonly used data can be stored on a single machine and still remain accessible to everyone on the network. There is no need for users to have unique home directories on every machine on your network. Once they have an established directory that is available via NFS it can be accessed from anywhere. Storage devices such as floppies and CDROM drives can be used by other machines on the network eliminating the need for extra hardware. How It Works NFS is composed of two sides – a client side and a server side. Think of it as a want/have relationship. The client wants the data that the server side has. The server shares its data with the client. In order for this system to function properly a few processes have to be configured and running. The server has to be running the following daemons: NFS server portmap mountd nfsd Daemon Description nfsd The NFS Daemon which services requests from NFS clients. mountd The NFS Mount Daemon which actually carries out requests that &man.nfsd.8; passes on to it. portmap The portmapper daemon which allows NFS clients to find out which port the NFS server is using. The client side only needs to run a single daemon: NFS client nfsiod nfsiod The NFS async I/O Daemon which services requests from its NFS server. Configuring NFS NFS configuration Luckily for us, on a FreeBSD system this setup is a snap. The processes that need to be running can all be run at boot time with a few modifications to your /etc/rc.conf file. On the NFS server make sure you have: portmap_enable="YES" nfs_server_enable="YES" nfs_server_flags="-u -t -n 4" mountd_flags="-r" mountd is automatically run whenever the NFS server is enabled. The and flags to nfsd tell it to serve UDP and TCP clients. The flag tells nfsd to start 4 copies of itself. On the client, make sure you have: nfs_client_enable="YES" nfs_client_flags="-n 4" Like nfsd, the tells nfsiod to start 4 copies of itself. The last configuration step requires that you create a file called /etc/exports. The exports file specifies which file systems on your server will be shared (a.k.a., exported) and with what clients they will be shared. Each line in the file specifies a file system to be shared. There are a handful of options that can be used in this file but only a few will be mentioned here. You can find out about the rest in the &man.exports.5; manual page. Here are a few example /etc/exports entries: NFS exporting filesystems The following line exports /cdrom to three silly machines that have the same domain name as the server (hence the lack of a domain name for each) or have entries in your /etc/hosts file. The flag makes the shared file system read-only. With this flag, the remote system will not be able to make any changes to the shared file system. /cdrom -ro moe larry curly The following line exports /home to three hosts by IP address. This is a useful setup if you have a private network but do not have DNS running. The flag allows all the directories below the specified file system to be exported as well. /home -alldirs 10.0.0.2 10.0.0.3 10.0.0.4 The following line exports /a to two machines that have different domain names than the server. The flag allows the root user on the remote system to write to the shared file system as root. Without the -maproot=0 flag even if someone has root access on the remote system they will not be able to modify files on the shared file system. /a -maproot=0 host.domain.com box.example.com In order for a client to access- an exported file system it must have permission to do so. Make sure your client is listed in your /etc/exports file. It is important to remember that you must restart mountd whenever you modify /etc/exports so that your changes take effect. This can be accomplished by sending the hangup signal to the mountd process : &prompt.root; kill -HUP `cat /var/run/mountd.pid` Now that you have made all these changes you can just reboot and let FreeBSD start everything for you at boot time or you can run the following commands as root: On the NFS server: &prompt.root; portmap &prompt.root; nfsd -u -t -n 4 &prompt.root; mountd -r On the NFS client: &prompt.root; nfsiod -n 4 Now you should be ready to actually mount a remote file system. This can be done one of two ways. In these examples the server's name will be server and the client's name will be client. If you just want to temporarily mount a remote file system or just want to test out your configuration you can run a command like this as root on the client: NFS mounting filesystems &prompt.root; mount server:/home /mnt This will mount the /home directory on the server at /mnt on the client. If everything is setup correctly you should be able to go into /mnt on the client and see all the files that are on the server. If you want to permanently (each time you reboot) mount a remote file system you need to add it to your /etc/fstab file. Here is an example line: server:/home /mnt nfs rw 0 0 Read the &man.fstab.5; manual page for more options. Practical Uses There are many very cool uses for NFS. Some of the more common ones are listed below. NFS uses Have several machines on a network and share a CDROM or floppy drive among them. This is cheaper and often more convenient. With so many machines on a network, it gets old having your personal files strewn all over the place. You can have a central NFS server that houses all user home directories and shares them with the rest of the machines on the LAN, so no matter where you log in you will have the same home directory. When you get to reinstalling FreeBSD on one of your machines, NFS is the way to go! Just pop your distribution CDROM into your file server and away you go! Have a common /usr/ports/distfiles directory that all your machines share. That way, when you go to install a port that you have already installed on a different machine, you do not have to download the source all over again! Wylie Stilwell Contributed by Chern Lee Rewritten by amd amd automatic mounter daemon &man.amd.8;, which is also known as the automatic mounter daemon, is a useful utility used for automatically mounting a remote filesystem whenever a file or directory within that filesystem is accessed. Filesystems that are inactive for a period of time will also be automatically unmounted by amd. Using amd provides a simplistic alternative to static mounts. amd operates by attaching itself as an NFS server to the /host and /net directories. When a file is accessed within one of these directories, amd looks up the corresponding remote mount and automatically mounts it. /net is used to mount an exported filesystem from an IP address, while /host is used to mount an export from a remote hostname. An access to a file within /host/foobar/usr would tell amd to attempt to mount the /usr export on the host foobar. Mounting an Export with <application>amd</application> &prompt.user; showmount -e foobar Exports list on foobar: /usr 10.10.10.0 /a 10.10.10.0 &prompt.user; cd /host/foobar/usr As seen in the example, the showmount shows /usr as an export. When changing directories to /host/foobar/usr, amd attempts to resolve the hostname foobar and automatically mount the desired export. amd can be started through the rc.conf system by placing the following lines in /etc/rc.conf: amd_enable="YES" Additionally, custom flags can be passed to amd from the amd_flags option. By default, amd_flags is set to: amd_flags="-a /.amd_mnt -l syslog /host /etc/amd.map /net /etc/amd.map" The /etc/amd.map file defines the default options that exports are mounted with. The /etc/amd.conf file defines some of the more advanced features of amd. Consult the &man.amd.8; and &man.amd.conf.5; man pages for more information. John Lind Contributed by Problems Integrating with Other Systems Certain Ethernet adapters for ISA PC systems have limitations which can lead to serious network problems, particularly with NFS. This difficulty is not specific to FreeBSD, but FreeBSD systems are affected by it. The problem nearly always occurs when (FreeBSD) PC systems are networked with high-performance workstations, such as those made by Silicon Graphics, Inc., and Sun Microsystems, Inc. The NFS mount will work fine, and some operations may succeed, but suddenly the server will seem to become unresponsive to the client, even though requests to and from other systems continue to be processed. This happens to the client system, whether the client is the FreeBSD system or the workstation. On many systems, there is no way to shut down the client gracefully once this problem has manifested itself. The only solution is often to reset the client, because the NFS situation cannot be resolved. Though the correct solution is to get a higher performance and capacity Ethernet adapter for the FreeBSD system, there is a simple workaround that will allow satisfactory operation. If the FreeBSD system is the server, include the option on the mount from the client. If the FreeBSD system is the client, then mount the NFS file system with the option . These options may be specified using the fourth field of the fstab entry on the client for automatic mounts, or by using the parameter of the mount command for manual mounts. It should be noted that there is a different problem, sometimes mistaken for this one, when the NFS servers and clients are on different networks. If that is the case, make certain that your routers are routing the necessary UDP information, or you will not get anywhere, no matter what else you are doing. In the following examples, fastws is the host (interface) name of a high-performance workstation, and freebox is the host (interface) name of a FreeBSD system with a lower-performance Ethernet adapter. Also, /sharedfs will be the exported NFS filesystem (see &man.exports.5;), and /project will be the mount point on the client for the exported file system. In all cases, note that additional options, such as or and may be desirable in your application. Examples for the FreeBSD system (freebox) as the client: in /etc/fstab on freebox: fastws:/sharedfs /project nfs rw,-r=1024 0 0 As a manual mount command on freebox: &prompt.root; mount -t nfs -o -r=1024 fastws:/sharedfs /project Examples for the FreeBSD system as the server: in /etc/fstab on fastws: freebox:/sharedfs /project nfs rw,-w=1024 0 0 As a manual mount command on fastws: &prompt.root; mount -t nfs -o -w=1024 freebox:/sharedfs /project Nearly any 16-bit Ethernet adapter will allow operation without the above restrictions on the read or write size. For anyone who cares, here is what happens when the failure occurs, which also explains why it is unrecoverable. NFS typically works with a block size of 8k (though it may do fragments of smaller sizes). Since the maximum Ethernet packet is around 1500 bytes, the NFS block gets split into multiple Ethernet packets, even though it is still a single unit to the upper-level code, and must be received, assembled, and acknowledged as a unit. The high-performance workstations can pump out the packets which comprise the NFS unit one right after the other, just as close together as the standard allows. On the smaller, lower capacity cards, the later packets overrun the earlier packets of the same unit before they can be transferred to the host and the unit as a whole cannot be reconstructed or acknowledged. As a result, the workstation will time out and try again, but it will try again with the entire 8K unit, and the process will be repeated, ad infinitum. By keeping the unit size below the Ethernet packet size limitation, we ensure that any complete Ethernet packet received can be acknowledged individually, avoiding the deadlock situation. Overruns may still occur when a high-performance workstations is slamming data out to a PC system, but with the better cards, such overruns are not guaranteed on NFS units. When an overrun occurs, the units affected will be retransmitted, and there will be a fair chance that they will be received, assembled, and acknowledged. Martin Renters Contributed by Diskless Operation diskless workstation netboot.com/netboot.rom allow you to boot your FreeBSD machine over the network and run FreeBSD without having a disk on your client. Under 2.0 it is now possible to have local swap. Swapping over NFS is also still supported. Supported Ethernet cards include: Western Digital/SMC 8003, 8013, 8216 and compatibles; NE1000/NE2000 and compatibles (requires recompile) Setup Instructions Find a machine that will be your server. This machine will require enough disk space to hold the FreeBSD 2.0 binaries and have bootp, tftp and NFS services available. Tested machines: HP-UX HP9000/8xx running HP-UX 9.04 or later (pre 9.04 does not work) Solaris Sun/Solaris 2.3. (you may need to get bootp) Set up a bootp server to provide the client with IP address, gateway, netmask. diskless:\ :ht=ether:\ :ha=0000c01f848a:\ :sm=255.255.255.0:\ :hn:\ :ds=192.1.2.3:\ :ip=192.1.2.4:\ :gw=192.1.2.5:\ :vm=rfc1048: TFTP bootp Set up a TFTP server (on same machine as bootp server) to provide booting information to client. The name of this file is cfg.X.X.X.X (or /tftpboot/cfg.X.X.X.X, it will try both) where X.X.X.X is the IP address of the client. The contents of this file can be any valid netboot commands. Under 2.0, netboot has the following commands: help print help list ip print/set client's IP address server print/set bootp/tftp server address netmask print/set netmask hostname name print/set hostname kernel print/set kernel name rootfs print/set root filesystem swapfs print/set swap filesystem swapsize set diskless swapsize in KBytes diskboot boot from disk autoboot continue boot process trans | turn transceiver on|off flags set boot flags A typical completely diskless config file might contain: rootfs 192.1.2.3:/rootfs/myclient swapfs 192.1.2.3:/swapfs swapsize 20000 hostname myclient.mydomain A config file for a machine with local swap might contain: rootfs 192.1.2.3:/rootfs/myclient hostname myclient.mydomain Ensure that your NFS server has exported the root (and swap if applicable) filesystems to your client, and that the client has root access to these filesystems A typical /etc/exports file on FreeBSD might look like: /rootfs/myclient -maproot=0:0 myclient.mydomain /swapfs -maproot=0:0 myclient.mydomain And on HP-UX: /rootfs/myclient -root=myclient.mydomain /swapfs -root=myclient.mydomain NFS swapping over If you are swapping over NFS (completely diskless configuration) create a swap file for your client using dd. If your swapfs command has the arguments /swapfs and the size 20000 as in the example above, the swapfile for myclient will be called /swapfs/swap.X.X.X.X where X.X.X.X is the client's IP address, e.g.: &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/swapfs/swap.192.1.2.4 bs=1k count=20000 Also, the client's swap space might contain sensitive information once swapping starts, so make sure to restrict read and write access to this file to prevent unauthorized access: &prompt.root; chmod 0600 /swapfs/swap.192.1.2.4 Unpack the root filesystem in the directory the client will use for its root filesystem (/rootfs/myclient in the example above). On HP-UX systems: The server should be running HP-UX 9.04 or later for HP9000/800 series machines. Prior versions do not allow the creation of device files over NFS. When extracting /dev in /rootfs/myclient, beware that some systems (HPUX) will not create device files that FreeBSD is happy with. You may have to go to single user mode on the first bootup (press control-c during the bootup phase), cd /dev and do a sh ./MAKEDEV all from the client to fix this. Run netboot.com on the client or make an EPROM from the netboot.rom file Using Shared <filename>/</filename> and <filename>/usr</filename> Filesystems Although this is not an officially sanctioned or supported way of doing this, some people report that it works quite well. If anyone has any suggestions on how to do this cleanly, please tell &a.doc;. Compiling Netboot for Specific Setups Netboot can be compiled to support NE1000/2000 cards by changing the configuration in /sys/i386/boot/netboot/Makefile. See the comments at the top of this file. ISDN A good resource for information on ISDN technology and hardware is Dan Kegel's ISDN Page. A quick simple road map to ISDN follows: If you live in Europe you might want to investigate the ISDN card section. If you are planning to use ISDN primarily to connect to the Internet with an Internet Provider on a dial-up non-dedicated basis, you might look into Terminal Adapters. This will give you the most flexibility, with the fewest problems, if you change providers. If you are connecting two LANs together, or connecting to the Internet with a dedicated ISDN connection, you might consider the stand alone router/bridge option. Cost is a significant factor in determining what solution you will choose. The following options are listed from least expensive to most expensive. Hellmuth Michaelis Contributed by ISDN Cards ISDN cards FreeBSD's ISDN implementation supports only the DSS1/Q.931 (or Euro-ISDN) standard using passive cards. Starting with FreeBSD 4.4, some active cards are supported where the firmware also supports other signaling protocols; this also includes the first supported Primary Rate (PRI) ISDN card. Isdn4bsd allows you to connect to other ISDN routers using either IP over raw HDLC or by using synchronous PPP: either by using kernel PPP with isppp, a modified sppp driver, or by using userland &man.ppp.8;. By using userland &man.ppp.8;, channel bonding of two or more ISDN B-channels is possible. A telephone answering machine application is also available as well as many utilities such as a software 300 Baud modem. Some growing number of PC ISDN cards are supported under FreeBSD and the reports show that it is successfully used all over Europe and in many other parts of the world. The passive ISDN cards supported are mostly the ones with the Infineon (formerly Siemens) ISAC/HSCX/IPAC ISDN chipsets, but also ISDN cards with chips from Cologne Chip (ISA bus only), PCI cards with Winbond W6692 chips, some cards with the Tiger300/320/ISAC chipset combinations and some vendor specific chipset based cards such as the AVM Fritz!Card PCI V.1.0 and the AVM Fritz!Card PnP. Currently the active supported ISDN cards are the AVM B1 (ISA and PCI) BRI cards and the AVM T1 PCI PRI cards. For documentation on isdn4bsd, have a look at /usr/share/examples/isdn/ directory on your FreeBSD system or at the homepage of isdn4bsd which also has pointers to hints, erratas and much more documentation such as the isdn4bsd handbook. In case you are interested in adding support for a different ISDN protocol, a currently unsupported ISDN PC card or otherwise enhancing isdn4bsd, please get in touch with hm@freebsd.org. For questions regarding the installation, configuration and troubleshooting isdn4bsd, a majordomo maintained mailing list is available. To join, send mail to majordomo@FreeBSD.org and specify: subscribe freebsd-isdn in the body of your message. ISDN Terminal Adapters Terminal adapters(TA), are to ISDN what modems are to regular phone lines. modem Most TA's use the standard hayes modem AT command set, and can be used as a drop in replacement for a modem. A TA will operate basically the same as a modem except connection and throughput speeds will be much faster than your old modem. You will need to configure PPP exactly the same as for a modem setup. Make sure you set your serial speed as high as possible. PPP The main advantage of using a TA to connect to an Internet Provider is that you can do Dynamic PPP. As IP address space becomes more and more scarce, most providers are not willing to provide you with a static IP anymore. Most stand-alone routers are not able to accommodate dynamic IP allocation. TA's completely rely on the PPP daemon that you are running for their features and stability of connection. This allows you to upgrade easily from using a modem to ISDN on a FreeBSD machine, if you already have PPP setup. However, at the same time any problems you experienced with the PPP program and are going to persist. If you want maximum stability, use the kernel PPP option, not the user-land iijPPP. The following TA's are know to work with FreeBSD. Motorola BitSurfer and Bitsurfer Pro Adtran Most other TA's will probably work as well, TA vendors try to make sure their product can accept most of the standard modem AT command set. The real problem with external TA's is like modems you need a good serial card in your computer. You should read the FreeBSD Serial Hardware tutorial for a detailed understanding of serial devices, and the differences between asynchronous and synchronous serial ports. A TA running off a standard PC serial port (asynchronous) limits you to 115.2Kbs, even though you have a 128Kbs connection. To fully utilize the 128Kbs that ISDN is capable of, you must move the TA to a synchronous serial card. Do not be fooled into buying an internal TA and thinking you have avoided the synchronous/asynchronous issue. Internal TA's simply have a standard PC serial port chip built into them. All this will do, is save you having to buy another serial cable, and find another empty electrical socket. A synchronous card with a TA is at least as fast as a stand-alone router, and with a simple 386 FreeBSD box driving it, probably more flexible. The choice of sync/TA v.s. stand-alone router is largely a religious issue. There has been some discussion of this in the mailing lists. I suggest you search the archives for the complete discussion. Stand-alone ISDN Bridges/Routers ISDN stand-alone bridges/routers ISDN bridges or routers are not at all specific to FreeBSD or any other operating system. For a more complete description of routing and bridging technology, please refer to a Networking reference book. In the context of this page, the terms router and bridge will be used interchangeably. As the cost of low end ISDN routers/bridges comes down, it will likely become a more and more popular choice. An ISDN router is a small box that plugs directly into your local Ethernet network, and manages its own connection to the other bridge/router. It has built in software to communicate via PPP and other popular protocols. A router will allow you much faster throughput that a standard TA, since it will be using a full synchronous ISDN connection. The main problem with ISDN routers and bridges is that interoperability between manufacturers can still be a problem. If you are planning to connect to an Internet provider, you should discuss your needs with them. If you are planning to connect two LAN segments together, such as your home LAN to the office LAN, this is the simplest lowest maintenance solution. Since you are buying the equipment for both sides of the connection you can be assured that the link will work. For example to connect a home computer or branch office network to a head office network the following setup could be used. Branch Office or Home Network 10 base 2 Network uses a bus based topology with 10 base 2 Ethernet ("thinnet"). Connect router to network cable with AUI/10BT transceiver, if necessary. ---Sun workstation | ---FreeBSD box | ---Windows 95 (Do not admit to owning it) | Stand-alone router | ISDN BRI line 10 Base 2 Ethernet If your home/branch office is only one computer you can use a twisted pair crossover cable to connect to the stand-alone router directly. Head Office or Other LAN 10 base T Network uses a star topology with 10 base T Ethernet ("Twisted Pair"). -------Novell Server | H | | ---Sun | | | U ---FreeBSD | | | ---Windows 95 | B | |___---Stand-alone router | ISDN BRI line ISDN Network Diagram One large advantage of most routers/bridges is that they allow you to have 2 separate independent PPP connections to 2 separate sites at the same time. This is not supported on most TA's, except for specific (usually expensive) models that have two serial ports. Do not confuse this with channel bonding, MPP, etc. This can be very useful feature if, for example, you have an dedicated ISDN connection at your office and would like to tap into it, but do not want to get another ISDN line at work. A router at the office location can manage a dedicated B channel connection (64Kbps) to the Internet and use the other B channel for a separate data connection. The second B channel can be used for dial-in, dial-out or dynamically bonding (MPP, etc.) with the first B channel for more bandwidth. IPX/SPX An Ethernet bridge will also allow you to transmit more than just IP traffic. You can also send IPX/SPX or whatever other protocols you use. Bill Swingle Written by Eric Ogren Enhanced by Udo Erdelhoff NIS/YP What Is It? NIS Solaris HP-UX AIX Linux NetBSD OpenBSD NIS, which stands for Network Information Services, was developed by Sun Microsystems to centralize administration of Unix (originally SunOS) systems. It has now essentially become an industry standard; all major Unix systems (Solaris, HP-UX, AIX, Linux, NetBSD, OpenBSD, FreeBSD, etc) support NIS. yellow pagesNIS NIS was formerly known as Yellow Pages, but because of trademark issues, Sun changed the name. The old term (and yp) is still often seen and used. NIS domains It is a RPC-based client/server system that allows a group of machines within an NIS domain to share a common set of configuration files. This permits a system administrator to set up NIS client systems with only minimal configuration data and add, remove or modify configuration data from a single location. Windows NT It is similar to Windows NT's domain system; although the internal implementation of the two are not at all similar, the basic functionality can be compared. Terms/Processes You Should Know There are several terms and several important user processes that you will come across when attempting to implement NIS on FreeBSD, whether you are trying to create an NIS server or act an NIS client: portmap Term Description NIS domainname An NIS master server and all of its clients (including its slave servers) have a NIS domainname. Similar to an NT domain name, the NIS domainname does not have anything to do with DNS. portmap Must be running in order to enable RPC (Remote Procedure Call, a network protocol used by NIS). If portmap is not running, it will be impossible to run an NIS server, or to act as an NIS client. ypbind “binds” an NIS client to its NIS server. It will take the NIS domainname from the system, and using RPC, connect to the server. ypbind is the core of client-server communication in an NIS environment; if ypbind dies on a client machine, it will not be able to access the NIS server. ypserv Should only be running on NIS servers, is the NIS server process itself. If &man.ypserv.8; dies, then the server will no longer be able to respond to NIS requests (hopefully, there is a slave server to take over for it). There are some implementations of NIS (but not the FreeBSD one), that do not try to reconnect to another server if the server it used before dies. Often, the only thing that helps in this case is to restart the server process (or even the whole server) or the ypbind process on the client. rpc.yppasswdd Another process that should only be running on NIS master servers, is a daemon that will allow NIS clients to change their NIS passwords. If this daemon is not running, users will have to login to the NIS master server and change their passwords there. How Does It Work? There are three types of hosts in an NIS environment: master servers, slave servers, and clients. Servers act as a central repository for host configuration information. Master servers hold the authoritative copy of this information, while slave servers mirror this information for redundancy. Clients rely on the servers to provide this information to them. Information in many files can be shared in this manner. The master.passwd, group, and hosts files are commonly shared via NIS. Whenever a process on a client needs information that would normally be found in these files locally, it makes a query to the NIS server that it is bound to instead. Machine Types NIS master server A NIS master server. This server, analogous to a Windows NT primary domain controller, maintains the files used by all of the NIS clients. The passwd, group, and other various files used by the NIS clients live on the master server. It is possible for one machine to be an NIS master server for more than one NIS domain. However, this will not be covered in this introduction, which assumes a relatively small-scale NIS environment. NIS slave server NIS slave servers. Similar to NT's backup domain controllers, NIS slave servers maintain copies of the NIS master's data files. NIS slave servers provide the redundancy, which is needed in important environments. They also help to balance the load of the master server: NIS Clients always attach to the NIS server whose response they get first, and this includes slave-server-replies. NIS client NIS clients. NIS clients, like most NT workstations, authenticate against the NIS server (or the NT domain controller in the NT Workstation case) to log on. Using NIS/YP This section will deal with setting up a sample NIS environment. This section assumes that you are running FreeBSD 3.3 or later. The instructions given here will probably work for any version of FreeBSD greater than 3.0, but there are no guarantees that this is true. Planning Let us assume that you are the administrator of a small university lab. This lab, which consists of 15 FreeBSD machines, currently has no centralized point of administration; each machine has its own /etc/passwd and /etc/master.passwd. These files are kept in sync with each other only through manual intervention; currently, when you add a user to the lab, you must run adduser on all 15 machines. Clearly, this has to change, so you have decided to convert the lab to use NIS, using two of the machines as servers. Therefore, the configuration of the lab now looks something like: Machine name IP address Machine role ellington 10.0.0.2 NIS master coltrane 10.0.0.3 NIS slave basie 10.0.0.4 Faculty workstation bird 10.0.0.5 Client machine cli[1-11] 10.0.0.[6-17] Other client machines If you are setting up a NIS scheme for the first time, it is a good idea to think through how you want to go about it. No matter what the size of your network, there are a few decisions that need to be made. Choosing a NIS Domain Name NIS domainname This might not be the domainname that you are used to. It is more accurately called the NIS domainname. When a client broadcasts its requests for info, it includes the name of the NIS domain that it is part of. This is how multiple servers on one network can tell which server should answer which request. Think of the NIS domainname as the name for a group of hosts that are related in some way. Some organizations choose to use their Internet domainname for their NIS domainname. This is not recommended as it can cause confusion when trying to debug network problems. The NIS domainname should be unique within your network and it is helpful if it describes the group of machines it represents. For example, the Art department at Acme Inc. might be in the "acme-art" NIS domain. For this example, assume you have chosen the name test-domain. SunOS However, some operating systems (notably SunOS) use their NIS domain name as their Internet domain name. If one or more machines on your network have this restriction, you must use the Internet domain name as your NIS domain name. Physical Server Requirements There are several things to keep in mind when choosing a machine to use as a NIS server. One of the unfortunate things about NIS is the level of dependency the clients have on the server. If a client cannot contact the server for its NIS domain, very often the machine becomes unusable. The lack of user and group information causes most systems to temporarily freeze up. With this in mind you should make sure to choose a machine that will not be prone to being rebooted regularly, or one that might be used for development. The NIS server should ideally be a stand alone machine whose sole purpose in life is to be an NIS server. If you have a network that is not very heavily used, it is acceptable to put the NIS server on a machine running other services, just keep in mind that if the NIS server becomes unavailable, it will affect all of your NIS clients adversely. NIS Servers The canonical copies of all NIS information are stored on a single machine called the NIS master server. The databases used to store the information are called NIS maps. In FreeBSD, these maps are stored in /var/yp/[domainname] where [domainname] is the name of the NIS domain being served. A single NIS server can support several domains at once, therefore it is possible to have several such directories, one for each supported domain. Each domain will have its own independent set of maps. NIS master and slave servers handle all NIS requests with the ypserv daemon. ypserv is responsible for receiving incoming requests from NIS clients, translating the requested domain and map name to a path to the corresponding database file and transmitting data from the database back to the client. Setting Up a NIS Master Server NIS server configuration Setting up a master NIS server can be relatively straight forward, depending on your needs. FreeBSD comes with support for NIS out-of-the-box. All you need is to add the following lines to /etc/rc.conf, and FreeBSD will do the rest for you. nisdomainname="test-domain" This line will set the NIS domainname to test-domain upon network setup (e.g. after reboot). nis_server_enable="YES" This will tell FreeBSD to start up the NIS server processes when the networking is next brought up. nis_yppasswdd_enable="YES" This will enable the rpc.yppasswdd daemon, which, as mentioned above, will allow users to change their NIS password from a client machine. Depending on your NIS setup, you may need to add further entries. See the section about NIS servers that are also NIS clients, below, for details. Now, all you have to do is to run the command /etc/netstart as superuser. It will setup everything for you, using the values you defined in /etc/rc.conf. Initializing the NIS Maps NIS maps The NIS maps are database files, that are kept in the /var/yp directory. They are generated from configuration files in the /etc directory of the NIS master, with one exception: the /etc/master.passwd file. This is for a good reason; you do not want to propagate passwords to your root and other administrative accounts to all the servers in the NIS domain. Therefore, before we initialize the NIS maps, you should: &prompt.root; cp /etc/master.passwd /var/yp/master.passwd &prompt.root; cd /var/yp &prompt.root; vi master.passwd You should remove all entries regarding system accounts (bin, tty, kmem, games, etc), as well as any accounts that you do not want to be propagated to the NIS clients (for example root and any other UID 0 (superuser) accounts). Make sure the /var/yp/master.passwd is neither group nor world readable (mode 600)! Use the chmod command, if appropriate. Tru64 Unix When you have finished, it is time to initialize the NIS maps! FreeBSD includes a script named ypinit to do this for you (see its manual page for more information). Note that this script is available on most Unix Operating Systems, but not on all. On Digital Unix/Compaq Tru64 Unix it is called ypsetup. Because we are generating maps for an NIS master, we are going to pass the option to ypinit. To generate the NIS maps, assuming you already performed the steps above, run: ellington&prompt.root; ypinit -m test-domain Server Type: MASTER Domain: test-domain Creating an YP server will require that you answer a few questions. Questions will all be asked at the beginning of the procedure. Do you want this procedure to quit on non-fatal errors? [y/n: n] n Ok, please remember to go back and redo manually whatever fails. If you don't, something might not work. At this point, we have to construct a list of this domains YP servers. rod.darktech.org is already known as master server. Please continue to add any slave servers, one per line. When you are done with the list, type a <control D>. master server : ellington next host to add: coltrane next host to add: ^D The current list of NIS servers looks like this: ellington coltrane Is this correct? [y/n: y] y [..output from map generation..] NIS Map update completed. ellington has been setup as an YP master server without any errors. ypinit should have created /var/yp/Makefile from /var/yp/Makefile.dist. When created, this file assumes that you are operating in a single server NIS environment with only FreeBSD machines. Since test-domain has a slave server as well, you must edit /var/yp/Makefile: ellington&prompt.root; vi /var/yp/Makefile You should comment out the line that says `NOPUSH = "True"' (if it is not commented out already). Setting up a NIS Slave Server NIS configuring a slave server Setting up an NIS slave server is even more simple than setting up the master. Log on to the slave server and edit the file /etc/rc.conf as you did before. The only difference is that we now must use the option when running ypinit. The option requires the name of the NIS master be passed to it as well, so our command line looks like: coltrane&prompt.root; ypinit -s ellington test-domain Server Type: SLAVE Domain: test-domain Master: ellington Creating an YP server will require that you answer a few questions. Questions will all be asked at the beginning of the procedure. Do you want this procedure to quit on non-fatal errors? [y/n: n] n Ok, please remember to go back and redo manually whatever fails. If you don't, something might not work. There will be no further questions. The remainder of the procedure should take a few minutes, to copy the databases from ellington. Transferring netgroup... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring netgroup.byuser... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring netgroup.byhost... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring master.passwd.byuid... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring passwd.byuid... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring passwd.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring group.bygid... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring group.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring services.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring rpc.bynumber... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring rpc.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring protocols.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring master.passwd.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring networks.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring networks.byaddr... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring netid.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring hosts.byaddr... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring protocols.bynumber... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring ypservers... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring hosts.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred coltrane has been setup as an YP slave server without any errors. Don't forget to update map ypservers on ellington. You should now have a directory called /var/yp/test-domain. Copies of the NIS master server's maps should be in this directory. You will need to make sure that these stay updated. The following /etc/crontab entries on your slave servers should do the job: 20 * * * * root /usr/libexec/ypxfr passwd.byname 21 * * * * root /usr/libexec/ypxfr passwd.byuid These two lines force the slave to sync its maps with the maps on the master server. Although these entries are not mandatory, since the master server attempts to ensure any changes to its NIS maps are communicated to its slaves and because password information is vital to systems depending on the server, it is a good idea to force the updates. This is more important on busy networks where map updates might not always complete. Now, run the command /etc/netstart on the slave server as well, which again starts the NIS server. NIS Clients An NIS client establishes what is called a binding to a particular NIS server using the ypbind daemon. ypbind checks the system's default domain (as set by the domainname command), and begins broadcasting RPC requests on the local network. These requests specify the name of the domain for which ypbind is attempting to establish a binding. If a server that has been configured to serve the requested domain receives one of the broadcasts, it will respond to ypbind, which will record the server's address. If there are several servers available (a master and several slaves, for example), ypbind will use the address of the first one to respond. From that point on, the client system will direct all of its NIS requests to that server. ypbind will occasionally ping the server to make sure it is still up and running. If it fails to receive a reply to one of its pings within a reasonable amount of time, ypbind will mark the domain as unbound and begin broadcasting again in the hopes of locating another server. Setting Up an NIS Client NIS client configuration Setting up a FreeBSD machine to be a NIS client is fairly straightforward. Edit the file /etc/rc.conf and add the following lines in order to set the NIS domainname and start ypbind upon network startup: nisdomainname="test-domain" nis_client_enable="YES" To import all possible password entries from the NIS server, remove all user accounts from your /etc/master.passwd file and use vipw to add the following line to the end of the file: +::::::::: This line will afford anyone with a valid account in the NIS server's password maps an account. There are many ways to configure your NIS client by changing this line. See the netgroups section below for more information. For more detailed reading see O'Reilly's book on Managing NFS and NIS. You should keep at least one local account (i.e. not imported via NIS) in your /etc/master.passwd and this account should also be a member of the group wheel. If there is something wrong with NIS, this account can be used to log in remotely, become root, and fix things. To import all possible group entries from the NIS server, add this line to your /etc/group file: +:*:: After completing these steps, you should be able to run ypcat passwd and see the NIS server's passwd map. NIS Security In general, any remote user can issue an RPC to &man.ypserv.8; and retrieve the contents of your NIS maps, provided the remote user knows your domainname. To prevent such unauthorized transactions, &man.ypserv.8; supports a feature called securenets which can be used to restrict access to a given set of hosts. At startup, &man.ypserv.8; will attempt to load the securenets information from a file called /var/yp/securenets. This path varies depending on the path specified with the option. This file contains entries that consist of a network specification and a network mask separated by white space. Lines starting with # are considered to be comments. A sample securenets file might look like this: # allow connections from local host -- mandatory 127.0.0.1 255.255.255.255 # allow connections from any host # on the 192.168.128.0 network 192.168.128.0 255.255.255.0 # allow connections from any host # between 10.0.0.0 to 10.0.15.255 # this includes the machines in the testlab 10.0.0.0 255.255.240.0 If &man.ypserv.8; receives a request from an address that matches one of these rules, it will process the request normally. If the address fails to match a rule, the request will be ignored and a warning message will be logged. If the /var/yp/securenets file does not exist, ypserv will allow connections from any host. The ypserv program also has support for Wietse Venema's tcpwrapper package. This allows the administrator to use the tcpwrapper configuration files for access control instead of /var/yp/securenets. While both of these access control mechanisms provide some security, they, like the privileged port test, are vulnerable to IP spoofing attacks. All NIS-related traffic should be blocked at your firewall. Servers using /var/yp/securenets may fail to serve legitimate NIS clients with archaic TCP/IP implementations. Some of these implementations set all host bits to zero when doing broadcasts and/or fail to observe the subnet mask when calculating the broadcast address. While some of these problems can be fixed by changing the client configuration, other problems may force the retirement of the client systems in question or the abandonment of /var/yp/securenets. Using /var/yp/securenets on a server with such an archaic implementation of TCP/IP is a really bad idea and will lead to loss of NIS functionality for large parts of your network. tcpwrapper The use of the tcpwrapper package increases the latency of your NIS server. The additional delay may be long enough to cause timeouts in client programs, especially in busy networks or with slow NIS servers. If one or more of your client systems suffers from these symptoms, you should convert the client systems in question into NIS slave servers and force them to bind to themselves. Barring Some Users from Logging On In our lab, there is a machine basie that is supposed to be a faculty only workstation. We do not want to take this machine out of the NIS domain, yet the passwd file on the master NIS server contains accounts for both faculty and students. What can we do? There is a way to bar specific users from logging on to a machine, even if they are present in the NIS database. To do this, all you must do is add -username to the end of the /etc/master.passwd file on the client machine, where username is the username of the user you wish to bar from logging in. This should preferably be done using vipw, since vipw will sanity check your changes to /etc/master.passwd, as well as automatically rebuild the password database when you finish editing. For example, if we wanted to bar user bill from logging on to basie we would: basie&prompt.root; vipw [add -bill to the end, exit] vipw: rebuilding the database... vipw: done basie&prompt.root; cat /etc/master.passwd root:[password]:0:0::0:0:The super-user:/root:/bin/csh toor:[password]:0:0::0:0:The other super-user:/root:/bin/sh daemon:*:1:1::0:0:Owner of many system processes:/root:/sbin/nologin operator:*:2:5::0:0:System &:/:/sbin/nologin bin:*:3:7::0:0:Binaries Commands and Source,,,:/:/sbin/nologin tty:*:4:65533::0:0:Tty Sandbox:/:/sbin/nologin kmem:*:5:65533::0:0:KMem Sandbox:/:/sbin/nologin games:*:7:13::0:0:Games pseudo-user:/usr/games:/sbin/nologin news:*:8:8::0:0:News Subsystem:/:/sbin/nologin man:*:9:9::0:0:Mister Man Pages:/usr/share/man:/sbin/nologin bind:*:53:53::0:0:Bind Sandbox:/:/sbin/nologin uucp:*:66:66::0:0:UUCP pseudo-user:/var/spool/uucppublic:/usr/libexec/uucp/uucico xten:*:67:67::0:0:X-10 daemon:/usr/local/xten:/sbin/nologin pop:*:68:6::0:0:Post Office Owner:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin nobody:*:65534:65534::0:0:Unprivileged user:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin +::::::::: -bill basie&prompt.root; Udo Erdelhoff Contributed by Using Netgroups netgroups The method shown in the previous section works reasonably well if you need special rules for a very small number of users and/or machines. On larger networks, you will forget to bar some users from logging onto sensitive machines, or you may even have to modify each machine separately, thus losing the main benefit of NIS, centralized administration. The NIS developers' solution for this problem is called netgroups. Their purpose and semantics can be compared to the normal groups used by Unix file systems. The main differences are the lack of a numeric id and the ability to define a netgroup by including both user accounts and other netgroups. Netgroups were developed to handle large, complex networks with hundreds of users and machines. On one hand, this is a Good Thing if you are forced to deal with such a situation. On the other hand, this complexity makes it almost impossible to explain netgroups with really simple examples. The example used in the remainder of this section demonstrates this problem. Let us assume that your successful introduction of NIS in your laboratory caught your superiors' interest. Your next job is to extend your NIS domain to cover some of the other machines on campus. The two tables contain the names of the new users and new machines as well as brief descriptions of them. User Name(s) Description alpha, beta Normal employees of the IT department charlie, delta The new apprentices of the IT department echo, foxtrott, golf, ... Ordinary employees able, baker, ... The current interns Machine Name(s) Description war, death, famine, pollution Your most important servers. Only the IT employees are allowed to log onto these machines. pride, greed, envy, wrath, lust, sloth Less important servers. All members of the IT department are allowed to login onto these machines. one, two, three, four, ... Ordinary workstations. Only the real employees are allowed to use these machines. trashcan A very old machine without any critical data. Even the intern is allowed to use this box. If you tried to implement these restrictions by separately blocking each user, you would have to add one -user line to each system's passwd for each user who is not allowed to login onto that system. If you forget just one entry, you could be in trouble. It may be feasible to do this correctly during the initial setup, however you will eventually forget to add the lines for new users during day-to-day operations. After all, Murphy was an optimist. Handling this situation with netgroups offers several advantages. Each user need not be handled separately; you assign a user to one or more netgroups and allow or forbid logins for all members of the netgroup. If you add a new machine, you will only have to define login restrictions for netgroups. If a new user is added, you will only have to add the user to one or more netgroups. Those changes are independent of each other; no more for each combination of user and machine do... If your NIS setup is planned carefully, you will only have to modify exactly one central configuration file to grant or deny access to machines. The first step is the initialization of the NIS map netgroup. FreeBSD's &man.ypinit.8; does not create this map by default, but its NIS implementation will support it once it has been created. To create an empty map, simply type ellington&prompt.root; vi /var/yp/netgroup and start adding content. For our example, we need at least four netgroups: IT employees, IT apprentices, normal employees and interns. IT_EMP (,alpha,test-domain) (,beta,test-domain) IT_APP (,charlie,test-domain) (,delta,test-domain) USERS (,echo,test-domain) (,foxtrott,test-domain) \ (,golf,test-domain) INTERNS (,able,test-domain) (,baker,test-domain) IT_EMP, IT_APP etc. are the names of the netgroups. Each bracketed group adds one or more user accounts to it. The three fields inside a group are: The name of the host(s) where the following items are valid. If you do not specify a hostname, the entry is valid on all hosts. If you do specify a hostname, you will enter a realm of darkness, horror and utter confusion. The name of the account that belongs to this netgroup. The NIS domain for the account. You can import accounts from other NIS domains into your netgroup if you are one of unlucky fellows with more than one NIS domain. Each of these fields can contain wildcards. See &man.netgroup.5; for details. netgroups Netgroup names longer than 8 characters should not be used, especially if you have machines running other operating systems within your NIS domain. The names are case sensitive; using capital letters for your netgroup names is an easy way to distinguish between user, machine and netgroup names. Some NIS clients (other than FreeBSD) cannot handle netgroups with a large number of entries. For example, some older versions of SunOS start to cause trouble if a netgroup contains more than 15 entries. You can circumvent this limit by creating several sub-netgroups with 15 users or less and a real netgroup that consists of the sub-netgroups: BIGGRP1 (,joe1,domain) (,joe2,domain) (,joe3,domain) [...] BIGGRP2 (,joe16,domain) (,joe17,domain) [...] BIGGRP3 (,joe31,domain) (,joe32,domain) BIGGROUP BIGGRP1 BIGGRP2 BIGGRP3 You can repeat this process if you need more than 225 users within a single netgroup. Activating and distributing your new NIS map is easy: ellington&prompt.root; cd /var/yp ellington&prompt.root; make This will generate the three NIS maps netgroup, netgroup.byhost and netgroup.byuser. Use &man.ypcat.1; to check if your new NIS maps are available: ellington&prompt.user; ypcat -k netgroup ellington&prompt.user; ypcat -k netgroup.byhost ellington&prompt.user; ypcat -k netgroup.byuser The output of the first command should resemble the contents of /var/yp/netgroup. The second command will not produce output if you have not specified host-specific netgroups. The third command can be used to get the list of netgroups for a user. The client setup is quite simple. To configure the server war, you only have to start &man.vipw.8; and replace the line +::::::::: with +@IT_EMP::::::::: Now, only the data for the users defined in the netgroup IT_EMP is imported into war's password database and only these users are allowed to login. Unfortunately, this limitation also applies to the ~ function of the shell and all routines converting between user names and numerical user ids. In other words, cd ~user will not work, ls -l will show the numerical id instead of the username and find . -user joe -print will fail with No such user. To fix this, you will have to import all user entries without allowing them to login onto your servers. This can be achieved by adding another line to /etc/master.passwd. This line should contain +:::::::::/sbin/nologin, meaning Import all entries but replace the shell with /sbin/nologin in the imported entries. You can replace any field in the passwd entry by placing a default value in your /etc/master.passwd. Make sure that the line +:::::::::/sbin/nologin is placed after +@IT_EMP:::::::::. Otherwise, all user accounts imported from NIS will have /sbin/nologin as their login shell. After this change, you will only have to change one NIS map if a new employee joins the IT department. You could use a similar approach for the less important servers by replacing the old +::::::::: in their local version of /etc/master.passwd with something like this: +@IT_EMP::::::::: +@IT_APP::::::::: +:::::::::/sbin/nologin The corresponding lines for the normal workstations could be: +@IT_EMP::::::::: +@USERS::::::::: +:::::::::/sbin/nologin And everything would be fine until there is a policy change a few weeks later: The IT department starts hiring interns. The IT interns are allowed to use the normal workstations and the less important servers; and the IT apprentices are allowed to login onto the main servers. You add a new netgroup IT_INTERN, add the new IT interns to this netgroup and start to change the config on each and every machine... As the old saying goes: Errors in centralized planning lead to global mess. NIS' ability to create netgroups from other netgroups can be used to prevent situations like these. One possibility is the creation of role-based netgroups. For example, you could create a netgroup called BIGSRV to define the login restrictions for the important servers, another netgroup called SMALLSRV for the less important servers and a third netgroup called USERBOX for the normal workstations. Each of these netgroups contains the netgroups that are allowed to login onto these machines. The new entries for your NIS map netgroup should look like this: BIGSRV IT_EMP IT_APP SMALLSRV IT_EMP IT_APP ITINTERN USERBOX IT_EMP ITINTERN USERS This method of defining login restrictions works reasonably well if you can define groups of machines with identical restrictions. Unfortunately, this is the exception and not the rule. Most of the time, you will need the ability to define login restrictions on a per-machine basis. Machine-specific netgroup definitions are the other possibility to deal with the policy change outlined above. In this scenario, the /etc/master.passwd of each box contains two lines starting with ``+''. The first of them adds a netgroup with the accounts allowed to login onto this machine, the second one adds all other accounts with /sbin/nologin as shell. It is a good idea to use the ALL-CAPS version of the machine name as the name of the netgroup. In other words, the lines should look like this: +@BOXNAME::::::::: +:::::::::/sbin/nologin Once you have completed this task for all your machines, you will not have to modify the local versions of /etc/master.passwd ever again. All further changes can be handled by modifying the NIS map. Here is an example of a possible netgroup map for this scenario with some additional goodies. # Define groups of users first IT_EMP (,alpha,test-domain) (,beta,test-domain) IT_APP (,charlie,test-domain) (,delta,test-domain) DEPT1 (,echo,test-domain) (,foxtrott,test-domain) DEPT2 (,golf,test-domain) (,hotel,test-domain) DEPT3 (,india,test-domain) (,juliet,test-domain) ITINTERN (,kilo,test-domain) (,lima,test-domain) D_INTERNS (,able,test-domain) (,baker,test-domain) # # Now, define some groups based on roles USERS DEPT1 DEPT2 DEPT3 BIGSRV IT_EMP IT_APP SMALLSRV IT_EMP IT_APP ITINTERN USERBOX IT_EMP ITINTERN USERS # # And a groups for a special tasks # Allow echo and golf to access our anti-virus-machine SECURITY IT_EMP (,echo,test-domain) (,golf,test-domain) # # machine-based netgroups # Our main servers WAR BIGSRV FAMINE BIGSRV # User india needs access to this server POLLUTION BIGSRV (,india,test-domain) # # This one is really important and needs more access restrictions DEATH IT_EMP # # The anti-virus-machine mentioned above ONE SECURITY # # Restrict a machine to a single user TWO (,hotel,test-domain) # [...more groups to follow] If you are using some kind of database to manage your user accounts, you should be able to create the first part of the map with your database's report tools. This way, new users will automatically have access to the boxes. One last word of caution: It may not always be advisable to use machine-based netgroups. If you are deploying a couple dozen or even hundreds of identical machines for student labs, you should use role-based netgroups instead of machine-based netgroups to keep the size of the NIS map within reasonable limits. Important Things to Remember There are still a couple of things that you will need to do differently now that you are in an NIS environment. Every time you wish to add a user to the lab, you must add it to the master NIS server only, and you must remember to rebuild the NIS maps. If you forget to do this, the new user will not be able to login anywhere except on the NIS master. For example, if we needed to add a new user “jsmith” to the lab, we would: &prompt.root; pw useradd jsmith &prompt.root; cd /var/yp &prompt.root; make test-domain You could also run adduser jsmith instead of pw useradd jsmith. Keep the administration accounts out of the NIS maps. You do not want to be propagating administrative accounts and passwords to machines that will have users that should not have access to those accounts. Keep the NIS master and slave secure, and minimize their downtime. If somebody either hacks or simply turns off these machines, they have effectively rendered many people without the ability to login to the lab. This is the chief weakness of any centralized administration system, and it is probably the most important weakness. If you do not protect your NIS servers, you will have a lot of angry users! NIS v1 Compatibility FreeBSD's ypserv has some support for serving NIS v1 clients. FreeBSD's NIS implementation only uses the NIS v2 protocol, however other implementations include support for the v1 protocol for backwards compatibility with older systems. The ypbind daemons supplied with these systems will try to establish a binding to an NIS v1 server even though they may never actually need it (and they may persist in broadcasting in search of one even after they receive a response from a v2 server). Note that while support for normal client calls is provided, this version of ypserv does not handle v1 map transfer requests; consequently, it cannot be used as a master or slave in conjunction with older NIS servers that only support the v1 protocol. Fortunately, there probably are not any such servers still in use today. NIS Servers that are also NIS Clients Care must be taken when running ypserv in a multi-server domain where the server machines are also NIS clients. It is generally a good idea to force the servers to bind to themselves rather than allowing them to broadcast bind requests and possibly become bound to each other. Strange failure modes can result if one server goes down and others are dependent upon on it. Eventually all the clients will time out and attempt to bind to other servers, but the delay involved can be considerable and the failure mode is still present since the servers might bind to each other all over again. You can force a host to bind to a particular server by running ypbind with the flag. If you do not want to do this manually each time you reboot your NIS server, you can add the following lines to your /etc/rc.conf: nis_client_enable="YES" # run client stuff as well nis_client_flags="-S NIS domain,server" See &man.ypbind.8; for further information. libscrypt v.s. libdescrypt NIS crypto library One of the most common issues that people run into when trying to implement NIS is crypt library compatibility. If your NIS server is using the DES crypt libraries, it will only support clients that are using DES as well. To check which one your server and clients are using look at the symlinks in /usr/lib. If the machine is configured to use the DES libraries, it will look something like this: &prompt.user; ls -l /usr/lib/*crypt* lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 13 Jul 15 08:55 libcrypt.a@ -> libdescrypt.a lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 14 Jul 15 08:55 libcrypt.so@ -> libdescrypt.so lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 16 Jul 15 08:55 libcrypt.so.2@ -> libdescrypt.so.2 lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 15 Jul 15 08:55 libcrypt_p.a@ -> libdescrypt_p.a -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 13018 Nov 8 14:27 libdescrypt.a lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 16 Nov 8 14:27 libdescrypt.so@ -> libdescrypt.so.2 -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 12965 Nov 8 14:27 libdescrypt.so.2 -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 14750 Nov 8 14:27 libdescrypt_p.a If the machine is configured to use the standard FreeBSD MD5 crypt libraries they will look something like this: &prompt.user; ls -l /usr/lib/*crypt* lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 13 Jul 15 08:55 libcrypt.a@ -> libscrypt.a lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 14 Jul 15 08:55 libcrypt.so@ -> libscrypt.so lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 16 Jul 15 08:55 libcrypt.so.2@ -> libscrypt.so.2 lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 15 Jul 15 08:55 libcrypt_p.a@ -> libscrypt_p.a -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 6194 Nov 8 14:27 libscrypt.a lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 14 Nov 8 14:27 libscrypt.so@ -> libscrypt.so.2 -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 7579 Nov 8 14:27 libscrypt.so.2 -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 6684 Nov 8 14:27 libscrypt_p.a If you have trouble authenticating on an NIS client, this is a pretty good place to start looking for possible problems. If you want to deploy an NIS server for a heterogenous network, you will probably have to use DES on all systems because it is the lowest common standard. Greg Sutter Written by DHCP What Is DHCP? Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol DHCP Internet Software Consortium (ISC) DHCP, the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, describes the means by which a system can connect to a network and obtain the necessary information for communication upon that network. FreeBSD uses the ISC (Internet Software Consortium) DHCP implementation, so all implementation-specific information here is for use with the ISC distribution. What this Section Covers This section attempts to describe only the parts of the DHCP system that are integrated with FreeBSD; consequently, the server portions are not described. The DHCP manual pages, in addition to the references below, are useful resources. How It Works UDP When dhclient, the DHCP client, is executed on the client machine, it begins broadcasting requests for configuration information. By default, these requests are on UDP port 68. The server replies on UDP 67, giving the client an IP address and other relevant network information such as netmask, router, and DNS servers. All of this information comes in the form of a DHCP "lease" and is only valid for a certain time (configured by the DHCP server maintainer). In this manner, stale IP addresses for clients no longer connected to the network can be automatically reclaimed. DHCP clients can obtain a great deal of information from the server. An exhaustive list may be found in &man.dhcp-options.5;. FreeBSD Integration FreeBSD fully integrates the ISC DHCP client, dhclient. DHCP client support is provided within both the installer and the base system, obviating the need for detailed knowledge of network configurations on any network that runs a DHCP server. dhclient has been included in all FreeBSD distributions since 3.2. sysinstall DHCP is supported by sysinstall. When configuring a network interface within sysinstall, the first question asked is, "Do you want to try DHCP configuration of this interface?" Answering affirmatively will execute dhclient, and if successful, will fill in the network configuration information automatically. There are two things you must do to have your system use DHCP upon startup: DHCP requirements Make sure that the bpf device is compiled into your kernel. To do this, add pseudo-device bpf to your kernel configuration file, and rebuild the kernel. For more information about building kernels, see . The bpf device is already part of the GENERIC kernel that is supplied with FreeBSD, so if you do not have a custom kernel, you should not need to create one in order to get DHCP working. For those who are particularly security conscious, you should be warned that bpf is also the device that allows packet sniffers to work correctly (although they still have to be run as root). bpf is required to use DHCP, but if you are very sensitive about security, you probably should not add bpf to your kernel in the expectation that at some point in the future you will be using DHCP. Edit your /etc/rc.conf to include the following: ifconfig_fxp0="DHCP" Be sure to replace fxp0 with the designation for the interface that you wish to dynamically configure. If you are using a different location for dhclient, or if you wish to pass additional flags to dhclient, also include the following (editing as necessary): dhcp_program="/sbin/dhclient" dhcp_flags="" DHCP server The DHCP server, dhcpd, is included as part of the isc-dhcp2 port in the ports collection. This port contains the full ISC DHCP distribution, consisting of client, server, relay agent and documentation. Files DHCP configuration files /etc/dhclient.conf dhclient requires a configuration file, /etc/dhclient.conf. Typically the file contains only comments, the defaults being reasonably sane. This configuration file is described by the &man.dhclient.conf.5; manual page. /sbin/dhclient dhclient is statically linked and resides in /sbin. The &man.dhclient.8; manual page gives more information about dhclient. /sbin/dhclient-script dhclient-script is the FreeBSD-specific DHCP client configuration script. It is described in &man.dhclient-script.8;, but should not need any user modification to function properly. /var/db/dhclient.leases The DHCP client keeps a database of valid leases in this file, which is written as a log. &man.dhclient.leases.5; gives a slightly longer description. Further Reading The DHCP protocol is fully described in RFC 2131. An informational resource has also been set up at dhcp.org. Chern Lee Contributed by DNS Overview BIND FreeBSD utilizes, by default, a version of BIND (Berkeley Internet Name Domain), which is the most common implementation of the DNS protocol. DNS is the protocol through which names are mapped to IP addresses, and vice versa. For example, a query for www.FreeBSD.org will receive a reply with the IP address of The FreeBSD Project's web server, whereas, a query for ftp.FreeBSD.org will return the IP address of the corresponding FTP machine. Likewise, the opposite can happen. A query for an IP address can resolve its hostname. It is not necessary to run a name server to perform DNS lookups on a system. DNS DNS is coordinated across the Internet through a somewhat complex system of authoritative root name servers, and other smaller-scale name servers who host and cache individual domain information. This document refers to BIND 8.x, as it is the stable version used in FreeBSD. BIND 9.x in FreeBSD can be installed through the net/bind9 port. RFC1034 and RFC1035 dictates the DNS protocol. Currently, BIND is maintained by the Internet Software Consortium (www.isc.org) Terminology To understand this document, some terms related to DNS must be understood. Term Definition forward DNS mapping of hostnames to IP addresses origin refers to the domain covered for the particular zone file named, bind, name server common names for the BIND name server package within FreeBSD resolver resolver a system process through which a machine queries a name server for zone information reverse DNS reverse DNS the opposite of forward DNS, mapping of IP addresses to hostnames root zone root zone literally, a ., refers to the root, or beginning zone. All zones fall under this, as do all files in fall under the root directory. It is the beginning of the Internet zone hierarchy. zone Each individual domain, subdomain, or area dictated by DNS zones examples Examples of zones: . is the root zone org. is a zone under the root zone foobardomain.org is a zone under the org. zone foo.foobardomain.org. is a subdomain, a zone under the foobardomain.org. zone 1.2.3.in-addr.arpa is a zone referencing all IP addresses which fall under the 3.2.1.* IP space. As one can see, the more specific part of a hostname appears to its left. For example, foobardomain.org. is more specific than org., as org. is more specific than the root zone. The layout of each part of a hostname is much like a filesystem: the /dev directory falls within the root, and so on. Reasons to Run a Name Server Name servers usually come in two forms: an authoritative name server, and a caching name server. An authoritative name server is needed when: one wants to serve DNS information to the world, replying authoritatively to queries. a domain, such as foobardomain.org, is registered and IP addresses need to be assigned to hostnames under it. an IP address block requires reverse DNS entries (IP to hostname). a backup name server, called a slave, must reply to queries when the primary is down or inaccessible. A caching name server is needed when: a local DNS server may cache and respond more quickly then querying an outside name server. a reduction in overall network traffic is desired. (DNS traffic has been measured to account for 5% or more of total Internet traffic) When one queries for www.FreeBSD.org, the resolver usually queries the uplink ISP's name server, and retrieves the reply. With a local, caching DNS server, the query only has to be made once to the outside world by the caching DNS server. Every additional query will not have to look to the outside of the local network, since the information is cached locally. How It Works In FreeBSD, the BIND daemon is called named for obvious reasons. File Description named the BIND daemon ndc name daemon control program /etc/namedb directory where BIND zone information resides /etc/namedb/named.conf daemon configuration file Zone files are usually contained within the /etc/namedb directory, and contain the DNS zone information served by the name server. Starting BIND BIND starting Since BIND is installed by default, configuring it all is relatively simple. To ensure the named daemon is started at boot, put the following modifications in /etc/rc.conf: named_enable="YES" To start the daemon manually (after configuring it) &prompt.root; ndc start Configuration Files BIND configuration files make-localhost Be sure to: &prompt.root; cd /etc/namedb &prompt.root; sh make-localhost to properly create the local reverse DNS zone file in /etc/namedb/localhost.rev. <filename>/etc/namedb/named.conf</filename> // $FreeBSD$ // // Refer to the named(8) manual page for details. If you are ever going // to setup a primary server, make sure you've understood the hairy // details of how DNS is working. Even with simple mistakes, you can // break connectivity for affected parties, or cause huge amount of // useless Internet traffic. options { directory "/etc/namedb"; // In addition to the "forwarders" clause, you can force your name // server to never initiate queries of its own, but always ask its // forwarders only, by enabling the following line: // // forward only; // If you've got a DNS server around at your upstream provider, enter // its IP address here, and enable the line below. This will make you // benefit from its cache, thus reduce overall DNS traffic in the Internet. /* forwarders { 127.0.0.1; }; */ Just as the comment says, to benefit from an uplink's cache, forwarders can be enabled here. Under normal circumstances, a name server will recursively query the Internet looking at certain name servers until it finds the answer it is looking for. Having this enabled will have it query the uplink's name server (or name server provided) first, taking advantage of its cache. If the uplink name server in question is a heavily trafficked, fast name server, enabling this may be worthwhile. 127.0.0.1 will not work here. Change this IP address to a name server at your uplink. /* * If there is a firewall between you and name servers you want * to talk to, you might need to uncomment the query-source * directive below. Previous versions of BIND always asked * questions using port 53, but BIND 8.1 uses an unprivileged * port by default. */ // query-source address * port 53; /* * If running in a sandbox, you may have to specify a different * location for the dumpfile. */ // dump-file "s/named_dump.db"; }; // Note: the following will be supported in a future release. /* host { any; } { topology { 127.0.0.0/8; }; }; */ // Setting up secondaries is way easier and the rough picture for this // is explained below. // // If you enable a local name server, don't forget to enter 127.0.0.1 // into your /etc/resolv.conf so this server will be queried first. // Also, make sure to enable it in /etc/rc.conf. zone "." { type hint; file "named.root"; }; zone "0.0.127.IN-ADDR.ARPA" { type master; file "localhost.rev"; }; zone "0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.IP6.INT" { type master; file "localhost.rev"; }; // NB: Do not use the IP addresses below, they are faked, and only // serve demonstration/documentation purposes! // // Example secondary config entries. It can be convenient to become // a secondary at least for the zone where your own domain is in. Ask // your network administrator for the IP address of the responsible // primary. // // Never forget to include the reverse lookup (IN-ADDR.ARPA) zone! // (This is the first bytes of the respective IP address, in reverse // order, with ".IN-ADDR.ARPA" appended.) // // Before starting to setup a primary zone, better make sure you fully // understand how DNS and BIND works, however. There are sometimes // unobvious pitfalls. Setting up a secondary is comparably simpler. // // NB: Don't blindly enable the examples below. :-) Use actual names // and addresses instead. // // NOTE!!! FreeBSD runs bind in a sandbox (see named_flags in rc.conf). // The directory containing the secondary zones must be write accessible // to bind. The following sequence is suggested: // // mkdir /etc/namedb/s // chown bind:bind /etc/namedb/s // chmod 750 /etc/namedb/s For more information on running BIND in a sandbox, see Running named in a sandbox. /* zone "domain.com" { type slave; file "s/domain.com.bak"; masters { 192.168.1.1; }; }; zone "0.168.192.in-addr.arpa" { type slave; file "s/0.168.192.in-addr.arpa.bak"; masters { 192.168.1.1; }; }; */ In named.conf, these are examples of slave entries for a forward and reverse zone. For each new zone served, a new zone entry must be added to named.conf For example, the simplest zone entry for foobardomain.org can look like: zone "foobardomain.org" { type master; file "foobardomain.org"; }; The zone is a master, as indicated by the statement, holding its zone information in /etc/namedb/foobardomain.org indicated by the statement. zone "foobardomain.org" { type slave; file "foobardomain.org"; }; In the slave case, the zone information is transferred from the master name server for the particular zone, and saved in the file specified. If and when the master server dies or is unreachable, the slave name server will have the transferred zone information and will be able to serve it. Zone Files An example master zone file for foobardomain.org (existing within /etc/namedb/foobardomain.org) is as follows: $TTL 3600 foobardomain.org. IN SOA ns1.foobardomain.org. admin.foobardomain.org. ( 5 ; Serial 10800 ; Refresh 3600 ; Retry 604800 ; Expire 86400 ) ; Minimum TTL ; DNS Servers @ IN NS ns1.foobardomain.org. @ IN NS ns2.foobardomain.org. ; Machine Names localhost IN A 127.0.0.1 ns1 IN A 3.2.1.2 ns2 IN A 3.2.1.3 mail IN A 3.2.1.10 @ IN A 3.2.1.30 ; Aliases www IN CNAME @ ; MX Record @ IN MX 10 mail.foobardomain.org. Note that every hostname ending in a . is an exact hostname, whereas everything without a trailing . is referenced to the origin. For example, www is translated into www + origin. In our fictitious zone file, our origin is foobardomain.org., so www would translate to www.foobardomain.org. The format of a zone file follows: recordname IN recordtype value DNS records The most commonly used DNS records: SOA start of zone authority NS an authoritative name server A A host address CNAME the canonical name for an alias MX mail exchange PTR a domain name pointer (used in reverse DNS) foobardomain.org. IN SOA ns1.foobardomain.org. admin.foobardomain.org. ( 5 ; Serial 10800 ; Refresh after 3 hours 3600 ; Retry after 1 hour 604800 ; Expire after 1 week 86400 ) ; Minimum TTL of 1 day foobardomain.org. the domain name, also the origin for this zone file. ns1.foobardomain.org. the primary/authoritative name server for this zone admin.foobardomain.org. the responsible person for this zone, email address with @ replaced. (admin@foobardomain.org becomes admin.foobardomain.org) 5 the serial number of the file. this must be incremented each time the zone file is modified. Nowadays, many admins prefer a yyyymmddrr format for the serial number. 2001041002 would mean last modified 04/10/2001, the latter 02 being the second time the zone file has been modified this day. The serial number is important as it alerts slave name servers for a zone when it is updated. @ IN NS ns1.foobardomain.org. This is an NS entry. Every name server that is going to reply authoritatively for the zone must have one of these entries. The @ as seen here could have been foobardomain.org. The @ translates to the origin. localhost IN A 127.0.0.1 ns1 IN A 3.2.1.2 ns2 IN A 3.2.1.3 mail IN A 3.2.1.10 @ IN A 3.2.1.30 The A record indicates machine names. As seen above, ns1.foobardomain.org would resolve to 3.2.1.2. Again, the origin symbol, @, is used here, thus meaning foobardomain.org would resolve to 3.2.1.30. www IN CNAME @ The canonical name record is usually used for giving aliases to a machine. In the example, www is aliased to the machine addressed to the origin, or foobardomain.org (3.2.1.30). CNAMEs can be used to provide alias hostnames, or round robin one hostname among multiple machines. @ IN MX 10 mail.foobardomain.org. The MX record indicates which mail servers are responsible for handling incoming mail for the zone. mail.foobardomain.org is the hostname of the mail server, and 10 being the priority of that mail server. One can have several mail servers, with priorities of 3, 2, 1. A mail server attempting to deliver to foobardomain.org would first try the highest priority MX, then the second highest, etc, until the mail can be properly delivered. For in-addr.arpa zone files (reverse DNS), the same format is used, except with PTR entries instead of A or CNAME. $TTL 3600 1.2.3.in-addr.arpa. IN SOA ns1.foobardomain.org. admin.foobardomain.org. ( 5 ; Serial 10800 ; Refresh 3600 ; Retry 604800 ; Expire 3600 ) ; Minimum @ IN NS ns1.foobardomain.org. @ IN NS ns2.foobardomain.org. 2 IN PTR ns1.foobardomain.org. 3 IN PTR ns2.foobardomain.org. 10 IN PTR mail.foobardomain.org. 30 IN PTR foobardomain.org. This file gives the proper IP address to hostname mappings of our above fictitious domain. Caching Name Server BIND caching name server A caching name server is a name server that is not authoritative for any zones. It simply asks queries of its own, and remembers them for later use. To set one up, just configure the name server as usual, omitting any inclusions of zones. Mike Makonnen Contributed by Running named in a Sandbox BIND running in a sandbox chroot For added security you may want to run &man.named.8; in a sandbox. This will reduce the potential damage should it be compromised. If you include a sandbox directory in its command line, named will &man.chroot.8; into that directory immediately upon finishing processing its command line. It is also a good idea to have named run as a non-privileged user in the sandbox. The default FreeBSD install contains a user bind with group bind. If we wanted the sandbox in the /etc/namedb/sandbox directory the command line for named would look like this: &prompt.root; /usr/sbin/named -u bind -g bind -t /etc/namedb/sandbox <path_to_named.conf> The following steps should be taken in order to successfully run named in a sandbox. Throughout the following discussion we will assume the path to your sandbox is /etc/namedb/sandbox Create the sandbox directory: /etc/namedb/sandbox Create other necessary directories off of the sandbox directory: etc and var/run copy /etc/localtime to sandbox/etc make bind:bind the owner of all files and directories in the sandbox: &prompt.root; chown -R bind:bind /etc/namedb/sandbox &prompt.root; chmod -R 750 /etc/namedb/sandbox There are some issues you need to be aware of when running named in a sandbox. Your &man.named.conf.5; file and all your zone files must be in the sandbox sandbox/etc/localtime is needed in order to have the correct time for your time zone in log messages. &man.named.8; will write its process id to a file in sandbox/var/run The Unix socket used for communication by the &man.ndc.8; utility will be created in sandbox/var/run When using the &man.ndc.8; utility you need to specify the location of the Unix socket created in the sandbox, by &man.named.8;, by using the -c switch: &prompt.root; ndc -c /etc/namedb/sandbox/var/run/ndc If you enable logging to file, the log files must be in the sandbox &man.named.8; can be started in a sandbox properly, if the following is in /etc/rc.conf: named_flags="-u bind -g bind -t /etc/namedb/sandbox <path_to_named.conf>" How to Use the Name Server If setup properly, the name server should be accessible through the network and locally. /etc/resolv.conf must contain a name server entry with the local IP address so it will query the local name server first. To access it over the network, the machine must have the name server's IP address set properly in its own name server configuration options. Security Although BIND is the most common implementation of DNS, there is always the issue of security. Possible and exploitable security holes are sometimes found. It is a good idea to subscribe to CERT and freebsd-announce to stay up to date with the current Internet and FreeBSD security issues. If a problem arises, keeping sources up to date and having a fresh build of named would not hurt. Further Reading BIND/named manual pages: &man.ndc.8; &man.named.8; &man.named.conf.5; Official ISC Bind Page BIND FAQ O'Reilly DNS and BIND 4th Edition RFC1034 - Domain Names - Concepts and Facilities RFC1035 - Domain Names - Implementation and Specification Tom Hukins Contributed by NTP Overview NTP (Network Time Protocol) Over time, a computer's clock is prone to drift. As time passes, the computer's clock becomes less accurate. NTP (Network Time Protocol) is one way to ensure your clock is right. Many Internet services rely on, or greatly benefit from, computers' clocks being accurate. For example, a Web server may receive requests to send a file if it has modified since a certain time. Services such as &man.cron.8; run commands at a given time. If the clock is inaccurate, these commands may not run when expected. ntpd FreeBSD ships with the &man.ntpd.8; NTP server which can be used to query other NTP servers to set the clock on your machine or provide time services to others. Choosing appropriate NTP servers In order to synchronize your clock, you will need to find one or more NTP servers to use. Your network administrator or ISP may have setup an NTP server for this purpose—check their documentation to see if this is the case. There is a list of publicly accessible NTP servers which you can use to find an NTP server near to you. Make sure you are aware of the policy for any servers you choose, and ask for permission if required. Choosing several unconnected NTP servers is a good idea in case one of the servers you are using becomes unreachable or its clock is unreliable. &man.ntpd.8; uses the responses it receives from other servers intelligently—it will favor unreliable servers less than reliable ones. Configuring your machine Basic Configuration ntpdate If you only wish to synchronize your clock when the machine boots up, you can use &man.ntpdate.8;. This may be appropriate for some desktop machines which are frequently rebooted and only require infrequent synchronization, but most machines should run &man.ntpd.8;. Using &man.ntpdate.8; at boot time is also a good idea for machines that run &man.ntpd.8;. &man.ntpd.8; changes the clock gradually, whereas &man.ntpdate.8; sets the clock, no matter how great the difference between a machine's current clock setting and the correct time. To enable &man.ntpdate.8; at boot time, add ntpdate_enable="YES" to /etc/rc.conf. You will also need to specify all servers you wish to synchronize with and any flags to be passed to &man.ntpdate.8; in ntpdate_flags. ntp.conf General Configuration NTP is configured by the /etc/ntp.conf file in the format described in &man.ntp.conf.5;. Here is a simple example: server ntplocal.example.com prefer server timeserver.foobardomain.org server ntp2a.example.net driftfile /var/db/ntp.drift The server option specifies which servers are to be used, with one server listed on each line. If a server is specified with the prefer argument, as with ntplocal.example.com, that server is preferred over other servers. A response from a preferred server will be discarded if it differs significantly from other servers' responses, otherwise it will be used without any consideration to other responses. The prefer argument is normally used for NTP servers that are known to be highly accurate, such as those with special time monitoring hardware. The driftfile option specifies which file is used to store the system clock's frequency offset. &man.ntpd.8; uses this to automatically compensate for the clock's natural drift, allowing it to maintain a reasonably correct setting even if it is cut off from all external time sources for a period of time. The driftfile option specifies which file is used to store information about previous responses from the NTP servers you are using. This file contains internal information for NTP. It should not be modified by any other process. Controlling access to your server By default, your NTP server will be accessible to all hosts on the Internet. The restrict option in &man.ntp.conf.5; allows you to control which machines can access your server. If you want to deny all machines from accessing your NTP server, add the line restrict default ignore to /etc/ntp.conf. If you only want to allow machines within your own network to synchronize their clocks with your server, but ensure they are not allowed to configure the server or used as peers to synchronize against, add restrict 192.168.1.0 mask 255.255.255.0 notrust nomodify notrap instead, where 192.168.1.0 in an IP address on your network and 255.255.255.0 is your network's netmask. /etc/ntp.conf can contain multiple restrict options. For more details, see the Access Control Support subsection of &man.ntp.conf.5;. Running the NTP server To ensure the NTP server is started at boot time, add the line xntpd_enable="YES" to /etc/rc.conf. If you wish to pass additional flags to &man.ntpd.8; edit the xntpd_flags parameter in /etc/rc.conf. To start the server without rebooting your machine, run ntpd being sure to specify any additional parameters from xntpd_flags in /etc/rc.conf. For example: &prompt.root; ntpd -p /var/run/ntpd.pid Using &man.ntpd.8; with a temporary Internet connection ntpd does not need a permanent connection to the Internet to function properly. However, if you have a temporary connection that is configured to dial out on demand, it is a good idea to prevent NTP traffic from triggering a dial out or keeping the connection alive. If you are using user PPP, you can use filter directives in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. For example: set filter dial 0 deny udp src eq 123 # Prevent NTP traffic from initiating dial out set filter dial 1 permit 0 0 set filter alive 0 deny udp src eq 123 # Prevent incoming NTP traffic from keeping the connection open set filter alive 1 deny udp dst eq 123 # Prevent outgoing NTP traffic from keeping the connection open set filter alive 2 permit 0/0 0/0 For more details see the PACKET FILTERING section in &man.ppp.8; and the examples in /usr/share/examples/ppp/. Some Internet access providers block low-numbered ports, preventing NTP from from functioning since replies never reach your machine. Further Information Documentation for the NTP server can be found in /usr/share/doc/ntp/ in HTML format. Chern Lee Contributed by Network Address Translation Overview natd FreeBSD's Network Address Translation daemon, commonly known as &man.natd.8; is a daemon that accepts incoming raw IP packets, changes the source to the local machine and re-injects these packets back into the outgoing IP packet stream. natd does this by changing the source IP address and port such that when data is received back, it is able to determine the original location of the data and forward it back to its original requester. Internet connection sharing IP masquerading The most common use of NAT is to perform what is commonly known as Internet Connection Sharing. Setup Due to the diminishing IP space in IPv4, and the increased number of users on high-speed consumer lines such as cable or DSL, people are in more and more need of an Internet Connection Sharing solution. The ability to connect several computers online through one connection and IP address makes &man.natd.8; a reasonable choice. Most commonly, a user has a machine connected to a cable or DSL line with one IP address and wishes to use this one connected computer to provide Internet access to several more over a LAN. To do this, the FreeBSD machine on the Internet must act as a gateway. This gateway machine must have two NICs--one for connecting to the Internet router, the other connecting to a LAN. All the machines on the LAN are connected through a hub or switch. _______ __________ ________ | | | | | | | Hub |-----| Client B |-----| Router |----- Internet |_______| |__________| |________| | ____|_____ | | | Client A | |__________| Network Layout With this setup, the machine without Internet access can use the machine with access as a gateway to access the outside world. kernel configuration Configuration The following options must be in the kernel configuration file: options IPFIREWALL options IPDIVERT Additionally, at choice, the following may also be suitable: options IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE The following must be in /etc/rc.conf: gateway_enable="YES" firewall_enable="YES" firewall_type="OPEN" natd_enable="YES" natd_interface="fxp0" natd_flags="" gateway_enable="YES" Sets up the machine to act as a gateway. Running sysctl -w net.inet.ip.forwarding=1 would have the same effect. firewall_enable="YES" Enables the firewall rules in /etc/rc.firewall at boot. firewall_type="OPEN" This specifies a predefined firewall ruleset that allows anything in. See /etc/rc.firewall for additional types. natd_interface="fxp0" Indicates which interface to forward packets through. (the interface connected to the Internet) natd_flags="" Any additional configuration options passed to &man.natd.8; on boot. Having the previous options defined in /etc/rc.conf would run natd -interface fxp0 at boot. This can also be run manually. Each machine and interface behind the LAN should be assigned IP address numbers in the private network space as defined by RFC 1918 and have a default gateway of the natd machine's internal IP address. For example, client a and b behind the LAN have IP addresses of 192.168.0.2 and 192.168.0.3, while the natd machine's LAN interface has an IP address of 192.168.0.1. Client a and b's default gateway must be set to that of the natd machine, 192.168.0.1. The natd machine's external, or Internet interface does not require any special modification for natd to work. Port Redirection The drawback with natd is that the LAN clients are not accessible from the Internet. Clients on the LAN can make outgoing connections to the world but cannot receive incoming ones. This presents a problem if trying to run Internet services on one of the LAN client machines. A simple way around this is to redirect selected Internet ports on the natd machine to a LAN client. For example, an IRC server runs on Client A, and a web server runs on Client B. For this to work properly, connections received on ports 6667 (irc) and 80 (web) must be redirected to the respective machines. The -redirect_port must be passed to &man.natd.8; with the proper options. The syntax is as follows: -redirect_port proto targetIP:targetPORT[-targetPORT] [aliasIP:]aliasPORT[-aliasPORT] [remoteIP[:remotePORT[-remotePORT]]] In the above example, the argument should be: -redirect_port tcp 192.168.0.2:6667 6667 -redirect_port tcp 192.168.0.3:80 80 This will redirect the proper tcp ports to the LAN client machines. The -redirect_port argument can be used to indicate port ranges over individual ports. For example, tcp 192.168.0.2:2000-3000 2000-3000 would redirect all connections received on ports 2000 to 3000 to ports 2000 to 3000 on Client A. These options can be used when directly running &man.natd.8; or placed within the natd_flags="" option in /etc/rc.conf. For further configuration options, consult &man.natd.8; Address Redirection address redirection Address redirection is useful if several IP addresses are available, yet they must be on one machine. With this, &man.natd.8; can assign each LAN client its own external IP address. &man.natd.8; then rewrites outgoing packets from the LAN clients with the proper external IP address and redirects all traffic incoming on that particular IP address back to the specific LAN client. This is also known as static NAT. For example, the IP addresses 128.1.1.1, 128.1.1.2, and 128.1.1.3 belong to the natd gateway machine. 128.1.1.1 can be used as the natd gateway machine's external IP address, while 128.1.1.2 and 128.1.1.3 are forwarded back to LAN clients A and B. The -redirect_address syntax is as follows: localIP The internal IP address of the LAN client. publicIP The external IP address corresponding to the LAN client. In the example, this argument would read: Like -redirect_port, these arguments are also placed within natd_flags of /etc/rc.conf. With address redirection, there is no need for port redirection since all data received on a particular IP address is redirected. The external IP addresses on the natd machine must be active and aliased to the external interface. Look at &man.rc.conf.5; to do so. Chern Lee Contributed by inetd <quote>Super-Server</quote> Overview &man.inetd.8; is referred to as the Internet Super-Server because it manages connections for several daemons. Programs that provide network service are commonly known as daemons. inetd serves as a managing server for other daemons. When a connection is received by inetd, it determines which daemon the connection is destined for, spawns the particular daemon and delegates the socket to it. Running one instance of inetd reduces the overall system load as compared to running each daemon individually in stand-alone mode. Primarily, inetd is used to spawn other daemons, but several trivial protocols are handled directly, such as chargen, auth, and daytime. This section will cover the basics in configuring inetd through its command-line options and its configuration file, /etc/inetd.conf. Settings inetd is initialized through the /etc/rc.conf system. The inetd_enable option is set to NO by default, but is often times turned on by sysinstall with the medium security profile. Placing: inetd_enable="YES" or inetd_enable="NO" into /etc/rc.conf can enable or disable inetd starting at boot time. Additionally, different command-line options can be passed to inetd via the inetd_flags option. Command-Line Options inetd sypnosis: -d Turn on debugging. -l Turn on logging of successful connections. -w Turn on TCP Wrapping for external services. (on by default) -W Turn on TCP Wrapping for internal services which are built in to inetd. (on by default) -c maximum Specify the default maximum number of simultaneous invocations of each service; the default is unlimited. May be overridden on a per-service basis with the parameter. -C rate Specify the default maximum number of times a service can be invoked from a single IP address in one minute; the default is unlimited. May be overridden on a per-service basis with the parameter. -R rate Specify the maximum number of times a service can be invoked in one minute; the default is 256. A rate of 0 allows an unlimited number of invocations. -a Specify one specific IP address to bind to. Alternatively, a hostname can be specified, in which case the IPv4 or IPv6 address which corresponds to that hostname is used. Usually a hostname is specified when inetd is run inside a &man.jail.8;, in which case the hostname corresponds to the &man.jail.8; environment. When hostname specification is used and both IPv4 and IPv6 bindings are desired, one entry with the appropriate protocol type for each binding is required for each service in /etc/inetd.conf. For example, a TCP-based service would need two entries, one using ``tcp4'' for the protocol and the other using ``tcp6''. -p Specify an alternate file in which to store the process ID. These options can be passed to inetd using the inetd_flags option in /etc/rc.conf. By default, inetd_flags is set to -wW, which turns on TCP wrapping for inetd's internal and external services. For novice users, these parameters usually do not need to be modified or even entered in /etc/rc.conf An external service is a daemon outside of inetd, which is invoked when a connection is received for it. On the other hand, an internal service is one that inetd has the facility of offering within itself. <filename>inetd.conf</filename> Configuration of inetd is controlled through the /etc/inetd.conf file. When a modification is made to /etc/inetd.conf, inetd can be forced to re-read its configuration file by sending a HangUP signal to the inetd process as shown: Sending <application>inetd</application> a HangUP Signal &prompt.root kill -HUP `cat /var/run/inetd.pid` Each line of the configuration file specifies an individual daemon. Comments in the file are preceded by a #. The format of /etc/inetd.conf is as follows: service-name socket-type protocol {wait|nowait}[/max-child[/max-connections-per-ip-per-minute]] user[:group][/login-class] server-program server-program-arguments An example entry for the ftpd daemon using IPv4: ftp stream tcp nowait root /usr/libexec/ftpd ftpd -l service-name This is the service name of the particular daemon. It must correspond to a service listed in /etc/services. This determines which port inetd must listen to. If a new service is being created, it must be placed in /etc/services first. socket-type Either stream, dgram, raw, or seqpacket. stream must be used for connection-based, TCP daemons, while dgram is used for daemons utilizing the UDP transport protocol. protocol One of the following: Protocol Explanation tcp, tcp4 TCP IPv4 udp, udp4 UDP IPv4 tcp6 TCP IPv6 udp6 UDP IPv6 tcp46 Both TCP IPv4 and v6 udp46 Both UDP IPv4 and v6 {wait|nowait}[/max-child[/max-connections-per-ip-per-minute]] indicates whether the daemon invoked from inetd is able to handle its own socket or not. socket types must use the wait option, while stream socket daemons, which are usually multi-threaded, should use . usually hands off multiple sockets to a single daemon, while spawns a child daemon for each new socket. The maximum number of child daemons inetd may spawn can be set using the option. If a limit of ten instances of a particular daemon is needed, a /10 would be placed after . In addition to another option limiting the maximum connections from a single place to a particular daemon can be enabled. does just this. A value of ten here would limit any particular IP address connecting to a particular service to ten attempts per minute. This is useful to prevent intentional or unintentional resource consumption and Denial of Service (DoS) attacks to a machine. In this field, or is mandatory. and are optional. A stream-type multi-threaded daemon without any or limits would simply be: nowait The same daemon with a maximum limit of ten daemons would read: nowait/10 Additionally, the same setup with a limit of twenty connections per IP address per minute and a maximum total limit of ten child daemons would read: nowait/10/20 These options are all utilized by the default settings of the fingerd daemon, as seen here: finger stream tcp nowait/3/10 nobody /usr/libexec/fingerd fingerd -s user The user is the username that the particular daemon should run as. Most commonly, daemons run as the root user. For security purposes, it is common to find some servers running as the daemon user, or the least privileged nobody user. server-program The full path of the daemon to be executed when a connection is received. If the daemon is a service provided by inetd internally, then should be used. server-program-arguments This works in conjunction with by specifying the arguments, starting with argv[0], passed to the daemon on invocation. If mydaemon -d is the command line, mydaemon -d would be the value of . Again, if the daemon is an internal service, use here. Security Depending on the security profile chosen at install, many of inetd's daemons may be enabled by default. If there is no apparent need for a particular daemon, disable it! Place a # in front of the daemon in question, and send a hangup signal to inetd. Some daemons, such as fingerd, may not be desired at all because they provide an attacker with too much information. Some daemons are not security-conscious and have long, or non-existent timeouts for connection attempts. This allows an attacker to slowly send connections to a particular daemon, thus saturating available resources. It may be a good idea to place and limitations on certain daemons. By default, TCP wrapping is turned on. Consult the &man.hosts.access.5; manual page for more information on placing TCP restrictions on various inetd invoked daemons. Miscellaneous daytime, time, echo, discard, chargen, and auth are all internally provided services of inetd. The auth service provides identity (ident, identd) network services, and is configurable to a certain degree. Consult the &man.inetd.8; manual page for more in-depth information. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/basics/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/basics/chapter.sgml index 95b9c91b2e..313c34346d 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/basics/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/basics/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1450 +1,1450 @@ Chris Shumway Rewritten by Unix Basics Synopsis basics The following chapter will cover the basic commands and functionality of the FreeBSD operating system. Much of this material is relevant for any Unix-like operating system. Feel free to skim over this chapter if you are familiar with the material. If you are new to FreeBSD, then you will definitely want to read through this chapter carefully. - After reading this chapter you will know: + After reading this chapter, you will know: How Unix file permissions work. What processes, daemons, and signals are. What a shell is, and how to change your default login environment. How to use basic text editors. How to read manual pages for more information. Permissions Unix FreeBSD, being a direct descendant of BSD Unix, is based on several key Unix concepts. The first, and most pronounced, is that FreeBSD is a multi-user operating system. The system can handle several users all working simultaneously on completely unrelated tasks. The system is responsible for properly sharing and managing requests for hardware devices, peripherals, memory, and CPU time evenly to each user. Because the system is capable of supporting multiple users, everything the system manages has a set of permissions governing who can read, write, and execute the resource. These permissions are stored as two octets broken into three pieces, one for the owner of the file, one for the group that the file belongs to, and one for everyone else. This numerical representation works like this: permissions file permissions Value Permission Directory Listing 0 No read, no write, no execute --- 1 No read, no write, execute --x 2 No read, write, no execute -w- 3 No read, write, execute -wx 4 Read, no write, no execute r-- 5 Read, no write, execute r-x 6 Read, write, no execute rw- 7 Read, write, execute rwx ls directories You can use the command line argument to &man.ls.1; to view a long directory listing that includes a column with information about a file's permissions for the owner, group, and everyone else. Here's how the first column of ls -l is broken up: -rw-r--r-- The first character, from left to right, is a special character that tells if this is a regular file, a directory, a special character or block device, a socket, or any other special pseudo-file device. The next three characters, designated as rw- gives the permissions for the owner of the file. The next three characters, r-- gives the permissions for the group that the file belongs to. The final three characters, r--, gives the permissions for the rest of the world. A dash means that the permission is turned off. In the case of this file, the permissions are set so the owner can read and write to the file, the group can read the file, and the rest of the world can only read the file. According to the table above, the permissions for this file would be 644, where each digit represents the three parts of the file's permission. This is all well and good, but how does the system control permissions on devices? FreeBSD actually treats most hardware devices as a file that programs can open, read, and write data to just like any other file. These special device files are stored on the /dev directory. Directories are also treated as files. They have read, write, and execute permissions. The executable bit for a directory has a slightly different meaning than that of files. When a directory is marked executable, it means it can be searched into, for example, a directory listing can be done in that directory. There are more to permissions, but they are primarily used in special circumstances such as setuid binaries and sticky directories. If you want more information on file permissions and how to set them, be sure to look at the &man.chmod.1; man page. Directory Structure directory hierarchy The FreeBSD directory hierarchy is fundamental to obtaining an overall understanding of the system. The most important concept to grasp is that of the root directory, /. This directory is the first one mounted at boot time and it contains the base system necessary to prepare the operating system for multi-user operation. The root directory also contains mount points for every other file system that you may want to mount. A mount point is a directory where additional file systems can be grafted onto the root file system. Standard mount points include /usr, /var, /mnt, and /cdrom. These directories are usually referenced to entries in the file /etc/fstab. /etc/fstab is a table of various file systems and mount points for reference by the system. Most of the file systems in /etc/fstab are mounted automatically at boot time from the script &man.rc.8; unless they contain the option. Consult the &man.fstab.5; manual page for more information on the format of the /etc/fstab file and the options it contains. A complete description of the filesystem hierarchy is available in &man.hier.7;. For now, a brief overview of the most common directories will suffice. Directory Description / Root directory of the filesystem. /bin/ User utilities fundamental to both single-user and multi-user environments. /boot/ Programs and configuration files used during operating system bootstrap. /boot/defaults/ Default bootstrapping configuration files; see &man.loader.conf.5;. /dev/ Device nodes; see &man.intro.4;. /etc/ System configuration files and scripts. /etc/defaults/ Default system configuration files; see &man.rc.8;. /etc/mail/ Configuration files for mail transport agents such as &man.sendmail.8;. /etc/namedb/ named configuration files; see &man.named.8;. /etc/periodic/ Scripts that are run daily, weekly, and monthly, via &man.cron.8;; see &man.periodic.8;. /etc/ppp/ ppp configuration files; see &man.ppp.8;. /mnt/ Empty directory commonly used by system administrators as a temporary mount point. /proc/ Process file system; see &man.procfs.5;, &man.mount.procfs.8;. /root/ Home directory for the root account. /sbin/ System programs and administration utilities fundamental to both single-user and multi-user environments. /stand/ Programs used in a standalone environment. /tmp/ Temporary files, usually a &man.mfs.8; memory-based filesystem (the contents of /tmp are usually NOT preserved across a system reboot). /usr/ The majority of user utilities and applications. /usr/bin/ Common utilities, programming tools, and applications. /usr/include/ Standard C include files. /usr/lib/ Archive libraries. /usr/libdata/ Miscellaneous utility data files. /usr/libexec/ System daemons & system utilities (executed by other programs). /usr/local/ Local executables, libraries, etc. Also used as the default destination for the FreeBSD ports framework. Within /usr/local, the general layout sketched out by &man.hier.7; for /usr should be used. Exceptions are the man directory is directly under /usr/local rather than under /usr/local/share. Ports documentation is in share/doc/port. /usr/obj/ Architecture-specific target tree produced by building the /usr/src tree. /usr/ports The FreeBSD ports collection (optional). /usr/sbin/ System daemons & system utilities (executed by users). /usr/share/ Architecture-independent files. /usr/src/ BSD and/or local source files. /usr/X11R6/ X11R6 distribution executables, libraries, etc (optional). /var/ Multi-purpose log, temporary, transient, and spool files. /var/log/ Miscellaneous system log files. /var/mail/ User mailbox files. /var/spool/ Miscellaneous printer and mail system spooling directories. /var/tmp/ Temporary files that are kept between system reboots. /var/yp NIS maps. Mounting and Unmounting Filesystems The filesystem is best visualized as a tree, rooted, as it were, at /. /dev, /usr, and the other directories in the root directory are branches, which may have their own branches, such as /usr/local, and so on. root filesystem There are various reasons to house some of these directories on separate filesystems. /var contains the directories log/, spool/, and various types of temporary files, and as such, may get filled up. Filling up the root filesystem is not a good idea, so splitting /var from / is often favorable. Another common reason to contain certain directory trees on other filesystems is if they are to be housed on separate physical disks, or are separate virtual disks, such as Network File System mounts, or CDROM drives. The <filename>fstab</filename> File filesystems mounted with fstab During the boot process, filesystems listed in /etc/fstab are automatically mounted (unless they are listed with the option). The /etc/fstab file contains a list of lines of the following format: device /mount-point fstype options dumpfreq passno device A device name (which should exist), as explained in Disk naming conventions above. mount-point A directory (which should exist), on which to mount the filesystem. fstype The filesystem type to pass to &man.mount.8;. The default FreeBSD filesystem is ufs. options Either for read-write filesystems, or for read-only filesystems, followed by any other options that may be needed. A common option is for filesystems not normally mounted during the boot sequence. Other options are listed in the &man.mount.8; manual page. dumpfreq The number of days the filesystem should be dumped, and passno is the pass number during which the filesystem is checked during the boot sequence. The mount Command filesystems mounting The &man.mount.8; command is what is ultimately used to mount filesystems. In its most basic form, you use: &prompt.root; mount device mountpoint There are plenty of options, as mentioned in the &man.mount.8; manual page, but the most common are: Mount Options Mount all the filesystems listed in /etc/fstab. Exceptions are those marked as noauto, excluded by the flag, or those that are already mounted. Do everything except for the actual system call. This option is useful in conjunction with the flag to determine what the mount is actually trying to do. Force the mount of an unclean filesystem (dangerous), or forces the revocation of write access when downgrading a filesystem's mount status from read-write to read-only. Mount the filesystem read-only. This is identical to using the argument to the option. fstype Mount the given filesystem as the given filesystem type, or mount only filesystems of the given type, if given the option. ufs is the default filesystem type. Update mount options on the filesystem. Be verbose. Mount the filesystem read-write. The option takes a comma-separated list of the options, including the following: nodev Do not interpret special devices on the filesystem. This is a useful security option. noexec Do not allow execution of binaries on this filesystem. This is also a useful security option. nosuid Do not interpret setuid or setgid flags on the filesystem. This is also a useful security option. The <command>umount</command> Command filesystems unmounting The &man.umount.8; command takes, as a parameter, one of a mountpoint, a device name, or the or option. All forms take to force unmounting, and for verbosity. and are used to unmount all mounted filesystems, possibly modified by the filesystem types listed after . , however, does not attempt to unmount the root filesystem. Processes FreeBSD is a multi-tasking operating system. This means that it seems as though more than one program is running at once. Each program running at any one time is called a process. Every command you run will start at least one new process, and there are a number of system processes that run all the time, keeping the system functional. Each process is uniquely identified by a number called a process ID, or PID, and, like files, each process also has one owner and group. The owner and group information is used to determine what files and devices the process can open, using the file permissions discussed earlier. Most processes also have a parent process. The parent process is the process that started them. For example, if you are typing commands to the shell then the shell is a process, and any commands you run are also processes. Each process you run in this way will have your shell as its parent process. The exception to this is a special process called init. init is always the first process, so its PID is always 1. init is started automatically by the kernel when FreeBSD starts. Two commands are particularly useful to see the processes on the system, &man.ps.1; and &man.top.1;. The &man.ps.1; command is used to show a static list of the currently running processes, and can show their PID, how much memory they are using, the command line they were started with, and so on. The &man.top.1; command displays all the running processes, and updates the display every few seconds, so that you can interactively see what your computer is doing. By default, &man.ps.1; only shows you the commands that are running and are owned by you. For example; &prompt.user; ps PID TT STAT TIME COMMAND 298 p0 Ss 0:01.10 tcsh 7078 p0 S 2:40.88 xemacs mdoc.xsl (xemacs-21.1.14) 37393 p0 I 0:03.11 xemacs freebsd.dsl (xemacs-21.1.14) 48630 p0 S 2:50.89 /usr/local/lib/netscape-linux/navigator-linux-4.77.bi 48730 p0 IW 0:00.00 (dns helper) (navigator-linux-) 72210 p0 R+ 0:00.00 ps 390 p1 Is 0:01.14 tcsh 7059 p2 Is+ 1:36.18 /usr/local/bin/mutt -y 6688 p3 IWs 0:00.00 tcsh 10735 p4 IWs 0:00.00 tcsh 20256 p5 IWs 0:00.00 tcsh 262 v0 IWs 0:00.00 -tcsh (tcsh) 270 v0 IW+ 0:00.00 /bin/sh /usr/X11R6/bin/startx -- -bpp 16 280 v0 IW+ 0:00.00 xinit /home/nik/.xinitrc -- -bpp 16 284 v0 IW 0:00.00 /bin/sh /home/nik/.xinitrc 285 v0 S 0:38.45 /usr/X11R6/bin/sawfish As you can see in this example, the output from &man.ps.1; is organized in to a number of columns. PID is the process ID discussed earlier. PIDs are assigned starting from 1, go up to 65536, and wrap around back to the beginning when you run out. TT shows the tty the program is running on, and can safely be ignored for the moment. STAT shows the program's state, and again, can be safely ignored. TIME is the amount of time the program has been running on the CPU—this is not necessarily the elapsed time since you started the program, as some programs spend a lot of time waiting for things to happen before they need to spend time on the CPU. Finally, COMMAND is the command line that was used to run the program. &man.ps.1; supports a number of different options to change the information that is displayed. One of the most useful sets is auxww. displays information about all the running processes, not just your own. displays the username of the process' owner, as well as memory usage. displays information about daemon processes, and causes &man.ps.1; to display the full command line, rather than truncating it once it gets too long to fit on the screen. The output from &man.top.1; is similar. A sample session looks like this; &prompt.user; top last pid: 72257; load averages: 0.13, 0.09, 0.03 up 0+13:38:33 22:39:10 47 processes: 1 running, 46 sleeping CPU states: 12.6% user, 0.0% nice, 7.8% system, 0.0% interrupt, 79.7% idle Mem: 36M Active, 5256K Inact, 13M Wired, 6312K Cache, 15M Buf, 408K Free Swap: 256M Total, 38M Used, 217M Free, 15% Inuse PID USERNAME PRI NICE SIZE RES STATE TIME WCPU CPU COMMAND 72257 nik 28 0 1960K 1044K RUN 0:00 14.86% 1.42% top 7078 nik 2 0 15280K 10960K select 2:54 0.88% 0.88% xemacs-21.1.14 281 nik 2 0 18636K 7112K select 5:36 0.73% 0.73% XF86_SVGA 296 nik 2 0 3240K 1644K select 0:12 0.05% 0.05% xterm 48630 nik 2 0 29816K 9148K select 3:18 0.00% 0.00% navigator-linu 175 root 2 0 924K 252K select 1:41 0.00% 0.00% syslogd 7059 nik 2 0 7260K 4644K poll 1:38 0.00% 0.00% mutt ... The output is split in to two sections. The header (the first five lines) shows the PID of the last process to run, the system load averages (which are a measure of how busy the system is), the system uptime (time since the last reboot) and the current time. The other figures in the header relate to how many processes are running (47 in this case), how much memory and swap space has been taken up, and how much time the system is spending in different CPU states. Below that are a series of columns containing similar information to the output from &man.ps.1;. As before you can see the PID, the username, the amount of CPU time taken, and the command that was run. &man.top.1; also defaults to showing you the amount of memory space taken by the process. This is split in to two columns, one for total size, and one for resident size—total size is how much memory the application has needed, and the resident size is how much it is actually using at the moment. In this example you can see that Netscape has required almost 30 MB of RAM, but is currently only using 9 MB. &man.top.1; automatically updates this display every two seconds; this can be changed with the option. Daemons, Signals, and Killing Processes When you run an editor it is easy to control the editor, tell it to load files, and so on. You can do this because the editor provides facilities to do so, and because the editor is attached to a terminal. Some programs are not designed to be run with continuous user input, and so they disconnect from the terminal at the first opportunity. For example, a web server spends all day responding to web requests, it normally does not need any input from you. Programs that transport email from site to site are another example of this class of application. We call these programs daemons. Daemons were characters in Greek mythology; neither good or evil, they were little attendant spirits that, by and large, did useful things for mankind. Much like the web servers and mail servers of today do useful things. This is why the BSD mascot has, for a long time, been the cheerful looking daemon with sneakers and a pitchfork. There is a convention to name programs that normally run as daemons with a trailing d. BIND is the Berkeley Internet Name Daemon (and the actual program that executes is called named), the Apache web server program is called httpd, the line printer spooling daemon is lpd and so on. This is a convention, not a hard and fast rule; for example, the main mail daemon for the Sendmail application is called sendmail, and not maild, as you might imagine. Sometimes you will need to communicate with a daemon process. These communications are called signals, and you can communicate with daemons (or with any running process) by sending it a signal. There are a number of different signals that you can send—some of them have a specific meaning, others are interpreted by the application, and the application's documentation will tell you how that application interprets signals. You can only send a signal to a process that you own. If you try and send a signal to someone else's process it will be ignored. The exception to this is the root user, who can send signals to everyone's processes. FreeBSD will also send applications signals in some cases. If an application is badly written, and tries to access memory that it is not supposed to, FreeBSD sends the process the Segmentation Violation signal (SIGSEGV). If an application has used the &man.alarm.3; system call to be alerted after a period of time has elapsed then it will be sent the Alarm signal (SIGALRM), and so on. Two signals can be used to stop a process, SIGTERM and SIGKILL. SIGTERM is the polite way to kill a process; the process can catch the signal, realize that you want it to shut down, close any log files it may have open, and generally finish whatever it is doing at the time before shutting down. In some cases a process may even ignore SIGTERM if it is in the middle of some task that can not be interrupted. SIGKILL can not be ignored by a process. This is the I do not care what you are doing, stop right now signal. If you send SIGKILL to a process then FreeBSD will stop that process there and then Not quite true—there are a few things that can not be interrupted. For example, if the process is trying to read from a file that is on another computer on the network, and the other computer has gone away for some reason (been turned off, or the network has a fault), then the process is said to be uninterruptible. Eventually the process will time out, typically after two minutes. As soon as this time out occurs the process will be killed. . The other signals you might want to use are SIGHUP, SIGUSR1, and SIGUSR2. These are general purpose signals, and different applications will do different things when they are sent. Suppose that you have changed your web server's configuration file—you would like to tell the web server to re-read its configuration. You could stop and restart httpd, but this would result in a brief outage period on your web server, which may be undesirable. Most daemons are written to respond to the SIGHUP signal by re-reading their configuration file. So instead of killing and restarting httpd you would send it the SIGHUP signal. Because there is no standard way to respond to these signals, different daemons will have different behavior, so be sure and read the documentation for the daemon in question. Signals are sent using the &man.kill.1; command, as this example shows. Sending a Signal to a Process This example shows how to send a signal to &man.inetd.8;. The &man.inetd.8; configuration file is /etc/inetd.conf, and &man.inetd.8; will re-read this configuration file when it is sent SIGHUP. Find the process ID of the process you want to send the signal to. Do this using &man.ps.1; and &man.grep.1;. The &man.grep.1; command is used to search through output, looking for the string you specify. This command is run as a normal user, and &man.inetd.8; is run as root, so the options must be given to &man.ps.1;. &prompt.user; ps -ax | grep inetd 198 ?? IWs 0:00.00 inetd -wW So the &man.inetd.8; PID is 198. In some cases the grep inetd command might also occur in this output. This is because of the way &man.ps.1; has to find the list of running processes. Use &man.kill.1; to send the signal. Because &man.inetd.8; is being run by root you must use &man.su.1; to become root first. &prompt.user; su Password: &prompt.root; /bin/kill -s HUP 198 As is common with Unix commands, &man.kill.1; will not print any output if it is successfully. If you try and send a signal to a process that you do not own then you will see kill: PID: Operation not permitted. If you mistype the PID you will either send the signal to the wrong process, which could be bad, or, if you are lucky, you will have sent the signal to a PID that is not currently in use, and you will see kill: PID: No such process. Why Use <command>/bin/kill</command>? Many shells provide the kill command as a built in command; that is, the shell will send the signal directly, rather than running /bin/kill. This can be very useful, but different shells have a different syntax for specifying the name of the signal to send. Rather than try to learn all of them, it can be simpler just to use the /bin/kill ... command directly. Sending other signals is very similar, just substitute TERM or KILL in the command line as necessary. Killing random process on the system can be a bad idea. In particular, &man.init.8;, process ID 1, is very special. Running /bin/kill -s KILL 1 is a quick way to shutdown your system. Always double check the arguments you run &man.kill.1; with before you press Return. Shells shells command-line In FreeBSD, a lot of everyday work is done in a command line interface called a shell. A shell's main job is to take commands from the input channel and execute them. A lot of shells also have built in functions to help everyday tasks such a file management, file globing, command line editing, command macros, and environment variables. FreeBSD comes with a set of shells, such as sh, the Bourne Shell, and csh, the C-shell. Many other shells are available from the FreeBSD Ports Collection that have much more power, such as tcsh and bash. Which shell do you use? It is really a matter of taste. If you are a C programmer you might feel more comfortable with a C-like shell such as tcsh. If you have come from Linux or are new to a Unix command line interface you might try bash. The point is that each shell has unique properties that may or may not work with your preferred working environment, and that you have a choice of what shell to use. One common feature in a shell is file-name completion. Given the typing of the first few letters of a command or filename, you can usually have the shell automatically complete the rest of the command or filename by hitting the Tab key on the keyboard. Here is an example. Suppose you have two files called foobar and foo.bar. You want to delete foo.bar. So what you would type on the keyboard is: rm fo[Tab].[Tab]. The shell would print out rm foo[BEEP].bar. The [BEEP] is the console bell, which is the shell telling me it was unable to totally complete the filename because there is more than one match. Both foobar and foo.bar start with fo, but it was able to complete to foo. If you type in ., then hit Tab again, the shell would be able to fill in the rest of the filename for you. environment variables Another function of the shell is environment variables. Environment variables are a variable key pair stored in the shell's environment space. This space can be read by any program invoked by the shell, and thus contains a lot of program configuration. Here is a list of common environment variables and what they mean: environment variables Variable Description USER Current logged in user's name. PATH Colon separated list of directories to search for binaries. DISPLAY Network name of the X11 display to connect to, if available. SHELL The current shell. TERM The name of the user's terminal. Used to determine the capabilities of the terminal. TERMCAP Database entry of the terminal escape codes to perform various terminal functions. OSTYPE Type of operating system. e.g., FreeBSD. MACHTYPE The CPU architecture that the system is running on. EDITOR The user's preferred text editor. PAGER The user's preferred text pager. MANPATH Colon separated list of directories to search for manual pages. Bourne shells To view or set an environment variable differs somewhat from shell to shell. For example, in the C-Style shells such as tcsh and csh, you would use setenv to set and view environment variables. Under Bourne shells such as sh and bash, you would use set and export to view and set your current environment variables. For example, to set or modify the EDITOR environment variable, under csh or tcsh a command like this would set EDITOR to /usr/local/bin/emacs: &prompt.user; setenv EDITOR /usr/local/bin/emacs Under Bourne shells: &prompt.user; export EDITOR="/usr/local/bin/emacs" You can also make most shells expand the environment variable by placing a $ character in front of it on the command line. For example, echo $TERM would print out whatever $TERM is set to, because the shell expands $TERM and passes it on to echo. Shells treat a lot of special characters, called meta-characters as special representations of data. The most common one is the * character, which represents any number of characters in a filename. These special meta-characters can be used to do file name globing. For example, typing in echo * is almost the same as typing in ls because the shell takes all the files that match * and puts them on the command line for echo to see. To prevent the shell from interpreting these special characters, they can be escaped from the shell by putting a backslash (\) character in front of them. echo $TERM prints whatever your terminal is set to. echo \$TERM prints $TERM as is. Changing Your Shell The easiest way to change your shell is to use the chsh command. Running chsh will place you into the editor that is in your EDITOR environment variable; if it is not set, you will be placed in vi. Change the Shell: line accordingly. You can also give chsh the option; this will set your shell for you, without requiring you to enter an editor. For example, if you wanted to change your shell to bash, the following should do the trick: &prompt.user; chsh -s /usr/local/bin/bash Running chsh with no parameters and editing the shell from there would work also. The shell that you wish to use must be present in the /etc/shells file. If you have installed a shell from the ports collection, then this should have been done for you already. If you installed the shell by hand, you must do this. For example, if you installed bash by hand and placed it into /usr/local/bin, you would want to: &prompt.root; echo "/usr/local/bin/bash" >> /etc/shells Then rerun chsh. Text Editors text editors editors A lot of configuration in FreeBSD is done by editing text files. Because of this, it would be a good idea to become familiar with a text editor. FreeBSD comes with a few as part of the base system, and many more are available in the ports collection. ee The easiest and simplest editor to learn is an editor called ee, which stands for easy editor. To start ee, one would type at the command line ee filename where filename is the name of the file to be edited. For example, to edit /etc/rc.conf, type in ee /etc/rc.conf. Once inside of ee, all of the commands for manipulating the editor's functions are listed at the top of the display. The caret ^ character means the control key on the keyboard, so ^e expands to pressing the control key plus the letter e. To leave ee, hit the escape key, then choose leave editor. The editor will prompt you to save any changes if the file has been modified. vi editors vi emacs editors emacs FreeBSD also comes with more powerful text editors such as vi as part of the base system, and emacs and vim as part of the FreeBSD Ports Collection. These editors offer much more functionality and power at the expense of being a little more complicated to learn. However if you plan on doing a lot of text editing, learning a more powerful editor such as vim or emacs will save you much more time in the long run. Devices and Device Nodes A device is a term used mostly for hardware-related activities in a system, including disks, printers, graphics cards, and keyboards. When FreeBSD boots, the majority of what FreeBSD displays are devices being detected. You can look through the boot messages again by viewing /var/run/dmesg.boot. For example, acd0 is the first IDE CDROM drive, while kbd0 represents the keyboard. Most of these devices in a Unix operating system must be accessed through a special file called device nodes, which are located in the /dev directory. Creating Device Nodes When adding a new device to your system, or compiling in support for additional devices, a device driver often-times needs to be created. MAKEDEV Script On systems without DEVFS, device nodes are created using the &man.MAKEDEV.8; script as shown below: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV ad1 This example would make the proper device nodes for the second IDE drive when installed. devfs (Device File System) The device file system, or devfs, provides access to kernel's device namespace in the global filesystem namespace. Instead of having to create and modify device nodes, devfs maintains this particular filesystem for you. See the &man.devfs.5; man page for more information. devfs is used by default in FreeBSD 5.0. For More Information... Manual Pages manual pages The most comprehensive documentation on FreeBSD is in the form of manual pages. Nearly every program on the system comes with a short reference manual explaining the basic operation and various arguments. These manuals can be viewed with the man command. Use of the man command is simple: &prompt.user; man command command is the name of the command you wish to learn about. For example, to learn more about ls command type: &prompt.user; man ls The online manual is divided up into numbered sections: User commands. System calls and error numbers. Functions in the C libraries. Device drivers. File formats. Games and other diversions. Miscellaneous information. System maintenance and operation commands. Kernel developers. In some cases, the same topic may appear in more than one section of the online manual. For example, there is a chmod user command and a chmod() system call. In this case, you can tell the man command which one you want by specifying the section: &prompt.user; man 1 chmod This will display the manual page for the user command chmod. References to a particular section of the online manual are traditionally placed in parenthesis in written documentation, so &man.chmod.1; refers to the chmod user command and &man.chmod.2; refers to the system call. This is fine if you know the name of the command and simply wish to know how to use it, but what if you cannot recall the command name? You can use man to search for keywords in the command descriptions by using the switch: &prompt.user; man -k mail With this command you will be presented with a list of commands that have the keyword mail in their descriptions. This is actually functionally equivalent to using the apropos command. So, you are looking at all those fancy commands in /usr/bin but do not have the faintest idea what most of them actually do? Simply do: &prompt.user; cd /usr/bin &prompt.user; man -f * or &prompt.user; cd /usr/bin &prompt.user; whatis * which does the same thing. GNU Info Files Free Software Foundation FreeBSD includes many applications and utilities produced by the Free Software Foundation (FSF). In addition to manual pages, these programs come with more extensive hypertext documents called info files which can be viewed with the info command or, if you installed emacs, the info mode of emacs. To use the &man.info.1; command, simply type: &prompt.user; info For a brief introduction, type h. For a quick command reference, type ?. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/boot/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/boot/chapter.sgml index 401b147755..c5fa2ae1d2 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/boot/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/boot/chapter.sgml @@ -1,663 +1,663 @@ The FreeBSD Booting Process Synopsis booting bootstrap The process of starting a computer and loading the operating system is referred to as the bootstrap process, or simply booting. FreeBSD's boot process provides a great deal of flexibility in customizing what happens when you start the system, allowing you to select from different operating systems installed on the same computer, or even different versions of the same operating system or installed kernel. This chapter details the configuration options you can set and how to customize the FreeBSD boot process. This includes everything that happens until the FreeBSD kernel has started, probed for devices, and started &man.init.8;. If you are not quite sure when this happens, it occurs when the text color changes from bright white to grey. - After reading this chapter you will know: + After reading this chapter, you will know: What the components of the FreeBSD bootstrap system are, and how they interact. The options you can give to the components in the FreeBSD bootstrap to control the boot process. x86 only This chapter only describes the boot process for FreeBSD running on Intel x86 systems. The Booting Problem Turning on a computer and starting the operating system poses an interesting dilemma. By definition, the computer does not know how to do anything until the operating system is started. This includes running programs from the disk. So if the computer can not run a program from the disk without the operating system, and the operating system programs are on the disk, how is the operating system started? This problem parallels one in the book The Adventures of Baron Munchausen. A character had fallen part way down a manhole, and pulled himself out by grabbing his bootstraps, and lifting. In the early days of computing the term bootstrap was applied to the mechanism used to load the operating system, which has become shortened to booting. On x86 hardware the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) is responsible for loading the operating system. To do this, the BIOS looks on the hard disk for the Master Boot Record (MBR), which must be located on a specific place on the disk. The BIOS has enough knowledge to load and run the MBR, and assumes that the MBR can then carry out the rest of the tasks involved in loading the operating system. BIOS Basic Input/Output System If you only have one operating system installed on your disks then the standard MBR will suffice. This MBR searches for the first bootable slice on the disk, and then runs the code on that slice to load the remainder of the operating system. If you have installed multiple operating systems on your disks then you can install a different MBR, one that can display a list of different operating systems, and allows you to choose the one to boot from. FreeBSD comes with one such MBR which can be installed, and other operating system vendors also provide alternative MBRs. The remainder of the FreeBSD bootstrap system is divided into three stages. The first stage is run by the MBR, which knows just enough to get the computer into a specific state and run the second stage. The second stage can do a little bit more, before running the third stage. The third stage finishes the task of loading the operating system. The work is split into these three stages because the PC standards put limits on the size of the programs that can be run at stages one and two. Chaining the tasks together allows FreeBSD to provide a more flexible loader. kernel init The kernel is then started and it begins to probe for devices and initialize them for use. Once the kernel boot process is finished, the kernel passes control to the user process &man.init.8;, which then makes sure the disks are in a usable state. &man.init.8; then starts the user-level resource configuration which mounts filesystems, sets up network cards to communicate on the network, and generally starts all the processes that usually are run on a FreeBSD system at startup. The MBR, and Boot Stages One, Two, and Three MBR, <filename>/boot/boot0</filename> Master Boot Record (MBR) The FreeBSD MBR is located in /boot/boot0. This is a copy of the MBR, as the real MBR must be placed on a special part of the disk, outside the FreeBSD area. boot0 is very simple, since the program in the MBR can only be 512 bytes in size. If you have installed the FreeBSD MBR and have installed multiple operating systems on your hard disks then you will see a display similar to this one at boot time. <filename>boot0</filename> Screenshot F1 DOS F2 FreeBSD F3 Linux F4 ?? F5 Drive 1 Default: F2 Other operating systems, in particular Windows 95, have been known to overwrite an existing MBR with their own. If this happens to you, or you want to replace your existing MBR with the FreeBSD MBR then use the following command. &prompt.root; fdisk -B -b /boot/boot0 device Where device is the device that you boot from, such as ad0 for the first IDE disk, ad2 for the first IDE disk on a second IDE controller, da0 for the first SCSI disk, and so on. Stage One, <filename>/boot/boot1</filename>, and Stage Two, <filename>/boot/boot2</filename> Conceptually the first and second stages are part of the same program, on the same area of the disk. Because of space constraints they have been split into two, but you would always install them together. They are found on the boot sector of the boot slice, which is where boot0, or any other program on the MBR expects to find the program to run to continue the boot process. The files in the /boot directory are copies of the real files, which are stored outside of the FreeBSD filesystem. boot1 is very simple, since it too can only be 512 bytes in size, and knows just enough about the FreeBSD disklabel, which stores information about the slice, to find and execute boot2. boot2 is slightly more sophisticated, and understands the FreeBSD filesystem enough to find files on it, and can provide a simple interface to choose the kernel or loader to run. Since the loader is much more sophisticated, and provides a nice easy-to-use boot configuration, boot2 usually runs it, but previously it was tasked to run the kernel directly. <filename>boot2</filename> Screenshot >> FreeBSD/i386 BOOT Default: 0:ad(0,a)/kernel boot: If you ever need to replace the installed boot1 and boot2 use &man.disklabel.8;. &prompt.root; disklabel -B diskslice Where diskslice is the disk and slice you boot from, such as ad0s1 for the first slice on the first IDE disk. Dangerously Dedicated Mode If you use just the disk name, such as ad0, in the &man.disklabel.8; command you will create a dangerously dedicated disk, without slices. This is almost certainly not what you want to do, so make sure you double check the &man.disklabel.8; command before you press Return. Stage Three, <filename>/boot/loader</filename> boot-loader The loader is the final stage of the three-stage bootstrap, and is located on the filesystem, usually as /boot/loader. The loader is intended as a user-friendly method for configuration, using an easy-to-use built-in command set, backed up by a more powerful interpreter, with a more complex command set. Loader Program Flow During initialization, the loader will probe for a console and for disks, and figure out what disk it is booting from. It will set variables accordingly, and an interpreter is started where user commands can be passed from a script or interactively. loader loader configuration The loader will then read /boot/loader.rc, which by default reads in /boot/defaults/loader.conf which sets reasonable defaults for variables and reads /boot/loader.conf for local changes to those variables. loader.rc then acts on these variables, loading whichever modules and kernel are selected. Finally, by default, the loader issues a 10 second wait for key presses, and boots the kernel if it is not interrupted. If interrupted, the user is presented with a prompt which understands the easy-to-use command set, where the user may adjust variables, unload all modules, load modules, and then finally boot or reboot. Loader Built-In Commands These are the most commonly used loader commands. For a complete discussion of all available commands, please see &man.loader.8; autoboot seconds Proceeds to boot the kernel if not interrupted within the time span given, in seconds. It displays a countdown, and the default time span is 10 seconds. boot -options kernelname Immediately proceeds to boot the kernel, with the given options, if any, and with the kernel name given, if it is. boot-conf Goes through the same automatic configuration of modules based on variables as what happens at boot. This only makes sense if you use unload first, and change some variables, most commonly kernel. help topic Shows help messages read from /boot/loader.help. If the topic given is index, then the list of available topics is given. include filename … Processes the file with the given filename. The file is read in, and interpreted line by line. An error immediately stops the include command. load type filename Loads the kernel, kernel module, or file of the type given, with the filename given. Any arguments after filename are passed to the file. ls path Displays a listing of files in the given path, or the root directory, if the path is not specified. If is specified, file sizes will be shown too. lsdev Lists all of the devices from which it may be possible to load modules. If is specified, more details are printed. lsmod Displays loaded modules. If is specified, more details are shown. more filename Displays the files specified, with a pause at each LINES displayed. reboot Immediately reboots the system. set variable set variable=value Sets the loader's environment variables. unload Removes all loaded modules. Loader Examples Here are some practical examples of loader usage. single-user mode To simply boot your usual kernel, but in single-user mode: boot -s To unload your usual kernel and modules, and then load just your old (or another) kernel: kernel.old unload load kernel.old You can use kernel.GENERIC to refer to the generic kernel that comes on the install disk, or kernel.old to refer to your previously installed kernel (when you have upgraded or configured your own kernel, for example). Use the following to load your usual modules with another kernel: unload set kernel="kernel.old" boot-conf To load a kernel configuration script (an automated script which does the things you would normally do in the kernel boot-time configurator): load -t userconfig_script /boot/kernel.conf Kernel Interaction During Boot kernel boot interaction Once the kernel is loaded by either loader (as usual) or boot2 (bypassing the loader), it examines its boot flags, if any, and adjusts its behavior as necessary. kernel bootflags Kernel Boot Flags Here are the more common boot flags: during kernel initialization, ask for the device to mount as the root file system. boot from CDROM. run UserConfig, the boot-time kernel configurator boot into single-user mode be more verbose during kernel startup There are other boot flags, read &man.boot.8; for more information on them. init Init: Process Control Initialization Once the kernel has finished booting, it passes control to the user process init, which is located at /sbin/init, or the program path specified in the init_path variable in loader. Automatic Reboot Sequence The automatic reboot sequence makes sure that the filesystems available on the system are consistent. If they are not, and fsck cannot fix the inconsistencies, init drops the system into single-user mode for the system administrator to take care of the problems directly. Single-User Mode single-user mode console This mode can be reached through the automatic reboot sequence, or by the user booting with the option or setting the boot_single variable in loader. It can also be reached by calling shutdown without the reboot () or halt () options, from multi-user mode. If the system console is set to insecure in /etc/ttys, then the system prompts for the root password before initiating single-user mode. An Insecure Console in /etc/ttys # name getty type status comments # # This entry needed for asking password when init goes to single-user mode # If you want to be asked for password, change "secure" to "insecure" here console none unknown off insecure An insecure console means that you consider your physical security to the console to be insecure, and want to make sure only someone who knows the root password may use single-user mode, and it does not mean that you want to run your console insecurely. Thus, if you want security, choose insecure, not secure. Multi-User Mode multi-user mode If init finds your filesystems to be in order, or once the user has finished in single-user mode, the system enters multi-user mode, in which it starts the resource configuration of the system. rc files Resource Configuration (rc) The resource configuration system reads in configuration defaults from /etc/defaults/rc.conf, and system-specific details from /etc/rc.conf, and then proceeds to mount the system filesystems mentioned in /etc/fstab, start up networking services, start up miscellaneous system daemons, and finally runs the startup scripts of locally installed packages. The &man.rc.8; manual page is a good reference to the resource configuration system, as is examining the scripts themselves. Shutdown Sequence shutdown Upon controlled shutdown, via shutdown, init will attempt to run the script /etc/rc.shutdown, and then proceed to send all processes the TERM signal, and subsequently the KILL signal to any that do not terminate timely. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/config/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/config/chapter.sgml index ed83327f07..1e1e158f34 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/config/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/config/chapter.sgml @@ -1,970 +1,970 @@ Chern Lee Written by Mike Smith Based on a tutorial written by Matt Dillon Also based on tuning(7) written by Configuration and Tuning Synopsis system configuration/optimization Configuring a system correctly can substantially reduce the amount of work involved in maintaining and upgrading it in the future. This chapter describes some of the aspects of administrative configuration of FreeBSD systems. This chapter will also describe some of the parameters that can be set to tune a FreeBSD system for optimum performance. - After reading this chapter you will know: + After reading this chapter, you will know: Why and how to efficiently size, layout, and place filesystems and swap partition on your hard drive. The basics of the rc.conf configuration and /usr/local/etc/rc.d startup systems. How to configure virtual hosts on your network device. How to use the various configuration files in /etc. How to tune FreeBSD using sysctl variables. How to tune disk performance and modify kernel limitations. - Before reading this chapter you should: + Before reading this chapter, you should: Understand the basics of Unix and FreeBSD (). Be familiar with keeping FreeBSD sources up to date (), and the basics of kernel configuration/compilation (). Initial Configuration Partition Layout Partition layout /etc /var /usr Base Partitions When laying out your filesystem with &man.disklabel.8; or &man.sysinstall.8;, it is important to remember that hard drives can transfer data at a faster rate from the outer tracks than the inner. Knowing this, you should place your smaller, heavily-accessed filesystems, such as root and swap, closer to the outside of the drive, while placing larger partitions, such as /usr, towards the inner. To do so, it is a good idea to create partitions in a similar order: root, swap, /var, /usr. The size of your /var partition reflects the intended use of your machine. /var is primarily used to hold: mailboxes, print spool and log files. Mail boxes and log files, in particular, can grow to unexpected sizes based upon how many users are on your system and how long your log files are kept. If you intend to run a mail server, a /var partition of over a gigabyte can be suitable. Additionally, /var/tmp must be large enough to contain any packages you may wish to add. The /usr partition holds the bulk of the files required to support the system and a subdirectory within it called /usr/local holds the bulk of the files installed from the &man.ports.7; hierarchy. If you do not use ports all that much and do not intend to keep system source (/usr/src) on the machine, you can get away with a 1 gigabyte /usr partition. However, if you install a lot of ports (especially window managers and Linux binaries), we recommend at least a two gigabyte /usr and if you also intend to keep system source on the machine, we recommend a three gigabyte /usr. Do not underestimate the amount of space you will need in this partition, it can creep up and surprise you! When sizing your partitions, keep in mind the space requirements for your system to grow. Running out of space in one partition while having plenty in another can lead to much frustration. Some users who have used &man.sysinstall.8;'s Auto-defaults partition sizer have found either their root or /var partitions too small later on. Partition wisely and generously. Swap Partition swap sizing swap partition As a rule of thumb, your swap space should typically be double the amount of main memory. For example, if the machine has 128 megabytes of memory, the swap file should be 256 megabytes. Systems with lesser memory may perform better with a lot more swap. It is not recommended that you configure any less than 256 megabytes of swap on a system and you should keep in mind future memory expansion when sizing the swap partition. The kernel's VM paging algorithms are tuned to perform best when the swap partition is at least two times the size of main memory. Configuring too little swap can lead to inefficiencies in the VM page scanning code as well as create issues later on if you add more memory to your machine. Finally, on larger systems with multiple SCSI disks (or multiple IDE disks operating on different controllers), it is strongly recommend that you configure swap on each drive (up to four drives). The swap partitions on the drives should be approximately the same size. The kernel can handle arbitrary sizes but internal data structures scale to 4 times the largest swap partition. Keeping the swap partitions near the same size will allow the kernel to optimally stripe swap space across the disks. Do not worry about overdoing it a little, swap space is the saving grace of Unix. Even if you do not normally use much swap, it can give you more time to recover from a runaway program before being forced to reboot. Why Partition? Why partition at all? Why not create one big root partition and be done with it? Then I do not have to worry about undersizing things! There are several reasons this is not a good idea. First, each partition has different operational characteristics and separating them allows the filesystem to tune itself to those characteristics. For example, the root and /usr partitions are read-mostly, with very little writing, while a lot of reading and writing could occur in /var and /var/tmp. By properly partitioning your system, fragmentation introduced in the smaller more heavily write-loaded partitions will not bleed over into the mostly-read partitions. Additionally, keeping the write-loaded partitions closer to the edge of the disk, for example before the really big partition instead of after in the partition table, will increase I/O performance in the partitions where you need it the most. Now it is true that you might also need I/O performance in the larger partitions, but they are so large that shifting them more towards the edge of the disk will not lead to a significant performance improvement whereas moving /var to the edge can have a huge impact. Finally, there are safety concerns. Having a small neat root partition that is essentially read-only gives it a greater chance of surviving a bad crash intact. Core Configuration rc files rc.conf The principal location for system configuration information is within /etc/rc.conf. This file contains a wide range of configuration information, principally used at system startup to configure the system. Its name directly implies this; it is configuration information for the rc* files. An administrator should make entries in the rc.conf file to override the default settings from /etc/defaults/rc.conf. The defaults file should not be copied verbatim to /etc - it contains default values, not examples. All system-specific changes should be made in the rc.conf file itself. A number of strategies may be applied in clustered applications to separate site-wide configuration from system-specific configuration in order to keep administration overhead down. The recommended approach is to place site-wide configuration into another file, such as /etc/rc.conf.site, and then include this file into /etc/rc.conf, which will contain only system-specific information. As rc.conf is read by &man.sh.1; it is trivial to achieve this. For example: rc.conf: . rc.conf.site hostname="node15.webcompany.com" network_interfaces="fxp0 lo0" ifconfig_fxp0="inet 10.1.1.1" rc.conf.site: defaultrouter="10.1.1.254" saver="daemon" blanktime="100" The rc.conf.site file can then be distributed to every system using rsync or similar program, whilst the rc.conf file remains unique. Upgrading the system using &man.sysinstall.8; or make world will not overwrite the rc.conf file, so system configuration information will not be lost. Application Configuration Typically, installed applications have their own configuration files, with their own syntax, etc. It is important that these files be kept separate from the base system, so that they may be easily located and managed by the package management tools. /usr/local/etc Typically, these files are installed in /usr/local/etc. In the case where an application has a large number of configuration files, a subdirectory will be created to hold them. Normally, when a port or package is installed, sample configuration files are also installed. These are usually identified with a .default suffix. If there are no existing configuration files for the application, they will be created by copying the .default files. For example, here is /usr/local/etc/apache: -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 2184 May 20 1998 access.conf -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 2184 May 20 1998 access.conf.default -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 9555 May 20 1998 httpd.conf -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 9555 May 20 1998 httpd.conf.default -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 12205 May 20 1998 magic -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 12205 May 20 1998 magic.default -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 2700 May 20 1998 mime.types -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 2700 May 20 1998 mime.types.default -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 7980 May 20 1998 srm.conf -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 7933 May 20 1998 srm.conf.default It can be quickly seen that only the srm.conf file has been changed. A later update of the apache port would not overwrite this changed file. Starting Services services It is common for a system to host a number of services. These may be started in several different fashions, each having different advantages. /usr/local/etc/rc.d Software installed from a port or the packages collection will often place a script in /usr/local/etc/rc.d which is invoked at system startup with a argument, and at system shutdown with a argument. This is the recommended way for starting system-wide services that are to be run as root, or that expect to be started as root. These scripts are registered as part of the installation of the package, and will be removed when the package is removed. A generic startup script in /usr/local/etc/rc.d looks like: #!/bin/sh echo -n ' FooBar' case "$1" in start) /usr/local/bin/foobar ;; stop) kill -9 `cat /var/run/foobar.pid` ;; *) echo "Usage: `basename $0` {start|stop}" >&2 exit 64 ;; esac exit 0 This script is called with at startup, and the at shutdown to allow it to carry out its purpose. Some services expect to be invoked by &man.inetd.8; when a connection is received on a suitable port. This is common for mail reader servers (POP and IMAP, etc.). These services are enabled by editing the file /etc/inetd.conf. See &man.inetd.8; for details on editing this file. Some additional system services may not be covered by the toggles in /etc/rc.conf. These are traditionally enabled by placing the command(s) to invoke them in /etc/rc.local. As of FreeBSD 3.1 there is no default /etc/rc.local; if it is created by the administrator it will however be honored in the normal fashion. Note that rc.local is generally regarded as the location of last resort; if there is a better place to start a service, do it there. Do not place any commands in /etc/rc.conf. To start daemons, or run any commands at boot time, place a script in /usr/local/etc/rc.d instead. It is also possible to use the &man.cron.8; daemon to start system services. This approach has a number of advantages, not least being that because &man.cron.8; runs these processes as the owner of the crontab, services may be started and maintained by non-root users. This takes advantage of a feature of &man.cron.8;: the time specification may be replaced by @reboot, which will cause the job to be run when &man.cron.8; is started shortly after system boot. Virtual Hosts virtual hosts ip aliases A very common use of FreeBSD is virtual site hosting, where one server appears to the network as many servers. This is achieved by assigning multiple network addresses to a single interface. A given network interface has one real address, and may have any number of alias addresses. These aliases are normally added by placing alias entries in /etc/rc.conf. An alias entry for the interface fxp0 looks like: ifconfig_fxp0_alias0="inet xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx netmask xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx" Note that alias entries must start with alias0 and proceed upwards in order, (for example, _alias1, _alias2, and so on). The configuration process will stop at the first missing number. The calculation of alias netmasks is important, but fortunately quite simple. For a given interface, there must be one address which correctly represents the network's netmask. Any other addresses which fall within this network must have a netmask of all 1's. For example, consider the case where the fxp0 interface is connected to two networks, the 10.1.1.0 network with a netmask of 255.255.255.0 and the 202.0.75.16 network with a netmask of 255.255.255.240. We want the system to appear at 10.1.1.1 through 10.1.1.5 and at 202.0.75.17 through 202.0.75.20. The following entries configure the adapter correctly for this arrangement: ifconfig_fxp0="inet 10.1.1.1 netmask 255.255.255.0" ifconfig_fxp0_alias0="inet 10.1.1.2 netmask 255.255.255.255" ifconfig_fxp0_alias1="inet 10.1.1.3 netmask 255.255.255.255" ifconfig_fxp0_alias2="inet 10.1.1.4 netmask 255.255.255.255" ifconfig_fxp0_alias3="inet 10.1.1.5 netmask 255.255.255.255" ifconfig_fxp0_alias4="inet 202.0.75.17 netmask 255.255.255.240" ifconfig_fxp0_alias5="inet 202.0.75.18 netmask 255.255.255.255" ifconfig_fxp0_alias6="inet 202.0.75.19 netmask 255.255.255.255" ifconfig_fxp0_alias7="inet 202.0.75.20 netmask 255.255.255.255" Configuration Files <filename>/etc</filename> Layout There are a number of directories in which configuration information is kept. These include: /etc Generic system configuration information; data here is system-specific. /etc/defaults Default versions of system configuration files. /etc/mail Extra &man.sendmail.8; configuration, other MTA configuration files. /etc/ppp Configuration for both user- and kernel-ppp programs. /etc/namedb Default location for &man.named.8; data. Normally the boot file is located here, and contains a directive to refer to other data in /var/db. /usr/local/etc Configuration files for installed applications. May contain per-application subdirectories. /usr/local/etc/rc.d Start/stop scripts for installed applications. /var/db Persistent system-specific data files, such as &man.named.8; zone files, database files, and so on. Hostnames hostname DNS <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> resolv.conf /etc/resolv.conf dictates how FreeBSD's resolver accesses the Internet Domain Name System (DNS). The most common entries to resolv.conf are: nameserver The IP address of a name server the resolver should query. The servers are queried in the order listed with a maximum of three. search Search list for hostname lookup. This is normally determined by the domain of the local hostname. domain The local domain name. A typical resolv.conf: search foobar.com nameserver 147.11.1.11 nameserver 147.11.100.30 If you are using DHCP, &man.dhclient.8; usually rewrites resolv.conf with information received from the DHCP server. <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> hosts /etc/hosts is a simple text database reminiscent of the old Internet. It works in conjunction with DNS and NIS providing name to IP address mappings. Local computers connected via a LAN can be placed in here for simplistic naming purposes instead of setting up a &man.named.8; server. Additionally, /etc/hosts can be used to provide a local record of Internet names, reducing the need to query externally for commonly accessed names. # $FreeBSD$ # # Host Database # This file should contain the addresses and aliases # for local hosts that share this file. # In the presence of the domain name service or NIS, this file may # not be consulted at all; see /etc/nsswitch.conf for the resolution order. # # ::1 localhost localhost.my.domain myname.my.domain 127.0.0.1 localhost localhost.my.domain myname.my.domain # # Imaginary network. #10.0.0.2 myname.my.domain myname #10.0.0.3 myfriend.my.domain myfriend # # According to RFC 1918, you can use the following IP networks for # private nets which will never be connected to the Internet: # # 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255 # 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255 # 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255 # # In case you want to be able to connect to the Internet, you need # real official assigned numbers. PLEASE PLEASE PLEASE do not try # to invent your own network numbers but instead get one from your # network provider (if any) or from the Internet Registry (ftp to # rs.internic.net, directory `/templates'). # /etc/hosts takes on the simple format of: [Internet address] [official hostname] [alias1] [alias2] ... For example: 10.0.0.1 myRealHostname.foobar.com myRealHostname foobar1 foobar2 Consult &man.hosts.5; for more information. Log File Configuration log files <filename>syslog.conf</filename> syslog.conf syslog.conf is the configuration file for the &man.syslogd.8; program. It indicates which types of syslog messages are logged to particular log files. # $FreeBSD$ # # Spaces ARE valid field separators in this file. However, # other *nix-like systems still insist on using tabs as field # separators. If you are sharing this file between systems, you # may want to use only tabs as field separators here. # Consult the syslog.conf(5) manual page. *.err;kern.debug;auth.notice;mail.crit /dev/console *.notice;kern.debug;lpr.info;mail.crit;news.err /var/log/messages security.* /var/log/security mail.info /var/log/maillog lpr.info /var/log/lpd-errs cron.* /var/log/cron *.err root *.notice;news.err root *.alert root *.emerg * # uncomment this to log all writes to /dev/console to /var/log/console.log #console.info /var/log/console.log # uncomment this to enable logging of all log messages to /var/log/all.log #*.* /var/log/all.log # uncomment this to enable logging to a remote log host named loghost #*.* @loghost # uncomment these if you're running inn # news.crit /var/log/news/news.crit # news.err /var/log/news/news.err # news.notice /var/log/news/news.notice !startslip *.* /var/log/slip.log !ppp *.* /var/log/ppp.log Consult the &man.syslog.conf.5; manual page for more information. <filename>newsyslog.conf</filename> newsyslog.conf newsyslog.conf is the configuration file for &man.newsyslog.8;, a program that is scheduled to run normally by &man.cron.8;. &man.newsyslog.8; determines when log files require archiving or rearranging. logfile is moved to logfile.0, logfile.0 is moved to logfile.1, and so on. Additionally, the log files may be archived in &man.gzip.1; format causing them to be named: logfile.0.gz, logfile.1.gz, and so on. newsyslog.conf indicates which log files are to be managed, how many are to be kept, and when they are to be touched. Log files can be rearranged and/or archived when they have either reached a certain size, or at a certain periodic time/date. # configuration file for newsyslog # $FreeBSD$ # # filename [owner:group] mode count size when [ZB] [/pid_file] [sig_num] /var/log/cron 600 3 100 * Z /var/log/amd.log 644 7 100 * Z /var/log/kerberos.log 644 7 100 * Z /var/log/lpd-errs 644 7 100 * Z /var/log/maillog 644 7 * @T00 Z /var/log/sendmail.st 644 10 * 168 B /var/log/messages 644 5 100 * Z /var/log/all.log 600 7 * @T00 Z /var/log/slip.log 600 3 100 * Z /var/log/ppp.log 600 3 100 * Z /var/log/security 600 10 100 * Z /var/log/wtmp 644 3 * @01T05 B /var/log/daily.log 640 7 * @T00 Z /var/log/weekly.log 640 5 1 $W6D0 Z /var/log/monthly.log 640 12 * $M1D0 Z /var/log/console.log 640 5 100 * Z Consult the &man.newsyslog.8; manual page for more information. <filename>sysctl.conf</filename> sysctl.conf sysctl sysctl.conf looks much like rc.conf. Values are set in a variable=value form. The specified values are set after the system goes into multi-user mode. Not all variables are settable in this mode. A sample sysctl.conf turning off logging of fatal signal exits and letting Linux programs know they are really running under FreeBSD. kern.logsigexit=0 # Do not log fatal signal exits (e.g. sig 11) compat.linux.osname=FreeBSD compat.linux.osrelease=4.3-STABLE Tuning with sysctl sysctl Tuning with sysctl &man.sysctl.8; is an interface that allows you to make changes to a running FreeBSD system. This includes many advanced options of the TCP/IP stack and virtual memory system that can dramatically improve performance for an experienced system administrator. Over five hundred system variables can be read and set using &man.sysctl.8;. At its core, &man.sysctl.8; serves to do two functions: read and modify system settings. To view all readable variables: &prompt.user; sysctl -a To read a particular variable, for example, kern.maxproc: &prompt.user; sysctl kern.maxproc kern.maxproc: 1044 To set a particular variable, use the intuitive variable=value syntax: &prompt.root; sysctl kern.maxfiles=5000 kern.maxfiles: 2088 -> 5000 Settings of sysctl variables are usually either strings, numbers, or booleans. A boolean being 1 for yes or a 0 for no. Tuning Disks Sysctl Variables <varname>vfs.vmiodirenable</varname> vfs.vmiodirenable The vfs.vmiodirenable sysctl variable defaults to 0 (off) (though soon it will default to 1) and may be set to 0 (off) or 1 (on). This parameter controls how directories are cached by the system. Most directories are small and use but a single fragment (typically 1K) in the filesystem and even less (typically 512 bytes) in the buffer cache. However, when operating in the default mode the buffer cache will only cache a fixed number of directories even if you have a huge amount of memory. Turning on this sysctl allows the buffer cache to use the VM Page Cache to cache the directories. The advantage is that all of memory is now available for caching directories. The disadvantage is that the minimum in-core memory used to cache a directory is the physical page size (typically 4K) rather than 512 bytes. We recommend turning this option on if you are running any services which manipulate large numbers of files. Such services can include web caches, large mail systems, and news systems. Turning on this option will generally not reduce performance even with the wasted memory but you should experiment to find out. <varname>hw.ata.wc</varname> hw.ata.wc FreeBSD 4.3 flirted with turning off IDE write caching. This reduced write bandwidth to IDE disks but was considered necessary due to serious data consistency issues introduced by hard drive vendors. Basically the problem is that IDE drives lie about when a write completes. With IDE write caching turned on, IDE hard drives will not only write data to disk out of order, they will sometimes delay some of the blocks indefinitely when under heavy disk loads. A crash or power failure can result in serious filesystem corruption. So our default was changed to be safe. Unfortunately, the result was such a huge loss in performance that we caved in and changed the default back to on after the release. You should check the default on your system by observing the hw.ata.wc sysctl variable. If IDE write caching is turned off, you can turn it back on by setting the kernel variable back to 1. This must be done from the boot loader at boot time. Attempting to do it after the kernel boots will have no effect. For more information, please see &man.ata.4;. Soft Updates Soft Updates tunefs The &man.tunefs.8; program can be used to fine-tune a filesystem. This program has many different options, but for now we are only concerned with toggling Soft Updates on and off, which is done by : &prompt.root; tunefs -n enable /filesystem &prompt.root; tunefs -n disable /filesystem A filesystem cannot be modified with &man.tunefs.8; while it is mounted. A good time to enable Soft Updates is before any partitions have been mounted, in single-user mode. Soft Updates drastically improves meta-data performance, mainly file creation and deletion, through the use of a memory cache. We recommend turning Soft Updates on on all of your filesystems. There are two downsides to Soft Updates that you should be aware of: First, Soft Updates guarantees filesystem consistency in the case of a crash but could very easily be several seconds (even a minute!) behind updating the physical disk. If you crash you may lose more work than otherwise. Secondly, Soft Updates delays the freeing of filesystem blocks. If you have a filesystem (such as the root filesystem) which is close to full, doing a major update of it, e.g. make installworld, can run it out of space and cause the update to fail. Tuning Kernel Limits Tuning kernel limits File/Process Limits <varname>kern.maxfiles</varname> kern.maxfiles kern.maxfiles can be raised or lowered based upon your system requirements. This variable indicates the maximum number of file descriptors on your system. When the file descriptor table is full, file: table is full will show up repeatedly in the system message buffer, which can be viewed with the dmesg command. Each open file, socket, or fifo uses one file descriptor. A large-scale production server may easily require many thousands of file descriptors, depending on the kind and number of services running concurrently. kern.maxfile's default value is dictated by the option in your kernel configuration file. kern.maxfiles grows proportionally to the value of . When compiling a custom kernel, it is a good idea to set this kernel configuration option according to the uses of your system. From this number, the kernel is given most of its pre-defined limits. Even though a production machine may not actually have 256 users connected as once, the resources needed may be similar to a high-scale webserver. Network Limits The NMBCLUSTERS kernel configuration option dictate the amount of network mbufs available to the system. A heavily-trafficked server with a low number of MBUFs will hinder FreeBSD's ability. Each cluster represents approximately 2K of memory, so a value of 1024 represents 2 megabytes of kernel memory reserved for network buffers. A simple calculation can be done to figure out how many are needed. If you have a web server which maxes out at 1000 simultaneous connections, and each connection eats a 16K receive and 16K send buffer, you need approximately 32MB worth of network buffers to cover the webserver. A good rule of thumb is to multiply by 2, so 32MBx2 = 64MB/2K = 32768. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/cutting-edge/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/cutting-edge/chapter.sgml index 4a73fa4be1..a3edba492c 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/cutting-edge/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/cutting-edge/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1596 +1,1596 @@ Jim Mock Restructured, reorganized, and parts updated by Jordan Hubbard Original work by Poul-Henning Kamp John Polstra Nik Clayton The Cutting Edge Synopsis &os; is under constant development between releases. For people who want to be on the cutting edge, there are several easy mechanisms for keeping your system in sync with the latest developments. Be warned—the cutting edge is not for everyone! This chapter will help you decide if you want to track the development system, or stick with one of the released versions. - After reading this chapter you will know: + After reading this chapter, you will know: The difference between the two development branches; &os.stable; and &os.current;. How to keep your system up to date with CVSup, CVS, or CTM. How to rebuild and reinstall the entire base system with make world. - Before reading this chapter you should: + Before reading this chapter, you should: Properly setup your network connection (). Know how to install additional third-party software (). &os.current; vs. &os.stable; -CURRENT -STABLE There are two development branches to FreeBSD; &os.current; and &os.stable;. This section will explain a bit about each and describe how to keep your system up-to-date with each respective tree. &os.current; will be discussed first, then &os.stable;. Staying Current with &os; As you are reading this, keep in mind that &os.current; is the bleeding edge of &os; development and that if you are new to &os;, you are most likely going to want to think twice about running it. What Is &os.current;? snapshot &os.current; is, quite literally, nothing more than a daily snapshot of the working sources for &os;. These include work in progress, experimental changes and transitional mechanisms that may or may not be present in the next official release of the software. While many of us compile almost daily from &os.current; sources, there are periods of time when the sources are literally un-compilable. These problems are generally resolved as expeditiously as possible, but whether or not &os.current; sources bring disaster or greatly desired functionality can literally be a matter of which part of any given 24 hour period you grabbed them in! Who Needs &os.current;? &os.current; is made generally available for 3 primary interest groups: Members of the &os; group who are actively working on some part of the source tree and for whom keeping current is an absolute requirement. Members of the &os; group who are active testers, willing to spend time working through problems in order to ensure that &os.current; remains as sane as possible. These are also people who wish to make topical suggestions on changes and the general direction of &os;. Peripheral members of the &os; (or some other) group who merely wish to keep an eye on things and use the current sources for reference purposes (e.g. for reading, not running). These people also make the occasional comment or contribute code. What Is &os.current; <emphasis>Not</emphasis>? A fast-track to getting pre-release bits because you heard there is some cool new feature in there and you want to be the first on your block to have it. A quick way of getting bug fixes. In any way officially supported by us. We do our best to help people genuinely in one of the 3 legitimate &os.current; categories, but we simply do not have the time to provide tech support for it. This is not because we are mean and nasty people who do not like helping people out (we would not even be doing &os; if we were), it is literally because we cannot answer 400 messages a day and actually work on FreeBSD! Given the choice between improving &os; and answering lots of questions, most developers, and users, would probably opt for the former. Using &os.current; Join the &a.current; and the &a.cvsall; . This is not just a good idea, it is essential. If you are not on the &a.current;, you will not see the comments that people are making about the current state of the system and thus will probably end up stumbling over a lot of problems that others have already found and solved. Even more importantly, you will miss out on important bulletins which may be critical to your system's continued health. The &a.cvsall; mailing list will allow you to see the commit log entry for each change as it is made along with any pertinent information on possible side-effects. To join these lists, send mail to &a.majordomo; and specify the following in the body of your message: subscribe freebsd-current subscribe cvs-all majordomo Optionally, you can also say help and Majordomo will send you full help on how to subscribe and unsubscribe to the various other mailing lists we support. Grab the sources from ftp.FreeBSD.org. You can do this in one of three ways: cvsup cron -CURRENT Syncing with CVSup Use the cvsup program with this supfile. This is the second most recommended method, since it allows you to grab the entire collection once and then only what has changed from then on. Many people run cvsup from cron and keep their sources up-to-date automatically. For a fairly easy interface to this, simply type:
&prompt.root; pkg_add -f ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/development/CVSup/cvsupit.tgz
 -CURRENT Downloading with ftp Use ftp. The source tree for &os.current; is always exported on: ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-current/. Our FTP server also allows compressed/tarred grabbing of whole trees. e.g. you see: usr.bin/lex You can do the following to get the whole directory as a tar file: ftp> cd usr.bin ftp> get lex.tar -CURRENT Syncing with CTM Use the CTM facility. If you have very bad connectivity (high price connections or only email access) CTM is an option. However, it is a lot of hassle and can give you broken files. This leads to it being rarely used, which again increases the chance of it not working for fairly long periods of time. We recommend using CVSup for anybody with a 9600bps modem or faster connection. If you are grabbing the sources to run, and not just look at, then grab all of &os.current;, not just selected portions. The reason for this is that various parts of the source depend on updates elsewhere, and trying to compile just a subset is almost guaranteed to get you into trouble. Before compiling &os.current;, read the Makefilein /usr/src carefully. You should at least run a make world the first time through as part of the upgrading process. Reading the &a.current; will keep you up-to-date on other bootstrapping procedures that sometimes become necessary as we move towards the next release. Be active! If you are running &os.current;, we want to know what you have to say about it, especially if you have suggestions for enhancements or bug fixes. Suggestions with accompanying code are received most enthusiastically! Staying Stable with &os; What Is &os.stable;? -STABLE &os.stable; is our development branch from which major releases are made. Changes go into this branch at a different pace, and with the general assumption that they have first gone into &os.current; first for testing. This is still a development branch, however, and this means that at any given time, the sources for &os.stable; may or may not be suitable for any particular purpose. It is simply another engineering development track, not a resource for end-users. Who Needs &os.stable;? If you are interested in tracking or contributing to the FreeBSD development process, especially as it relates to the next point release of FreeBSD, then you should consider following &os.stable;. While it is true that security fixes also go into the &os.stable; branch, you do not need to track &os.stable; to do this. Every security advisory for FreeBSD explains how to fix the problem for the releases it affects That's not quite true. We can't continue to support old releases of FreeBSD forever, although we do support them for many years. For a complete description of the current security policy for old releases of FreeBSD, please see http://www.FreeBSD.org/security , and tracking an entire development branch just for security reasons is likely to bring in a lot of unwanted changes as well. Although we endeavor to ensure that the &os.stable; branch compiles and runs at all times, this cannot be guaranteed. In addition, while code is developed in &os.current; before including it in &os.stable;, more people run &os.stable; than &os.current;, so it is inevitable that bugs and corner cases will sometimes be found in &os.stable; that were not apparent in &os.current;. For these reasons, we do not recommend that you blindly track &os.stable;, and it is particularly important that you do not update any production servers to &os.stable; without first thoroughly testing the code in your development environment. If you do not have the resources to do this then we recommend that you run the most recent release of FreeBSD, and use the binary update mechanism to move from release to release. Using &os.stable; -STABLE using Join the &a.stable;. This will keep you informed of build-dependencies that may appear in &os.stable; or any other issues requiring special attention. Developers will also make announcements in this mailing list when they are contemplating some controversial fix or update, giving the users a chance to respond if they have any issues to raise concerning the proposed change. The &a.cvsall; mailing list will allow you to see the commit log entry for each change as it is made along with any pertinent information on possible side-effects. To join these lists, send mail to &a.majordomo; and specify the following in the body of your message: subscribe freebsd-stable subscribe cvs-all majordomo Optionally, you can also say help and Majordomo will send you full help on how to subscribe and unsubscribe to the various other mailing lists we support. If you are installing a new system and want it to be as stable as possible, you can simply grab the latest dated branch snapshot from ftp://releng4.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ and install it like any other release. If you are already running a previous release of &os; and wish to upgrade via sources then you can easily do so from ftp.FreeBSD.org. This can be done in one of three ways: CTM -STABLE syncing with CTM Use the CTM facility. Unless you have a good TCP/IP connection at a flat rate, this is the way to do it. -STABLE syncing with CVSup Use the cvsup program with this supfile. This is the second most recommended method, since it allows you to grab the entire collection once and then only what has changed from then on. Many people run cvsup from cron to keep their sources up-to-date automatically. For a fairly easy interface to this, simply type:
&prompt.root; pkg_add -f ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/development/CVSup/cvsupit.tgz
 -STABLE downloading with FTP Use ftp. The source tree for &os.stable; is always exported on: ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-stable/ Our FTP server also allows compressed/tarred grabbing of whole trees. e.g. you see: usr.bin/lex You can do the following to get the whole directory for you as a tar file: ftp> cd usr.bin ftp> get lex.tar Essentially, if you need rapid on-demand access to the source and communications bandwidth is not a consideration, use cvsup or ftp. Otherwise, use CTM. -STABLE compiling Before compiling &os.stable;, read the Makefile in /usr/src carefully. You should at least run a make world the first time through as part of the upgrading process. Reading the &a.stable; will keep you up-to-date on other bootstrapping procedures that sometimes become necessary as we move towards the next release. Synchronizing Your Source There are various ways of using an Internet (or email) connection to stay up-to-date with any given area of the &os; project sources, or all areas, depending on what interests you. The primary services we offer are Anonymous CVS, CVSup, and CTM. While it is possible to update only parts of your source tree, the only supported update procedure is to update the entire tree and recompile both userland (i.e., all the programs that run in user space, such as those in /bin and /sbin) and kernel sources. Updating only part of your source tree, only the kernel, or only userland will often result in problems. These problems may range from compile errors to kernel panics or data corruption. anonymous CVS Anonymous CVS and CVSup use the pull model of updating sources. In the case of CVSup the user (or a cron script) invokes the cvsup program, and it interacts with a cvsupd server somewhere to bring your files up-to-date. The updates you receive are up-to-the-minute and you get them when, and only when, you want them. You can easily restrict your updates to the specific files or directories that are of interest to you. Updates are generated on the fly by the server, according to what you have and what you want to have. Anonymous CVS is quite a bit more simplistic than CVSup in that it is just an extension to CVS which allows it to pull changes directly from a remote CVS repository. CVSup can do this far more efficiently, but Anonymous CVS is easier to use. CTM CTM, on the other hand, does not interactively compare the sources you have with those on the master archive or otherwise pull them across.. Instead, a script which identifies changes in files since its previous run is executed several times a day on the master CTM machine, any detected changes being compressed, stamped with a sequence-number and encoded for transmission over email (in printable ASCII only). Once received, these CTM deltas can then be handed to the &man.ctm.rmail.1; utility which will automatically decode, verify and apply the changes to the user's copy of the sources. This process is far more efficient than CVSup, and places less strain on our server resources since it is a push rather than a pull model. There are other trade-offs, of course. If you inadvertently wipe out portions of your archive, CVSup will detect and rebuild the damaged portions for you. CTM will not do this, and if you wipe some portion of your source tree out (and do not have it backed up) then you will have to start from scratch (from the most recent CVS base delta) and rebuild it all with CTM or, with anoncvs, simply delete the bad bits and resync. More information about Anonymous CVS, CTM, and CVSup is available further down in this section. Using <command>make world</command> make world Once you have synchronized your local source tree against a particular version of &os; (&os.stable;, &os.current;, and so on) you can then use the source tree to rebuild the system. Take a Backup It cannot be stressed enough how important it is to take a backup of your system before you do this. While rebuilding the world is (as long as you follow these instructions) an easy task to do, there will inevitably be times when you make mistakes, or when mistakes made by others in the source tree render your system unbootable. Make sure you have taken a backup. And have a fix-it floppy to hand. You will probably never have to use it, but it is better to be safe than sorry! Subscribe to the Right Mailing List mailing list The &os.stable; and &os.current; branches are, by their nature, in development. People that contribute to &os; are human, and mistakes occasionally happen. Sometimes these mistakes can be quite harmless, just causing your system to print a new diagnostic warning. Or the change may be catastrophic, and render your system unbootable or destroy your filesystems (or worse). If problems like these occur, a heads up is posted to the appropriate mailing list, explaining the nature of the problem and which systems it affects. And an all clear announcement is posted when the problem has been solved. If you try to track &os.stable; or &os.current; and do not read the &a.stable; or the &a.current; respectively, then you are asking for trouble. Read <filename>/usr/src/UPDATING</filename> Before you do anything else, read /usr/src/UPDATING (or the equivalent file wherever you have a copy of the source code). This file should contain important information about problems you might encounter, or specify the order in which you might have to run certain commands. If UPDATING contradicts something you read here, UPDATING takes precedence. Reading UPDATING is not an acceptable substitute for subscribing to the correct mailing list, as described previously. The two requirements are complementary, not exclusive. Check <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename> make.conf Examine the files /etc/defaults/make.conf and /etc/make.conf. The first contains some default defines – most of which are commented out. To make use of them when you rebuild your system from source, add them to /etc/make.conf. Keep in mind that anything you add to /etc/make.conf is also used every time you run make, so it is a good idea to set them to something sensible for your system. A typical user will probably want to copy the CFLAGS and NOPROFILE lines found in /etc/defaults/make.conf to /etc/make.conf and uncomment them. Examine the other definitions (COPTFLAGS, NOPORTDOCS and so on) and decide if they are relevant to you. Update <filename>/etc/group</filename> The /etc directory contains a large part of your system's configuration information, as well as scripts that are run at system startup. Some of these scripts change from version to version of FreeBSD. Some of the configuration files are also used in the day to day running of the system. In particular, /etc/group. There have been occasions when the installation part of make world has expected certain usernames or groups to exist. When performing an upgrade it is likely that these groups did not exist. This caused problems when upgrading. The most recent example of this is when the ppp subsystem were installed using a non-existent (for them) group name. The solution is to examine /usr/src/etc/group and compare its list of groups with your own. If there are any groups in the new file that are not in your file then copy them over. Similarly, you should rename any groups in /etc/group which have the same GID but a different name to those in /usr/src/etc/group. If you are feeling particularly paranoid, you can check your system to see which files are owned by the group you are renaming or deleting. &prompt.root; find / -group GID -print will show all files owned by group GID (which can be either a group name or a numeric group ID). Drop to Single User Mode single-user mode You may want to compile the system in single user mode. Apart from the obvious benefit of making things go slightly faster, reinstalling the system will touch a lot of important system files, all the standard system binaries, libraries, include files and so on. Changing these on a running system (particularly if you have active users on the system at the time) is asking for trouble. multi-user mode Another method is to compile the system in multi-user mode, and then drop into single user mode for the installation. If you would like to do it this way, simply hold off on the following steps until the build has completed. As the superuser, you can execute &prompt.root; from a running system, which will drop it to single user mode. Alternatively, reboot the system, and at the boot prompt, enter the flag. The system will then boot single user. At the shell prompt you should then run: &prompt.root; fsck -p &prompt.root; mount -u / &prompt.root; mount -a -t ufs &prompt.root; swapon -a This checks the filesystems, remounts / read/write, mounts all the other UFS filesystems referenced in /etc/fstab and then turns swapping on. Remove <filename>/usr/obj</filename> As parts of the system are rebuilt they are placed in directories which (by default) go under /usr/obj. The directories shadow those under /usr/src. You can speed up the make world process, and possibly save yourself some dependency headaches by removing this directory as well. Some files below /usr/obj may have the immutable flag set (see &man.chflags.1; for more information) which must be removed first. &prompt.root; cd /usr/obj &prompt.root; chflags -R noschg * &prompt.root; rm -rf * Recompile the Source Saving the Output It is a good idea to save the output you get from running &man.make.1; to another file. If something goes wrong you will have a copy of the error message. While this might not help you in diagnosing what has gone wrong, it can help others if you post your problem to one of the &os; mailing lists. The easiest way to do this is to use the &man.script.1; command, with a parameter that specifies the name of the file to save all output to. You would do this immediately before rebuilding the world, and then type exit when the process has finished. &prompt.root; script /var/tmp/mw.out Script started, output file is /var/tmp/mw.out &prompt.root; make TARGET … compile, compile, compile … &prompt.root; exit Script done, … If you do this, do not save the output in /tmp. This directory may be cleared next time you reboot. A better place to store it is in /var/tmp (as in the previous example) or in root's home directory. Compile and Install the Base System You must be in the /usr/src directory... &prompt.root; cd /usr/src (unless, of course, your source code is elsewhere, in which case change to that directory instead). make To rebuild the world you use the &man.make.1; command. This command reads instructions from the Makefile, which describes how the programs that comprise &os; should be rebuilt, the order in which they should be built, and so on. The general format of the command line you will type is as follows: &prompt.root; make In this example, is an option that you would pass to &man.make.1;. See the &man.make.1; manual page for an example of the options you can pass. passes a variable to the Makefile. The behavior of the Makefile is controlled by these variables. These are the same variables as are set in /etc/make.conf, and this provides another way of setting them. &prompt.root; make -DNOPROFILE=true target is another way of specifying that profiled libraries should not be built, and corresponds with the NOPROFILE= true # Avoid compiling profiled libraries lines in /etc/make.conf. target tells &man.make.1; what you want to do. Each Makefile defines a number of different targets, and your choice of target determines what happens. Some targets are listed in the Makefile, but are not meant for you to run. Instead, they are used by the build process to break out the steps necessary to rebuild the system into a number of sub-steps. Most of the time you will not need to pass any parameters to &man.make.1;, and so your command like will look like this: &prompt.root; make target Beginning with version 2.2.5 of &os; (actually, it was first created on the &os.current; branch, and then retrofitted to &os.stable; midway between 2.2.2 and 2.2.5) the world target has been split in two. buildworld and installworld. As the names imply, buildworld builds a complete new tree under /usr/obj, and installworld installs this tree on the current machine. This is very useful for 2 reasons. First, it allows you to do the build safe in the knowledge that no components of your running system will be affected. The build is self hosted. Because of this, you can safely run buildworld on a machine running in multi-user mode with no fear of ill-effects. It is still recommended that you run the installworld part in single user mode, though. Secondly, it allows you to use NFS mounts to upgrade multiple machines on your network. If you have three machines, A, B and C that you want to upgrade, run make buildworld and make installworld on A. B and C should then NFS mount /usr/src and /usr/obj from A, and you can then run make installworld to install the results of the build on B and C. Although the world target still exists, you are strongly encouraged not to use it. Run &prompt.root; make buildworld It is now possible to specify a -j option to make which will cause it to spawn several simultaneous processes. This is most useful on multi-CPU machines. However, since much of the compiling process is IO bound rather than CPU bound it is also useful on single CPU machines. On a typical single-CPU machine you would run: &prompt.root; make -j4 buildworld &man.make.1; will then have up to 4 processes running at any one time. Empirical evidence posted to the mailing lists shows this generally gives the best performance benefit. If you have a multi-CPU machine and you are using an SMP configured kernel try values between 6 and 10 and see how they speed things up. Be aware that this is still somewhat experimental, and commits to the source tree may occasionally break this feature. If the world fails to compile using this parameter try again without it before you report any problems. Timings make world timings Many factors influence the build time, but currently a 500 MHz Pentium 3 with 128 MB of RAM takes about 2 hours to build the &os.stable; tree, with no tricks or shortcuts used during the process. A &os.current; tree will take somewhat longer. Compile and Install a New Kernel kernel compiling To take full advantage of your new system you should recompile the kernel. This is practically a necessity, as certain memory structures may have changed, and programs like &man.ps.1; and &man.top.1; will fail to work until the kernel and source code versions are the same. The simplest, safest way to do this is to build and install a kernel based on GENERIC. While GENERIC may not have all the necessary devices for your system, it should contain everything necessary to boot your system back to single user mode. This is a good test that the new system works properly. After booting from GENERIC and verifying that your system works you can then build a new kernel based on your normal kernel configuration file. If you are upgrading to &os; 4.0 or above then the standard kernel build procedure (as described in ) is deprecated. Instead, you should run these commands. &prompt.root; cd /usr/src &prompt.root; make buildkernel &prompt.root; make installkernel If you are upgrading to a version of &os; below 4.0 you should use the standard kernel build procedure. However, it is recommended that you use the new version of &man.config.8;, using a command line like this. &prompt.root; /usr/obj/usr/src/usr.sbin/config/config KERNELNAME Reboot into Single User Mode single-user mode You should reboot in to single user mode to test the new kernel works. Do this by following the instructions in . Install the New System Binaries If you were building a version of &os; recent enough to have used make buildworld then you should now use the installworld to install the new system binaries. Run &prompt.root; make installworld If you specified variables on the make buildworld command line, you must specify the same variables in the make installworld command line. This does not necessarily hold true for other options; for example, must never be used with installworld. For example, if you ran: &prompt.root; make -DNOPROFILE=true buildworld you must install the results with: &prompt.root; make -DNOPROFILE=true installworld otherwise it would try and install profiled libraries that had not been built during the make buildworld phase. Update Files Not Updated by <command>make world</command> Remaking the world will not update certain directories (in particular, /etc, /var and /usr) with new or changed configuration files. mergemaster The simplest way to update these files is to use &man.mergemaster.8;, though it is possible to do it manually if you would prefer to do that. We strongly recommend you use &man.mergemaster.8;, however, and if you do then you can skip forward to the next section, since &man.mergemaster.8; is very simple to use. You should read the manual page first, and make a backup of /etc in case anything goes wrong. If you wish to do the update manually, you cannot just copy over the files from /usr/src/etc to /etc and have it work. Some of these files must be installed first. This is because the /usr/src/etc directory is not a copy of what your /etc directory should look like. In addition, there are files that should be in /etc that are not in /usr/src/etc. The simplest way to do this by hand is to install the files into a new directory, and then work through them looking for differences. Backup Your Existing <filename>/etc</filename> Although, in theory, nothing is going to touch this directory automatically, it is always better to be sure. So copy your existing /etc directory somewhere safe. Something like: &prompt.root; cp -Rp /etc /etc.old does a recursive copy, preserves times, ownerships on files and suchlike. You need to build a dummy set of directories to install the new /etc and other files into. /var/tmp/root is a reasonable choice, and there are a number of subdirectories required under this as well. &prompt.root; mkdir /var/tmp/root &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/etc &prompt.root; make DESTDIR=/var/tmp/root distrib-dirs distribution This will build the necessary directory structure and install the files. A lot of the subdirectories that have been created under /var/tmp/root are empty and should be deleted. The simplest way to do this is to: &prompt.root; cd /var/tmp/root &prompt.root; find -d . -type d | xargs rmdir 2>/dev/null This will remove all empty directories. (Standard error is redirected to /dev/null to prevent the warnings about the directories that are not empty.) /var/tmp/root now contains all the files that should be placed in appropriate locations below /. You now have to go through each of these files, determining how they differ with your existing files. Note that some of the files that will have been installed in /var/tmp/root have a leading /var/tmp/root/ and /var/tmp/root/root/, although there may be others (depending on when you are reading this. Make sure you use The simplest way to do this is to use &man.diff.1; to compare the two files. &prompt.root; diff /etc/shells /var/tmp/root/etc/shells This will show you the differences between your /etc/shells file and the new /etc/shells file. Use these to decide whether to merge in changes that you have made or whether to copy over your old file. Name the New Root Directory (<filename>/var/tmp/root</filename>) with a Time Stamp, So You Can Easily Compare Differences Between Versions Frequently rebuilding the world means that you have to update /etc frequently as well, which can be a bit of a chore. You can speed this process up by keeping a copy of the last set of changed files that you merged into /etc. The following procedure gives one idea of how to do this. Make the world as normal. When you want to update /etc and the other directories, give the target directory a name based on the current date. If you were doing this on the 14th of February 1998 you could do the following. &prompt.root; mkdir /var/tmp/root-19980214 &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/etc &prompt.root; make DESTDIR=/var/tmp/root-19980214 \ distrib-dirs distribution Merge in the changes from this directory as outlined above. Do not remove the /var/tmp/root-19980214 directory when you have finished. When you have downloaded the latest version of the source and remade it, follow step 1. This will give you a new directory, which might be called /var/tmp/root-19980221 (if you wait a week between doing updates). You can now see the differences that have been made in the intervening week using &man.diff.1; to create a recursive diff between the two directories. &prompt.root; cd /var/tmp &prompt.root; diff -r root-19980214 root-19980221 Typically, this will be a much smaller set of differences than those between /var/tmp/root-19980221/etc and /etc. Because the set of differences is smaller, it is easier to migrate those changes across into your /etc directory. You can now remove the older of the two /var/tmp/root-* directories. &prompt.root; rm -rf /var/tmp/root-19980214 Repeat this process every time you need to merge in changes to /etc. You can use &man.date.1; to automate the generation of the directory names. &prompt.root; mkdir /var/tmp/root-`date "+%Y%m%d"` Update <filename>/dev</filename> DEVFS DEVFS If you are using DEVFS this is unnecessary. In most cases, the &man.mergemaster.8 tool will realize when it is necessary to update the devices, and offer to complete it automatically. These instructions tell how to update the devices manually. For safety's sake, this is a multi-step process. Copy /var/tmp/root/dev/MAKEDEV to /dev. &prompt.root; cp /var/tmp/root/dev/MAKEDEV /dev MAKEDEV If you used &man.mergemaster.8; to update /etc, then your MAKEDEV script should have been updated already, though it cannot hurt to check (with &man.diff.1;) and copy it manually if necessary. Now, take a snapshot of your current /dev. This snapshot needs to contain the permissions, ownerships, major and minor numbers of each filename, but it should not contain the time stamps. The easiest way to do this is to use &man.awk.1; to strip out some of the information. &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; ls -l | awk '{print $1, $2, $3, $4, $5, $6, $NF}' > /var/tmp/dev.out Remake all the devices. &prompt.root; Write another snapshot of the directory, this time to /var/tmp/dev2.out. Now look through these two files for any devices that you missed creating. There should not be any, but it is better to be safe than sorry. &prompt.root; diff /var/tmp/dev.out /var/tmp/dev2.out You are most likely to notice disk slice discrepancies which will involve commands such as &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV sd0s1 to recreate the slice entries. Your precise circumstances may vary. Update <filename>/stand</filename> This step is included only for completeness. It can safely be omitted. For the sake of completeness, you may want to update the files in /stand as well. These files consist of hard links to the /stand/sysinstall binary. This binary should be statically linked, so that it can work when no other filesystems (and in particular /usr) have been mounted. &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/release/sysinstall &prompt.root; make all install Rebooting You are now done. After you have verified that everything appears to be in the right place you can reboot the system. A simple &man.fastboot.8; should do it. &prompt.root; fastboot Finished You should now have successfully upgraded your &os; system. Congratulations. If things went slightly wrong, it is easy to rebuild a particular piece of the system. For example, if you accidently deleted /etc/magic as part of the upgrade or merge of /etc, the &man.file.1; command will stop working. In this case, the fix would be to run: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/usr.bin/file &prompt.root; Questions Do I need to re-make the world for every change? There is no easy answer to this one, as it depends on the nature of the change. For example, if you just ran CVSup, and it has shown the following files as being updated, src/games/cribbage/instr.c src/games/sail/pl_main.c src/release/sysinstall/config.c src/release/sysinstall/media.c src/share/mk/bsd.port.mk it probably is not worth rebuilding the entire world. You could just go to the appropriate sub-directories and make all install, and that's about it. But if something major changed, for example src/lib/libc/stdlib then you should either re-make the world, or at least those parts of it that are statically linked (as well as anything else you might have added that is statically linked). At the end of the day, it is your call. You might be happy re-making the world every fortnight say, and let changes accumulate over that fortnight. Or you might want to re-make just those things that have changed, and are confident you can spot all the dependencies. And, of course, this all depends on how often you want to upgrade, and whether you are tracking &os.stable; or &os.current;. My compile failed with lots of signal 11 (or other signal number) errors. What has happened? signal 11 This is normally indicative of hardware problems. (Re)making the world is an effective way to stress test your hardware, and will frequently throw up memory problems. These normally manifest themselves as the compiler mysteriously dying on receipt of strange signals. A sure indicator of this is if you can restart the make and it dies at a different point in the process. In this instance there is little you can do except start swapping around the components in your machine to determine which one is failing. Can I remove /usr/obj when I have finished? The short answer is yes. /usr/obj contains all the object files that were produced during the compilation phase. Normally, one of the first steps in the /usr/obj around after you have finished makes little sense, and will free up a large chunk of disk space (currently about 340MB). However, if you know what you are doing you can have If you want to live dangerously then make the world, passing the NOCLEAN definition to make, like this: &prompt.root; make -DNOCLEAN world Can interrupted builds be resumed? This depends on how far through the process you got before you found a problem. In general (and this is not a hard and fast rule) the make world process builds new copies of essential tools (such as &man.gcc.1;, and &man.make.1;) and the system libraries. These tools and libraries are then installed. The new tools and libraries are then used to rebuild themselves, and are installed again. The entire system (now including regular user programs, such as &man.ls.1; or &man.grep.1;) is then rebuilt with the new system files. If you are at the last stage, and you know it (because you have looked through the output that you were storing) then you can (fairly safely) do … fix the problem … &prompt.root; cd /usr/src &prompt.root; make -DNOCLEAN all This will not undo the work of the previous make world. If you see the message -------------------------------------------------------------- Building everything.. -------------------------------------------------------------- in the make world output then it is probably fairly safe to do so. If you do not see that message, or you are not sure, then it is always better to be safe than sorry, and restart the build from scratch. NFS Can I use one machine as a This is a fairly easy task, and can save hours of compile time for many machines. Simply run the buildworld on a central machine, and then NFS mount /usr/src and /usr/obj on the remote machine and installworld there. How can I speed up making the world? Run in single user mode. Put the /usr/src and /usr/obj directories on separate filesystems held on separate disks. If possible, put these disks on separate disk controllers. Better still, put these filesystems across multiple disks using the &man.ccd.4 (concatenated disk driver) device. Turn off profiling (set NOPROFILE=true in /etc/make.conf). You almost certainly do not need it. Also in /etc/make.conf, set CFLAGS to something like -O -pipe. The optimization -O2 is much slower, and the optimization difference between -O and -O2 is normally negligible. -pipe lets the compiler use pipes rather than temporary files for communication, which saves disk access (at the expense of memory). Pass the option to make to run multiple processes in parallel. This usually helps regardless of whether you have a single or a multi processor machine. The filesystem holding /usr/src can be mounted (or remounted) with the option. This prevents the filesystem from recording the file access time. You probably do not need this information anyway. &prompt.root; mount -u -o noatime /usr/src The example assumes /usr/src is on its own filesystem. If it is not (if it is a part of /usr for example) then you will need to use that filesystem mount point, and not /usr/src. The filesystem holding /usr/obj can be mounted (or remounted) with the async option. This causes disk writes to happen asynchronously. In other words, the write completes immediately, and the data is written to the disk a few seconds later. This allows writes to be clustered together, and can be a dramatic performance boost. Keep in mind that this option makes your filesystem more fragile. With this option there is an increased chance that, should power fail, the filesystem will be in an unrecoverable state when the machine restarts. If /usr/obj is the only thing on this filesystem then it is not a problem. If you have other, valuable data on the same filesystem then ensure your backups are fresh before you enable this option. &prompt.root; mount -u -o async /usr/obj As above, if /usr/obj is not on its own filesystem, replace it in the example with the name of the appropriate mount point. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml index 712c06f406..28d73ffd53 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1925 +1,1925 @@ Storage Synopsis This chapter covers the use of disks in FreeBSD. This includes memory-backed disks, network-attached disks, and standard SCSI/IDE storage devices. - After reading this chapter you will know: + After reading this chapter, you will know: The terminology FreeBSD uses to describe the organization of data on a physical disk (partitions and slices). How to mount and unmount filesystems. How to add additional hard disks to your system. How to setup virtual filesystems, such as memory disks. How to use quotas to limit disk space usage. How to create and burn CDs and DVDs on FreeBSD. The various storage media options for backups. How to use backup programs available under FreeBSD. How to backup to floppy disks. David O'Brien Originally contributed by Adding Disks disks adding Lets say we want to add a new SCSI disk to a machine that currently only has a single drive. First turn off the computer and install the drive in the computer following the instructions of the computer, controller, and drive manufacturer. Due to the wide variations of procedures to do this, the details are beyond the scope of this document. Login as user root. After you have installed the drive, inspect /var/run/dmesg.boot to ensure the new disk was found. Continuing with our example, the newly added drive will be da1 and we want to mount it on /1 (if you are adding an IDE drive, the device name will be wd1 in pre-4.0 systems, or ad1 in most 4.X systems). partitions slices fdisk Because FreeBSD runs on IBM-PC compatible computers, it must take into account the PC BIOS partitions. These are different from the traditional BSD partitions. A PC disk has up to four BIOS partition entries. If the disk is going to be truly dedicated to FreeBSD, you can use the dedicated mode. Otherwise, FreeBSD will have to live within one of the PC BIOS partitions. FreeBSD calls the PC BIOS partitions slices so as not to confuse them with traditional BSD partitions. You may also use slices on a disk that is dedicated to FreeBSD, but used in a computer that also has another operating system installed. This is to not confuse the fdisk utility of the other operating system. In the slice case the drive will be added as /dev/da1s1e. This is read as: SCSI disk, unit number 1 (second SCSI disk), slice 1 (PC BIOS partition 1), and e BSD partition. In the dedicated case, the drive will be added simply as /dev/da1e. Using &man.sysinstall.8; sysinstall adding disks su Navigating <application>Sysinstall</application> You may use /stand/sysinstall to partition and label a new disk using its easy to use menus. Either login as user root or use the su command. Run /stand/sysinstall and enter the Configure menu. Within the FreeBSD Configuration Menu, scroll down and select the Partition item. Next you should be presented with a list of hard drives installed in your system. If you do not see da1 listed, you need to recheck your physical installation and dmesg output in the file /var/run/dmesg.boot. FDISK Partition Editor Select da1 to enter the FDISK Partition Editor. Type A to use the entire disk for FreeBSD. When asked if you want to remain cooperative with any future possible operating systems, answer YES. Write the changes to the disk using W. Now exit the FDISK editor by typing q. Next you will be asked about the Master Boot Record. Since you are adding a disk to an already running system, choose None. Disk Label Editor BSD partitions Next, Sysinstall will enter the Disk Label Editor. This is where you will create the traditional BSD partitions. A disk can have up to eight partitions, labeled a-h. A few of the partition labels have special uses. The a partition is used for the root partition (/). Thus only your system disk (e.g, the disk you boot from) should have an a partition. The b partition is used for swap partitions, and you may have many disks with swap partitions. The c partition addresses the entire disk in dedicated mode, or the entire FreeBSD slice in slice mode. The other partitions are for general use. Sysinstall's Label editor favors the e partition for non-root, non-swap partitions. Within the Label editor, create a single file system by typing C. When prompted if this will be a FS (file system) or swap, choose FS and type in a mount point (e.g, /mnt). When adding a disk in post-install mode, Sysinstall will not create entries in /etc/fstab for you, so the mount point you specify is not important. You are now ready to write the new label to the disk and create a file system on it. Do this by typing W. Ignore any errors from Sysinstall that it could not mount the new partition. Exit the Label Editor and Sysinstall completely. Finish The last step is to edit /etc/fstab to add an entry for your new disk. Using Command Line Utilities Using Slices This setup will allow your disk to work correctly with other operating systems that might be installed on your computer and will not confuse other operating systems' fdisk utilities. It is recommended to use this method for new disk installs. Only use dedicated mode if you have a good reason to do so! &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rda1 bs=1k count=1 &prompt.root; fdisk -BI da1 #Initialize your new disk &prompt.root; disklabel -B -w -r da1s1 auto #Label it. &prompt.root; disklabel -e da1s1 # Edit the disklabel just created and add any partitions. &prompt.root; mkdir -p /1 &prompt.root; newfs /dev/da1s1e # Repeat this for every partition you created. &prompt.root; mount -t ufs /dev/da1s1e /1 # Mount the partition(s) &prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # Add the appropriate entry/entries to your /etc/fstab. If you have an IDE disk, substitute ad for da. On pre-4.X systems use wd. Dedicated OS/2 If you will not be sharing the new drive with another operating system, you may use the dedicated mode. Remember this mode can confuse Microsoft operating systems; however, no damage will be done by them. IBM's OS/2 however, will appropriate any partition it finds which it doesn't understand. &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rda1 bs=1k count=1 &prompt.root; disklabel -Brw da1 auto &prompt.root; disklabel -e da1 # create the `e' partition &prompt.root; newfs -d0 /dev/rda1e &prompt.root; mkdir -p /1 &prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # add an entry for /dev/da1e &prompt.root; mount /1 An alternate method is: &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rda1 count=2 &prompt.root; disklabel /dev/rda1 | disklabel -BrR da1 /dev/stdin &prompt.root; newfs /dev/rda1e &prompt.root; mkdir -p /1 &prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # add an entry for /dev/da1e &prompt.root; mount /1 Network, Memory, and File-Based Filesystems virtual disks disks virtual Aside from the disks you physically insert into your computer: floppies, CDs, hard drives, and so forth; other forms of disks are understood by FreeBSD - the virtual disks. NFS Coda disks memory These include network filesystems such as the Network Filesystem and Coda, memory-based filesystems such as md and file-backed filesystems created by vnconfig or mdconfig. vnconfig: File-Backed Filesystem disks file-backed &man.vnconfig.8; configures and enables vnode pseudo-disk devices. A vnode is a representation of a file, and is the focus of file activity. This means that &man.vnconfig.8; uses files to create and operate a filesystem. One possible use is the mounting of floppy or CD images kept in files. To mount an existing filesystem image: Using vnconfig to mount an Existing Filesystem Image &prompt.root; vnconfig vn0 diskimage &prompt.root; mount /dev/vn0c /mnt To create a new filesystem image with vnconfig: Creating a New File-Backed Disk with vnconfig &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=newimage bs=1k count=5k 5120+0 records in 5120+0 records out &prompt.root; vnconfig -s labels -c vn0 newimage &prompt.root; disklabel -r -w vn0 auto &prompt.root; newfs vn0c Warning: 2048 sector(s) in last cylinder unallocated /dev/rvn0c: 10240 sectors in 3 cylinders of 1 tracks, 4096 sectors 5.0MB in 1 cyl groups (16 c/g, 32.00MB/g, 1280 i/g) super-block backups (for fsck -b #) at: 32 &prompt.root; mount /dev/vn0c /mnt &prompt.root; df /mnt Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on /dev/vn0c 4927 1 4532 0% /mnt md: Memory Filesystem disks memory filesystem md is a simple, efficient means to create memory filesystems. Simply take a filesystem you have prepared with, for example, &man.vnconfig.8;, and: md Memory Disk &prompt.root; dd if=newimage of=/dev/md0 5120+0 records in 5120+0 records out &prompt.root; mount /dev/md0c /mnt &prompt.root; df /mnt Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on /dev/md0c 4927 1 4532 0% /mnt File System Quotas accounting disk space disk quotas Quotas are an optional feature of the operating system that allow you to limit the amount of disk space and/or the number of files a user or members of a group may allocate on a per-file system basis. This is used most often on timesharing systems where it is desirable to limit the amount of resources any one user or group of users may allocate. This will prevent one user or group of users from consuming all of the available disk space. Configuring Your System to Enable Disk Quotas Before attempting to use disk quotas, it is necessary to make sure that quotas are configured in your kernel. This is done by adding the following line to your kernel configuration file: options QUOTA The stock GENERIC kernel does not have this enabled by default, so you will have to configure, build and install a custom kernel in order to use disk quotas. Please refer to for more information on kernel configuration. Next you will need to enable disk quotas in /etc/rc.conf. This is done by adding the line: enable_quotas=YES disk quotas checking For finer control over your quota startup, there is an additional configuration variable available. Normally on bootup, the quota integrity of each file system is checked by the quotacheck program. The quotacheck facility insures that the data in the quota database properly reflects the data on the file system. This is a very time consuming process that will significantly affect the time your system takes to boot. If you would like to skip this step, a variable in /etc/rc.conf is made available for the purpose: check_quotas=NO If you are running FreeBSD prior to 3.2-RELEASE, the configuration is simpler, and consists of only one variable. Set the following in your /etc/rc.conf: check_quotas=YES Finally you will need to edit /etc/fstab to enable disk quotas on a per-file system basis. This is where you can either enable user or group quotas or both for all of your file systems. To enable per-user quotas on a file system, add the userquota option to the options field in the /etc/fstab entry for the file system you want to enable quotas on. For example: /dev/da1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota 1 2 Similarly, to enable group quotas, use the groupquota option instead of userquota. To enable both user and group quotas, change the entry as follows: /dev/da1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota,groupquota 1 2 By default, the quota files are stored in the root directory of the file system with the names quota.user and quota.group for user and group quotas respectively. See &man.fstab.5; for more information. Even though the &man.fstab.5; manual page says that you can specify an alternate location for the quota files, this is not recommended because the various quota utilities do not seem to handle this properly. At this point you should reboot your system with your new kernel. /etc/rc will automatically run the appropriate commands to create the initial quota files for all of the quotas you enabled in /etc/fstab, so there is no need to manually create any zero length quota files. In the normal course of operations you should not be required to run the quotacheck, quotaon, or quotaoff commands manually. However, you may want to read their manual pages just to be familiar with their operation. Setting Quota Limits disk quotas limits Once you have configured your system to enable quotas, verify that they really are enabled. An easy way to do this is to run: &prompt.root; quota -v You should see a one line summary of disk usage and current quota limits for each file system that quotas are enabled on. You are now ready to start assigning quota limits with the edquota command. You have several options on how to enforce limits on the amount of disk space a user or group may allocate, and how many files they may create. You may limit allocations based on disk space (block quotas) or number of files (inode quotas) or a combination of both. Each of these limits are further broken down into two categories: hard and soft limits. hard limit A hard limit may not be exceeded. Once a user reaches his hard limit he may not make any further allocations on the file system in question. For example, if the user has a hard limit of 500 blocks on a file system and is currently using 490 blocks, the user can only allocate an additional 10 blocks. Attempting to allocate an additional 11 blocks will fail. soft limit Soft limits, on the other hand, can be exceeded for a limited amount of time. This period of time is known as the grace period, which is one week by default. If a user stays over his or her soft limit longer than the grace period, the soft limit will turn into a hard limit and no further allocations will be allowed. When the user drops back below the soft limit, the grace period will be reset. The following is an example of what you might see when you run the edquota command. When the edquota command is invoked, you are placed into the editor specified by the EDITOR environment variable, or in the vi editor if the EDITOR variable is not set, to allow you to edit the quota limits. &prompt.root; edquota -u test Quotas for user test: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) inodes in use: 7, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60) /usr/var: blocks in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) inodes in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60) You will normally see two lines for each file system that has quotas enabled. One line for the block limits, and one line for inode limits. Simply change the value you want updated to modify the quota limit. For example, to raise this user's block limit from a soft limit of 50 and a hard limit of 75 to a soft limit of 500 and a hard limit of 600, change: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) to: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 500, hard = 600) The new quota limits will be in place when you exit the editor. Sometimes it is desirable to set quota limits on a range of uids. This can be done by use of the option on the edquota command. First, assign the desired quota limit to a user, and then run edquota -p protouser startuid-enduid. For example, if user test has the desired quota limits, the following command can be used to duplicate those quota limits for uids 10,000 through 19,999: &prompt.root; edquota -p test 10000-19999 For more information see &man.edquota.8;. Checking Quota Limits and Disk Usage disk quotas checking You can use either the quota or the repquota commands to check quota limits and disk usage. The quota command can be used to check individual user or group quotas and disk usage. A user may only examine his own quota, and the quota of a group he is a member of. Only the super-user may view all user and group quotas. The repquota command can be used to get a summary of all quotas and disk usage for file systems with quotas enabled. The following is some sample output from the quota -v command for a user that has quota limits on two file systems. Disk quotas for user test (uid 1002): Filesystem blocks quota limit grace files quota limit grace /usr 65* 50 75 5days 7 50 60 /usr/var 0 50 75 0 50 60 grace period On the /usr file system in the above example, this user is currently 15 blocks over the soft limit of 50 blocks and has 5 days of the grace period left. Note the asterisk * which indicates that the user is currently over his quota limit. Normally file systems that the user is not using any disk space on will not show up in the output from the quota command, even if he has a quota limit assigned for that file system. The option will display those file systems, such as the /usr/var file system in the above example. Quotas over NFS NFS Quotas are enforced by the quota subsystem on the NFS server. The &man.rpc.rquotad.8; daemon makes quota information available to the &man.quota.1; command on NFS clients, allowing users on those machines to see their quota statistics. Enable rpc.rquotad in /etc/inetd.conf like so: rquotad/1 dgram rpc/udp wait root /usr/libexec/rpc.rquotad rpc.rquotad Now restart inetd: &prompt.root; kill -HUP `cat /var/run/inetd.pid` Mike Meyer Contributed by Creating and Using Optical Media (CDs & DVDs) CDROMs creating Introduction CDs have a number of features that differentiate them from conventional disks. Initially, they were not writable by the user. They are designed so that they can be read continuously without delays to move the head between tracks. They are also much easier to transport between systems than similarly sized media were at the time. CDs do have tracks, but this refers to a section of data to be read continuously and not a physical property of the disk. To produce a CD on FreeBSD, you prepare the data files that are going to make up the tracks on the CD, then write the tracks to the CD. ISO 9660 filesystems ISO-9660 The ISO 9660 file system was designed to deal with these differences. It unfortunately codifies file system limits that were common then. Fortunately, it provides an extension mechanism that allows properly written CDs to exceed those limits while still working with systems that do not support those extensions. mkisofs The mkisofs program is used to produce a data file containing an ISO 9660 file system. It has options that support various extensions, and is described below. You can install it with the sysutils/mkisofs port. CD burner ATAPI Which tool to use to burn the CD depends on whether your CD burner is ATAPI or something else. ATAPI CD burners use the burncd program that is part of the base system. SCSI and USB CD burners should use cdrecord from the sysutils/cdrtools port. burncd has a limited number of supported drives. To find out if a drive is supported, see CD-R/RW supported drives. mkisofs mkisofs produces an ISO 9660 file system that is an image of a directory tree in the Unix file system name space. The simplest usage is: &prompt.root; mkisofs imagefile.iso /path/to/tree filesystems ISO-9660 This command will create an imagefile containing an ISO 9660 file system that is a copy of the tree at /path/to/tree. In the process, it will map the file names to names that fit the limitations of the standard ISO 9660 file system, and will exclude files that have names uncharacteristic of ISO file systems. filesystems HFS filesystems Joliet A number of options are available to overcome those restrictions. In particular, enables the Rock Ridge extensions common to Unix systems, enables Joliet extensions used by Microsoft systems, and can be used to create HFS file systems used by MacOS. For CDs that are going to be used only on FreeBSD systems, can be used to disable all filename restrictions. When used with , it produces a file system image that is identical to the FreeBSD tree you started from, though it may violate the ISO 9660 standard in a number of ways. CDROMs creating bootable The last option of general use is . This is used to specify the location of the boot image for use in producing an El Torito bootable CD. This option takes an argument which is the path to a boot image from the top of the tree being written to the CD. So, given that /tmp/myboot holds a bootable FreeBSD system with the boot image in /tmp/myboot/boot/cdboot, you could produce the image of an ISO 9660 file system in /tmp/bootable.iso like so: &prompt.root; mkisofs boot/cdboot /tmp/bootable.iso /tmp/myboot Having done that, if you have vn configured in your kernel, you can mount the file system with: &prompt.root; vnconfig vn0c /tmp/bootable.iso &prompt.root; mount cd9660 /dev/vn0c /mnt At which point you can verify that /mnt and /tmp/myboot are identical. There are many other options you can use with mkisofs to fine-tune its behavior. In particular: modifications to an ISO 9660 layout and the creation of Joilet and HFS discs. See the &man.mkisofs.8; manual page for details. burncd CDROMs burning If you have an ATAPI CD burner, you can use the burncd command to burn an ISO image onto a CD. burncd is part of the base system, installed as /usr/sbin/burncd. Usage is very simple, as it has few options: &prompt.root; burncd cddevice data imagefile.iso fixate Will burn a copy of imagefile.iso on cddevice. The default device is /dev/acd0c. See &man.burncd.8; for options to set the write speed, eject the CD after burning, and write audio data. cdrecord If you do not have an ATAPI CD burner, you will have to use cdrecord to burn your CDs. cdrecord is not part of the base system; you must install it from either the port at sysutils/cdrtools or the appropriate package. Changes to the base system can cause binary versions of this program to fail, possibly resulting in a coaster. You should therefore either upgrade the port when you upgrade your system, or if you are tracking -STABLE, upgrade the port when a new version becomes available. While cdrecord has many options, basic usage is even simpler than burncd. Burning an ISO 9660 image is done with: &prompt.root; cdrecord device imagefile.iso The tricky part of using cdrecord is finding the to use. To find the proper setting, use the flag of cdrecord, which might produce results like this: CDROMs burning &prompt.root; cdrecord Cdrecord 1.9 (i386-unknown-freebsd4.2) Copyright (C) 1995-2000 Jörg Schilling Using libscg version 'schily-0.1' scsibus0: 0,0,0 0) 'SEAGATE ' 'ST39236LW ' '0004' Disk 0,1,0 1) 'SEAGATE ' 'ST39173W ' '5958' Disk 0,2,0 2) * 0,3,0 3) 'iomega ' 'jaz 1GB ' 'J.86' Removable Disk 0,4,0 4) 'NEC ' 'CD-ROM DRIVE:466' '1.26' Removable CD-ROM 0,5,0 5) * 0,6,0 6) * 0,7,0 7) * scsibus1: 1,0,0 100) * 1,1,0 101) * 1,2,0 102) * 1,3,0 103) * 1,4,0 104) * 1,5,0 105) 'YAMAHA ' 'CRW4260 ' '1.0q' Removable CD-ROM 1,6,0 106) 'ARTEC ' 'AM12S ' '1.06' Scanner 1,7,0 107) * This lists the appropriate value for the devices on the list. Locate your CD burner, and use the three numbers separated by commas as the value for . In this case, the CRW device is 1,5,0, so the appropriate input would be =1,5,0. There are easier ways to specify this value; see &man.cdrecord.1; for details. That is also the place to look for information on writing audio tracks, controlling the speed, and other things. RAID Software RAID Christopher Shumway Written by Valentino Vaschetto Marked up by ccd (Concatenated Disk Configuration) It seems like today everyone has a collection of multimedia files. Everything from mp3's to video clips. I've converted most of my audio CDROM collection to mp3's so I can have all of my music in one centralized location, and not have to hunt down the audio CD with that one song I got stuck in my head. The problem I was faced with is where to store all these files? When choosing a mass storage solution, the most important factors to consider are speed, reliability, and cost. It is very rare to have all three in favor, normally a fast, reliable mass storage device is expensive, and to cut back on cost either speed or reliability must be sacrificed. In designing my system, I ranked the requirements by most favorable to least favorable. In this situation, cost was the biggest factor. I needed a lot of storage for a reasonable price. The next factor, speed, is not quite as important, since most of the usage would be over a one hundred megabit switched Ethernet, and that would most likely be the bottleneck. The ability to spread the file input/output operations out over several disks would be more than enough speed for this network. Finally, the consideration of reliability was an easy one to answer. All of the data being put on this mass storage device was already backed up on CD-R's. This drive was primarily here for online live storage for easy access, so if a drive went bad, I could just replace it, rebuild the filesystem, and copy back the data from CD-R's. To sum it up, I need something that will give me the most amount of storage space for my money. The cost of large IDE disks are cheap these days. I found a place that was selling Western Digital 30.7gb 5400 RPM IDE disks for about one-hundred and thirty US dollars. I bought three of them, giving me approximately ninety gigabytes of online storage. Installing the Hardware I installed the hard drives in a system that already had one IDE disk in as the system disk. The ideal solution would be for each IDE disk to have its own IDE controller and cable, but without fronting more costs to acquire a dual IDE controller this wouldn't be a possibility. So, I jumpered two disks as slaves, and one as master. One went on the first IDE controller as a slave to the system disk, and the other two where slave/master on the secondary IDE controller. Upon reboot, the system BIOS was configured to automatically detect the disks attached. More importantly, FreeBSD detected them on reboot: ad0: 19574MB <WDC WD205BA> [39770/16/63] at ata0-master UDMA33 ad1: 29333MB <WDC WD307AA> [59598/16/63] at ata0-slave UDMA33 ad2: 29333MB <WDC WD307AA> [59598/16/63] at ata1-master UDMA33 ad3: 29333MB <WDC WD307AA> [59598/16/63] at ata1-slave UDMA33 At this point, if FreeBSD doesn't detect the disks, be sure that you have jumpered them correctly. I have heard numerous reports with problems using cable select instead of true slave/master configuration. The next consideration was how to attach them as part of the filesystem. I did a little research on &man.vinum.8; and FreeBSD's &man.ccd.4;. In this particular configuration, &man.ccd.4; appeared to be a better choice mainly because it has fewer parts. Less parts tends to indicate less chance of breakage. Vinum appears to be a bit of an overkill for my needs. Setting up the CCD CCD allows me to take several identical disks and concatenate them into one logical filesystem. In order to use ccd, I need a kernel with ccd support built into it. I added this line to my kernel configuration file and rebuilt the kernel: pseudo-device ccd 4 ccd support can also be loaded as a kernel loadable module in FreeBSD 4.0 or later. To set up ccd, first I need to disklabel the disks. Here's how I disklabeled them: disklabel -r -w ad1 auto disklabel -r -w ad2 auto disklabel -r -w ad3 auto This created a disklabel ad1c, ad2c and ad3c that spans the entire disk. The next step is to change the disklabel type. To do that I had to edit the disklabel: disklabel -e ad1 disklabel -e ad2 disklabel -e ad3 This opened up the current disklabel on each disk respectively in whatever editor the EDITOR environment variable was set to, in my case, &man.vi.1;. Inside the editor I had a section like this: 8 partitions: # size offset fstype [fsize bsize bps/cpg] c: 60074784 0 unused 0 0 0 # (Cyl. 0 - 59597) I need to add a new "e" partition for &man.ccd.4; to use. This can be a copy of the "c" partition. Once I was done, my disklabel should look like this: 8 partitions: # size offset fstype [fsize bsize bps/cpg] c: 60074784 0 unused 0 0 0 # (Cyl. 0 - 59597) e: 60074784 0 unused 0 0 0 # (Cyl. 0 - 59597) Building the Filesystem Now that I have all of the disks labeled, I needed to build the ccd. To do that, I used a utility called &man.ccdconfig.8;. ccdconfig takes several arguments, the first argument being the device to configure, in this case, /dev/ccd0c. The device node for ccd0c may not exist yet, so to create it, perform the following commands: cd /dev sh MAKEDEV ccd0 The next argument ccdconfig expects is the interleave for the filesystem. The interleave defines the size of a stripe in disk blocks, normally five hundred and twelve bytes. So, an interleave of thirty-two would be sixteen thousand three hundred and eighty-four bytes. After the interleave comes the flags for ccdconfig. If you want to enable drive mirroring, you can specify a flag here. In this configuration, I am not mirroring the ccd, so I left it as zero. The final arguments to ccdconfig are the devices to place into the array. Putting it all together I get this command: ccdconfig ccd0 32 0 /dev/ad1e /dev/ad2e /dev/ad3e This configures the ccd. I can now &man.newfs.8; the filesystem. newfs /dev/ccd0c Making It All Automagic Finally, if I want to be able to mount the ccd, I need to configure it first. I write out my current configuration to /etc/ccd.conf using the following command: ccdconfig -g > /etc/ccd.conf When I reboot, the script /etc/rc runs ccdconfig -C if /etc/ccd.conf exists. This automatically configures the ccd so it can be mounted. If you are booting into single user mode, before you can mount the ccd, you need to issue the following command to configure the array: ccdconfig -C Then, we need an entry for the ccd in /etc/fstab so it will be mounted at boot time. /dev/ccd0c /media ufs rw 2 2 vinum (Logical Volume Manager) xxx Hardware RAID xxx Tape Backup Media tape media The major tape media are the 4mm, 8mm, QIC, mini-cartridge and DLT. 4mm (DDS: Digital Data Storage) tape media DDS (4mm) tapes tape media QIC tapes 4mm tapes are replacing QIC as the workstation backup media of choice. This trend accelerated greatly when Conner purchased Archive, a leading manufacturer of QIC drives, and then stopped production of QIC drives. 4mm drives are small and quiet but do not have the reputation for reliability that is enjoyed by 8mm drives. The cartridges are less expensive and smaller (3 x 2 x 0.5 inches, 76 x 51 x 12 mm) than 8mm cartridges. 4mm, like 8mm, has comparatively short head life for the same reason, both use helical scan. Data throughput on these drives starts ~150kB/s, peaking at ~500kB/s. Data capacity starts at 1.3 GB and ends at 2.0 GB. Hardware compression, available with most of these drives, approximately doubles the capacity. Multi-drive tape library units can have 6 drives in a single cabinet with automatic tape changing. Library capacities reach 240 GB. The DDS-3 standard now supports tape capacities up to 12 GB (or 24 GB compressed). 4mm drives, like 8mm drives, use helical-scan. All the benefits and drawbacks of helical-scan apply to both 4mm and 8mm drives. Tapes should be retired from use after 2,000 passes or 100 full backups. 8mm (Exabyte) tape media Exabyte (8mm) tapes 8mm tapes are the most common SCSI tape drives; they are the best choice of exchanging tapes. Nearly every site has an Exabyte 2 GB 8mm tape drive. 8mm drives are reliable, convenient and quiet. Cartridges are inexpensive and small (4.8 x 3.3 x 0.6 inches; 122 x 84 x 15 mm). One downside of 8mm tape is relatively short head and tape life due to the high rate of relative motion of the tape across the heads. Data throughput ranges from ~250kB/s to ~500kB/s. Data sizes start at 300 MB and go up to 7 GB. Hardware compression, available with most of these drives, approximately doubles the capacity. These drives are available as single units or multi-drive tape libraries with 6 drives and 120 tapes in a single cabinet. Tapes are changed automatically by the unit. Library capacities reach 840+ GB. The Exabyte Mammoth model supports 12 GB on one tape (24 GB with compression) and costs approximately twice as much as conventional tape drives. Data is recorded onto the tape using helical-scan, the heads are positioned at an angle to the media (approximately 6 degrees). The tape wraps around 270 degrees of the spool that holds the heads. The spool spins while the tape slides over the spool. The result is a high density of data and closely packed tracks that angle across the tape from one edge to the other. QIC tape media QIC-150 QIC-150 tapes and drives are, perhaps, the most common tape drive and media around. QIC tape drives are the least expensive "serious" backup drives. The downside is the cost of media. QIC tapes are expensive compared to 8mm or 4mm tapes, up to 5 times the price per GB data storage. But, if your needs can be satisfied with a half-dozen tapes, QIC may be the correct choice. QIC is the most common tape drive. Every site has a QIC drive of some density or another. Therein lies the rub, QIC has a large number of densities on physically similar (sometimes identical) tapes. QIC drives are not quiet. These drives audibly seek before they begin to record data and are clearly audible whenever reading, writing or seeking. QIC tapes measure (6 x 4 x 0.7 inches; 15.2 x 10.2 x 1.7 mm). Mini-cartridges, which also use 1/4" wide tape are discussed separately. Tape libraries and changers are not available. Data throughput ranges from ~150kB/s to ~500kB/s. Data capacity ranges from 40 MB to 15 GB. Hardware compression is available on many of the newer QIC drives. QIC drives are less frequently installed; they are being supplanted by DAT drives. Data is recorded onto the tape in tracks. The tracks run along the long axis of the tape media from one end to the other. The number of tracks, and therefore the width of a track, varies with the tape's capacity. Most if not all newer drives provide backward-compatibility at least for reading (but often also for writing). QIC has a good reputation regarding the safety of the data (the mechanics are simpler and more robust than for helical scan drives). Tapes should be retired from use after 5,000 backups. XXX* Mini-Cartridge DLT tape media DLT DLT has the fastest data transfer rate of all the drive types listed here. The 1/2" (12.5mm) tape is contained in a single spool cartridge (4 x 4 x 1 inches; 100 x 100 x 25 mm). The cartridge has a swinging gate along one entire side of the cartridge. The drive mechanism opens this gate to extract the tape leader. The tape leader has an oval hole in it which the drive uses to "hook" the tape. The take-up spool is located inside the tape drive. All the other tape cartridges listed here (9 track tapes are the only exception) have both the supply and take-up spools located inside the tape cartridge itself. Data throughput is approximately 1.5MB/s, three times the throughput of 4mm, 8mm, or QIC tape drives. Data capacities range from 10 GB to 20 GB for a single drive. Drives are available in both multi-tape changers and multi-tape, multi-drive tape libraries containing from 5 to 900 tapes over 1 to 20 drives, providing from 50 GB to 9 TB of storage. With compression, DLT Type IV format supports up to 70 GB capacity. Data is recorded onto the tape in tracks parallel to the direction of travel (just like QIC tapes). Two tracks are written at once. Read/write head lifetimes are relatively long; once the tape stops moving, there is no relative motion between the heads and the tape. AIT tape media AIT AIT is a new format from Sony, and can hold up to 50 GB (with compression) per tape. The tapes contain memory chips which retain an index of the tape's contents. This index can be rapidly read by the tape drive to determine the position of files on the tape, instead of the several minutes that would be required for other tapes. Software such as SAMS:Alexandria can operate forty or more AIT tape libraries, communicating directly with the tape's memory chip to display the contents on screen, determine what files were backed up to which tape, locate the correct tape, load it, and restore the data from the tape. Libraries like this cost in the region of $20,000, pricing them a little out of the hobbyist market. Using a New Tape for the First Time The first time that you try to read or write a new, completely blank tape, the operation will fail. The console messages should be similar to: sa0(ncr1:4:0): NOT READY asc:4,1 sa0(ncr1:4:0): Logical unit is in process of becoming ready The tape does not contain an Identifier Block (block number 0). All QIC tape drives since the adoption of QIC-525 standard write an Identifier Block to the tape. There are two solutions: mt fsf 1 causes the tape drive to write an Identifier Block to the tape. Use the front panel button to eject the tape. Re-insert the tape and dump data to the tape. dump will report DUMP: End of tape detected and the console will show: HARDWARE FAILURE info:280 asc:80,96. rewind the tape using: mt rewind. Subsequent tape operations are successful. Backup Programs backup software The three major programs are &man.dump.8;, &man.tar.1;, and &man.cpio.1;. Dump and Restore backup software dump / restore dump restore The traditional Unix backup programs are dump and restore. They operate on the drive as a collection of disk blocks, below the abstractions of files, links and directories that are created by the filesystems. dump backs up an entire filesystem on a device. It is unable to backup only part of a filesystem or a directory tree that spans more than one filesystem. dump does not write files and directories to tape, but rather writes the raw data blocks that comprise files and directories. If you use dump on your root directory, you would not back up /home, /usr or many other directories since these are typically mount points for other filesystems or symbolic links into those filesystems. dumphas quirks that remain from its early days in Version 6 of AT&T Unix (circa 1975). The default parameters are suitable for 9-track tapes (6250 bpi), not the high-density media available today (up to 62,182 ftpi). These defaults must be overridden on the command line to utilize the capacity of current tape drives. rhosts It is also possible to backup data across the network to a tape drive attached to another computer with rdump and rrestore. Both programs rely upon rcmd and ruserok to access the remote tape drive. Therefore, the user performing the backup must have rhosts access to the remote computer. The arguments to rdump and rrestore must be suitable to use on the remote computer. (e.g. When rdumping from a FreeBSD computer to an Exabyte tape drive connected to a Sun called komodo, use: /sbin/rdump 0dsbfu 54000 13000 126 komodo:/dev/nrsa8 /dev/rda0a 2>&1) Beware: there are security implications to allowing rhosts commands. Evaluate your situation carefully. It is also possible to use rdump and rrestore in a more secure fashion over ssh. Using <command>rdump</command> over <application>ssh</application> &prompt.root; /sbin/dump -0uan -f - /usr | gzip -2 | ssh1 -c blowfish \ targetuser@targetmachine.example.com dd of=/mybigfiles/dump-usr-l0.gz <command>tar</command> backup software tar &man.tar.1; also dates back to Version 6 of AT&T Unix (circa 1975). tar operates in cooperation with the filesystem; tar writes files and directories to tape. tar does not support the full range of options that are available from &man.cpio.1;, but tar does not require the unusual command pipeline that cpio uses. tar Most versions of tar do not support backups across the network. The GNU version of tar, which FreeBSD utilizes, supports remote devices using the same syntax as rdump. To tar to an Exabyte tape drive connected to a Sun called komodo, use: /usr/bin/tar cf komodo:/dev/nrsa8 . 2>&1. For versions without remote device support, you can use a pipeline and rsh to send the data to a remote tape drive. &prompt.root; tar cf - . | rsh hostname dd of=tape-device obs=20b If you are worried about the security of backing up over a network you should use the ssh command instead of rsh. <command>cpio</command> backup software cpio &man.cpio.1; is the original Unix file interchange tape program for magnetic media. cpio has options (among many others) to perform byte-swapping, write a number of different archive formats, and pipe the data to other programs. This last feature makes cpio and excellent choice for installation media. cpio does not know how to walk the directory tree and a list of files must be provided through stdin. cpio cpio does not support backups across the network. You can use a pipeline and rsh to send the data to a remote tape drive. &prompt.root; for f in directory_list; do find $f >> backup.list done &prompt.root; cpio -v -o --format=newc < backup.list | ssh user@host "cat > backup_device Where directory_list is the list of directories you want to back up, user@host is the user/hostname combination that will be performing the backups, and backup_device is where the backups should be written to (e.g., /dev/nrsa0). <command>pax</command> backup software pax pax POSIX IEEE &man.pax.1; is IEEE/POSIX's answer to tar and cpio. Over the years the various versions of tar and cpio have gotten slightly incompatible. So rather than fight it out to fully standardize them, POSIX created a new archive utility. pax attempts to read and write many of the various cpio and tar formats, plus new formats of its own. Its command set more resembles cpio than tar. <application>Amanda</application> backup software Amanda Amanda Amanda (Advanced Maryland Network Disk Archiver) is a client/server backup system, rather than a single program. An Amanda server will backup to a single tape drive any number of computers that have Amanda clients and a network connection to the Amanda server. A common problem at sites with a number of large disks is that the length of time required to backup to data directly to tape exceeds the amount of time available for the task. Amanda solves this problem. Amanda can use a "holding disk" to backup several filesystems at the same time. Amanda creates "archive sets": a group of tapes used over a period of time to create full backups of all the filesystems listed in Amanda's configuration file. The "archive set" also contains nightly incremental (or differential) backups of all the filesystems. Restoring a damaged filesystem requires the most recent full backup and the incremental backups. The configuration file provides fine control of backups and the network traffic that Amanda generates. Amanda will use any of the above backup programs to write the data to tape. Amanda is available as either a port or a package, it is not installed by default. Do Nothing Do nothing is not a computer program, but it is the most widely used backup strategy. There are no initial costs. There is no backup schedule to follow. Just say no. If something happens to your data, grin and bear it! If your time and your data is worth little to nothing, then Do nothing is the most suitable backup program for your computer. But beware, Unix is a useful tool, you may find that within six months you have a collection of files that are valuable to you. Do nothing is the correct backup method for /usr/obj and other directory trees that can be exactly recreated by your computer. An example is the files that comprise the HTML or Postscript version of this Handbook. These document formats have been created from SGML input files. Creating backups of the HTML or PostScript files is not necessary. The SGML files are backed up regularly. Which Backup Program Is Best? LISA &man.dump.8; Period. Elizabeth D. Zwicky torture tested all the backup programs discussed here. The clear choice for preserving all your data and all the peculiarities of Unix filesystems is dump. Elizabeth created filesystems containing a large variety of unusual conditions (and some not so unusual ones) and tested each program by doing a backup and restore of those filesystems. The peculiarities included: files with holes, files with holes and a block of nulls, files with funny characters in their names, unreadable and unwritable files, devices, files that change size during the backup, files that are created/deleted during the backup and more. She presented the results at LISA V in Oct. 1991. See torture-testing Backup and Archive Programs. Emergency Restore Procedure Before the Disaster There are only four steps that you need to perform in preparation for any disaster that may occur. disklabel First, print the disklabel from each of your disks (e.g. disklabel da0 | lpr), your filesystem table (/etc/fstab) and all boot messages, two copies of each. fix-it floppies Second, determine that the boot and fix-it floppies (boot.flp and fixit.flp) have all your devices. The easiest way to check is to reboot your machine with the boot floppy in the floppy drive and check the boot messages. If all your devices are listed and functional, skip on to step three. Otherwise, you have to create two custom bootable floppies which have a kernel that can mount all of your disks and access your tape drive. These floppies must contain: fdisk, disklabel, newfs, mount, and whichever backup program you use. These programs must be statically linked. If you use dump, the floppy must contain restore. Third, create backup tapes regularly. Any changes that you make after your last backup may be irretrievably lost. Write-protect the backup tapes. Fourth, test the floppies (either boot.flp and fixit.flp or the two custom bootable floppies you made in step two.) and backup tapes. Make notes of the procedure. Store these notes with the bootable floppy, the printouts and the backup tapes. You will be so distraught when restoring that the notes may prevent you from destroying your backup tapes (How? In place of tar xvf /dev/rsa0, you might accidently type tar cvf /dev/rsa0 and over-write your backup tape). For an added measure of security, make bootable floppies and two backup tapes each time. Store one of each at a remote location. A remote location is NOT the basement of the same office building. A number of firms in the World Trade Center learned this lesson the hard way. A remote location should be physically separated from your computers and disk drives by a significant distance. A Script for Creating a Bootable Floppy /mnt/sbin/init gzip -c -best /sbin/fsck > /mnt/sbin/fsck gzip -c -best /sbin/mount > /mnt/sbin/mount gzip -c -best /sbin/halt > /mnt/sbin/halt gzip -c -best /sbin/restore > /mnt/sbin/restore gzip -c -best /bin/sh > /mnt/bin/sh gzip -c -best /bin/sync > /mnt/bin/sync cp /root/.profile /mnt/root cp -f /dev/MAKEDEV /mnt/dev chmod 755 /mnt/dev/MAKEDEV chmod 500 /mnt/sbin/init chmod 555 /mnt/sbin/fsck /mnt/sbin/mount /mnt/sbin/halt chmod 555 /mnt/bin/sh /mnt/bin/sync chmod 6555 /mnt/sbin/restore # # create the devices nodes # cd /mnt/dev ./MAKEDEV std ./MAKEDEV da0 ./MAKEDEV da1 ./MAKEDEV da2 ./MAKEDEV sa0 ./MAKEDEV pty0 cd / # # create minimum filesystem table # cat > /mnt/etc/fstab < /mnt/etc/passwd < /mnt/etc/master.passwd < After the Disaster The key question is: did your hardware survive? You have been doing regular backups so there is no need to worry about the software. If the hardware has been damaged. First, replace those parts that have been damaged. If your hardware is okay, check your floppies. If you are using a custom boot floppy, boot single-user (type -s at the boot: prompt). Skip the following paragraph. If you are using the boot.flp and fixit.flp floppies, keep reading. Insert the boot.flp floppy in the first floppy drive and boot the computer. The original install menu will be displayed on the screen. Select the Fixit--Repair mode with CDROM or floppy. option. Insert the fixit.flp when prompted. restore and the other programs that you need are located in /mnt2/stand. Recover each filesystem separately. mount root partition disklabel newfs Try to mount (e.g. mount /dev/da0a /mnt) the root partition of your first disk. If the disklabel was damaged, use disklabel to re-partition and label the disk to match the label that you printed and saved. Use newfs to re-create the filesystems. Re-mount the root partition of the floppy read-write (mount -u -o rw /mnt). Use your backup program and backup tapes to recover the data for this filesystem (e.g. restore vrf /dev/sa0). Unmount the filesystem (e.g. umount /mnt) Repeat for each filesystem that was damaged. Once your system is running, backup your data onto new tapes. Whatever caused the crash or data loss may strike again. Another hour spent now may save you from further distress later. * I did not prepare for the Disaster, What Now? ]]> Backups to Floppies Can I Use floppies for Backing Up My Data? backup floppies floppy disks Floppy disks are not really a suitable media for making backups as: The media is unreliable, especially over long periods of time Backing up and restoring is very slow They have a very limited capacity (the days of backing up an entire hard disk onto a dozen or so floppies has long since passed). However, if you have no other method of backing up your data then floppy disks are better than no backup at all. If you do have to use floppy disks then ensure that you use good quality ones. Floppies that have been lying around the office for a couple of years are a bad choice. Ideally use new ones from a reputable manufacturer. So How Do I Backup My Data to Floppies? The best way to backup to floppy disk is to use tar with the (multi volume) option, which allows backups to span multiple floppies. To backup all the files in the current directory and sub-directory use this (as root): &prompt.root; tar Mcvf /dev/fd0 * When the first floppy is full tar will prompt you to insert the next volume (because tar is media independent it refers to volumes. In this context it means floppy disk) Prepare volume #2 for /dev/fd0 and hit return: This is repeated (with the volume number incrementing) until all the specified files have been archived. Can I Compress My Backups? tar gzip compression Unfortunately, tar will not allow the option to be used for multi-volume archives. You could, of course, gzip all the files, tar them to the floppies, then gunzip the files again! How Do I Restore My Backups? To restore the entire archive use: &prompt.root; tar Mxvf /dev/fd0 There are two ways that you can use to restore only specific files. First, you can start with the first floppy and use: &prompt.root; tar Mxvf /dev/fd0 filename tar will prompt you to insert subsequent floppies until it finds the required file. Alternatively, if you know which floppy the file is on then you can simply insert that floppy and use the same command as above. Note that if the first file on the floppy is a continuation from the previous one then tar will warn you that it cannot restore it, even if you have not asked it to! diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml index 05154ebde6..f66bc80c48 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml @@ -1,5304 +1,5304 @@ Jim Mock Restructured, reorganized, and parts rewritten by Randy Pratt The sysinstall walkthrough, screenshots, and general copy by Installing FreeBSD Synopsis installation FreeBSD is provided with a text-based, easy to use installation program called Sysinstall. This is the default installation program for FreeBSD, although vendors are free to provide their own installation suite if they wish. This chapter describes how to use Sysinstall to install FreeBSD. - After reading this chapter you will know: + After reading this chapter, you will know: How to create the FreeBSD installation disks. How FreeBSD refers to, and subdivides, your hard disks. How to start Sysinstall. The questions Sysinstall will ask you, what they mean, and how to answer them. - Before reading this chapter you should: + Before reading this chapter, you should: Read the supported hardware list that shipped with the version of FreeBSD you are installing, and verify that your hardware is supported. In general, these installation instructions are written for i386 (PC compatible) architecture computers. Where applicable, instructions specific to other platforms (for example, Alpha) will be listed. Pre-installation Tasks Inventory Your Computer Before installing FreeBSD you should attempt to inventory the components in your computer. The FreeBSD installation routines will show you the components (hard disks, network cards, CDROM drives, and so forth) with their model number and manufacturer. FreeBSD will also attempt to determine the correct configuration for these devices, which includes information about IRQ and IO port usage. Due to the vagaries of PC hardware this process is not always completely successful, and you may need to correct FreeBSD's determination of your configuration. If you already have another operating system installed, such as Windows, or Linux, it is a good idea to use the facilities provided by those operating systems to see how your hardware is already configured. If you are really not sure what settings an expansion card is using you may find it printed on the card itself. Popular IRQ numbers are 3, 5, and 7, and IO port addresses are normally written as hexadecimal numbers, such as 0x330. We recommend you print or write down this information before installing FreeBSD. It may help to use a table, like this; Sample Device Inventory Device Name IRQ IO port(s) Notes First hard disk N/A N/A 4GB, made by Seagate, first IDE master CDROM N/A N/A First IDE slave Second hard disk N/A N/A 2GB, made by IBM, second IDE master First IDE controller 14 0x1f0 Network card N/A N/A Intel 10/100 Modem N/A N/A 3Com 56K faxmodem, on COM1: …
Backup Your Data If the computer you will be installing FreeBSD on contains valuable data then ensure you have it backed up, and that you have tested the backups before installing FreeBSD. The FreeBSD installation routine will prompt you several times before writing any data to your disk, but once that process has started it can not be undone. Decide Where to Install FreeBSD If you want FreeBSD to use all your disk then there is nothing more to concern yourself with at this point, and you can skip to the next section.. However, if you need FreeBSD to co-exist with other operating systems then you need to have a rough understanding of how data is laid out on the disk, and how this affects you. Disk Layouts for the i386 A PC disk can be divided in to discrete chunks. These chunks are called partitions. By design, the PC only supports four partitions per disk. These partitions are called primary partitions. To work around this limitation, and allow more than four partitions, a new partition type was created, the extended partition. A disk may contain only one extended partition. Special partitions, called logical partitions, can be created inside this extended partition. Each partition has a partition ID, which is a number, used to identify the type of data on the partition. FreeBSD partitions have the partition ID 165. In general, each operating system that you use will identify partitions in a particular way. For example, DOS, and its descendants, like Windows, assign each primary and logical partition a drive letter, starting with C:. FreeBSD must be installed in to a primary partition. FreeBSD can keep all its data, including any files that you create, on this one partition. However, if you have multiple disks then you can create a FreeBSD partition on all, or some, of them. When you install FreeBSD you must have one partition available. This might be a blank partition that you have prepared, or it might be an existing partition that contains data that you no longer care about. If you are already using all the partitions on all your disks then you will have to free one of them for FreeBSD to use, using the tools provided by the other operating systems you use (e.g., fdisk on DOS or Windows). If you have a spare partition then you can use that. However, you may need to shrink one or more of your existing partitions first. A minimal installation of FreeBSD takes as little as 100MB of disk space. However, that is a very minimal install, leaving almost no space for your own files. A more realistic minimum is 250MB without a graphical environment, and 350MB or more if you want a graphical user interface. If you intend to install a lot of third party software as well then you will need more space. You can use a commercial tool such as Partition Magic to resize your partitions to make space for FreeBSD. The tools directory on the CDROM contains two free software tools which can carry out this task, FIPS and PResizer. Documentation for both of these is in the same directory. Incorrect use of these tools can delete the data on your disk. Be sure that you have recent, working backups before using them. Using an existing partition unchanged Suppose that you have a computer with a single 4GB disk, that already has a version of Windows installed, and you have split the disk in to two drive letters, C: and D:, each of which is 2GB in size. You have 1GB of data on C:, and 0.5GB of data on D:. This means that your disk has two partitions on it, one per drive letter. You can copy all your existing data from D: to C:, which will free up the second partition, ready for FreeBSD. Shrinking an existing partition Suppose that you have a computer with a single 4GB disk, that already has a version of Windows installed. When you installed Windows you created one large partition, giving you a C: drive that is 4GB in size. You are currently using 1.5GB of space, and want FreeBSD to have 2GB of space. In order to install FreeBSD you will need to either: Back up your Windows data, and then reinstall Windows, asking for a 2GB partition at install time. Use one of the tools such as Partition Magic, described above, to shrink your Windows partition. Disk Layouts for the Alpha Alpha You will need a dedicated disk for FreeBSD on the Alpha. It is not possible to share a disk with another operating system at this time. Depending on the specific Alpha machine you have, this disk can either be a SCSI disk or an IDE disk, as long as your machine is capable of booting from it. Following the conventions of the Digital / Compaq manuals all SRM input is shown in uppercase. SRM is case insensitive. To find the names and types of disks in your machine, use the SHOW DEVICE command from the SRM console prompt: >>>show device dka0.0.0.4.0 DKA0 TOSHIBA CD-ROM XM-57 3476 dkc0.0.0.1009.0 DKC0 RZ1BB-BS 0658 dkc100.1.0.1009.0 DKC100 SEAGATE ST34501W 0015 dva0.0.0.0.1 DVA0 ewa0.0.0.3.0 EWA0 00-00-F8-75-6D-01 pkc0.7.0.1009.0 PKC0 SCSI Bus ID 7 5.27 pqa0.0.0.4.0 PQA0 PCI EIDE pqb0.0.1.4.0 PQB0 PCI EIDE This example is from a Digital Personal Workstation 433au and shows three disks attached to the machine. The first is a CDROM drive called DKA0 and the other two are disks and are called DKC0 and DKC100 respectively. Disks with names of the form DKx are SCSI disks. For example DKA100 refers to a SCSI with SCSI target ID 1 on the first SCSI bus (A), whereas DKC300 refers to a SCSI disk with SCSI ID 3 on the third SCSI bus (C). Devicename PKxrefers to the SCSI host bus adapter. As seen in the SHOW DEVICE output SCSI CDROM drives are treated as any other SCSI hard disk drive. IDE disks have names like DQx, PQx is the associated IDE controller. Collect Your Network Configuration Details If you intend to connect to a network as part of your FreeBSD installation (e.g., if you will be installing from an FTP site, or an NFS server) then you need to know your network configuration. You will be prompted for this information during the installation so that FreeBSD can connect to the network to complete the install. Connecting to an Ethernet Network, or Cable/DSL Modem If you connect to an Ethernet network, or you have an Internet connection via cable or DSL then you will need the following information: IP address. IP address of the default gateway. Hostname. DNS server IP addresses. If you do not know this information then ask your system administrator or service provider. They may say that this information is assigned automatically, using DHCP. If so, make a note of this. Connecting Using a Modem If you dial up to an ISP using a regular modem then you can still install FreeBSD over the Internet, it will just take a very long time. You will need to know: The phone number to dial for your ISP. The COM: port your modem is connected to. The username and password for your ISP account. Check for FreeBSD Errata Although the FreeBSD project strives to ensure that each release of FreeBSD is as stable as possible, bugs do occasionally creep in to the process. On very rare occasions those bugs affect the installation process. As these problems are discovered and fixed they are noted in the FreeBSD Errata, posted on the FreeBSD web site. You should check the errata before installing to make sure that there are no late-breaking problems which you should be aware of. Information about all the releases, including the errata for each release, can be found on the release information section of the FreeBSD web site. Prepare the Boot Discs FreeBSD can be installed from a number of different media; CDROM, DVD, FTP (both anonymous and non-anonymous), NFS, tape, or an existing MS-DOS partition. If you have FreeBSD on CDROM or DVD, and your computer allows you to boot from the CDROM or DVD (typically a BIOS option called Boot Order or similar) then you can skip this section. The FreeBSD CDROM and DVD images are bootable, and can be used to install FreeBSD without any other special preparation. The FreeBSD installation process is started by booting your computer in to the FreeBSD installer—it is not a program you run from within another operating system. To do this you must create some floppy disks that can be booted from, and then boot from them. If you are not installing directly from CDROM, DVD, or FTP then you are probably preparing your own installation media (e.g., an MS-DOS partition), which must be prepared before you install FreeBSD. This is a slightly more advanced, and infrequent activity, and is documented in . This includes the scenario where you want to create your own FTP site on your own network so that other computers can use your site as a FreeBSD FTP installation site. Acquire the Boot Floppy Images The boot discs are available on your installation media, and can also be downloaded from the floppies directory. The floppy images have a .flp extension. The floppies/ directory contains a number of different images, and the ones you will need to use depends on the version of FreeBSD you are installing, and in some cases, the hardware you are installing to. In most cases you will need two files, kern.flp and mfsroot.flp, but check README.TXT in the same directory to be sure. Your FTP program must use binary mode to download these disk images. Some web browsers have been known to use text (or ASCII) mode, which will be apparent if you can not boot from the disks. Prepare the Floppy Disks You must prepare one floppy disk per image file you had to download. It is imperative that these disks are free from defects. The easiest way to test this is to format the disks for yourself. Do not trust pre-formatted floppies. If you try to install FreeBSD and the installation program crashes, freezes, or otherwise misbehaves one of the first things to suspect is the floppies. Try writing the floppy image files to some other disks, and try again. Write the Image Files to the Floppy Disks. The .flp files are not regular files you copy to the disk. Instead, they are images of the complete contents of the disk. This means that you can not use commands like DOS' copy to write the files. Instead, you must use specific tools to write the images directly to the disk. DOS If you are creating the floppies on a computer running DOS/Windows then we provide a tool to do this called fdimage. If you are using the floppies from the CDROM, and your CDROM is the E: drive then you would run this: E:\> tools\fdimage floppies\kern.flp A: Repeat this command for each .flp file, replacing the floppy disk each time, and being sure to label the disks with the name of the file that you copied to them. Adjust the command line as necessary, depending on where you have placed the .flp files. If you do not have the CDROM then fdimage can be downloaded from the tools directory on the FreeBSD FTP site. If you are writing the floppies on a Unix system (such as another FreeBSD system) you can use the &man.dd.1; command to write the image files directly to disk. On FreeBSD you would run: &prompt.root; dd if=kern.flp of=/dev/fd0 On FreeBSD /dev/fd0 refers to the first floppy disk (the A: drive). /dev/fd1 would be the B: drive, and so on. Other Unix variants might have different names for the floppy disk devices, and you will need to check the documentation for the system as necessary. You are now ready to start installing FreeBSD. Starting the Installation By default, the installation will not make any changes to your disk(s) until you see the following message. Last Chance: Are you SURE your want continue the installation? If you're running this on a disk with data you wish to save then WE STRONGLY ENCOURAGE YOU TO MAKE PROPER BACKUPS before proceeding! We can take no responsibility for lost disk contents! The install can be exited at any time prior to the final warning without changing the contents of the hard drive. If you are concerned that you have configured something incorrectly you can just turn the computer off before this point, and no damage will be done. Booting Booting for the i386 Start with your computer turned off. Turn on the computer. As it starts it should display an option to enter the system set up menu, or BIOS, commonly reached by keys like F2, F10, Del, or Alt S . Use whichever keystroke is indicated on screen. In some cases your computer may display a graphic while it starts. Typically, pressing Esc will dismiss the graphic and allow you to see the necessary messages. Find the setting that controls which devices the system boots from. This is commonly shown as a list of devices, such as Floppy, CDROM, First Hard Disk, and so on. If you needed to prepare boot floppies then make sure that the floppy disk is selected. If you are booting from the CDROM then make sure that that is selected instead. In case of doubt you should consult the manual that came with your computer, and/or its motherboard. Make the change, then save, and exit. The computer should now restart. If you needed to prepare boot floppies, as described in then one of them will be the first boot disc, probably the one containing kern.flp. Put this disc in your floppy drive. If you are booting from CDROM then you will need to turn on the computer, and insert the CDROM at the first opportunity. If your computer starts up as normal, and loads your existing operating system then either: The disks were not inserted early enough in the boot process. Leave them in, and try restarting your computer. The BIOS changes earlier did not work correctly. You should redo that step until you get the right option. FreeBSD will start to boot. If you are booting from CDROM you will see a display similar to this: Verifying DMI Pool Data ........ Boot from ATAPI CD-ROM : 1. FD 2.88MB System Type-(00) /boot.config: -P Keyboard: yes BTX loader 1.00 BTX version is 1.01 Console: internal video/keyboard BIOS drive A: is disk0 BIOS drive B: is disk1 BIOS drive C: is disk2 BIOS drive C: is disk3 BIOS 639kB/64512kB available memory FreeBSD/i386 bootstrap loader, Revision 0.8 (jkh@bento.freebsd.org, Mon Nov 20 11:41:23 GMT 2000) | Hit [Enter] to boot immediately, or any other key for command prompt. Booting [kernel] in 9 seconds... _ If you are booting from floppy disc you will see a display similar to this: Verifying DMI Pool Data ........ BTX loader 1.00 BTX version is 1.01 Console: internal video/keyboard BIOS drive A: is disk0 BIOS drive C: is disk1 BIOS 639kB/261120kB available memory FreeBSD/i386 bootstrap loader, Revision 0.8 (jkh@narf.osd.bsdi.com, Sat Apr 21 08:46:19 GMT 2001) /kernel text=0x24f1bb data=0x307ac+0x2062c | Please insert MFS root floppy and press enter: Follow these instructions by removing the kern.flp disc, insert the mfsroot.flp disc, and press Enter. Irrespective of whether you booted from floppy or CDROM, the boot process will then get to this point. Hit [Enter] to boot immediately, or any other key for command prompt. Booting [kernel] in 9 seconds... _ Either wait ten seconds, or press Enter. This will then launch the kernel configuration menu. Booting for the Alpha Alpha Start with your computer turned off. Turn on the computer and wait for a boot monitor prompt. If you needed to prepare boot floppies, as described in then one of them will be the first boot disc, probably the one containing kern.flp. Put this disc in your floppy drive and type the following command to boot the disk (substituting the name of your floppy drive if necessary): >>>BOOT DVA0 -FLAGS '' -FILE '' If you are booting from CDROM, insert the CDROM into the drive and type the following command to start the installation (substituting the name of the appropriate CDROM drive if necessary): >>>BOOT DKA0 -FLAGS '' -FILE '' FreeBSD will start to boot. If you are booting from a floppy disc, at some point you will see the message: Please insert MFS root floppy and press enter: Follow these instructions by removing the kern.flp disc, insert the mfsroot.flp disc, and press Enter. Irrespective of whether you booted from floppy or CDROM, the boot process will then get to this point. Hit [Enter] to boot immediately, or any other key for command prompt. Booting [kernel] in 9 seconds... _ Either wait ten seconds, or press Enter. This will then launch the kernel configuration menu. Kernel Configuration The kernel is the core of the operating system. It is responsible for many things, including access to all the devices you may have on your system, such as hard disks, network cards, sound cards, and so on. Each piece of hardware supported by the FreeBSD kernel has a driver associated with it. Each driver has a two or three letter name, such as sa for the SCSI sequential access driver, or sio for the Serial I/O driver (which manages com ports). When the kernel starts each driver checks the system to see whether or not the hardware it supports exists on your system. If it does then the driver configures the hardware, and makes it available to the rest of the kernel. This checking is commonly referred to as device probing. Unfortunately, it is not always possible to do this in a safe way. Some hardware drivers do not co-exist well together, and probing for one piece of hardware can sometimes leave another piece of hardware in an inconsistent state. This is a basic limitation of the design of the PC. Many older devices are what is called ISA devices—as opposed to PCI devices. The ISA specification requires each device to have some information hard coded in to it, typically the Interrupt Request Line number (IRQ) and IO port address that the driver uses. This information is commonly set by using physical jumpers on the card, or by using a DOS based utility. This was often a source of problems, because it was not possible to have two devices that shared the same IRQ or port address. Newer devices follow the PCI specification, which does not require this, as the devices are supposed to cooperate with the BIOS, and be told which IRQ and IO port addresses to use. If you have any ISA devices in your computer then FreeBSD's driver for that device will need to be configured with the IRQ and port address that you have set the card to. This is why carrying out an inventory of your hardware (see ) can be so useful. Unfortunately, the default IRQs and memory ports used by some drivers clash. This is because some ISA devices are shipped with IRQs or memory ports that clash. The defaults in FreeBSD's drivers are deliberately set to mirror the manufacturer's defaults, so that, out of the box, as many devices as possible will work. This is almost never an issue when running FreeBSD day-to-day. Your computer will not normally contain two pieces of hardware that clash, because then one of them would not work (irrespective of the operating system you are using). It becomes an issue when you are installing FreeBSD for the first time because the kernel used to carry out the install has to contain as many drivers as possible, so that as many different hardware configurations can be supported as possible. This means that some of those drivers will have conflicting configurations. The devices are probed in a strict order, and if you own a device that is probed late in the process, but that an earlier probe conflicted with, then your hardware might not function, or be probed correctly when you install FreeBSD. Because of this, the first thing you have the opportunity to do when installing FreeBSD is look at the list of drivers that are configured in to the kernel, and either disable some of them, if you do not own that device, or confirm (and alter) the driver's configuration if you do own the device but the defaults are wrong. That probably sounds much more complicated than it actually is. shows the first kernel configuration menu. We recommend that you choose the Start kernel configuration in full-screen visual mode option, as it presents the easiest interface for the new user.
Kernel Configuration Menu
The kernel configuration screen () is then divided in to four sections. A collapsible list of all the drivers that are currently marked as active, subdivided in to groups such as Storage, and Network. Each driver is shown as a description, its two three letter driver name, and the IRQ and memory port used by that driver. In addition, if an active driver conflicts with another active driver then CONF is shown next to the driver name. This section also shows the total number of conflicting drivers that are currently active. Drivers that have been marked inactive. They remain in the kernel, but they will not probe for their device when the kernel starts. These are subdivided in to groups in the same way as the active driver list. More detail about the currently selected driver, including its IRQ and memory port address. Information about the keystrokes that are valid at this point in time.
The Kernel Device Configuration Visual Interface
At this point there will always be conflicts listed. Do not worry about this, it is to be expected; all the drivers are enabled, and as has already been explained, some of them will conflict with one another. You now have to work through the list of drivers, resolving the conflicts. Resolving Driver Conflicts Press X. This will completely expand the list of drivers, so you can see all of them. You will need to use the arrow keys to scroll back and forth through the active driver list. shows the result of pressing X.
Expanded Driver List
Disable all the drivers for devices that you do not have. To disable a driver, highlight it with the arrow keys and press Del. The driver will be moved to the Inactive Drivers list. If you inadvertently disable a device that you need then press Tab to switch to the Inactive Drivers list, select the driver that you disabled, and press Enter to move it back to the active list. Do not disable sc0. This controls the screen, and you will need this unless you are installing over a serial cable. Only disable atkbd0 if you are using a USB keyboard. If you have a normal keyboard then you must keep atkbd0. If there are no conflicts listed then you can skip this step. Otherwise, the remaining conflicts need to be examined. If they do not have the indication of an "allowed conflict" in the message area, then either the IRQ/address for device probe will need to be changed, or the IRQ/address on the hardware will need to be changed. To change the driver's configuration for IRQ and IO port address, select the device and press Enter. The cursor will move to the third section of the screen, and you can change the values. You should enter the values for IRQ and port address that you discovered when you made your hardware inventory. Press Q to finish editing the device's configuration and return to the active driver list. If you are not sure what these figures should be then you can try using -1. Some FreeBSD drivers can safely probe the hardware to discover what the correct value should be, and a value of -1 configures them to do this. The procedure for changing the address on the hardware varies from device to device. For some devices you may need to physically remove the card from your computer and adjust jumper settings or DIP switches. Other cards may have come with a DOS floppy that contains the programs used to reconfigure the card. In any case, you should refer to the documentation that came with the device. This will obviously entail restarting your computer, so you will need to boot back in to the FreeBSD installation routine when you have reconfigured the card. When all the conflicts have been resolved the screen will look similar to .
Driver Configuration With No Conflicts
As you can see, the active driver list is now much smaller, with only drivers for the hardware that actually exists being listed. You can now save these changes, and move on to the next step of the install. Press Q to quit the device configuration interface. This message will appear. Save these parameters before exiting? ([Y]es/[N]o/[C]ancel) Answer Y to save the parameters and the probing will start. After displaying the probe results in white on black text Sysinstall will start, and display its main menu ().
Sysinstall Main Menu
Reviewing the Device Probe Results The last few hundred lines that have been displayed on screen are stored, and can be reviewed. To review the buffer, press Scroll Lock. This turns on scrolling in the display. You can then use the arrow keys, or PageUp and PageDown to view the results. Press Scroll Lock again to stop scrolling, Do this now, to review the text that scrolled off the screen when the kernel was carrying out the device probes. You will see text similar to , although the precise text will differ depending on the devices that you have in your computer.
Typical Device Probe Results avail memory = 58880000 (57500K bytes) Preloaded elf kernel "kernel" at 0xc065d000. md1: Malloc disk npx0: <math processor> on motherboard npx0: INT 16 interface pcib0: <Host to PCI bridge> on motherboard pci0: <PCI bus> on pcib0 pcib1: <VIA 82C598MVP (Apollo MVP3) PCI-PCI (AGP bridge> at device 1.0 on pci0 pci1: <PCI bus> on pcib1 pci1: <Matrox MGA G200 AGP graphics accelerator> at 0.0 irq 11 isab0: <VIA 82C586 PCI-ISA bridge> at device 7.0 on pci0 isa0: <ISA bus> on isab0 atapci0: <VIA 82C586 ATA33 controller> port 0xe000-0xe00f at device 7.1 on pci0 ata0: at 0x1f0 irq 14 on atapci0 uhci0: <VIA 83C572 USB controller> port 0xe400-0xe41f irq 10 at device 7.2 on pci0 usb0: <VIA 83C572 USB controller> on uhci0 usb0: USB revision 1.0 uhub0: VIA UHCI root hub, class 9/0, rev 1.00/1.00, addr 1 uhub0: 2 ports with 2 removable, self powered chip1: <VIA 82C586B ACPI interface> at device 7.3 on pci0 fdc0: <NEC 72065B or clone> at port 0x3f0-0x3f5,0x3f7 irq6 drq2 on isa0 fdc0: FIFO enabled, 8 bytes threshold fd0: <1440-KB 3.5" drive> on fdc0 drive 0 atkbdc0: <keyboard controller (i8042)> at port 0x60-0x6f on isa0 atkbd0: <AT Keyboard> flags 0x1 irq 1 on atkbdc0 kbd0 at atkbd0 psm0: <PS/2 Mouse> irq 12 on atkbdc0 psm0: model Generic PS/2 mouse, device ID 0 vga0: <Generic ISA VGA> at port 0x3c0-0c3df iomem 0xa0000-0xbffff on isa0 sc0: <System console> at flags 0x100 on isa0 sc0: VGA <16 virtual consoles, flags-0x300> sio0 at port 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 flags 0x10 on isa0 sio0: type 16550A sio1: at port 0x2f8-0x2ff irq3 on isa0 sio1: type 16550A ppc0: <Parallel port> at port 0x378-0x37f irq 7 on isa0 ppc0: SMC-like chipset (ECP/EPP/PS2/NIBBLE) in COMPATIBLE mode ppc0: FIFO with 16/16/15 bytes threshold ppi0: <Parallel I/O> on ppbus0 plip0: <PLIP network interface> on ppbus0 ad0: 8063MB <IBM-DHEA-38451> [16383/16/63] at ata0-master using UDMA33 acd0: CDROM <DELTA OTC-H101/ST3 F/W by OIPD> at ata0-slave using PIO4 Mounting root from ufs:/dev/md0c /stand/sysinstall running as init on vty0
Check the probe results carefully to make sure that FreeBSD found all the devices you expected. If a device was not found then it will be listed as missing. If the device's driver required configuring with the IRQ and port address then you should check that you entered them correctly. If you need to make changes to the UserConfig device probing, its easy to exit the sysinstall program and start over again. Its also a good way to become more familiar with the process.
Select Sysinstall Exit
Use the arrow keys to select Exit Install from the Main Install Screen menu. The following message will display: User Confirmation Requested Are you sure you wish to exit? The system will reboot (be sure to remove any floppies from the drives). [ Yes ] No The install program will start again if the CDROM is left in the drive and [Yes] is selected. If you are booting from floppies it will be necessary to remove the mfs.root floppy and replace it with kern.flp before rebooting. Introducing Sysinstall Sysinstall is the installation application provided by the FreeBSD Project. It is text based, and is divided in to a number of menus and screens that you can use to configure and control the installation process. The Sysinstall menu system is controlled by the arrow keys, Enter, Space. and other keys. A detailed description of these keys, and what they do, is contained in sysinstall's usage information. To review this information, ensure that the Usage entry is highlighted and that the [Select] button is selected, as shown in , then press Enter. The instructions for using the menu system will be displayed. After reviewing them, press Enter to return to the Main Menu.
Selecting Usage From Sysinstall Main Menu
Selecting The Documentation Menu From the Main Menu, select Doc with the arrow keys and press Enter.
Selecting Documentation Menu
This will display the Documentation Menu.
Sysinstall Documentation Menu
It is important to read the documents provided. To view a document, select it with the arrow keys and press Enter. When finished reading a document, pressing Enter will return to the Documentation Menu. To return to the Main Installation Menu, select Exit with the arrow keys and press Enter. Selecting The Keymap Menu To change the keyboard mapping, use the arrow keys to select Keymap from the menu and press Enter
Sysinstall Main Menu
A different keyboard mapping may be chosen by selecting the menu item using up/down arrow keys and pressing Space. Pressing Space again will unselect the item. When finished, choose the [ OK ] using the arrow keys and press Enter. Only a partial list is shown in this screen representation. Selecting [Cancel] will use the default keymap and return to the Main Install Menu.
Sysinstall Keymap Menu
Installation Options Screen Select Options and press Enter
Sysinstall Main Menu
Sysinstall Options
The default values are usually fine for most users and do not need to be changed. The description of the selected item will appear at the bottom of the screen highlighted in blue. Notice that one of the options is Use Defaults to reset all values to startup defaults. Press F1 to read the help screen about the various options. Pressing Q will return to the Main Install menu. Begin A Standard Installation The Standard installation is the option recommended for those new to Unix or FreeBSD. Use the arrow keys to select Standard and then press Enter to start the installation.
Begin Standard Installation
Installation Destination Disk Naming IDE SCSI RAID flash memory Physical drives come in two main flavors, IDE, or SCSI; but there are also drives backed by RAID controllers, flash memory, and so forth. Since these behave quite differently, they have their own drivers and devices. Physical Disk Naming Conventions Drive type Drive device name IDE hard drives ad in 4.0-RELEASE, wd before 4.0-RELEASE. IDE CDROM drives acd from 4.0-RELEASE, wcd before 4.0-RELEASE. SCSI hard drives and USB Mass storage devices da from 3.0-RELEASE, sd before 3.0-RELEASE. SCSI CDROM drives cd Assorted non-standard CDROM drives mcd for Mitsumi CD-ROM, scd for Sony CD-ROM, matcd for Matsushita/Panasonic CD-ROM Floppy drives fd SCSI tape drives sa from 3.0-RELEASE, st before 3.0-RELEASE. IDE tape drives ast from 4.0-RELEASE, wst before 4.0-RELEASE. Flash drives fla for DiskOnChip Flash device from 3.3-RELEASE. RAID drives myxd for Mylex, and amrd for AMI MegaRAID, idad for Compaq Smart RAID. from 4.0-RELEASE. id between 3.2-RELEASE and 4.0-RELEASE.
All the drives attached through a specific driver are numbered starting at 0. So the first IDE drive would be ad0. You seldom need to use these devices. Slices and Partitions slices partitions dangerously dedicated Physical disks usually contain slices, unless they are dangerously dedicated. Slice numbers follow the device name, prefixed with an s, starting at 1. So da0s1 is the first slice on the first SCSI drive. There can only be four physical slices on a disk, but you can have logical slices inside physical slices of the appropriate type. These extended slices are numbered starting at 5, so ad0s5 is the first extended slice on a disk. These devices are used by file systems that expect to occupy a slice. Slices, dangerously dedicated physical drives, and other drives contain partitions, which are represented as letters from a to h. This letter is appended to the device name, so da0a is the a partition on the first da drive, which is dangerously dedicated. ad1s3e is the fifth partition in the third slice of the second IDE disk drive. The boot code expects partition a to be the root partition. Partition b is normally reserved for swap partitions, and c is an unused partition the size of the entire slice or drive. This is explained in . BIOS Drive Numbering Before you install and configure FreeBSD on your system, there is an important subject that you should be aware of, especially if you have multiple hard drives. DOS Microsoft Windows In a PC running a BIOS-dependent operating system such as MS-DOS or Microsoft Windows, the BIOS is able to abstract the normal disk drive order, and the operating system goes along with the change. This allows the user to boot from a disk drive other than the so-called primary master. This is especially convenient for some users who have found that the simplest and cheapest way to keep a system backup is to buy an identical second hard drive, and perform routine copies of the first drive to the second drive using Ghost or XCOPY . Then, if the first drive fails, or is attacked by a virus, or is scribbled upon by an operating system defect, he can easily recover by instructing the BIOS to logically swap the drives. It is like switching the cables on the drives, but without having to open the case. SCSI BIOS More expensive systems with SCSI controllers often include BIOS extensions which allow the SCSI drives to be re-ordered in a similar fashion for up to seven drives. A user who is accustomed to taking advantage of these features may become surprised when the results with FreeBSD are not as expected. FreeBSD does not use the BIOS, and does not know the logical BIOS drive mapping. This can lead to very perplexing situations, especially when drives are physically identical in geometry, and have also been made as data clones of one another. When using FreeBSD, always restore the BIOS to natural drive numbering before installing FreeBSD, and then leave it that way. If you need to switch drives around, then do so, but do it the hard way, and open the case and move the jumpers and cables. An Illustration from the Files of Bill and Fred's Exceptional Adventures: Bill breaks-down an older Wintel box to make another FreeBSD box for Fred. Bill installs a single SCSI drive as SCSI unit zero and installs FreeBSD on it. Fred begins using the system, but after several days notices that the older SCSI drive is reporting numerous soft errors and reports this fact to Bill. After several more days, Bill decides it is time to address the situation, so he grabs an identical SCSI drive from the disk drive archive in the back room. An initial surface scan indicates that this drive is functioning well, so Bill installs this drive as SCSI unit four and makes an image copy from drive zero to drive four. Now that the new drive is installed and functioning nicely, Bill decides that it is a good idea to start using it, so he uses features in the SCSI BIOS to re-order the disk drives so that the system boots from SCSI unit four. FreeBSD boots and runs just fine. Fred continues his work for several days, and soon Bill and Fred decide that it is time for a new adventure -- time to upgrade to a newer version of FreeBSD. Bill removes SCSI unit zero because it was a bit flaky and replaces it with another identical disk drive from the archive. Bill then installs the new version of FreeBSD onto the new SCSI unit zero using Fred's magic Internet FTP floppies. The installation goes well. Fred uses the new version of FreeBSD for a few days, and certifies that it is good enough for use in the engineering department...it is time to copy all of his work from the old version. So Fred mounts SCSI unit four (the latest copy of the older FreeBSD version). Fred is dismayed to find that none of his precious work is present on SCSI unit four. Where did the data go? When Bill made an image copy of the original SCSI unit zero onto SCSI unit four, unit four became the new clone, When Bill re-ordered the SCSI BIOS so that he could boot from SCSI unit four, he was only fooling himself. FreeBSD was still running on SCSI unit zero. Making this kind of BIOS change will cause some or all of the Boot and Loader code to be fetched from the selected BIOS drive, but when the FreeBSD kernel drivers take-over, the BIOS drive numbering will be ignored, and FreeBSD will transition back to normal drive numbering. In the illustration at hand, the system continued to operate on the original SCSI unit zero, and all of Fred's data was there, not on SCSI unit four. The fact that the system appeared to be running on SCSI unit four was simply an artifact of human expectations. We are delighted to mention that no data bytes were killed or harmed in any way by our discovery of this phenomenon. The older SCSI unit zero was retrieved from the bone pile, and all of Fred's work was returned to him, (and now Bill knows that he can count as high as zero). Although SCSI drives were used in this illustration, the concepts apply equally to IDE drives. Allocating Disk Space Your first task is to allocate disk space for FreeBSD, and label that space so that Sysinstall can prepare it. In order to do this you need to know how FreeBSD expects to find information on the disk. Disk Organization The smallest unit of organization that FreeBSD uses to find files is the filename. Filenames are case-sensitive, which means that readme.txt and README.TXT are two separate files. FreeBSD does not use the extension (.txt) of a file to determine whether the file is program, or a document, or some other form of data. Files are stored in directories. A directory may contain no files, or it may contain many hundreds of files. A directory can also contain other directories, allowing you to build up a hierarchy of directories within one another. This makes it much easier to organize your data. Files and directories are referenced by giving the file or directory name, followed by a forward slash, /, followed by any other directory names that are necessary. If you have directory foo, which contains directory bar, which contains the file readme.txt, then the full name, or path to the file is foo/bar/readme.txt. Directories and files are stored in a filesystem. Each filesystem contains exactly one directory at the very top level, called the root directory for that filesystem. This root directory can then contain other directories. So far this is probably similar to any other operating system you may have used. There are a few differences; for example, DOS uses \ to separate file and directory names, while MacOS uses :. FreeBSD does not use drive letters, or other drive names in the path. You would not write c:/foo/bar/readme.txt on FreeBSD. Instead, one filesystem is designated the root filesystem. The root filesystem's root directory is referred to as /. Every other filesystem is then mounted under the root filesystem. No matter how many disks you have on your FreeBSD system, every directory appears to be part of the same disk. Suppose you have three filesystems, called A, B, and C. Each filesystem has one root directory, which contains two other directories, called A1, A2 (and likewise B1, B2 and C1, C2). Call A the root filesystem. If you used the ls command to view the contents of this directory you would see two subdirectories, A1 and A2. The directory tree looks like this. / | +--- A1 | `--- A2 A filesystem must be mounted on to a directory in another filesystem. So now suppose that you mount filesystem B on to the directory A1. The root directory of B replaces A1, and the directories in B appear accordingly. / | +--- A1 | | | +--- B1 | | | `--- B2 | `--- A2 Any files that are in the B1 or B2 directories can be reached with the path /A1/B1 or /A1/B2 as necessary. Any files that were in /A1 have been temporarily hidden. They will reappear if B is unmounted from A. If B had been mounted on A2 then the diagram would look like this; / | +--- A1 | `--- A2 | +--- B1 | `--- B2 and the paths would be /A2/B1 and /A2/B2 respectively. Filesystems can be mounted on top of one another. Continuing the last example, the C filesystem could be mounted on top of the B1 directory in the B filesystem, leading to this arrangement. / | +--- A1 | `--- A2 | +--- B1 | | | +--- C1 | | | `--- C2 | `--- B2 Or C could be mounted directly on to the A filesystem, under the A1 directory. / | +--- A1 | | | +--- C1 | | | `--- C2 | `--- A2 | +--- B1 | `--- B2 If you are familiar with DOS, this is similar, although not identical, to the join command. This is not normally something you need to concern yourself with. Typically you create filesystems when installing FreeBSD and decide where to mount them, and then never change them unless you add a new disk. It is entirely possible to have one large root filesystem, and not need to create any others. There are some drawbacks to this approach, and one advantage. Benefits of multiple filesystems Different filesystems can have different mount options. For example, with careful planning, the root filesystem can be mounted read-only, making it impossible for you to inadvertently delete or edit a critical file. FreeBSD automatically optimizes the layout of files on a filesystem, depending on how the filesystem is being used. So a filesystem that contains many small files that are written frequently will have a different optimization to one that contains fewer, larger files. By having one big filesystem this optimization breaks down. FreeBSD's filesystems are very robust should you lose power. However, a power loss at a critical point could still damage the structure of the filesystem. By splitting your data over multiple filesystems it is more likely that the system will still come up, making it easier for you to restore from backup as necessary. Benefit of a single filesystem Filesystems are a fixed size. If you create a filesystem when you install FreeBSD and give it a specific size, you may later discover that you need to make the partition bigger. This is not easily accomplished without backing up, recreating the filesystems with the size, and then restoring. FreeBSD 5.0 will feature a new command, growfs, which will make it possible to increase the size of a filesystem on the fly, removing this limitation. Filesystems are contained in partitions. This does not have the same meaning as the earlier usage of the term partition in this chapter, because of FreeBSD's Unix heritage. Each partition is identified by a letter, a through to h. Each partition can only contain one filesystem, which means that filesystems are often described by either their typical mount point on the root filesystem, or the letter of the partition they are contained in. FreeBSD also uses disk space for swap space. Swap space provides FreeBSD with virtual memory. This allows your computer to behave as though it has much more memory than it actually does. When FreeBSD runs out of memory it moves some of the data that is not currently being used to the swap space, and moves it back in (moving something else out) when it needs it. Some partitions have certain conventions associated with them. Partition Convention a Normally contains the root filesystem b Normally contains swap space c Normally the same size as the enclosing slice. This allows utilities that need to work on the entire slice (for example, a bad block scanner) to work on the c partition. You would not normally create a filesystem on this partition. d Partition d used to have a special meaning associated with it, although that is now gone. To this day, some tools may operate oddly if told to work on partition d, so Sysinstall will not normally create partition d. Each partition-that-contains-a-filesystem is stored in what FreeBSD calls a slice. Slice is FreeBSD's term for what were earlier called partitions, and again, this is because of FreeBSD's Unix background. Slices are numbered, starting at 1, through to 4. Finally, each disk on the system is identified. A disk name starts with a code that indicates the type of disk, and then a number, indicating which disk it is. Unlike slices, disk numbering starts at 0. Common codes that you will see are listed in . When referring to a partition FreeBSD requires that you also name the slice and disk that contains the partition, and when referring to a slice you should also refer to the disk name. Do this by listing the disk name, s, the slice number, and then the partition letter. Examples are shown in . shows a conceptual model of the disk layout that should help make things clearer. In order to install FreeBSD you must first configure the disk slices, then create partitions within the slice you will use for FreeBSD, and then create a filesystem (or swap space) in each partition, and decide where that filesystem will be mounted. Disk Device Codes Code Meaning ad ATAPI (IDE) disk da SCSI direct access disk acd ATAPI (IDE) CDROM cd SCSI CDROM fd Floppy disk
Sample Disk, Slice, and Partition Names Name Meaning ad0s1a The first partition (a) on the first slice (s1) on the first IDE disk (ad0). da1s2e The fifth partition (e) on the second slice (s2) on the second SCSI disk (da1). Conceptual Model of a Disk This diagram shows FreeBSD's view of the first IDE disk attached to the system. Assume that the disk is 4GB in size, and contains two 2GB slices (DOS partitions). The first slice contains a DOS disk, C:, and the second slice contains a FreeBSD installation. The FreeBSD installation has three partitions, and a swap partition. The three partitions will each hold a filesystem. Partition a will be used for the root filesystem, e for the /var directory hierarchy, and f for the /usr directory hierarchy. .-----------------. --. | | | | DOS / Windows | | : : > First slice, ad0s1 : : | | | | :=================: ==: --. | | | Partition a, mounted as / | | | > referred to as ad0s2a | | | | | :-----------------: ==: | | | | Partition b, used as swap | | | > referred to as ad0s2b | | | | | :-----------------: ==: | Partition c, no | | | Partition e, used as /var > filesystem, all | | > referred to as ad0s2e | of FreeBSD slice, | | | | ad0s2c :-----------------: ==: | | | | | : : | Partition f, used as /usr | : : > referred to as ad0s2f | : : | | | | | | | | --' | `-----------------' --' Creating Slices using FDisk No changes you make at this point will be written to the disk. If you think you have made a mistake and want to start again you can use the menus to exit Sysinstall and try again. If you get confused and can not see how to exit you can always turn your computer off. After choosing to begin a standard installation in Sysinstall you will be shown this message. Message In the next menu, you will need to set up a DOS-style ("fdisk") partitioning scheme for your hard disk. If you simply wish to devote all disk space to FreeBSD (overwriting anything else that might be on the disk(s) selected) then use the (A)ll command to select the default partitioning scheme followed by a (Quit. If you wish to allocate only free space to FreeBSD, move to a partition marked "unused" and use the (C)reate command. [ OK ] [ Press enter to continue ] Press Enter as instructed. You will then be shown a list of all the hard drives that the kernel found when it carried out the device probes. shows an example from a system with two IDE disks. They have been called ad0 and ad2.
Select Drive for FDisk
You might be wondering why ad1 is not listed here. Why has it been missed? Consider what would happen if you had two IDE hard disks, one as the master on the first IDE controller, and one as the master on the second IDE controller. If FreeBSD numbered these as it found them, as ad0 and ad1 then everything would work. But if you then added a third disk, as the slave device on the first IDE controller, it would now be ad1, and the previous ad1 would become ad2. Because device names (such as ad1s1a) are used to find filesystems, you may suddenly discover that some of your filesystems no longer appear correctly, and you would need to change your FreeBSD configuration. To work around this, the kernel can be configured to name IDE disks based on where they are, and not the order in which they were found. With this scheme the master disk on the second IDE controller will always be ad2, even if there are no ad0 or ad1 devices. This configuration is the default for the FreeBSD kernel, which is why this display shows ad0 and ad2. The machine on which this screenshot was taken had IDE disks on both master channels of the IDE controllers, and no disks on the slave channels. You should select the disk on which you want to install FreeBSD, and then press OK. FDisk will start, with a display similar to that shown in . The FDisk display is broken in to three sections. The first section, covering the first two lines of the display, shows details about the currently selected disk, including its FreeBSD name, the disk geometry, and the total size of the disk. The second section shows the slices that are currently on the disk, where they start and end, how large they are, the name FreeBSD gives them, and their description and sub-type. This example shows two small unused slices, which are artifacts of disk layout schemes on the PC. It also shows one large FAT slice, which almost certainly appears as C: in DOS / Windows, and an extended slice, which may contain other drive letters for DOS / Windows. The third section shows the commands that are available in FDisk.
Typical Fdisk Partitions Before Editing
What you do now will depend on how you want to slice up your disk. If you want to use FreeBSD for the entire disk (which will delete all the other data on this disk when you confirm that you want Sysinstall to continue later in the installation process) then you can press A, which corresponds to the Use Entire Disk option. The existing slices will be removed, and replaced with a small area flagged as unused (again, an artifact of PC disk layout), and then one large slice for FreeBSD. If you do this then you should then select the newly created FreeBSD slice using the arrow keys, and press S to mark the slice as being bootable. The screen will then look very similar to . Note the A in the Flags column, which indicates that this slice is active, and will be booted from. If you will be deleting an existing slice to make space for FreeBSD then you should select the slice using the arrow keys, and then press D. You can then press C, and be prompted for size of slice you want to create. Enter the appropriate figure and press Enter. If you have already made space for FreeBSD (perhaps by using a tool such as Partition Magic) then you can press C to create a new slice. Again, you will be prompted for the size of slice you would like to create.
Fdisk Partition Using Entire Disk
When finished, press Q. Your changes will be saved in Sysinstall, but will not yet be written to disk. Install a Boot Manager You now have the option to install a boot manager. In general, you should choose to install the FreeBSD boot manager if: You have more than one drive, and have installed FreeBSD on to a drive other than the first one. You have installed FreeBSD alongside another operating system on the same disk, and you want to choose whether to start FreeBSD or the other operating system when you start the computer. Make your choice and press Enter.
Sysinstall Boot Manager Menu
The help screen, reached by pressing F1, discusses the problems that can be encountered when trying to share the hard disk between operating systems. Creating Slices on Another Drive If there is more than one drive, it will return to the Select Drives screen after the boot manager selection. If you wish to install FreeBSD on to more than one disk than you can select another disk here, and repeat the slice process using FDisk,
Exit Select Drive
The Tab key toggles between the last drive selected, [ OK ], and [ Cancel ]. Press the Tab once to toggle to the [ OK ], then press Enter to continue with the installation. Creating Partitions using <application>Disklabel</application> You must now create some partitions inside each slice that you have just created. Remember that each partition is lettered, from a through to h, and that partitions b, c, and d have conventional meanings that you should adhere to. Certain applications can benefit from particular partition schemes, especially if you are laying out partitions across more than one disk. However, for this, your first FreeBSD installation, you do not need to give too much thought to how you partition the disk. It is more important that you install FreeBSD and start learning how to use it. You can always re-install FreeBSD to change your partition scheme when you are more familiar with the operating system. This scheme features four partitions—one for swap space, and three for filesystems. Partition Layout for First Disk Partition Filesystem Size Description a / 64MB This is the root file system. Every other filesystem will be mounted somewhere under this one. 64MB is a reasonable size for this filesystem. You will not be storing too much data on it, as a regular FreeBSD install will put about 40MB of data here. The remaining space is for temporary data, and also leaves expansion space if future versions of FreeBSD need more space in / b N/A 2-3 x RAM The system's swap space is kept on this partition. Choosing the right amount of swap space can be a bit of an art. A good rule of thumb is that you should have two or three times the amount of RAM as swap space. So if you have 64MB of RAM then you should have between 128MB and 196MB of swap. You should also have at least 64MB of swap, so if you have less than 32MB of RAM in your computer then set the swap amount to 64MB.If you have more than one disk then you can put swap space on each disk. FreeBSD will then use each disk for swap, which effectively speeds up the act of swapping. In this case, calculate the total amount of swap you need (e.g., 128MB), and then divide this by the number of disks you have (e.g., two disks) to give the amount of swap you should put on each disk, in this example, 64MB of swap per disk. e /var 50MB The /var directory contains variable length files; log files, and other administrative files. Many of these files are read-from or written-to extensively during FreeBSD's day-to-day running. Putting these files on another filesystem allows FreeBSD to optimise the access of these files without affecting other files in other directories that do not have the same access pattern. f /usr Rest of disk All your other files will typically be stored in /usr, and its subdirectories.
If you will be installing FreeBSD on to more than one disk then you must also create partitions in the other slices that you configured. The easiest way to do this is to create two partitions on each disk, one for the swap space, and one for a filesystem. Partition Layout for Subsequent Disks Partition Filesystem Size Description b N/A See description As already discussed, you can split swap space across each disk. Even though the a partition is free, convention dictates that swap space stays on the b partition. e /diskn Rest of disk The rest of the disk is taken up with one big partition. This could easily be put on the a partition, instead of the e partition. However, convention says that the a partition on a slice is reserved for the filesystem that will be the root (/) filesystem. You do not have to follow this convention, but Sysinstall does, so following it yourself makes the installation slightly cleaner. You can choose to mount this filesystem anywhere; this example suggests that you mount them as directories /diskn, where n is a number that changes for each disk. But you can use another scheme if you prefer.
Having chosen your partition layout you can now create it using Sysinstall. You will see this message. Message Now, you need to create BSD partitions inside of the fdisk partition(s) just created. If you have a reasonable amount of disk space (200MB or more) and don't have any special requirements, simply use the (A)uto command to allocate space automatically. If you have more specific needs or just don't care for the layout chosen by (A)uto, press F1 for more information on manual layout. [ OK ] Press Enter to start the FreeBSD partition editor, called Disklabel. shows the display when you first start Disklabel. The display is divided in to three sections. The first few lines show the name of the disk you are currently working on, and the slice that contains the partitions you are creating (at this point Disklabel calls this the Partition name rather than slice name). This display also shows the amount of free space within the slice; that is, space that was set aside in the slice, but that has not yet been assigned to a partition. The middle of the display shows the partitions that have been created, the name of the filesystem that each partition contains, their size, and some options pertaining to the creation of the filesystem. The bottom third of the screen shows the keystrokes that are valid in Disklabel.
Sysinstall Disklabel Editor
Disklabel can automatically create partitions for you, and assign them default sizes. Try this now, by Pressing A. You will see a display similar to that shown in . Depending on the size of the disk you are using the defaults may or may not be appropriate. This does not matter, as you do not have to accept the defaults.
Sysinstall Disklabel Editor With Auto Defaults
To delete the suggested partitions, and replace them with your own, use the arrow keys to select the first partition, and press D to delete it. Repeat this to delete all the suggested partitions. To create the first partition (a, mounted as /), make sure the disk information at the top of the screen is selected, and press C. A dialog box will appear prompting you for the size of the new partition (as shown in ). You can enter the size as the number of disk blocks you want to use, or, more usefully, as a number followed by either M for megabytes, G for gigabytes, or C for cylinders.
Free Space For Root Partition
The default size shown will create a partition that takes up the rest of the slice. If you are using the partition sizes described earlier then delete the existing figure using Backspace, and then type in 64M, as shown in . Then press OK.
Edit Root Partition Size
Having chosen the partition's size you will then asked whether this partition will contain a filesystem or swap space. The dialog box is shown in . This first partition will contain a filesystem, so check that FS is selected and then press Enter.
Choose The Root Partition Type
Finally, because you are creating a filesystem, you must tell Disklabel where the filesystem is to be mounted. The dialog box is shown in . The root filesystem's mount point is /, so type /, and then press Enter.
Choose The Root Mount Point
The display will then update to show you the newly created partition. You should repeat this procedure for the other partitions. When you create the swap partition you will not be prompted for the filesystem mount point, as swap partitions are never mounted. When you create the final partition, /usr, you can leave the suggested size as is, to use the rest of the slice. Your final FreeBSD DiskLabel Editor screen will appear similar to , although your values chosen may be different. Press Q to finish.
Sysinstall Disklabel Editor
Choosing What To Install Select The Distribution Set Deciding which distribution set to install will depend largely on the intended use of the system and the amount of disk space available. The predefined options range from installing the smallest possible configuration to everything. Those who are new to Unix and/or FreeBSD should almost certainly select one of these canned options. Customizing a distribution set is typically for the more experienced user. Press F1 for more information on the distribution set options and what they contain. When finished reviewing the help, pressing Enter will return to the Select Distributions Menu. If a graphical user interface is desired then a distribution set that is preceded by an X should be chosen. The configuration of XFree86 and selection of a default desktop is part of the post-installation steps. The default XFree86 version installed is the 3.x branch. You should check to see whether your video card is supported at the XFree86 web site. If it is only supported under the 4.x branch, then you will need to install and configure XFree86 4.x after installation. Select a distribution without X and refer to for more information. If compiling a custom kernel is anticipated, select an option which includes the source code. For more information on why a custom kernel should be built or how to build a custom kernel see . Obviously, the most versatile system is one that includes everything. If there is adequate disk space, select All as shown in by using the arrow keys and press Enter. If there is a concern about disk space consider using an option that is more suitable for the situation. Other distributions can be added after installation.
Choose Distributions
Installing The Ports Collection After selecting the desired distribution, an opportunity to install the FreeBSD Ports Collection is presented. The ports collection is an easy and convenient way to install software. The ports collection does not contain the source code necessary to compile the software. It is a collection of files which automates the downloading, compiling and installation. discusses how to use the ports collection. The installation program does not check to see if you have adequate space. Select this option only if you have adequate hard disk space. User Confirmation Requested Would you like to install the FreeBSD ports collection? This will give you ready access to over &os.numports; ported software packages, at a cost of around 100MB of disk space when "clean" and possibly much more than that if a lot of the distribution tarballs are loaded (unless you have the extra CDs from a FreeBSD CD/DVD distribution available and can mount it on /cdrom, in which case this is far less of a problem). The ports collection is a very valuable resource and well worth having on your /usr partition, so it is advisable to say Yes to this option. For more information on the ports collection & the latest ports, visit: http://www.freebsd.org/ports [ Yes ] No Select [ Yes ] with the arrow keys to install the ports collection or [ No ] to skip this option. Press Enter to continue. The Choose Distributions menu will redisplay.
Confirm Distributions
If satisfied with the options, select Exit with the arrow keys, ensure that [ OK ] is highlighted, and press Enter to continue. Choosing Your Installation Media If Installing from a CDROM, use the arrow keys to highlight Install from a FreeBSD CDROM. Ensure that [ OK ] is highlighted, then press Enter to proceed with the installation. For other methods of installation, select the appropriate option and follow the instructions. Press F1 to display the Online Help for installation media. Press Enter to return to the media selection menu.
Choose Installation Media
FTP Installation Modes installation network FTP There are three FTP installation modes you can choose from: active FTP, passive FTP, or via a HTTP proxy. FTP Active, Install from an FTP server This option will make all FTP transfers use Active mode. This will not work through firewalls, but will often work with older FTP servers that do not support passive mode. If your connection hangs with passive mode (the default), try active! FTP Passive, Install from an FTP server through a firewall FTP Passive mode This option instructs FreeBSD to use Passive mode for all FTP operations. This allows the user to pass through firewalls that do not allow incoming connections on random port addresses. FTP via a HTTP proxy, Install from an FTP server through a http proxy FTP via a HTTP proxy This option instructs FreeBSD to use the HTTP protocol (like a web browser) to connect to a proxy for all FTP operations. The proxy will translate the requests and send them to the FTP server. This allows the user to pass through firewalls that do not allow FTP at all, but offer a HTTP proxy. In this case, you have to specify the proxy in addition to the FTP server. For a proxy FTP server, you should usually give the name of the server you really want as a part of the username, after an @ sign. The proxy server then fakes the real server. For example, assuming you want to install from ftp.FreeBSD.org, using the proxy FTP server foo.bar.com, listening on port 1024. In this case, you go to the options menu, set the FTP username to ftp@ftp.FreeBSD.org, and the password to your email address. As your installation media, you specify FTP (or passive FTP, if the proxy supports it), and the URL ftp://foo.bar.com:1234/pub/FreeBSD. Since /pub/FreeBSD from ftp.FreeBSD.org is proxied under foo.bar.com, you are able to install from that machine (which will fetch the files from ftp.FreeBSD.org as your installation requests them. Committing to the Installation The installation can now proceed if desired. This is also the last chance for aborting the installation to prevent changes to the hard drive. User Confirmation Requested Last Chance! Are you SURE you want to continue the installation? If you're running this on a disk with data you wish to save then WE STRONGLY ENCOURAGE YOU TO MAKE PROPER BACKUPS before proceeding! We can take no responsibility for lost disk contents! [ Yes ] No Select [ Yes ] and press Enter to proceed. The installation time will vary according to the distribution chosen and installation media used. There will be a series of messages displayed indicating the status. The installation is complete when the following message is displayed: Message Congratulations! You now have FreeBSD installed on your system. We will now move on to the final configuration questions. For any option you do not wish to configure, simply select No. If you wish to re-enter this utility after the system is up, you may do so by typing: /stand/sysinstall . [ OK ] [ Press enter to continue ] Press Enter to proceed with post-installation configurations. Selecting [ No ] and pressing Enter will abort the installation so no changes will be made to your system. The following message will appear : Message Installation complete with some errors. You may wish to scroll through the debugging messages on VTY1 with the scroll-lock feature. You can also choose "No" at the next prompt and go back into the installation menus to try and retry whichever operations have failed. [ OK ] This message is generated because nothing was installed. Pressing Enter will return to the Main Installation Menu to exit the installation. Post-installation Configuration of various options follows the successful installation. An option can be configured by re-entering the configuration options before booting the new FreeBSD system or after installation using /stand/sysinstall and selecting Configure. Network Device Configuration If you previously configured PPP for an FTP install, this screen will not display and can be configured later as described above. For detailed information on Local Area Networks and configuring FreeBSD as a gateway/router refer to the tutorial PPP- Pendantic PPP Primer. User Confirmation Requested Would you like to configure Ethernet or SLIP/PPP network devices? [ Yes ] No To configure a network device, select [ Yes ] and press Enter. Otherwise, select [ No ] to continue.
Selecting An Ethernet Device
Select the interface to be configured with the arrow keys and press Enter. User Confirmation Requested Do you want to try IPv6 configuration of the interface? Yes [ No ] In this private local area network the current Internet type protocol (IPv4) was sufficient and [ No ] was selected with the arrow keys and Enter pressed. If you want to try the new Internet protocol (IPv6), choose [ Yes ] and press Enter. It will take several seconds for scanning RA servers. User Confirmation Requested Do you want to try DHCP configuration of the interface? Yes [ No ] If DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is not required select [ No ] with the arrow keys and press Enter. Selecting [ Yes ] will execute dhclient, and if successful, will fill in the network configuration information automatically. Refer to for more information. The following Network Configuration screen shows the configuration of the Ethernet device for a system that will act as the gateway for a Local Area Network.
Set Network Configuration For ed0
Use Tab to select the information fields and fill in appropriate information: Host The fully-qualified hostname, e.g. k6-2.weeble.com in this case. Domain The name of the domain that your machine is in, e.g. weeble.com for this case. IPv4 Gateway IP address of host forwarding packets to non-local destinations. Fill this in only if the machine is a node on the network. Leave this field blank if the machine is the gateway to the Internet for the network. Name server IP address of your local DNS server. There is no local DNS server on this private local area network so the IP address of the provider's DNS server (208.163.10.2) was used. IPv4 address The IP address to be used for this interface was (192.168.0.1). Netmask The address block being used for this local area network is a Class C block (192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255). The default netmask is for a Class C network (255.255.255.0). Extra options to ifconfig Any interface-specific options to ifconfig you would like to add. There were none in this case. Use Tab to select [ OK ] when finished and press Enter. User Confirmation Requested Would you like to Bring Up the ed0 interface right now? [ Yes ] No Choosing [ Yes ] and pressing Enter will bring the machine up on the network and be ready for use after leaving leaving the installation. Configure Internet Services User Confirmation Requested Do you want to configure inetd and the network services that it provides? Yes [ No ] If [ No ] is selected, various services such telnetd will not be enabled. This means that remote users will not be able to telnet into this machine. Local users will be still be able to access remote machines with telnet. These services can be enabled after installation by editing /etc/inetd.conf with your favorite text editor. See for more information. Select [ Yes ] if you wish to configure these services during install. An additional confirmation will display. User Confirmation Requested The Internet Super Server (inetd) allows a number of simple Internet services to be enabled, including finger, ftp and telnetd. Enabling these services may increase risk of security problems by increasing the exposure of your system. With this in mind, do you wish to enable inetd? [ Yes ] No Select [ Yes ] to continue. User Confirmation Requested inetd(8) relies on its configuration file, /etc/inetd.conf, to determine which of its Internet services will be available. The default FreeBSD inetd.conf(5) leaves all services disabled by default, so they must be specifically enabled in the configuration file before they will function, even once inetd(8) is enabled. Note that services for IPv6 must be seperately enabled from IPv4 services. Select [Yes] now to invoke an editor on /etc/inetd.conf, or [No] to use the current settings. [ Yes ] No Selecting [ Yes ] will allow adding services by deleting the # at the beginning of a line.
Editing <filename>inetd.conf</filename>
After adding the desired services, pressing Esc will display a menu which will allow exiting and saving the changes. Configure Gateway User Confirmation Requested Do you want this machine to function as a network gateway? [ Yes ] No If the machine will be acting as the gateway for a local area network and forwarding packets between other machines then select [ Yes ] and press Enter. If the machine is a node on a network then select [ No ] and press Enter to continue. Anonymous FTP User Confirmation Requested Do you want to have anonymous FTP access to this machine? Yes [ No ] Deny Anonymous FTP Selecting the default [ No ] and pressing Enter will still allow users who have accounts with passwords to use FTP to access the machine. Allow Anonymous FTP Anyone can access your machine if you elect to allow anonymous FTP connections. The security implications should be considered before enabling this option. For more information about security see . To allow anonymous FTP, use the arrow keys to select [ Yes ] and press Enter. The following screens (or similar) will display :
Default Anonymous FTP Configuration
Pressing F1 will display the help : This screen allows you to configure the anonymous FTP user. The following configuration values are editable: UID: The user ID you wish to assign to the anonymous FTP user. All files uploaded will be owned by this ID. Group: Which group you wish the anonymous FTP user to be in. Comment: String describing this user in /etc/passwd FTP Root Directory: Where files available for anonymous FTP will be kept. Upload subdirectory: Where files uploaded by anonymous FTP users will go. The ftp root directory will be put in /var by default. If you do not have enough room there for the anticipated FTP needs, the /usr directory could be used by setting the FTP Root Directory to /usr/ftp. When you are satisfied with the values, press Enter to continue. User Confirmation Requested Create a welcome message file for anonymous FTP users? [ Yes ] No If you select [ Yes ] and press Enter, an editor will automatically start allowing you to edit the message.
Edit The FTP Welcome Message
This is a text editor called ee. Use the instructions to change the message or change the message later using a text editor of your choice. Note the file name/location at the bottom. Press Esc and a pop-up menu will default to a) leave editor. Press Enter to exit and continue. Configure Network File Services Network File Services (NFS) allows sharing of files across a network. A machine can be configured as a server, a client, or both. Refer to for a more information. NFS Server User Confirmation Requested Do you want to configure this machine as an NFS server? Yes [ No ] If there is no need for a Network File System server or client, select [ No ] and press Enter. If [ Yes ] is chosen, a message will pop-up indicating that the exports file must be created. Message Operating as an NFS server means that you must first configure an /etc/exports file to indicate which hosts are allowed certain kinds of access to your local file systems. Press [Enter] now to invoke an editor on /etc/exports [ OK ] Press Enter to continue. A text editor will start allowing the exports file to be created and edited.
Editing the Exports File
Use the instructions to add the actual exported filesystems now or later using a text editor of your choice. Note the filename/location at the bottom of the editor screen. Press Esc and a pop-up menu will default to a) leave editor. Press Enter to exit and continue. NFS Client User Confirmation Requested Do you want to configure this machine as an NFS client? Yes [ No ] With the arrow keys, select [ Yes ] or [ No ] as appropriate and press Enter. Security Profile A security profile is a set of configuration options that attempts to achieve the desired ratio of security to convenience by enabling and disabling certain programs and other settings. More information about security profiles can be found in the FreeBSD FAQ. User Confirmation Requested Do you want to select a default security profile for this host (select No for "medium" security)? [ Yes ] No Selecting [ No ] and pressing Enter will set the security profile to medium. Selecting [ Yes ] and pressing Enter will allow selecting a different security profile.
Security Profile Options
Press F1 to display the help. Press Enter to return to selection menu. Use the arrow keys to choose Medium unless your are sure that another level is required for your needs. With [ OK ] highlighted, press Enter. An appropriate confirmation message will display depending on which security setting was chosen. Message Moderate security settings have been selected. Sendmail and SSHd have been enabled, securelevels are disabled, and NFS server setting have been left intact. PLEASE NOTE that this still does not save you from having to properly secure your system in other ways or exercise due diligence in your administration, this simply picks a standard set of out-of-box defaults to start with. To change any of these settings later, edit /etc/rc.conf [OK] Message Extreme security settings have been selected. Sendmail, SSHd, and NFS services have been disabled, and securelevels have been enabled. PLEASE NOTE that this still does not save you from having to properly secure your system in other ways or exercise due diligence in your administration, this simply picks a more secure set of out-of-box defaults to start with. To change any of these settings later, edit /etc/rc.conf [OK] Press Enter to continue with the post-installation configuration. System Console Settings There are several options available to customize the system console. User Confirmation Requested Would you like to customize your system console settings? [ Yes ] No To view and configure the options, select [ Yes ] and press Enter.
System Console Configuration Options
A commonly used option is the screensaver. Use the arrow keys to select Saver and then press Enter.
Screensaver Options
Select the desired screen saver using the arrow keys and then press Enter. The System Console Configuration menu will redisplay. The default time interval is 300 seconds. To change the time interval, select Saver again. At the Screensaver Options menu, select Timeout using the arrow keys and press Enter. A pop-up menu will appear :
Screensaver Timeout
The value can be changed, then select [ OK ] and press Enter to return to the System Console Configuration menu.
System Console Configuration Exit
Selecting Exit and pressing Enter will continue with the post-installation configurations. Setting The Time Zone Setting the timezone for your machine will allow it to automatically correct for any regional time changes and perform other timezone related functions properly. The example shown is for a machine located in the Eastern time zone of the United States. Your selections will vary according to your geographical location. User Confirmation Requested Would you like to set this machine's time zone now? [ Yes ] No Select [ Yes ] and press Enter to set the time zone. User Confirmation Requested Is this machine's CMOS clock set to UTC? If it is set to local time or you don't know, please choose NO here! Yes [ No ] Select [ Yes ] or [ No ] according to how the machine's clock is configured and press Enter.
Select Your Region
The appropriate region is selected using the arrow keys and then press Enter.
Select Your Country
Select the appropriate country using the arrow keys and press Enter.
Select Your Timezone
The appropriate time zone is selected using the arrow keys and pressing Enter. Confirmation Does the abbreviation 'EDT' look reasonable? [ Yes ] No Confirm the abbreviation for the time zone is correct. If it looks okay, press Enter to continue with the post-installation configuration. Linux Compatibility User Confirmation Requested Would you like to enable Linux binary compatibility? [ Yes ] No Selecting [ Yes ] and pressing Enter will allow running Linux software on FreeBSD. The install will proceed to add the appropriate packages for Linux compatibility. If installing by FTP, the machine will need to be connected to the Internet. Sometimes a remote ftp site will not have all the distributions like the Linux binary compatibility. This can be installed later if necessary. Mouse Settings This option will allow you to cut and past text in the console and user programs with a 3-button mouse. If using a 2-button mouse, refer to manual page, &man.moused.8;, after installation for details on emulating the 3-button style. This example depicts a non-USB mouse. User Confirmation Requested Does this system have a non-USB mouse attached to it? [ Yes ] No Select [ Yes ] for a non-USB mouse or [ No ] for a USB mouse and press Enter.
Select Mouse Protocol Type
Use the arrow keys to select Type and press Enter
Set Mouse Protocol
The mouse used in this example is a PS/2 type, so the default Auto was appropriate. To change protocol, use the arrow keys to select another option. Ensure that [ OK ] is highlighted and press Enter to exit this menu.
Configure Mouse Port
Use the arrow keys to select Port and press Enter.
Setting The Mouse Port
This system had a PS/2 mouse, so the default PS/2 was appropriate. To change the port, use the arrow keys and then press Enter.
Enable The Mouse Daemon
Last, the mouse daemon is enabled and tested.
Test The Mouse Daemon
The cursor moved around the screen so the mouse daemon is running: Select [ Yes ] to return to the previous menu then select Exit with the arrow keys and press Enter to return to continue with the post-installation configuration. Configure X-Server In order to use a graphical user interface such as KDE, GNOME, or others, the X server will need to be configured. To see whether your video card is supported, check the XFree86 web site. If your video card is only supported under XFree86 4.x, refer to for installation and configuration. User Confirmation Requested Would you like to configure your X server at this time? [ Yes ] No It is necessary to know your monitor specifications and video card information. Equipment damage can occur if settings are incorrect. If you do not have this information, select [ No ] and perform the configuration after installation when you have the information using /stand/sysinstall, selecting Configure and then XFree86. If you have graphics card and monitor information, select [ Yes ] and press Enter to proceed with configuring the X server.
Select Configuration Method Menu
There are several ways to configure the X server. XF86Setup is fully graphical and probably the easiest. Use the arrow keys to select the XF86Setup and press Enter. Message You have configured and been running the mouse daemon. Choose "/dev/sysmouse" as the mouse port and "SysMouse" or "MouseSystems" as the mouse protocol in the X configuration utility. [ OK ] [ Press enter to continue ] The indicates that the mouse daemon previously configured has been detected. Press Enter to continue. Press [Enter] to switch to graphics mode. This may take a while... [ OK ] Press Enter to switch to the graphics mode and continue. It will not try to switch to the graphics mode until Enter is pressed. The screen will go black and then shortly a screen with a large X in the center will appear. Be patient and wait. After a few more moments, the XF86Setup introduction will display. Read all instructions carefully. Press Enter to continue. <application>XF86Setup</application> Overview There are several areas of configuration to be completed. The configuration choices you make will depend on the hardware in the system so only a general overview can be given here. Along the top of the configuration tool there are buttons indicating the areas to be configured. You should be able to use the mouse if it was previously configured and select each item by clicking on it. Review each area and make appropriate selections for your system. <guimenuitem>Mouse</guimenuitem> The mouse is the first item to be configured. If you previously configured your mouse, the mouse daemon will already be running and should indicate SysMouse automatically for the mouse protocol. If you are use a two button mouse, you should also select Emulate3Buttons. There are other settings that can be tweaked if necessary. After completing your selections, click on the Apply and check the mouse actions are working properly. If further adjustment is needed, make them and recheck the operation by clicking on Apply again. When finished, move on to the next item. <guimenuitem>Keyboard</guimenuitem> Select the appropriate keyboard model. The default keyboard is Generic 101-key PC. Select the language layout for your keyboard. The default layout is U.S. English. If you are not using a U.S. keyboard, you may need to additionally select a variant. There are other options under Group Shift/Lock behavior and Control Key Position that can be selected if desired. Generally the default settings are fine. After completing the keyboard configuration, click on Apply and move on to the next item. <guimenuitem>Card</guimenuitem> Click on Read README file for additional help in configuring your video card. Select the appropriate video card from the list using the scrollbar. Clicking on your card will show as Card selected: above the list box. Next, the Detailed Setup was selected just to check details. Typically, if your video card was in the list, no changes will be needed here. When finished, move on to the next item. <guimenuitem>Monitor</guimenuitem> There are two ways to proceed. One method requires that you enter the horizontal and vertical sweep capabilities of your monitor in the text boxes. Choosing one of the monitor options listed that the monitor is the other method. After selecting a listed option, the horizontal and vertical sweep rates that will be used will display. Compare those to your monitor specifications. The monitor must be capable of using those ranges. Do not exceed the ratings of your monitor. Damage could occur. If you have doubts select ABORT and get the information. The remainder of the installation process will be unaffected and configuring the X-Server can be done later using /stand/sysinstall. When finished, move on to the next item. <guimenuitem>Mode</guimenuitem> Select the video mode(s) that you want to use. You can select more than one option. Typically, useful ranges are 640x480, 800x600, and 1024x768 but those are a function of video card capability, monitor size, and eye comfort. Next, select the default color depth you want to use. Your choices are 8bpp, 16bpp, 24bpp, and 32bpp. Select the highest color depth that your video card will support. When finished, move on to the next item. <guimenuitem>Other</guimenuitem> There default settings are reasonable values so you probably won't need to change anything here. The default setting which allows the server to be killed with the hotkey sequence CtrlAlt Backspace should be left on. This can be executed if something is wrong with the server settings and prevent hardware damage. The default setting that allows video mode switching will permit changing of the mode while running X with the hotkey sequence Alt+ or Alt- . Testing the Server Verify all the settings once again and select Done and the following message will display : If you've finished configuring everything press the Okay button to start the X server using the configuration you've selected. If you still wish to configure some things, press one of the buttons at the top and then press "Done" again, when you've finished. After selecting Okay, some messages will briefly appear advising to wait and attempting to start the x-server. This process takes a few moments, so be patient. The screen will go blank for a short period of time and then a screen will appear with the message Congratulations, you've got a running server! If nothing appears or is distorted, kill the x-server using Ctrl Alt Backspace and adjust the settings or revisit them after installation. Running <command>xvidtune</command> The display can be adjusted for height, width, or centering by using xvidtune. There are warnings that improper settings can damage your equipment. Heed them. If in doubt, do not do it. Instead, use the monitor controls to adjust the display for x-windows. There may be some display differences when switching back to text mode, but it is better than damaging equipment. The xvidtune can be ran later using /stand/sysinstall. Read the xvidtune before making any adjustments. Saving Configuration When you are satisfied, the configuration can now be saved. Select Save the configuration and Exit The configuration file will be saved to /etc/XF86Config. Once the configuration is done, the installation program will need to create a link to the server : Do you want to create an 'X' link to the SVGA server? (the link will be created in the directory: /usr/X11R6/bin) Okay? [ Yes ] No Select [ Yes ] and press Enter to create the link. Link created successfully. [ OK ] Press Enter to continue configuration. Select Default X Desktop There are a variety of window managers available. They range from very basic environments to full desktop environments with a large suite of software. Some require only minimal disk space and low memory while others with more features require much more. The best way to determine which is most suitable for you is to try a few different ones. Those are available from the ports collection or as packages and can be added after installation. You can select one of the popular desktops to be installed and configured as the default desktop. This will allow you to start it right after installation.
Select Default Desktop
Use the arrow keys to select a desktop and press Enter. Installation of the selected desktop will proceed. Install Packages The packages are pre-compiled binaries and are a convenient way to install software. Installation of one package is shown for purposes of illustration. Additional packages can also be added at this time if desired. After installation /stand/sysinstall can be used to add additional packages. User Confirmation Requested The FreeBSD package collection is a collection of hundreds of ready-to-run applications, from text editors to games to WEB servers and more. Would you like to browse the collection now? [ Yes ] No Selecting [ Yes ] and pressing Enter will be followed by the Package Selection screens:
Select Package Category
All packages available will be displayed if All is selected or you can select a particular category. Highlight your selection with the arrow keys and press Enter. A menu will display showing all the packages available for the selection made.
Select Packages
The bash shell is shown selected. Select as many as desired by highlighting the package and pressing the Space. A short description of each package will appear in the lower left corner of the screen. Pressing the Tab key will toggle between the last selected package, [ OK ], and [ Cancel ]. When you have finished marking the packages for installation, press Tab once to toggle to the [ OK ] and press Enter to return to the Package Selection menu. The left and right arrow keys will also toggle between [ OK ] and [ Cancel ]. This method can also be used to select [ OK ] and press Enter to return to the Package Selection menu.
Install Packages
Use the arrow keys to select [ Install ] and press Enter. You will then need to confirm that you want to install the packages.
Confirm Package Installation
Selecting [ OK ] and pressing Enter will start the package installation. Installing messages will appear until completed. Make note if there are any error messages. The final configuration continues after packages are installed. Add User/Groups You should add at least one user during the installation so that you can use the system without being logged in as root. The root partition is generally small and running applications as root can quickly fill it. A bigger danger is noted below : User Confirmation Requested Would you like to add any initial user accounts to the system? Adding at least one account for yourself at this stage is suggested since working as the "root" user is dangerous (it is easy to do things which adversely affect the entire system). [ Yes ] No Select [ Yes ] and press Enter to continue with adding a user.
Select Add User
Select Add User with the arrow keys and press Enter.
Add User Information
The following descriptions will appear in the lower part of the screen as the items are selected with Tab to assist with entering the required information. Login ID The login name of the new user (mandatory) UID The numerical ID for this user (leave blank for automatic choice) Group The login group name for this user (leave blank for automatic choice) Password The password for this user (enter this field with care!) Full name The user's full name (comment) Member groups The groups this user belongs to (i.e. gets access rights for) Home directory The user's home directory (leave blank for default) Login shell The user's login shell (leave blank for default). (/bin/sh) The login shell was changed from /bin/sh to /usr/local/bin/bash to use the bash shell that was previously installed as a package. Do not try to use a shell that does not exist or you will not be able to login. The user was also added to the group "wheel" to be able to become a superuser with root privileges. When you are satisfied, press [ OK ] and the User and Group Management menu will redisplay.
Exit User and Group Management
Groups could also be added at this time if specific needs are known. Otherwise, this may be accessed through using /stand/sysinstall after installation is completed. When you are finished adding users, select Exit with the arrow keys and press Enter to continue the installation. Set Root Password Message Now you must set the system manager's password. This is the password you'll use to log in as "root". [ OK ] [ Press enter to continue ] Press Enter to set the root password. The password will need to be typed in twice correctly. Needless to say, make sure you have a way of finding the password if you forget. Changing local password for root. New password : Retype new password : The installation will continue after the password is successfully entered. Exiting Install If you need to configure additional network devices or to do any other configurations, you can do it at this point or after installation with /stand/sysinstall. User Confirmation Requested Visit the general configuration menu for a chance to set any last options? Yes [ No ] Selecting [ No ] with the arrow keys and pressing Enter returns to the Main Installation Menu
Exit Install
Select [X Exit Install] with the arrow keys and press Enter. You will be asked to confirm exiting the installation : User Confirmation Requested Are you sure you wish to exit? The system will reboot (be sure to remove any floppies from the drives). [ Yes ] No Select [ Yes ] and remove floppy if booting from floppy. The CDROM drive is locked until the machine starts to reboot. The CDROM drive is then unlocked and can be removed from drive (quickly). The system will reboot so watch for any error messages that may appear. FreeBSD Bootup FreeBSD Bootup on the i386 If everything went well, you will see messages scroll off the screen and you will arrive at a login prompt. You can view the content of the messages by pressing Scroll-Lock and using PgUp and PgDn. Pressing Scroll-Lock again will return to the prompt. The entire message may not display (buffer limitation) but it can be viewed from the command line after logging in by typing dmesg at the prompt. Login using the username/password you set during installation (rpratt, in this example). Avoid logging in as root except when necessary. Typical boot messages : Copyright (c) 1992-2001 The FreeBSD Project. Copyright (c) 1982, 1986, 1989, 1991, 1993, 1994 The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. FreeBSD 4.3-RELEASE #0: Sat Apr 21 10:54:49 GMT 2001 jkh@narf.osd.bsdi.com:/usr/src/sys/compile/GENERIC Timecounter "i8254" frequency 1193182 Hz CPU: AMD-K6(tm) 3D processor (300.68-MHz 586-class CPU) Origin = "AuthenticAMD" Id = 0x580 Stepping = 0 Features=0x8001bf<FPU,VME,DE,PSE,TSC,MSR,MCE,CX8,MMX> AMD Features=0x80000800<SYSCALL,3DNow!> real memory = 268435456 (262144K bytes) config> di sn0 config> di lnc0 config> di le0 config> di ie0 config> di fe0 config> di cs0 config> di bt0 config> di ata1 config> di aic0 config> di aha0 config> di adv0 config> q avail memory = 256983040 (250960K bytes) Preloaded elf kernel "kernel" at 0xc044d000. Preloaded userconfig_script "/boot/kernel.conf" at 0xc044d09c. md0: Malloc disk npx0: <math processor> on motherboard npx0: INT 16 interface pcib0: <Host to PCI bridge> on motherboard pci0: <PCI bus> on pcib0 pcib1: <VIA 82C598MVP (Apollo MVP3) PCI-PCI (AGP) bridge> at device 1.0 on pci0 pci1: <PCI bus> on pcib1 pci1: <Matrox MGA G200 AGP graphics accelerator> at 0.0 irq 11 isab0: <VIA 82C586 PCI-ISA bridge> at device 7.0 on pci0 isa0: <ISA bus> on isab0 atapci0: <VIA 82C586 ATA33 controller> port 0xe000-0xe00f at device 7.1 on pci0 ata0: at 0x1f0 irq 14 on atapci0 ata1: at 0x170 irq 15 on atapci0 uhci0: <VIA 83C572 USB controller> port 0xe400-0xe41f irq 10 at device 7.2 on pci0 usb0: <VIA 83C572 USB controller> on uhci0 usb0: USB revision 1.0 uhub0: VIA UHCI root hub, class 9/0, rev 1.00/1.00, addr 1 uhub0: 2 ports with 2 removable, self powered chip1: <VIA 82C586B ACPI interface> at device 7.3 on pci0 ed0: <NE2000 PCI Ethernet (RealTek 8029)> port 0xe800-0xe81f irq 9 at device 10.0 on pci0 ed0: address 52:54:05:de:73:1b, type NE2000 (16 bit) isa0: too many dependant configs (8) isa0: unexpected small tag 14 fdc0: <NEC 72065B or clone> at port 0x3f0-0x3f5,0x3f7 irq 6 drq 2 on isa0 fdc0: FIFO enabled, 8 bytes threshold fd0: <1440-KB 3.5" drive> on fdc0 drive 0 atkbdc0: <keyboard controller (i8042)> at port 0x60-0x6f on isa0 atkbd0: <AT Keyboard> flags 0x1 irq 1 on atkbdc0 kbd0 at atkbd0 psm0: <PS/2 Mouse> irq 12 on atkbdc0 psm0: model Generic PS/2 mouse, device ID 0 vga0: <Generic ISA VGA> at port 0x3c0-0x3df iomem 0xa0000-0xbffff on isa0 sc0: <System console> at flags 0x1 on isa0 sc0: VGA <16 virtual consoles, flags=0x300> sio0 at port 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 flags 0x10 on isa0 sio0: type 16550A sio1 at port 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa0 sio1: type 16550A ppc0: <Parallel port> at port 0x378-0x37f irq 7 on isa0 ppc0: SMC-like chipset (ECP/EPP/PS2/NIBBLE) in COMPATIBLE mode ppc0: FIFO with 16/16/15 bytes threshold ppi0: <Parallel I/O> on ppbus0 lpt0: <Printer> on ppbus0 lpt0: Interrupt-driven port plip0: <PLIP network interface> on ppbus0 ad0: 8063MB <IBM-DHEA-38451> [16383/16/63] at ata0-master using UDMA33 ad2: 8063MB <IBM-DHEA-38451> [16383/16/63] at ata1-master using UDMA33 acd0: CDROM <DELTA OTC-H101/ST3 F/W by OIPD> at ata0-slave using PIO4 Mounting root from ufs:/dev/ad0s1a swapon: adding /dev/ad0s1b as swap device Automatic boot in progress... /dev/ad0s1a: FILESYSTEM CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS /dev/ad0s1a: clean, 70119 free (655 frags, 8683 blocks, 0.7% fragmentation) /dev/ad0s1f: FILESYSTEM CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS /dev/ad0s1f: clean, 6976313 free (51774 frags, 829297 blocks, 0.7% fragmentation) /dev/ad0s1e: filesystem CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS /dev/ad0s1e: clean, 97952 free (9 frags, 12381 blocks, 0.0% fragmentation) Doing initial network setup: hostname. lo0: flags=8049<UP,LOOPBACK,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 16384 inet6 fe80::1%lo0 prefixlen 64 scopeid 0x8 inet6 ::1 prefixlen 128 inet 127.0.0.1 netmask 0xff000000 Additional routing options: tcp extensions=NO IP gateway=YES TCP keepalive=YES routing daemons:. additional daemons: syslogd. Doing additional network setup: portmap. Starting final network daemons: creating ssh RSA host key Generating RSA keys: Key generation complete. Your identification has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key. Your public key has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key.pub. The key fingerprint is: 2d:02:37:d2:0e:68:93:8f:9c:46:de:92:f4:be:60:0a root@k6-2.weeble.com creating ssh DSA host key Generating DSA parameter and key. Your identification has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key. Your public key has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key.pub. The key fingerprint is: 38:af:d2:1f:63:14:00:d8:83:fd:dd:4b:97:1c:43:6d root@k6-2.weeble.com. setting ELF ldconfig path: /usr/lib /usr/lib/compat /usr/X11R6/lib /usr/local/lib setting a.out ldconfig path: /usr/lib/aout /usr/lib/compat/aout /usr/X11R6/lib/aout starting standard daemons: inetd cron sendmail sshd usbd. Initial rc.i386 initialization: linux. rc.i386 configuring syscons: blank_time screensaver moused. Additional ABI support: linux. Local package initilization:. Additional TCP options:. login: rpratt Password: Generating the RSA and DSA keys may take some time on slower machines. This happens only on the initial boot-up of a new installation. Subsequent boots will be faster. If the X server has been configured and a Default Desktop chosen, it can be started by typing startx at the command line. Bootup of FreeBSD on the Alpha Alpha Once the install procedure has finished, you will be able to start FreeBSD by typing something like this to the SRM prompt: >>>BOOT DKC0 This instructs the firmware to boot the specified disk. To make FreeBSD boot automatically in the future, use these commands: >>> SET BOOT_OSFLAGS A >>> SET BOOT_FILE '' >>> SET BOOTDEF_DEV DKC0 >>> SET AUTO_ACTION BOOT The boot messages will be similar (but not identical) to those produced by FreeBSD booting on the i386. FreeBSD Shutdown It is important to properly shutdown the operating system. Do not just turn off power. First, become a superuser by typing su at the command line and entering the root password. This will work only if the user is a member of the group wheel. Otherwise, login as root and use shutdown -h now. The operating system has halted. Please press any key to reboot. It is safe to turn off the power after the shutdown command has been issued and the message "Please press any key to reboot" appears. If any key is pressed instead of turning off the power switch, the system will reboot. Supported Hardware hardware FreeBSD currently runs on a wide variety of ISA, VLB, EISA, and PCI bus-based PCs with Intel, AMD, Cyrix, or NexGen x86 processors, as well as a number of machines based on the Compaq Alpha processor. Support for generic IDE or ESDI drive configurations, various SCSI controllers, PCMCIA cards, USB devices, and network and serial cards is also provided. FreeBSD also supports IBM's microchannel (MCA) bus. A list of supported hardware is provided with each FreeBSD release in the FreeBSD Hardware Notes. This document can usually be found in a file named HARDWARE.TXT, in the top-level directory of a CDROM or FTP distribution or in sysinstall's documentation menu. It lists, for a given architecture, what hardware devices are known to be supported by each release of FreeBSD. Troubleshooting installation troubleshooting The following section covers basic installation troubleshooting, such as common problems people have reported. There are also a few questions and answers for people wishing to dual-boot FreeBSD with MS-DOS. What to Do If Something Goes Wrong... Due to various limitations of the PC architecture, it is impossible for probing to be 100% reliable, however, there are a few things you can do if it fails. Check the Hardware Notes document for your version of FreeBSD to make sure your hardware is supported. If your hardware is supported and you still experience lock-ups or other problems, reset your computer, and when the visual kernel configuration option is given, choose it. This will allow you to go through your hardware and supply information to the system about it. The kernel on the boot disks is configured assuming that most hardware devices are in their factory default configuration in terms of IRQs, IO addresses, and DMA channels. If your hardware has been reconfigured, you will most likely need to use the configuration editor to tell FreeBSD where to find things. It is also possible that a probe for a device not present will cause a later probe for another device that is present to fail. In that case, the probes for the conflicting driver(s) should be disabled. Do not disable any drivers you will need during the installation, such as your screen (sc0). If the installation wedges or fails mysteriously after leaving the configuration editor, you have probably removed or changed something you should not have. Reboot and try again. In configuration mode, you can: List the device drivers installed in the kernel. Change device drivers for hardware that is not present in your system. Change IRQs, DRQs, and IO port addresses used by a device driver. After adjusting the kernel to match your hardware configuration, type Q to boot with the new settings. Once the installation has completed, any changes you made in the configuration mode will be permanent so you do not have to reconfigure every time you boot. It is still highly likely that you will eventually want to build a custom kernel. MS-DOS User's Questions and Answers DOS Many users wish to install FreeBSD on PCs inhabited by MS-DOS. Here are some commonly asked questions about installing FreeBSD on such systems. Help, I have no space! Do I need to delete everything first? If your machine is already running MS-DOS and has little or no free space available for the FreeBSD installation, all hope is not lost! You may find the FIPS utility, provided in the tools directory on the FreeBSD CDROM or various FreeBSD FTP sites to be quite useful. FIPS FIPS allows you to split an existing MS-DOS partition into two pieces, preserving the original partition and allowing you to install onto the second free piece. You first defragment your MS-DOS partition using the Windows DEFRAG utility (go into Explorer, right-click on the hard drive, and choose to defrag your hard drive), or Norton Disk Tools. You then must run FIPS. It will prompt you for the rest of the information it needs. Afterwards, you can reboot and install FreeBSD on the new free slice. See the Distributions menu for an estimate of how much free space you will need for the kind of installation you want. Partition Magic There is also a very useful product from PowerQuest called Partition Magic. This application has far more functionality than FIPS, and is highly recommended if you plan to often add/remove operating systems (like me). However, it does cost money, and if you plan to install FreeBSD once and then leave it there, FIPS will probably be fine for you. Can I use compressed MS-DOS filesystems from FreeBSD? No. If you are using a utility such as Stacker(tm) or DoubleSpace(tm), FreeBSD will only be able to use whatever portion of the filesystem you leave uncompressed. The rest of the filesystem will show up as one large file (the stacked/double spaced file!). Do not remove that file or you will probably regret it greatly! It is probably better to create another uncompressed primary MS-DOS partition and use this for communications between MS-DOS and FreeBSD. Can I mount my extended MS-DOS partition? partitions slices Yes. DOS extended partitions are mapped in at the end of the other slices in FreeBSD, e.g., your D: drive might be /dev/da0s5, your E: drive, /dev/da0s6, and so on. This example assumes, of course, that your extended partition is on SCSI drive 0. For IDE drives, substitute ad for da appropriately if installing 4.0-RELEASE or later, and substitute wd for da if you are installing a version of FreeBSD prior to 4.0. You otherwise mount extended partitions exactly like you would any other DOS drive, for example: &prompt.root; mount -t msdos /dev/ad0s5 /dos_d Alpha User's Questions and Answers Alpha This section answers some commonly asked questions about installing FreeBSD on Alpha systems. Can I boot from the ARC or Alpha BIOS Console? ARC Alpha BIOS SRM No. &os;, like Compaq Tru64 and VMS, will only boot from the SRM console. Help, I have no space! Do I need to delete everything first? Unfortunately, yes. Can I mount my Compaq Tru64 or VMS filesystems? No, not at this time. Valentino Vaschetto Contributed by Advanced Installation Guide This section describes how to install FreeBSD in exceptional cases. Installing FreeBSD on a System without a Monitor or Keyboard installation headless (serial console) serial console This type of installation is called a "headless install", because the machine that you are trying to install FreeBSD on either does not have a monitor attached to it, or does not even have a VGA output. How is this possible you ask? Using a serial console. A serial console is basically using another machine to act as the main display and keyboard for a system. To do this, just follow these steps: Fetch the Right Boot Floppy Images First you will need to get the right disk images so that you can boot into the install program. The secret with using a serial console is that you tell the boot loader to send I/O through a serial port instead of displaying console output to the VGA device and trying to read input from a local keyboard. Enough of that now, let's get back to getting these disk images. You will need to get kern.flp and mfsroot.flp from the floppies directory. Write the Image Files to the Floppy Disks. The image files, such as kern.flp, are not regular files that you copy to the disk. Instead, they are images of the complete contents of the disk. This means that you can not use commands like DOS' copy to write the files. Instead, you must use specific tools to write the images directly to the disk. fdimage If you are creating the floppies on a computer running DOS then we provide a tool to do this called fdimage. If you are using the floppies from the CDROM, and your CDROM is the E: drive then you would run this: E:\> tools\fdimage floppies\kern.flp A: Repeat this command for each .flp file, replacing the floppy disk each time. Adjust the command line as necessary, depending on where you have placed the .flp files. If you do not have the CDROM then fdimage can be downloaded from the tools directory on the FreeBSD FTP site. If you are writing the floppies on a Unix system (such as another FreeBSD system) you can use the &man.dd.1; command to write the image files directly to disk. On FreeBSD you would run: &prompt.root; dd if=kern.flp of=/dev/fd0 On FreeBSD /dev/fd0 refers to the first floppy disk (the A: drive). /dev/fd1 would be the B: drive, and so on. Other Unix variants might have different names for the floppy disk devices, and you will need to check the documentation for the system as necessary. Enabling the Boot Floppies to Boot into a Serial Console Do not try to mount the floppy if it is write-protected mount If you were to boot into the floppies that you just made, FreeBSD would boot into its normal install mode. We want FreeBSD to boot into a serial console for our install. To do this, you have to mount the kern.flp floppy onto your FreeBSD system using the &man.mount.8; command. &prompt.root; mount /dev/fd0 /mnt Now that you have the floppy mounted, you must change into the floppy directory &prompt.root; cd /mnt Here is where you must set the floppy to boot into a serial console. You have to make a file called boot.config containing "/boot/loader -h". All this does is pass a flag to the bootloader to boot into a serial console. &prompt.root; echo "/boot/loader -h" > boot.config Now that you have your floppy configured correctly, you must unmount the floppy using the &man.umount.8; command &prompt.root; cd / &prompt.root; umount /mnt Now you can remove the floppy from the floppy drive Connecting Your Null Modem Cable null-modem cable You now need to connect a null modem cable between the two machines. Just connect the cable to the serial ports of the 2 machines. A normal serial cable will not work here, you need a null modem cable because it has some of the wires inside crossed over. Booting Up for the Install It is now time to go ahead and start the install. Put the kern.flp floppy in the floppy drive of the machine you are doing the headless install on, and power on the machine. Connecting to Your Headless Machine cu Now you have to connect to that machine with &man.cu.1;: &prompt.root; cu -l /dev/cuaa0 That's it! You should be able to control the headless machine through your cu session now. It will ask you to put in the mfsroot.flp, and then it will come up with a selection of what kind of terminal to use. Just select the FreeBSD color console and proceed with your install! Preparing Your Own Installation Media To prevent repetition, FreeBSD disk in this context means a FreeBSD CDROM or DVD that you have purchased, or produced yourself. There may be some situations in which you need to create your own FreeBSD installation media and/or source. This might be physical media, such as a tape, or a source that Sysinstall can use to retrieve the files, such as a local FTP site, or an MS-DOS partition. For example; You have many machines connected to your local network, and one FreeBSD disk. You want to create a local FTP site using the contents of the FreeBSD disk, and then have your machines use this local FTP site instead of needing to connect to the Internet. You have a FreeBSD disk, FreeBSD does not recognize your CD/DVD drive, but DOS/Windows does. You want to copy the FreeBSD installations files to a DOS partition on the same computer, and then install FreeBSD using those files. The computer you want to install on does not have a CD/DVD drive, or a network card, but you can connect a Laplink-style serial or parallel cable to a computer that does. You want to create a tape that can be used to install FreeBSD. Creating a Local FTP Site with a FreeBSD Disk installation network FTP FreeBSD disks are laid out in the same way as the FTP site. This makes it very easy for you to create a local FTP site that can be used by other machines on your network when installing FreeBSD. On the FreeBSD computer that will host the FTP site, ensure that the CDROM is in the drive, and mounted on /cdrom. &prompt.root; mount /cdrom Create an account for anonymous FTP in /etc/passwd. Do this by editing /etc/passwd using &man.vipw.8; and adding this line. ftp:*:99:99::0:0:FTP:/cdrom:/nonexistent Ensure that the FTP service is enabled in /etc/inetd.conf. Anyone with network connectivity to your machine can now chose a media type of FTP and type in ftp://your machine after picking Other in the FTP sites menu during the install. This approach is OK for a machine that is on your local network, and that is protected by your firewall. Offering up FTP services to other machines over the Internet (and not your local network) exposes your computer to the attention of crackers and other undesirables. We strongly recommend that you follow good security practices if you do this. Creating Installation Floppies installation floppies If you must install from floppy disk (which we suggest you do not do), either due to unsupported hardware or simply because you insist on doing things the hard way, you must first prepare some floppies for the installation. At a minimum, you will need as many 1.44MB or 1.2MB floppies as it takes to hold all the files in the bin (binary distribution) directory. If you are preparing the floppies from DOS, then they MUST be formatted using the MS-DOS FORMAT command. If you are using Windows, use Explorer to format the disks (right-click on the A: drive, and select "Format". Do not trust factory pre-formatted floppies. Format them again yourself, just to be sure. Many problems reported by our users in the past have resulted from the use of improperly formatted media, which is why we are making a point of it now. If you are creating the floppies on another FreeBSD machine, a format is still not a bad idea, though you do not need to put a DOS filesystem on each floppy. You can use the disklabel and newfs commands to put a UFS filesystem on them instead, as the following sequence of commands (for a 3.5" 1.44MB floppy) illustrates: &prompt.root; fdformat -f 1440 fd0.1440 &prompt.root; disklabel -w -r fd0.1440 floppy3 &prompt.root; newfs -t 2 -u 18 -l 1 -i 65536 /dev/fd0 Use fd0.1200 and floppy5 for 5.25" 1.2MB disks. Then you can mount and write to them like any other filesystem. After you have formatted the floppies, you will need to copy the files to them. The distribution files are split into chunks conveniently sized so that 5 of them will fit on a conventional 1.44MB floppy. Go through all your floppies, packing as many files as will fit on each one, until you have all of the distributions you want packed up in this fashion. Each distribution should go into a subdirectory on the floppy, e.g.: a:\bin\bin.aa, a:\bin\bin.ab, and so on. Once you come to the Media screen during the install process, select Floppy and you will be prompted for the rest. Installing from an MS-DOS Partition installation from MS-DOS To prepare for an installation from an MS-DOS partition, copy the files from the distribution into a directory on that partition. For example, c:\freebsd. The directory structure of the CDROM or FTP site must be partially reproduced within this directory, so we suggest using the DOS xcopy command if you are copying it from a CD. For example, to prepare for a minimal installation of FreeBSD: C:\> md c:\freebsd C:\> xcopy e:\bin c:\freebsd\bin\ /s C:\> xcopy e:\manpages c:\freebsd\manpages\ /s Assuming that C: is where you have free space and E: is where your CDROM is mounted. If you do not have a CDROM drive, you can download the distribution from ftp.FreeBSD.org. Each distribution is in its own directory; for example, the bin distribution can be found in the &rel.current;/bin directory. For as many distributions you wish to install from an MS-DOS partition (and you have the free space for), install each one under c:\freebsd — the BIN distribution is the only one required for a minimum installation. Creating an Installation Tape installation from QIC/SCSI Tape Installing from tape is probably the easiest method, short of an online FTP install or CDROM install. The installation program expects the files to be simply tarred onto the tape. After getting all of the distribution files you are interested in, simply tar them onto the tape; &prompt.root; cd /freebsd/distdir &prompt.root; tar cvf /dev/rwt0 dist1 ... dist2 When you go to do the installation, you should also make sure that you leave enough room in some temporary directory (which you will be allowed to choose) to accommodate the full contents of the tape you have created. Due to the non-random access nature of tapes, this method of installation requires quite a bit of temporary storage. You should expect to require as much temporary storage as you have stuff written on tape. When starting the installation, the tape must be in the drive before booting from the boot floppy. The installation probe may otherwise fail to find it. Before Installing over a Network installation network serial (SLIP or PPP) installation network parallel (PLIP) installation network Ethernet There are three types of network installations you can do. Serial port (SLIP or PPP), Parallel port (PLIP (laplink cable)), or Ethernet (a standard Ethernet controller (includes some PCMCIA)). The SLIP support is rather primitive, and limited primarily to hard-wired links, such as a serial cable running between a laptop computer and another computer. The link should be hard-wired as the SLIP installation does not currently offer a dialing capability; that facility is provided with the PPP utility, which should be used in preference to SLIP whenever possible. If you are using a modem, then PPP is almost certainly your only choice. Make sure that you have your service provider's information handy as you will need to know it fairly early in the installation process. If you use PAP or CHAP to connect your ISP (in other words, if you can connect to the ISP in Windows without using a script), then all you will need to do is type in dial at the ppp prompt. Otherwise, you will need to know how to dial your ISP using the AT commands specific to your modem, as the PPP dialer provides only a very simple terminal emulator. Please refer to the user-ppp handbook and FAQ entries for further information. If you have problems, logging can be directed to the screen using the command set log local .... If a hard-wired connection to another FreeBSD (2.0-R or later) machine is available, you might also consider installing over a laplink parallel port cable. The data rate over the parallel port is much higher than what is typically possible over a serial line (up to 50kbytes/sec), thus resulting in a quicker installation. Finally, for the fastest possible network installation, an Ethernet adapter is always a good choice! FreeBSD supports most common PC Ethernet cards; a table of supported cards (and their required settings) is provided in the Hardware Notes for each release of FreeBSD. If you are using one of the supported PCMCIA Ethernet cards, also be sure that it is plugged in before the laptop is powered on! FreeBSD does not, unfortunately, currently support hot insertion of PCMCIA cards during installation. You will also need to know your IP address on the network, the netmask value for your address class, and the name of your machine. If you are installing over a PPP connection and do not have a static IP, fear not, the IP address can be dynamically assigned by your ISP. Your system administrator can tell you which values to use for your particular network setup. If you will be referring to other hosts by name rather than IP address, you will also need a name server and possibly the address of a gateway (if you are using PPP, it is your provider's IP address) to use in talking to it. If you want to install by FTP via a HTTP proxy (see below), you will also need the proxy's address. If you do not know the answers to all or most of these questions, then you should really probably talk to your system administrator or ISP before trying this type of installation. Before Installing via NFS installation network NFS The NFS installation is fairly straight-forward. Simply copy the FreeBSD distribution files you want onto a server somewhere and then point the NFS media selection at it. If this server supports only privileged port (as is generally the default for Sun workstations), you will need to set this option in the Options menu before installation can proceed. If you have a poor quality Ethernet card which suffers from very slow transfer rates, you may also wish to toggle the appropriate Options flag. In order for NFS installation to work, the server must support subdir mounts, e.g., if your FreeBSD 3.4 distribution directory lives on:ziggy:/usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD, then ziggy will have to allow the direct mounting of /usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD, not just /usr or /usr/archive/stuff. In FreeBSD's /etc/exports file, this is controlled by the . Other NFS servers may have different conventions. If you are getting permission denied messages from the server, then it is likely that you do not have this enabled properly. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.sgml index b8d9d637c5..d9d7141781 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1334 +1,1334 @@ Jim Mock Updated and restructured by Jake Hamby Originally contributed by Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel Synopsis kernel building a custom kernel The kernel is the core of the FreeBSD operating system. It is responsible for managing memory, enforcing security controls, networking, disk access, and much more. While more and more of FreeBSD becomes dynamically configurable it is still occasionally necessary to reconfigure and recompile your kernel. - After reading this chapter you will know: + After reading this chapter, you will know: Why you might need to build a custom kernel. How to write a kernel configuration file, or alter an existing configuration file. How to use the kernel configuration file to create and build a new kernel. How to install the new kernel. How to create any entries in /dev that may be required. How to troubleshoot if things go wrong. Why Build a Custom Kernel? Traditionally, FreeBSD has had what is called a monolithic kernel. This means that the kernel was one large program, supported a fixed list of devices, and if you wanted to change the kernel's behavior then you had to compile a new kernel, and then reboot your computer with the new kernel. Today, FreeBSD is rapidly moving to a model where much of the kernel's functionality is contained in modules which can be dynamically loaded and unloaded from the kernel as necessary. This allows the kernel to adapt to new hardware suddenly becoming available (such as PCMCIA cards in a laptop), or for new functionality to be brought in to the kernel that was not necessary when the kernel was originally compiled. Colloquially these are called KLDs. Despite this, it is still necessary to carry out some static kernel configuration. In some cases this is because the functionality is so tied to the kernel that it can not be made dynamically loadable. In others it may simply be because no one has yet taken the time to write a dynamic loadable kernel module for that functionality yet. Building a custom kernel is one of the most important rites of passage nearly every Unix user must endure. This process, while time consuming, will provide many benefits to your FreeBSD system. Unlike the GENERIC kernel, which must support a wide range of hardware, a custom kernel only contains support for your PC's hardware. This has a number of benefits, such as: Faster boot time. Since the kernel will only probe the hardware you have on your system, the time it takes your system to boot will decrease dramatically. Less memory use. A custom kernel often uses less memory than the GENERIC kernel, which is important because the kernel is one process that must always be present in memory. For this reason, a custom kernel is especially useful on a system with a small amount of RAM. Additional hardware support. A custom kernel allows you to add in support for devices such as sound cards, which are not present in the GENERIC kernel. Building and Installing a Custom Kernel kernel building / installing First, let us take a quick tour of the kernel build directory. All directories mentioned will be relative to the main /usr/src/sys directory, which is also accessible through /sys. There are a number of subdirectories here representing different parts of the kernel, but the most important, for our purposes, are arch/conf, where you will edit your custom kernel configuration, and compile, which is the staging area where your kernel will be built. arch represents either i386, alpha, or pc98 (an alternative development branch of PC hardware, popular in Japan). Everything inside a particular architecture's directory deals with that architecture only; the rest of the code is common to all platforms to which FreeBSD could potentially be ported. Notice the logical organization of the directory structure, with each supported device, filesystem, and option in its own subdirectory. If there is not a /usr/src/sys directory on your system, then the kernel source has not been installed. The easiest way to do this is by running /stand/sysinstall as root, choosing Configure, then Distributions, then src, then sys. Next, move to the arch/conf directory and copy the GENERIC configuration file to the name you want to give your kernel. For example: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/sys/i386/conf &prompt.root; cp GENERIC MYKERNEL Traditionally, this name is in all capital letters and, if you are maintaining multiple FreeBSD machines with different hardware, it is a good idea to name it after your machine's hostname. We will call it MYKERNEL for the purpose of this example. Storing your kernel config file directly under /usr/src can be a bad idea. If you are experiencing problems it can be tempting to just delete /usr/src and start again. Five seconds after you do that you realize that you have deleted your custom kernel config file. You might want to keep your kernel config file elsewhere, and then create a symbolic link to the file in the i386 directory. For example: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/sys/i386/conf &prompt.root; mkdir /root/kernels &prompt.root; cp GENERIC /root/kernels/MYKERNEL &prompt.root; ln -s /root/kernels/MYKERNEL You must execute these and all of the following commands under the root account or you will get permission denied errors. Now, edit MYKERNEL with your favorite text editor. If you are just starting out, the only editor available will probably be vi, which is too complex to explain here, but is covered well in many books in the bibliography. However, FreeBSD does offer an easier editor called ee which, if you are a beginner, should be your editor of choice. Feel free to change the comment lines at the top to reflect your configuration or the changes you have made to differentiate it from GENERIC. SunOS If you have built a kernel under SunOS or some other BSD operating system, much of this file will be very familiar to you. If you are coming from some other operating system such as DOS, on the other hand, the GENERIC configuration file might seem overwhelming to you, so follow the descriptions in the Configuration File section slowly and carefully. Be sure to always check the file /usr/src/UPDATING, before you perform any update steps, in the case you sync your source-tree with the latest sources of the FreeBSD project. In this file all important issues with updating FreeBSD are written down. /usr/src/UPDATING always fits to your version of the FreeBSD source, and is therefore more accurate for those information than the handbook. You must now compile the source code for the kernel. There are two procedures you can use to do this, and the one you will use depends on why you are rebuilding the kernel, and the version of FreeBSD you are running. If you have installed only the kernel source code, use procedure 1. If you are running a FreeBSD version prior to 4.0, and you are not upgrading to FreeBSD 4.0 or higher using the make world procedure, use procedure 1. If you are building a new kernel without updating the source code (perhaps just to add a new option, such as IPFIREWALL) you can use either procedure. If you are rebuilding the kernel as part of a make world process, use procedure 2. Procedure 1. Building a kernel the <quote>traditional</quote> way Run &man.config.8; to generate the kernel source code. &prompt.root; /usr/sbin/config MYKERNEL Change in to the build directory. &prompt.root; cd ../../compile/MYKERNEL Compile the kernel. &prompt.root; make depend &prompt.root; make Install the new kernel. &prompt.root; make install Procedure 2. Building a kernel the <quote>new</quote> way Change to the /usr/src directory &prompt.root; cd /usr/src Compile the kernel. &prompt.root; make buildkernel KERNCONF=MYKERNEL Install the new kernel. &prompt.root; make installkernel KERNCONF=MYKERNEL In FreeBSD 4.2 and older you must replace KERNCONF= with KERNEL=. 4.2-STABLE that was fetched after Feb 2nd, 2001 does recognize KERNCONF= cvsup anonymous CVS CTM CVS anonymous If you have not upgraded your source tree in any way (you have not run CVSup, CTM, or used anoncvs), then you should use the config, make depend, make, make install sequence. kernel.old The new kernel will be copied to the root directory as /kernel and the old kernel will be moved to /kernel.old. Now, shutdown the system and reboot to use your kernel. In case something goes wrong, there are some troubleshooting instructions at the end of this chapter. Be sure to read the section which explains how to recover in case your new kernel does not boot. If you have added any new devices (such as sound cards) you may have to add some device nodes to your /dev directory before you can use them. For more information, take a look at "Making Device Nodes" later on in this chapter. The Configuration File kernel LINT LINT kernel config file The general format of a configuration file is quite simple. Each line contains a keyword and one or more arguments. For simplicity, most lines only contain one argument. Anything following a # is considered a comment and ignored. The following sections describe each keyword, generally in the order they are listed in GENERIC, although some related keywords have been grouped together in a single section (such as Networking) even though they are actually scattered throughout the GENERIC file. An exhaustive list of options and more detailed explanations of the device lines is present in the LINT configuration file, located in the same directory as GENERIC. If you are in doubt as to the purpose or necessity of a line, check first in LINT. Quoting numbers In all versions of FreeBSD up to and including 3.X, &man.config.8; required that any strings in the configuration file that contained numbers used as text had to be enclosed in double quotes. This requirement was removed in the 4.X branch, which this book covers, so if you are on a pre-4.X system, see the /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT and /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC files on your system for examples. kernel example config file The following is an example GENERIC kernel configuration file with various additional comments where needed for clarity. This example should match your copy in /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC fairly closely. For details of all the possible kernel options, see /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT. # # GENERIC -- Generic kernel configuration file for FreeBSD/i386 # # For more information on this file, please read the handbook section on # Kernel Configuration Files: # # http://www.freebsd.org/handbook/kernelconfig-config.html # # The handbook is also available locally in /usr/share/doc/handbook # if you've installed the doc distribution, otherwise always see the # FreeBSD World Wide Web server (http://www.FreeBSD.ORG/) for the # latest information. # # An exhaustive list of options and more detailed explanations of the # device lines is also present in the ./LINT configuration file. If you are # in doubt as to the purpose or necessity of a line, check first in LINT. # # $FreeBSD: src/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC,v 1.246 2000/03/09 16:32:55 jlemon Exp $ The following are the mandatory keywords required in every kernel you build: kernel options machine machine i386 This is the machine architecture. It must be either i386, alpha, or pc98. kernel options cpu cpu I386_CPU cpu I486_CPU cpu I586_CPU cpu I686_CPU The above specifies the type of CPU you have in your system. You may have multiple instances of the CPU line (i.e., you are not sure whether you should use I586_CPU or I686_CPU), however, for a custom kernel, it is best to specify only the CPU you have. If you are unsure of your CPU type, you can use the dmesg command to view your boot up messages. kernel options cpu type The Alpha architecture has different values for cpu. They include: cpu EV4 cpu EV5 If you are using an Alpha machine, you should be using one of the above CPU types. kernel options ident ident GENERIC This is the identification of the kernel. You should change this to whatever you named your kernel, as in our previous example, MYKERNEL. The value you put in the ident string will print when you boot up the kernel, so it is useful to give the new kernel a different name if you want to keep it separate from your usual kernel (i.e., you want to build an experimental kernel). kernel options maxusers maxusers 32 The maxusers option sets the size of a number of important system tables. This number is supposed to be roughly equal to the number of simultaneous users you expect to have on your machine. However, under normal circumstances, you will want to set maxusers to at least 4, especially if you are using the X Window System or compiling software. The reason is that the most important table set by maxusers is the maximum number of processes, which is set to 20 + 16 * maxusers, so if you set maxusers to 1, then you can only have 36 simultaneous processes, including the 18 or so that the system starts up at boot time, and the 15 or so you will probably create when you start the X Window System. Even a simple task like reading a manual page will start up nine processes to filter, decompress, and view it. Setting maxusers to 64 will allow you to have up to 1044 simultaneous processes, which should be enough for nearly all uses. If, however, you see the dreaded proc table full error when trying to start another program, or are running a server with a large number of simultaneous users (like ftp.FreeBSD.org), you can always increase the number and rebuild. maxusers does not limit the number of users which can log into your machine. It simply sets various table sizes to reasonable values considering the maximum number of users you will likely have on your system and how many processes each of them will be running. One keyword which does limit the number of simultaneous remote logins is pseudo-device pty 16. # Floating point support - do not disable. device npx0 at nexus? port IO_NPX irq 13 npx0 is the interface to the floating point math unit in FreeBSD, which is either the hardware co-processor or the software math emulator. This is not optional. # Pseudo devices - the number indicates how many units to allocate. pseudo-device loop # Network loopback This is the generic loopback device for TCP/IP. If you telnet or FTP to localhost (a.k.a., 127.0.0.1) it will come back at you through this pseudo-device. This is mandatory. Everything that follows is more or less optional. See the notes underneath or next to each option for more information. #makeoptions DEBUG=-g #Build kernel with gdb(1) debug symbols options MATH_EMULATE #Support for x87 emulation This line allows the kernel to simulate a math co-processor if your computer does not have one (386 or 486SX). If you have a 486DX, or a 386 or 486SX (with a separate 387 or 487 chip), or higher (Pentium, Pentium II, etc.), you can comment this line out. The normal math co-processor emulation routines that come with FreeBSD are not very accurate. If you do not have a math co-processor, and you need the best accuracy, it is recommended that you change this option to GPL_MATH_EMULATE to use the GNU math support, which is not included by default for licensing reasons. options INET #InterNETworking Networking support. Leave this in, even if you do not plan to be connected to a network. Most programs require at least loopback networking (i.e., making network connections within your PC), so this is essentially mandatory. options INET6 #IPv6 communications protocols This enables the IPv6 communication protocols. options FFS #Berkeley Fast Filesystem options FFS_ROOT #FFS usable as root device [keep this!] This is the basic hard drive filesystem. Leave it in if you boot from the hard disk. options MFS #Memory Filesystem options MD_ROOT #MD is a potential root device This is the memory-mapped filesystem. This is basically a RAM disk for fast storage of temporary files, useful if you have a lot of swap space that you want to take advantage of. A perfect place to mount an MFS partition is on the /tmp directory, since many programs store temporary data here. To mount an MFS RAM disk on /tmp, add the following line to /etc/fstab: /dev/ad1s2b /tmp mfs rw 0 0 Now you simply need to either reboot, or run the command mount /tmp. kernel options NFS kernel options NFS_ROOT options NFS #Network Filesystem options NFS_ROOT #NFS usable as root device, NFS required The network filesystem. Unless you plan to mount partitions from a Unix file server over TCP/IP, you can comment these out. kernel options MSDOSFS options MSDOSFS #MSDOS Filesystem The MS-DOS filesystem. Unless you plan to mount a DOS formatted hard drive partition at boot time, you can safely comment this out. It will be automatically loaded the first time you mount a DOS partition, as described above. Also, the excellent mtools software (in the ports collection) allows you to access DOS floppies without having to mount and unmount them (and does not require MSDOSFS at all). options CD9660 #ISO 9660 Filesystem options CD9660_ROOT #CD-ROM usable as root, CD9660 required The ISO 9660 filesystem for CDROMs. Comment it out if you do not have a CDROM drive or only mount data CDs occasionally (since it will be dynamically loaded the first time you mount a data CD). Audio CDs do not need this filesystem. options PROCFS #Process filesystem The process filesystem. This is a pretend filesystem mounted on /proc which allows programs like &man.ps.1; to give you more information on what processes are running. options COMPAT_43 #Compatible with BSD 4.3 [KEEP THIS!] Compatibility with 4.3BSD. Leave this in; some programs will act strangely if you comment this out. options SCSI_DELAY=15000 #Delay (in ms) before probing SCSI This causes the kernel to pause for 15 seconds before probing each SCSI device in your system. If you only have IDE hard drives, you can ignore this, otherwise you will probably want to lower this number, perhaps to 5 seconds, to speed up booting. Of course, if you do this, and FreeBSD has trouble recognizing your SCSI devices, you will have to raise it back up. options UCONSOLE #Allow users to grab the console Allow users to grab the console, which is useful for X users. For example, you can create a console xterm by typing xterm -C, which will display any write, talk, and any other messages you receive, as well as any console messages sent by the kernel. options USERCONFIG #boot -c editor This option allows you to boot the configuration editor from the boot menu. options VISUAL_USERCONFIG #visual boot -c editor This option allows you to boot the visual configuration editor from the boot menu. options KTRACE #ktrace(1) support This enables kernel process tracing, which is useful in debugging. options SYSVSHM #SYSV-style shared memory This option provides for System V shared memory. The most common use of this is the XSHM extension in X, which many graphics-intensive programs will automatically take advantage of for extra speed. If you use X, you will definitely want to include this. options SYSVSEM #SYSV-style semaphores Support for System V semaphores. Less commonly used but only adds a few hundred bytes to the kernel. options SYSVMSG #SYSV-style message queues Support for System V messages. Again, only adds a few hundred bytes to the kernel. The &man.ipcs.1; command will list any processes using each of these System V facilities. options P1003_1B #Posix P1003_1B real-time extensions options _KPOSIX_PRIORITY_SCHEDULING Real-time extensions added in the 1993 POSIX. Certain applications in the ports collection use these (such as Star Office). kernel options ICMP_BANDLIM Denial of Service (DoS) options ICMP_BANDLIM #Rate limit bad replies This option enables ICMP error response bandwidth limiting. You typically want this option as it will help protect the machine from denial of service packet attacks. kernel options SMP # To make an SMP kernel, the next two are needed #options SMP # Symmetric MultiProcessor Kernel #options APIC_IO # Symmetric (APIC) I/O The above are both required for SMP support. device isa All PCs supported by FreeBSD have one of these. If you have an IBM PS/2 (Micro Channel Architecture), you cannot run FreeBSD at this time (support is being worked on). device eisa Include this if you have an EISA motherboard. This enables auto-detection and configuration support for all devices on the EISA bus. device pci Include this if you have a PCI motherboard. This enables auto-detection of PCI cards and gatewaying from the PCI to ISA bus. # Floppy drives device fdc0 at isa? port IO_FD1 irq 6 drq 2 device fd0 at fdc0 drive 0 device fd1 at fdc0 drive 1 This is the floppy drive controller. fd0 is the A: floppy drive, and fd1 is the B: drive. device ata This driver supports all ATA and ATAPI devices. You only need one device ata line for the kernel to detect all PCI ATA/ATAPI devices on modern machines. device atadisk # ATA disk drives This is needed along with device ata for ATAPI disk drives. device atapicd # ATAPI CDROM drives This is needed along with device ata for ATAPI CDROM drives. device atapifd # ATAPI floppy drives This is needed along with device ata for ATAPI floppy drives. device atapist # ATAPI tape drives This is needed along with device ata for ATAPI tape drives. options ATA_STATIC_ID #Static device numbering This makes the controller number static (like the old driver) or else the device numbers are dynamically allocated. # ATA and ATAPI devices device ata0 at isa? port IO_WD1 irq 14 device ata1 at isa? port IO_WD2 irq 15 Use the above for older, non-PCI systems. # SCSI Controllers device ahb # EISA AHA1742 family device ahc # AHA2940 and onboard AIC7xxx devices device amd # AMD 53C974 (Teckram DC-390(T)) device dpt # DPT Smartcache - See LINT for options! device isp # Qlogic family device ncr # NCR/Symbios Logic device sym # NCR/Symbios Logic (newer chipsets) device adv0 at isa? device adw device bt0 at isa? device aha0 at isa? device aic0 at isa? SCSI controllers. Comment out any you do not have in your system. If you have an IDE only system, you can remove these altogether. # SCSI peripherals device scbus # SCSI bus (required) device da # Direct Access (disks) device sa # Sequential Access (tape etc) device cd # CD device pass # Passthrough device (direct SCSI access) SCSI peripherals. Again, comment out any you do not have, or if you have only IDE hardware, you can remove them completely. # RAID controllers device ida # Compaq Smart RAID device amr # AMI MegaRAID device mlx # Mylex DAC960 family Supported RAID controllers. If you do not have any of these, you can comment them out or remove them. # atkbdc0 controls both the keyboard and the PS/2 mouse device atkbdc0 at isa? port IO_KBD The keyboard controller (atkbdc) provides I/O services for the AT keyboard and PS/2 style pointing devices. This controller is required by the keyboard driver (atkbd) and the PS/2 pointing device driver (psm). device atkbd0 at atkbdc? irq 1 The atkbd driver, together with atkbdc controller, provides access to the AT 84 keyboard or the AT enhanced keyboard which is connected to the AT keyboard controller. device psm0 at atkbdc? irq 12 Use this device if your mouse plugs into the PS/2 mouse port. device vga0 at isa? The video card driver. # splash screen/screen saver pseudo-device splash Splash screen at start up! Screen savers require this too. # syscons is the default console driver, resembling an SCO console device sc0 at isa? sc0 is the default console driver, which resembles a SCO console. Since most full-screen programs access the console through a terminal database library like termcap, it should not matter whether you use this or vt0, the VT220 compatible console driver. When you log in, set your TERM variable to scoansi if full-screen programs have trouble running under this console. # Enable this and PCVT_FREEBSD for pcvt vt220 compatible console driver #device vt0 at isa? #options XSERVER # support for X server on a vt console #options FAT_CURSOR # start with block cursor # If you have a ThinkPAD, uncomment this along with the rest of the PCVT lines #options PCVT_SCANSET=2 # IBM keyboards are non-std This is a VT220-compatible console driver, backward compatible to VT100/102. It works well on some laptops which have hardware incompatibilities with sc0. Also set your TERM variable to vt100 or vt220 when you log in. This driver might also prove useful when connecting to a large number of different machines over the network, where termcap or terminfo entries for the sc0 device are often not available — vt100 should be available on virtually any platform. # Power management support (see LINT for more options) device apm0 at nexus? disable flags 0x20 # Advanced Power Management Advanced Power Management support. Useful for laptops. # PCCARD (PCMCIA) support device card device pcic0 at isa? irq 10 port 0x3e0 iomem 0xd0000 device pcic1 at isa? irq 11 port 0x3e2 iomem 0xd4000 disable PCMCIA support. You want this if you are using a laptop. # Serial (COM) ports device sio0 at isa? port IO_COM1 flags 0x10 irq 4 device sio1 at isa? port IO_COM2 irq 3 device sio2 at isa? disable port IO_COM3 irq 5 device sio3 at isa? disable port IO_COM4 irq 9 These are the four serial ports referred to as COM1 through COM4 in the MS-DOS/Windows world. If you have an internal modem on COM4 and a serial port at COM2, you will have to change the IRQ of the modem to 2 (for obscure technical reasons, IRQ2 = IRQ 9) in order to access it from FreeBSD. If you have a multiport serial card, check the manual page for &man.sio.4; for more information on the proper values for these lines. Some video cards (notably those based on S3 chips) use IO addresses in the form of 0x*2e8, and since many cheap serial cards do not fully decode the 16-bit IO address space, they clash with these cards making the COM4 port practically unavailable. Each serial port is required to have a unique IRQ (unless you are using one of the multiport cards where shared interrupts are supported), so the default IRQs for COM3 and COM4 cannot be used. # Parallel port device ppc0 at isa? irq 7 This is the ISA-bus parallel port interface. device ppbus # Parallel port bus (required) Provides support for the parallel port bus. device lpt # Printer Support for parallel port printers. All three of the above are required to enable parallel printer support. device plip # TCP/IP over parallel This is the driver for the parallel network interface. device ppi # Parallel port interface device The general-purpose I/O (geek port) + IEEE1284 I/O. #device vpo # Requires scbus and da zip drive This is for an Iomega Zip drive. It requires scbus and da support. Best performance is achieved with ports in EPP 1.9 mode. # PCI Ethernet NICs. device de # DEC/Intel DC21x4x (Tulip) device fxp # Intel EtherExpress PRO/100B (82557, 82558) device tx # SMC 9432TX (83c170 EPIC) device vx # 3Com 3c590, 3c595 (Vortex) device wx # Intel Gigabit Ethernet Card (Wiseman) Various PCI network card drivers. Comment out or remove any of these not present in your system. # PCI Ethernet NICs that use the common MII bus controller code. device miibus # MII bus support MII bus support is required for some PCI 10/100 Ethernet NICs, namely those which use MII-compliant transceivers or implement transceiver control interfaces that operate like an MII. Adding device miibus to the kernel config pulls in support for the generic miibus API and all of the PHY drivers, including a generic one for PHYs that are not specifically handled by an individual driver device dc # DEC/Intel 21143 and various workalikes device rl # RealTek 8129/8139 device sf # Adaptec AIC-6915 (Starfire) device sis # Silicon Integrated Systems SiS 900/SiS 7016 device ste # Sundance ST201 (D-Link DFE-550TX) device tl # Texas Instruments ThunderLAN device vr # VIA Rhine, Rhine II device wb # Winbond W89C840F device xl # 3Com 3c90x (Boomerang, Cyclone) Drivers that use the MII bus controller code. # ISA Ethernet NICs. device ed0 at isa? port 0x280 irq 10 iomem 0xd8000 device ex device ep # WaveLAN/IEEE 802.11 wireless NICs. Note: the WaveLAN/IEEE really # exists only as a PCMCIA device, so there is no ISA attachment needed # and resources will always be dynamically assigned by the pccard code. device wi # Aironet 4500/4800 802.11 wireless NICs. Note: the declaration below will # work for PCMCIA and PCI cards, as well as ISA cards set to ISA PnP # mode (the factory default). If you set the switches on your ISA # card for a manually chosen I/O address and IRQ, you must specify # those parameters here. device an # The probe order of these is presently determined by i386/isa/isa_compat.c. device ie0 at isa? port 0x300 irq 10 iomem 0xd0000 device fe0 at isa? port 0x300 device le0 at isa? port 0x300 irq 5 iomem 0xd0000 device lnc0 at isa? port 0x280 irq 10 drq 0 device cs0 at isa? port 0x300 device sn0 at isa? port 0x300 irq 10 # requires PCCARD (PCMCIA) support to be activated #device xe0 at isa? ISA Ethernet drivers. See /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT for which cards are supported by which driver. pseudo-device ether # Ethernet support ether is only needed if you have an Ethernet card. It includes generic Ethernet protocol code. pseudo-device sl 1 # Kernel SLIP sl is for SLIP support. This has been almost entirely supplanted by PPP, which is easier to set up, better suited for modem-to-modem connection, and more powerful. The number after sl specifies how many simultaneous SLIP sessions to support. pseudo-device ppp 1 # Kernel PPP This is for kernel PPP support for dial-up connections. There is also a version of PPP implemented as a userland application that uses tun and offers more flexibility and features such as demand dialing. The number after ppp specifies how many simultaneous PPP connections to support. pseudo-device tun # Packet tunnel. This is used by the userland PPP software. A number after tun specifies the number of simultaneous PPP sessions to support. See the PPP section of this book for more information. pseudo-device pty # Pseudo-ttys (telnet etc) This is a pseudo-terminal or simulated login port. It is used by incoming telnet and rlogin sessions, xterm, and some other applications such as emacs. A number after pty indicates the number of ptys to create. If you need more than the default of 16 simultaneous xterm windows and/or remote logins, be sure to increase this number accordingly, up to a maximum of 256. pseudo-device md # Memory disks Memory disk pseudo-devices. pseudo-device gif 4 # IPv6 and IPv4 tunneling This implements IPv6 over IPv4 tunneling, IPv4 over IPv6 tunneling, IPv4 over IPv4 tunneling, and IPv6 over IPv6 tunneling. pseudo-device faith 1 # IPv6-to-IPv4 relaying (translation) This pseudo-device captures packets that are sent to it and diverts them to the IPv4/IPv6 translation daemon. # The `bpf' pseudo-device enables the Berkeley Packet Filter. # Be aware of the administrative consequences of enabling this! pseudo-device bpf # Berkeley packet filter This is the Berkeley Packet Filter. This pseudo-device allows network interfaces to be placed in promiscuous mode, capturing every packet on a broadcast network (e.g., an Ethernet). These packets can be captured to disk and or examined with the &man.tcpdump.1; program. The bpf pseudo-device is also used by &man.dhclient.8; to obtain the IP address of the default router (gateway) and so on. If you use DHCP, leave this uncommented. # USB support #device uhci # UHCI PCI->USB interface #device ohci # OHCI PCI->USB interface #device usb # USB Bus (required) #device ugen # Generic #device uhid # Human Interface Devices #device ukbd # Keyboard #device ulpt # Printer #device umass # Disks/Mass storage - Requires scbus and da #device ums # Mouse # USB Ethernet, requires mii #device aue # ADMtek USB ethernet #device cue # CATC USB ethernet #device kue # Kawasaki LSI USB ethernet Support for various USB devices. For more information and additional devices supported by FreeBSD, see /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT. Making Device Nodes device nodes MAKEDEV Almost every device in the kernel has a corresponding node entry in the /dev directory. These nodes look like regular files, but are actually special entries into the kernel which programs use to access the device. The shell script /dev/MAKEDEV, which is executed when you first install the operating system, creates nearly all of the device nodes supported. However, it does not create all of them, so when you add support for a new device, it pays to make sure that the appropriate entries are in this directory, and if not, add them. Here is a simple example: Suppose you add the IDE CD-ROM support to the kernel. The line to add is: device acd0 This means that you should look for some entries that start with acd0 in the /dev directory, possibly followed by a letter, such as c, or preceded by the letter r, which means a raw device. It turns out that those files are not there, so you must change to the /dev directory and type: MAKEDEV &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV acd0 When this script finishes, you will find that there are now acd0c and racd0c entries in /dev so you know that it executed correctly. For sound cards, the following command creates the appropriate entries: &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV snd0 When creating device nodes for devices such as sound cards, if other people have access to your machine, it may be desirable to protect the devices from outside access by adding them to the /etc/fbtab file. See &man.fbtab.5; for more information. Follow this simple procedure for any other non-GENERIC devices which do not have entries. All SCSI controllers use the same set of /dev entries, so you do not need to create these. Also, network cards and SLIP/PPP pseudo-devices do not have entries in /dev at all, so you do not have to worry about these either. If Something Goes Wrong There are four categories of trouble that can occur when building a custom kernel. They are: config fails: If the config command fails when you give it your kernel description, you have probably made a simple error somewhere. Fortunately, config will print the line number that it had trouble with, so you can quickly skip to it with vi. For example, if you see: config: line 17: syntax error You can skip to the problem in vi by typing 17G in command mode. Make sure the keyword is typed correctly, by comparing it to the GENERIC kernel or another reference. make fails: If the make command fails, it usually signals an error in your kernel description, but not severe enough for config to catch it. Again, look over your configuration, and if you still cannot resolve the problem, send mail to the &a.questions; with your kernel configuration, and it should be diagnosed very quickly. The kernel will not boot: If your new kernel does not boot, or fails to recognize your devices, do not panic! Fortunately, BSD has an excellent mechanism for recovering from incompatible kernels. Simply choose the kernel you want to boot from at the FreeBSD boot loader. You can access this when the system counts down from 10. Hit any key except for the enter key, and type boot kernel.old, or the filename of any other kernel that will boot properly. When reconfiguring a kernel, it is always a good idea to keep a kernel that is known to work on hand. After booting with a good kernel you can check over your configuration file and try to build it again. One helpful resource is the /var/log/messages file which records, among other things, all of the kernel messages from every successful boot. Also, the &man.dmesg.8; command will print the kernel messages from the current boot. If you are having trouble building a kernel, make sure to keep a GENERIC, or some other kernel that is known to work on hand as a different name that will not get erased on the next build. You cannot rely on kernel.old because when installing a new kernel, kernel.old is overwritten with the last installed kernel which may be non-functional. Also, as soon as possible, move the working kernel to the proper kernel location or commands such as &man.ps.1; will not work properly. The proper command to unlock the kernel file that make installs (in order to move another kernel back permanently) is: &prompt.root; chflags noschg /kernel If you find you cannot do this, you are probably running at a &man.securelevel.8; greater than zero. Edit kern_securelevel in /etc/rc.conf and set it to -1, then reboot. You can change it back to its previous setting when you are happy with your new kernel. And, if you want to lock your new kernel into place, or any file for that matter, so that it cannot be moved or tampered with: &prompt.root; chflags schg /kernel The kernel works, but ps does not work any more!: If you have installed a different version of the kernel from the one that the system utilities have been built with, for example, a 4.X kernel on a 3.X system, many system-status commands like &man.ps.1; and &man.vmstat.8; will not work any more. You must recompile the libkvm library as well as these utilities. This is one reason it is not normally a good idea to use a different version of the kernel from the rest of the operating system. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/l10n/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/l10n/chapter.sgml index ce1f5bc4f9..bae28dada6 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/l10n/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/l10n/chapter.sgml @@ -1,966 +1,966 @@ Andrey A. Chernov Contributed by Michael C. Wu Rewritten by Localization - I18N/L10N Usage and Setup Synopsis FreeBSD is a very distributed project with users and contributors located all over the world. This chapter discusses the internationalization and localization features of FreeBSD that allow non-English speaking users to get real work done. There are many aspects of the i18n implementation in both the system and application levels, so where applicable we refer the reader to more specific sources of documentation. - After reading this chapter you will know: + After reading this chapter, you will know: How different languages and locales are encoded on modern operating systems. How to set the locale for your login shell. How to configure your console for non-English languages. How to use X Windows effectively with different languages. Where to find more information about writing i18n-compliant applications. - Before reading this chapter you should: + Before reading this chapter, you should: Know how to install additional third-party applications (). The Basics What is I18N/L10N? internationalization localization Developers shortened internationalization into the term I18N, counting the number of letters between the first and the last letters of internationalization. L10N uses the same naming scheme, coming from "localization". Combined together, I18N/L10N methods, protocols, and applications allow users to use languages of their choice. I18N applications are programmed using I18N kits under libraries. It allows for developers to write a simple file and translate displayed menus and texts to each language. We strongly encourage programmers to follow this convention. Why Should I Use I18N/L10N? I18N/L10N is used whenever you wish to either view, input, or process data in non-English languages. What Languages Are Supported in the I18N Effort? I18N and L10N are not FreeBSD specific. Currently, one can choose from most of the major languages of the World, including but not limited to: Chinese, German, Japanese, Korean, French, Russian, Vietnamese and others. Using Localization In all its splendor, I18N is not FreeBSD-specific and is a convention. We encourage you to help FreeBSD in following this convention. locale Localization settings are based on three main terms: Language Code, Country Code, and Encoding. Locale names are constructed from these parts as follows: LanguageCode_CountryCode.Encoding Language and Country Codes language codes country codes In order to localize a FreeBSD system to a specific language (or any other I18N-supporting Unixes), the user needs to find out the codes for the specify country and language (country codes tell applications what variation of given language to use). In addition, web browsers, SMTP/POP servers, web servers, etc. make decisions based on them. The following are examples of language/country codes: Language/Country Code Description en_US English - United States ru_RU Russian for Russia zh_TW Traditional Chinese for Taiwan Encodings encodings ASCII Some languages use non-ASCII encodings that are 8-bit, wide or multibyte characters, see &man.multibyte.3; for more details. Older applications do not recognize them and mistake them for control characters. Newer applications usually do recognize 8-bit characters. Depending on the implementation, users may be required to compile an application with wide or multibyte characters support, or configure it correctly. To be able to input and process wide or multibyte characters, the FreeBSD Ports collection has provided each language with different programs. Refer to the I18N documentation in the respective FreeBSD Port. Specifically, the user needs to look at the application documentation to decide on how to configure it correctly or to pass correct values into the configure/Makefile/compiler. Some things to keep in mind are: Language specific single C chars character sets (see &man.multibyte.3;), i.e., ISO-8859-1, ISO-8859-15, KOI8-R, CP437. Wide or multibyte encodings, f.e. EUC, Big5. You can check the active list of character sets at the IANA Registry. FreeBSD versions 5.0 and up use X11-compatible locale encodings instead. I18N Applications In the FreeBSD Ports and Package system, I18N applications have been named with I18N in their names for easy identification. However, they do not always support the language needed. Setting Locale Theoretically, one only needs to export the value of his/her locale name as LANG in the login shell and is usually done through the user's ~/.login_conf or the user login shell configuration (~/.profile, ~/.bashrc, ~/.cshrc). This should set all of the locale subsets (such as LC_CTYPE, LC_CTIME, etc.). Please refer to language-specific FreeBSD documentation for more information. You should set the following two values in your configuration files: POSIX LANG for POSIX &man.setlocale.3; family functions MIME MM_CHARSET for applications' MIME character set This includes the user shell config, the specific application config, and the X11 config. Setting Locale Methods locale login class There are two methods for setting locale, and both are described below. The first (recommended one) is by assigning the environment variables in login class, and the second is by adding the environment variable assignments to the system's shell startup file. Login Classes Method This method allows environment variables needed for locale name and MIME character sets to be assigned once for every possible shell instead of adding specific shell assignments to each shell's startup file. User Level Setup can be done by an user himself and Administrator Level Setup require superuser privileges. User Level Setup Here is a minimal example of a .login_conf file in user's home directory which has both variables set for Latin-1 encoding: german:German User:\ :charset=ISO-8859-1:\ :lang=de_DE.ISO_8859-1: de_DE.ISO8859-1 for FreeBSD versions 5.0 and up. Traditional Chinese / BIG-5 encoding Here is an example of a .login_conf that sets the variables for Traditional Chinese in BIG-5 encoding. Notice the many more variables set because some software does not respect locale variables correctly for Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. #Users who do not wish to use monetary units or time formats #of Taiwan can manually change each variable taiwan:Taiwanese User:\ lang=zh_TW.Big5:\ lc_all=zh_TW.Big:\ lc_collate=zh_TW.Big5:\ lc_ctype=zh_TW.Big5:\ lc_messages=zh_TW.Big5:\ lc_monetary=zh_TW.Big5:\ lc_numeric=zh_TW.Big5:\ lc_time=zh_TW.Big5:\ charset=big5:\ xmodifiers="@im=xcin": #Setting the XIM Input Server See Administrator Level Setup and &man.login.conf.5; for more details. Administrator Level Setup Check that /etc/login.conf have the correct language user's class. Make sure these settings appear in /etc/login.conf: language_name:accounts_title:\ :charset=MIME_charset:\ :lang=locale_name:\ :tc=default: So sticking with our previous example using Latin-1, it would look like this: german:German Users Accounts:\ :charset=ISO-8859-1:\ :lang=de_DE.ISO_8859-1:\ :tc=default: de_DE.ISO8859-1 for FreeBSD versions 5.0 and up. Changing Login Classes with &man.vipw.8; vipw Use vipw to add new users, and make the entry look like this: user:password:1111:11:language:0:0:User Name:/home/user:/bin/sh Changing Login Classes with &man.adduser.8; adduser login class Use adduser to add new users, and do the following: Set defaultclass = language in /etc/adduser.conf. Keep in mind you must enter a default class for all users of other languages in this case. An alternative variant is answering the specified language each time that Enter login class: default []: appears from &man.adduser.8; Another alternative is to use the following for each user of a different language that you wish to add: &prompt.root; adduser -class language Changing Login Classes with &man.pw.8; pw If you use &man.pw.8; for adding new users, call it in this form: &prompt.root; pw useradd user_name -L language Shell Startup File Method This method is not recommended because it requires a different setup for each possible login program chosen. Use the Login Class Method instead. MIME locale To add the locale name and MIME character set, just set the two environment variables shown below in the /etc/profile and/or /etc/csh.login shell startup files. We will use the German language as an example below: In /etc/profile: LANG=de_DE.ISO_8859-1; export LANG MM_CHARSET=ISO-8859-1; export MM_CHARSET Or in /etc/csh.login: setenv LANG de_DE.ISO_8859-1 setenv MM_CHARSET ISO-8859-1 de_DE.ISO8859-1 for FreeBSD versions 5.0 and up. Alternatively, you can add the above instructions to /usr/share/skel/dot.profile (similar to what was used in /etc/profile above), or /usr/share/skel/dot.login (similar to what was used in /etc/csh.login above). For X11: In $HOME/.xinitrc: LANG=de_DE.ISO_8859-1; export LANG Or: setenv LANG de_DE.ISO_8859-1 Depending on your shell (see above). de_DE.ISO8859-1 for FreeBSD versions 5.0 and up. Console Setup For all single C chars character sets, set the correct console fonts in /etc/rc.conf for the language in question with: font8x16=font_name font8x14=font_name font8x8=font_name The font_name here is taken from the /usr/share/syscons/fonts directory, without the .fnt suffix. sysinstall keymap screenmap Also be sure to set the correct keymap and screenmap for your single C chars character set through /stand/sysinstall. Once inside sysinstall, choose Configure, then Console. Alternatively, you can add the following to /etc/rc.conf: scrnmap=screenmap_name keymap=keymap_name keychange="fkey_number sequence" The screenmap_name here is taken from the /usr/share/syscons/scrnmaps directory, without the .scm suffix. A screenmap with a corresponding mapped font is usually needed as a workaround for expanding bit 8 to bit 9 on a VGA adapter's font character matrix in pseudographics area, i.e., to move letters out of that area if screen font uses a bit 8 column. If you have the moused daemon enabled by setting the following in your /etc/rc.conf: moused_enable="YES" then examine the mouse cursor information in the next paragraph. moused By default the mouse cursor of the syscons driver occupies the 0xd0-0xd3 range in the character set. If your language uses this range, you need to move the cursor's range outside of it. To enable the workaround for FreeBSD versions before 5.0, insert the following line into your kernel config: options SC_MOUSE_CHAR=0x03 For the FreeBSD versions 5.0 and up insert the following line into /etc/rc.conf: mousechar_start=3 The keymap_name here is taken from the /usr/share/syscons/keymaps directory, without the .kbd suffix. The keychange is usually needed to program function keys to match the selected terminal type because function key sequences cannot be defined in the key map. Also be sure to set the correct console terminal type in /etc/ttys for all ttyv* entries. Current pre-defined correspondences are: Character Set Terminal Type ISO-8859-1 or ISO-8859-15 cons25l1 ISO-8859-2 cons25l2 KOI8-R cons25r KOI8-U cons25u CP437 (hardware default) or US-ASCII cons25 For wide or multibyte characters languages, use the correct FreeBSD port in your /usr/ports/language directory. Some ports appear as console while the system sees it as serial vtty's, hence you must reserve enough vtty's for both X11 and the pseudo-serial console. Here is a partial list of applications for using other languages in console: Language Location Traditional Chinese (BIG-5) chinese/big5con Japanese japanese/ja-kon2-* or japanese/Mule_Wnn Korean korean/ko-han X11 Setup Although X11 is not part of the FreeBSD Project, we have included some information here for FreeBSD users. For more details, refer to the XFree86 web site or whichever X11 Server you use. In ~/.Xresources, you can additionally tune application specific I18N settings (e.g., fonts, menus, etc.). Displaying Fonts X11 True Type font server Install the X11 True Type-Common server (XTT-common) and install the language truetype fonts. Setting the correct locale should allow you to view your selected language in menus and such. Inputting Non-English Characters X11 Input Method (XIM) The X11 Input Method (XIM) Protocol is a new standard for all X11 clients. All X11 applications should be written as XIM clients that take input from XIM Input servers. There are several XIM servers available for different languages. Printer Setup Some single C chars character sets are usually hardware coded into printers. Wide or multibyte character sets require special setup and we recommend using apsfilter. You may also convert the document to PostScript or PDF formats using language specific converters. Kernel and File Systems The FreeBSD FFS filesystem is 8-bit clean, so it can be used with any single C chars character set (see &man.multibyte.3;), but there is no character set name stored in the filesystem; i.e., it is raw 8-bit and does not know anything about encoding order. Officially, FFS does not support any form of wide or multibyte character sets yet. However, some wide or multibyte character sets have independent patches for FFS enabling such support. They are only temporary unportable solutions or hacks and we have decided to not include them in the source tree. Refer to respective languages' web sites for more informations and the patch files. DOS Unicode The FreeBSD MS-DOS filesystem has the configurable ability to convert between MS-DOS, Unicode character sets and chosen FreeBSD filesystem character sets. See &man.mount.msdos.8; for details. Compiling I18N Programs Many FreeBSD Ports have been ported with I18N support. Some of them are marked with -I18N in the port name. These and many other programs have built in support for I18N and need no special consideration. MySQL However, some applications such as MySQL need to be have the Makefile configured with the specific charset. This is usually done in the Makefile or done by passing a value to configure in the source. Localizing FreeBSD to Specific Languages Andrey A. Chernov Originally contributed by Russian Language (KOI8-R encoding) Russian localization For more information about KOI8-R encoding, see the KOI8-R References (Russian Net Character Set). Locale Setup Put the following lines into your ~/.login_conf file: me:My Account:\ :charset=KOI8-R:\ :lang=ru_RU.KOI8-R: See earlier in this chapter for examples of setting up the locale. Console Setup For the FreeBSD versions before 5.0 add the following line to your kernel configuration file: options SC_MOUSE_CHAR=0x03 For the FreeBSD versions 5.0 and up insert the following line into /etc/rc.conf: mousechar_start=3 Use following settings in /etc/rc.conf: keymap="ru.koi8-r" scrnmap="koi8-r2cp866" font8x16="cp866b-8x16" font8x14="cp866-8x14" font8x8="cp866-8x8" For each ttyv* entry in /etc/ttys, use cons25r as the terminal type. See earlier in this chapter for examples of setting up the console. Printer Setup printers Since most printers with Russian characters come with hardware code page CP866, a special output filter is needed for KOI8-R -> CP866 conversion. Such a filter is installed by default as /usr/libexec/lpr/ru/koi2alt. A Russian printer /etc/printcap entry should look like: lp|Russian local line printer:\ :sh:of=/usr/libexec/lpr/ru/koi2alt:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/output/lpd:lf=/var/log/lpd-errs: See &man.printcap.5; for a detailed description. MS-DOS FS and Russian Filenames The following example &man.fstab.5; entry enables support for Russian filenames in mounted MS-DOS filesystems: /dev/ad0s2 /dos/c msdos rw,-Wkoi2dos,-Lru_RU.KOI8-R 0 0 See &man.mount.msdos.8; for a detailed description of the and options. X11 Setup Do non-X locale setup first as described. The Russian KOI8-R locale may not work with old XFree86 releases (lower than 3.3). The XFree86 port from x11/XFree86 already is the most recent XFree86 version, so it will work if you install XFree86 from the port. This should not be an issue unless you are using an old version of FreeBSD. Go to the russian/X.language directory and issue the following command: &prompt.root; make install The above port installs the latest version of the KOI8-R fonts. XFree86 3.3 already has some KOI8-R fonts, but these are scaled better. Check the "Files" section in your /etc/XF86Config file. The following lines must be added before any other FontPath entries: FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/misc" FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/75dpi" FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/100dpi" If you use a high resolution video mode, swap the 75 dpi and 100 dpi lines. To activate a Russian keyboard, add the following to the "Keyboard" section of your XF86Config file. For XFree86 v3.*: XkbLayout "ru" XkbOptions "grp:caps_toggle" For XFree86 v4.*: Option "XkbLayout" "ru" Option "XkbOptions" "grp:caps_toggle" Also make sure that XkbDisable is turned off (commented out) there. The RUS/LAT switch will be CapsLock. The old CapsLock function is still available via Shift+CapsLock (in LAT mode only). If you have Windows keys on your keyboard, and notice that some non-alphabetical keys are mapped incorrectly in RUS mode, add the following line in your XF86Config file. For XFree86 v3.*: XkbVariant "winkeys" For XFree86 v4.*: Option "XkbVariant" "winkeys" The Russian XKB keyboard may not work with old XFree86 versions, see the above note for more information. The Russian XKB keyboard may also not work with non-localized applications as well. Minimally localized applications should call a XtSetLanguageProc (NULL, NULL, NULL); function early in the program. See KOI8-R for X-Window for more instructions on localizing X11 applications. Traditional Chinese Localization for Taiwan Traditional Chinese localization The FreeBSD-Taiwan Project has an I18N/L10N tutorial for FreeBSD at http://freebsd.sinica.edu.tw/~ncvs/zh-l10n-tut/index.html using many chinese/* applications. The editor for the zh-L10N-tut is Clive Lin Clive@CirX.org. You can also cvsup the following collections at freebsd.sinica.edu.tw: Collection Description outta-port tag=. Beta-quality ports collection for Chinese zh-L10N-tut tag=. Localizing FreeBSD Tutorial in BIG-5 Traditional Chinese zh-doc tag=. FreeBSD Documentation Translation to BIG-5 Traditional Chinese Chuan-Hsing Shen s874070@mail.yzu.edu.tw has created the Chinese FreeBSD Collection (CFC) using FreeBSD-Taiwan's zh-L10N-tut. The packages and the script files are available at ftp://ftp.csie.ncu.edu.tw/OS/FreeBSD/taiwan/CFC/. German Language Localization (For All ISO 8859-1 Languages) German localization Slaven Rezic eserte@cs.tu-berlin.de wrote a tutorial how to use umlauts on a FreeBSD machine. The tutorial is written in German and available at http://www.de.FreeBSD.org/de/umlaute/. Japanese and Korean Language Localization Japanese localization Korean localization For Japanese, refer to http://www.jp.FreeBSD.org/, and for Korean, refer to http://www.kr.FreeBSD.org/. Non-English FreeBSD Documentation Some FreeBSD contributors have translated parts of FreeBSD to other languages. They are available through links on the main site or in /usr/share/doc. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/linuxemu/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/linuxemu/chapter.sgml index 610a1de055..6eb6cd08d1 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/linuxemu/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/linuxemu/chapter.sgml @@ -1,2599 +1,2599 @@ Jim Mock Restructured and parts updated by Brian N. Handy Originally contributed by Rich Murphey Linux Binary Compatibility Synopsis Linux binary compatibility binary compatibility Linux FreeBSD provides binary compatibility with several other Unix-like operating systems, including Linux. At this point, you may be asking yourself why exactly, does FreeBSD need to be able to run Linux binaries? The answer to that question is quite simple. Many companies and developers develop only for Linux, since it is the latest hot thing in the computing world. That leaves the rest of us FreeBSD users bugging these same companies and developers to put out native FreeBSD versions of their applications. The problem is, that most of these companies do not really realize how many people would use their product if there were FreeBSD versions too, and most continue to only develop for Linux. So what is a FreeBSD user to do? This is where the Linux binary compatibility of FreeBSD comes into play. In a nutshell, the compatibility allows FreeBSD users to run about 90% of all Linux applications without modification. This includes applications such as Star Office, the Linux version of Netscape, Adobe Acrobat, RealPlayer 5 and 7, VMWare, Oracle, WordPerfect, Doom, Quake, and more. It is also reported that in some situations, Linux binaries perform better on FreeBSD than they do under Linux. Linux /proc filesystem There are, however, some Linux-specific operating system features that are not supported under FreeBSD. Linux binaries will not work on FreeBSD if they overly use the Linux /proc filesystem (which is different from FreeBSD's /proc filesystem), or i386-specific calls, such as enabling virtual 8086 mode. - After reading this chapter you will know: + After reading this chapter, you will know: How to enable Linux binary compatibility on your system. How to install additional Linux shared libraries. How to install Linux applications on your FreeBSD system. The implementation details of Linux compatibility in FreeBSD. - Before reading this chapter you should: + Before reading this chapter, you should: Know how to install additional third-party software (). Installation KLD (kernel loadable object) Linux binary compatibility is not turned on by default. The easiest way to enable this functionality is to load the linux KLD object (Kernel LoaDable object). You can load this module by simply typing linux at the command prompt. If you would like Linux compatibility to always be enabled, then you should add the following line to /etc/rc.conf: linux_enable=YES This, in turn, triggers the following action in /etc/rc.i386: # Start the Linux binary compatibility if requested. # case ${linux_enable} in [Yy][Ee][Ss]) echo -n ' linux'; linux > /dev/null 2>&1 ;; esac The &man.kldstat.8; command can be used to verify that the KLD is loaded: &prompt.user; kldstat Id Refs Address Size Name 1 2 0xc0100000 16bdb8 kernel 7 1 0xc24db000 d000 linux.ko kernel options LINUX If for some reason you do not want to or cannot load the KLD, then you may statically link Linux binary compatibility into the kernel by adding options LINUX to your kernel configuration file. Then install your new kernel as described in . Installing Linux Runtime Libraries Linux installing Linux libraries This can be done one of two ways, either by using the linux_base port, or by installing them manually. Installing Using the linux_base Port ports collection This is by far the easiest method to use when installing the runtime libraries. It is just like installing any other port from the ports collection. Simply do the following: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/emulators/linux_base &prompt.root; make install distclean You should now have working Linux binary compatibility. Some programs may complain about incorrect minor versions of the system libraries. In general, however, this does not seem to be a problem. Installing Libraries Manually If you do not have the ports collection installed, you can install the libraries by hand instead. You will need the Linux shared libraries that the program depends on and the runtime linker. Also, you will need to create a shadow root directory, /compat/linux, for Linux libraries on your FreeBSD system. Any shared libraries opened by Linux programs run under FreeBSD will look in this tree first. So, if a Linux program loads, for example, /lib/libc.so, FreeBSD will first try to open /compat/linux/lib/libc.so, and if that does not exist, it will then try /lib/libc.so. Shared libraries should be installed in the shadow tree /compat/linux/lib rather than the paths that the Linux ld.so reports. Generally, you will need to look for the shared libraries that Linux binaries depend on only the first few times that you install a Linux program on your FreeBSD system. After a while, you will have a sufficient set of Linux shared libraries on your system to be able to run newly imported Linux binaries without any extra work. How to Install Additional Shared Libraries shared libraries What if you install the linux_base port and your application still complains about missing shared libraries? How do you know which shared libraries Linux binaries need, and where to get them? Basically, there are 2 possibilities (when following these instructions you will need to be root on your FreeBSD system). If you have access to a Linux system, see what shared libraries the application needs, and copy them to your FreeBSD system. Look at the following example: Let us assume you used FTP to get the Linux binary of Doom, and put it on a Linux system you have access to. You then can check which shared libraries it needs by running ldd linuxdoom, like so: &prompt.user; ldd linuxdoom libXt.so.3 (DLL Jump 3.1) => /usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3.1.0 libX11.so.3 (DLL Jump 3.1) => /usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3.1.0 libc.so.4 (DLL Jump 4.5pl26) => /lib/libc.so.4.6.29 symbolic links You would need to get all the files from the last column, and put them under /compat/linux, with the names in the first column as symbolic links pointing to them. This means you eventually have these files on your FreeBSD system: /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3.1.0 /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3 -> libXt.so.3.1.0 /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3.1.0 /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3 -> libX11.so.3.1.0 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.29 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.29
Note that if you already have a Linux shared library with a matching major revision number to the first column of the ldd output, you will not need to copy the file named in the last column to your system, the one you already have should work. It is advisable to copy the shared library anyway if it is a newer version, though. You can remove the old one, as long as you make the symbolic link point to the new one. So, if you have these libraries on your system: /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.27 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.27 and you find a new binary that claims to require a later version according to the output of ldd: libc.so.4 (DLL Jump 4.5pl26) -> libc.so.4.6.29 If it is only one or two versions out of date in the in the trailing digit then do not worry about copying /lib/libc.so.4.6.29 too, because the program should work fine with the slightly older version. However, if you like, you can decide to replace the libc.so anyway, and that should leave you with: /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.29 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.29
The symbolic link mechanism is only needed for Linux binaries. The FreeBSD runtime linker takes care of looking for matching major revision numbers itself and you do not need to worry about it.
Installing Linux ELF Binaries Linux ELF binaries ELF binaries sometimes require an extra step of branding. If you attempt to run an unbranded ELF binary, you will get an error message like the following; &prompt.user; ./my-linux-elf-binary ELF binary type not known Abort To help the FreeBSD kernel distinguish between a FreeBSD ELF binary from a Linux binary, use the &man.brandelf.1; utility. &prompt.user; brandelf -t Linux my-linux-elf-binary GNU toolchain The GNU toolchain now places the appropriate branding information into ELF binaries automatically, so you this step should become increasingly more rare in the future. Configuring the Hostname Resolver If DNS does not work or you get this message: resolv+: "bind" is an invalid keyword resolv+: "hosts" is an invalid keyword You will need to configure a /compat/linux/etc/host.conf file containing: order hosts, bind multi on The order here specifies that /etc/hosts is searched first and DNS is searched second. When /compat/linux/etc/host.conf is not installed, Linux applications find FreeBSD's /etc/host.conf and complain about the incompatible FreeBSD syntax. You should remove bind if you have not configured a name server using the /etc/resolv.conf file. Installing Mathematica Updated for Mathematica version 4.X by &a.murray and merged with work by Bojan Bistrovic bojanb@physics.odu.edu. applications Mathematica This document describes the process of installing the Linux version of Mathematica 4.X onto a FreeBSD system. The Linux version of Mathematica runs perfectly under FreeBSD however the binaries shipped by Wolfram need to be branded so that FreeBSD knows to use the Linux ABI to execute them. The Linux version of Mathematica or Mathematica for Students can be ordered directly from Wolfram at http://www.wolfram.com/. Branding the Linux Binaries The Linux binaries are located in the Unix directory of the Mathematica CDROM distributed by Wolfram. You need to copy this directory tree to your local hard drive so that you can brand the Linux binaries with &man.brandelf.1; before running the installer: &prompt.root; mount /cdrom &prompt.root; cp -rp /cdrom/Unix/ /localdir/ &prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Kernel/Binaries/Linux/* &prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/FrontEnd/Binaries/Linux/* &prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Installation/Binaries/Linux/* &prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Graphics/Binaries/Linux/* &prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Converters/Binaries/Linux/* &prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/LicenseManager/Binaries/Linux/mathlm &prompt.root; cd /localdir/Installers/Linux/ &prompt.root; ./MathInstaller Alternatively, you can simply set the default ELF brand to Linux for all unbranded binaries with the command: &prompt.root; sysctl -w kern.fallback_elf_brand=3 This will make FreeBSD assume that unbranded ELF binaries use the Linux ABI and so you should be able to run the installer straight from the CDROM. Obtaining Your Mathematica Password Before you can run Mathematica you will have to obtain a password from Wolfram that corresponds to your machine ID. Ethernet MAC address Once you have installed the Linux compatibility runtime libraries and unpacked Mathematica you can obtain the machine ID by running the program mathinfo in the Install directory. This machine ID is based solely on the MAC address of your first Ethernet card. &prompt.root; cd /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Installation/Binaries/Linux &prompt.root; mathinfo disco.example.com 7115-70839-20412 When you register with Wolfram, either by email, phone or fax, you will give them the machine ID and they will respond with a corresponding password consisting of groups of numbers. You can then enter this information when you attempt to run Mathematica for the first time exactly as you would for any other Mathematica platform. Running the Mathematica Frontend over a Network Mathematica uses some special fonts to display characters not present in any of the standard font sets (integrals, sums, Greek letters, etc.). The X protocol requires these fonts to be install locally. This means you will have to copy these fonts from the CDROM or from a host with Mathematica installed to your local machine. These fonts are normally stored in /cdrom/Unix/Files/SystemFiles/Fonts on the CDROM, or /usr/local/mathematica/SystemFiles/Fonts on your hard drive. The actual fonts are in the subdirectories Type1 and X. There are several ways to use them, as described below. The first way is to copy them into one of the existing font directories in /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts. This will require editing the fonts.dir file, adding the font names to it, and changing the number of fonts on the first line. Alternatively, you should also just be able to run mkfontdir in the directory you have copied them to. The second way to do this is to copy the directories to /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts: &prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts &prompt.root; mkdir X &prompt.root; mkdir MathType1 &prompt.root; cd /cdrom/Unix/Files/SystemFiles/Fonts &prompt.root; cp X/* /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/X &prompt.root; cp Type1/* /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/MathType1 &prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/X &prompt.root; mkfontdir &prompt.root; cd ../MathType1 &prompt.root; mkfontdir Now add the new font directories to your font path: &prompt.root; xset fp+ /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/X &prompt.root; xset fp+ /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/MathType1 &prompt.root; xset fp rehash If you are using the XFree86 server, you can have these font directories loaded automatically by adding them to your XF86Config file. fonts If you do not already have a directory called /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/Type1, you can change the name of the MathType1 directory in the example above to Type1. Aaron Kaplan Contributed by Robert Getschmann Thanks to Installing Maple applications Maple Maple is a commercial mathematics program similar to Mathematica. You must purchase this software from and then register there for a license file. To install this software on FreeBSD, please follow these simple steps. Execute the INSTALL shell script from the product distribution. Choose the RedHat option when prompted by the installation program. A typical installation directory might be /usr/local/maple If you have not done so, order a license for Maple from Maple Waterloo Software (http://register.maplesoft.com) and copy it to /usr/local/maple/license/license.dat Install the FLEXlm license manager by running the INSTALL_LIC install shell script that comes with Maple. Specify the primary hostname for your machine for the license server. Patch the usr/local/maple/bin/maple.system.type file with the following : ----- snip ------------------ *** maple.system.type.orig Sun Jul 8 16:35:33 2001 --- maple.system.type Sun Jul 8 16:35:51 2001 *************** *** 72,77 **** --- 72,78 ---- # the IBM RS/6000 AIX case MAPLE_BIN="bin.IBM_RISC_UNIX" ;; + "FreeBSD"|\ "Linux") # the Linux/x86 case # We have two Linux implementations, one for Red Hat and ----- snip end of patch ----- Please note that after the "FreeBSD"|\ no other whitespace should be present. This patch instructs Maple to recognize FreeBSD as a type of Linux system. The bin/maple shell script calls the bin/maple.system.type shell script which in turn calls uname -a to find out the operating system name. Depending on the OS name it will find out which binaries to use. Start the license server. The following script, installed as /usr/local/etc/rc.d/lmgrd.sh is a convenient way to start up lmgrd: ----- snip ------------ #! /bin/sh PATH=/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin:/sbin:/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin PATH=${PATH}:/usr/local/maple/bin:/usr/local/maple/FLEXlm/UNIX/LINUX export PATH LICENSE_FILE=/usr/local/maple/license/license.dat LOG=/var/log/lmgrd.log case "$1" in start) lmgrd -c ${LICENSE_FILE} 2>> ${LOG} 1>&2 echo -n " lmgrd" ;; stop) lmgrd -c ${LICENSE_FILE} -x lmdown 2>> ${LOG} 1>&2 ;; *) echo "Usage: `basename $0` {start|stop}" 1>&2 exit 64 ;; esac exit 0 ----- snip ------------ Test-start maple: &prompt.user; cd /usr/local/maple/bin &prompt.user ./xmaple You should be up and running. Make sure to write Maplesoft to let them know you would like a native FreeBSD version! Common Pitfalls The FLEXlm license manager can be a difficult tool to work with. Additional documentation on the subject can be found at . lmgrd is known to be very picky about the license file and to core dump if there are any problems. A correct license file should look like this : # ======================================================= # License File for UNIX Installations ("Pointer File") # ======================================================= SERVER chillig ANY #USE_SERVER VENDOR maplelmg FEATURE Maple maplelmg 2000.0831 permanent 1 XXXXXXXXXXXX \ PLATFORMS=i86_r ISSUER="Waterloo Maple Inc." \ ISSUED=11-may-2000 NOTICE=" Technische Universitat Wien" \ SN=XXXXXXXXX Serial number and key 'X''ed out. "chillig" is a hostname. Editing the license file works as long as you don't touch the "FEATURE" line (which is protected by the license key). Marcel Moolenaar Contributed by Installing Oracle applications Oracle Preface This document describes the process of installing Oracle 8.0.5 and Oracle 8.0.5.1 Enterprise Edition for Linux onto a FreeBSD machine Installing the Linux Environment Make sure you have both linux_base and linux_devtools from the ports collection installed. These ports are added to the collection after the release of FreeBSD 3.2. If you are using FreeBSD 3.2 or an older version for that matter, update your ports collection. You may want to consider updating your FreeBSD version too. If you run into difficulties with linux_base-6.1 or linux_devtools-6.1 you may have to use version 5.2 of these packages. If you want to run the intelligent agent, you will also need to install the Red Hat Tcl package: tcl-8.0.3-20.i386.rpm. The general command for installing packages with the official RPM port is : &prompt.root; rpm -i --ignoreos --root /compat/linux --dbpath /var/lib/rpm package Installation of the package should not generate any errors. Creating the Oracle Environment Before you can install Oracle, you need to set up a proper environment. This document only describes what to do specially to run Oracle for Linux on FreeBSD, not what has been described in the Oracle installation guide. Kernel Tuning kernel tuning As described in the Oracle installation guide, you need to set the maximum size of shared memory. Do not use SHMMAX under FreeBSD. SHMMAX is merely calculated out of SHMMAXPGS and PGSIZE. Therefore define SHMMAXPGS. All other options can be used as described in the guide. For example: options SHMMAXPGS=10000 options SHMMNI=100 options SHMSEG=10 options SEMMNS=200 options SEMMNI=70 options SEMMSL=61 Set these options to suit your intended use of Oracle. Also, make sure you have the following options in your kernel config-file: options SYSVSHM #SysV shared memory options SYSVSEM #SysV semaphores options SYSVMSG #SysV interprocess communication Oracle Account Create an Oracle account just as you would create any other account. The Oracle account is special only that you need to give it a Linux shell. Add /compat/linux/bin/bash to /etc/shells and set the shell for the Oracle account to /compat/linux/bin/bash. Environment Besides the normal Oracle variables, such as ORACLE_HOME and ORACLE_SID you must set the following environment variables: Variable Value LD_LIBRARY_PATH $ORACLE_HOME/lib CLASSPATH $ORACLE_HOME/jdbc/lib/classes111.zip PATH /compat/linux/bin /compat/linux/sbin /compat/linux/usr/bin /compat/linux/usr/sbin /bin /sbin /usr/bin /usr/sbin /usr/local/bin $ORACLE_HOME/bin It is advised to set all the environment variables in .profile. A complete example is: ORACLE_BASE=/oracle; export ORACLE_BASE ORACLE_HOME=/oracle; export ORACLE_HOME LD_LIBRARY_PATH=$ORACLE_HOME/lib export LD_LIBRARY_PATH ORACLE_SID=ORCL; export ORACLE_SID ORACLE_TERM=386x; export ORACLE_TERM CLASSPATH=$ORACLE_HOME/jdbc/lib/classes111.zip export CLASSPATH PATH=/compat/linux/bin:/compat/linux/sbin:/compat/linux/usr/bin:/compat/linux/usr/sbin:/bin:/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/local/bin:$ORACLE_HOME/bin export PATH Installing Oracle Due to a slight inconsistency in the Linux emulator, you need to create a directory named .oracle in /var/tmp before you start the installer. Either make it world writable or let it be owner by the oracle user. You should be able to install Oracle without any problems. If you have problems, check your Oracle distribution and/or configuration first! After you have installed Oracle, apply the patches described in the next two subsections. A frequent problem is that the TCP protocol adapter is not installed right. As a consequence, you cannot start any TCP listeners. The following actions help solve this problem: &prompt.root; cd $ORACLE_HOME/network/lib &prompt.root; make -f ins_network.mk ntcontab.o &prompt.root; cd $ORACLE_HOME/lib &prompt.root; ar r libnetwork.a ntcontab.o &prompt.root; cd $ORACLE_HOME/network/lib &prompt.root; make -f ins_network.mk install Do not forget to run root.sh again! Patching root.sh When installing Oracle, some actions, which need to be performed as root, are recorded in a shell script called root.sh. root.sh is written in the orainst directory. Apply the following patch to root.sh, to have it use to proper location of chown or alternatively run the script under a Linux native shell. *** orainst/root.sh.orig Tue Oct 6 21:57:33 1998 --- orainst/root.sh Mon Dec 28 15:58:53 1998 *************** *** 31,37 **** # This is the default value for CHOWN # It will redefined later in this script for those ports # which have it conditionally defined in ss_install.h ! CHOWN=/bin/chown # # Define variables to be used in this script --- 31,37 ---- # This is the default value for CHOWN # It will redefined later in this script for those ports # which have it conditionally defined in ss_install.h ! CHOWN=/usr/sbin/chown # # Define variables to be used in this script When you do not install Oracle from CD, you can patch the source for root.sh. It is called rthd.sh and is located in the orainst directory in the source tree. Patching genclntsh The script genclntsh is used to create a single shared client library. It is used when building the demos. Apply the following patch to comment out the definition of PATH: *** bin/genclntsh.orig Wed Sep 30 07:37:19 1998 --- bin/genclntsh Tue Dec 22 15:36:49 1998 *************** *** 32,38 **** # # Explicit path to ensure that we're using the correct commands #PATH=/usr/bin:/usr/ccs/bin export PATH ! PATH=/usr/local/bin:/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin export PATH # # each product MUST provide a $PRODUCT/admin/shrept.lst --- 32,38 ---- # # Explicit path to ensure that we're using the correct commands #PATH=/usr/bin:/usr/ccs/bin export PATH ! #PATH=/usr/local/bin:/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin export PATH # # each product MUST provide a $PRODUCT/admin/shrept.lst Running Oracle When you have followed the instructions, you should be able to run Oracle as if it was run on Linux itself. Holger Kipp Contributed by Valentino Vaschetto Converted to SGML by Installing SAP R/3 (4.6B - IDES) applications SAP R/3 Installations of SAP Systems using FreeBSD will not be supported by the SAP support team — they only offer support for certified platforms. Preface This document describes a possible way of installing a SAP R/3 4.6B IDES-System with Oracle 8.0.5 for Linux onto a FreeBSD 4.3 machine, including the installation of FreeBSD 4.3-STABLE and Oracle 8.0.5. Even though this document tries to describe all important steps in a greater detail, it is not intended as a replacement for the Oracle and SAP R/3 installation guides. Please see the documentation that comes with the SAP R/3 Linux edition for SAP- and Oracle-specific questions, as well as resources from Oracle and SAP OSS. Software The following CDROMs have been used for SAP-installation: Name Number Description KERNEL 51009113 SAP Kernel Oracle / Installation / AIX, Linux, Solaris RDBMS 51007558 Oracle / RDBMS 8.0.5.X / Linux EXPORT1 51010208 IDES / DB-Export / Disc 1 of 6 EXPORT2 51010209 IDES / DB-Export / Disc 2 of 6 EXPORT3 51010210 IDES / DB-Export / Disc3 of 6 EXPORT4 51010211 IDES / DB-Export / Disc4 of 6 EXPORT5 51010212 IDES / DB-Export / Disc5 of 6 EXPORT6 51010213 IDES / DB-Export / Disc6 of 6 Additionally, I used the Oracle 8 Server (Pre-production version 8.0.5 for Linux, Kernel Version 2.0.33) CD which is not really necessary, and of course FreeBSD 4.3 stable (it was only a few days past 4.3 RELEASE). SAP-Notes The following notes should be read before installing SAP R/3 or proved to be useful during installation: Number Title 0171356 SAP Software auf Linux: grundlegenden Anmerkungen 0201147 INST: 4.6C R/3 Inst. on UNIX - Oracle 0373203 Update / Migration Oracle 8.0.5 --> 8.0.6/8.1.6 LINUX 0072984 Release of Digital UNIX 4.0B for Oracle 0130581 R3SETUP step DIPGNTAB terminates 0144978 Your system has not been installed correctly 0162266 Questions and tips for R3SETUP on Windows NT / W2K Hardware-Requirements The following equipment is sufficient for a SAP R/3 System (4.6B): Component 4.6B 4.6C Processor 2 x 800MHz Pentium III 2 x 800MHz Pentium III Memory 1GB ECC 2GB ECC Hard Disc Space 50-60GB (IDES) 50-60GB (IDES) For use in production, Xeon-Processors with large cache, high-speed disc access (SCSI, RAID hardware controller), USV and ECC-RAM is recommended. The large amount of Hard disc space is due to the preconfigured IDES System, which creates 27 GB of database files during installation. Usually after installation it is then necessary to extend some tablespaces. I used a dual processor board with 2 800MHz Pentium III processors, Adaptec 29160 Ultra160 SCSI adapter (for accessing a 40/80 GB DLT tape drive and CDROM), Mylex AcelleRAID (2 channels, firmware 6.00-1-00 with 32MB RAM). To the Mylex Raid-controller are attached two 17GB hard discs (mirrored) and four 36GB hard discs (RAID level 5). Installation of FreeBSD 4.3-STABLE First I installed FreeBSD 4.3 stable. I did the default-installation via FTP. Installation via FTP Get the diskimages kern.flp and mfsroot.flp and put them on floppy disks (I got mine from ftp7.de.freebsd.org. Please choose the appropriate mirror). &prompt.root; dd if=kern.flp of=/dev/fd0 &prompt.root; dd if=mfsroot.flp of=/dev/fd0 Do not forget to use different disks for the two images, then boot from the floppy with the kern.flp-image on it and follow instructions. I used the following disk layout: Filesystem Size (1k-blocks) Size (GB) Mounted on /dev/da0s1a 1.016.303 1 / /dev/da0s1b 6 <swap> /dev/da0s1e 2.032.623 2 /var /dev/da0s1f 8.205.339 8 /usr /dev/da1s1e 45.734.361 45 /compat/linux/oracle /dev/da1s1f 2.032.623 2 /compat/linux/sapmnt /dev/da1s1g 2.032.623 2 /compat/linux/usr/sap I had to configure and initialize the two logical drives with the Mylex software beforehand. It is located on the board itself and can be started during the boot phase of the PC. Please note that this disk layout differs slightly from the SAP recommendations, as SAP suggests mounting the oracle-subdirectories (and some others) separately - I decided to just create them as real subdirectories for simplicity. Get the Latest STABLE Sources For FreeBSD 4.3 stable onwards, it is quite easy to get the latest stable sources. With the older versions of FreeBSD, I had my own script located in /etc/cvsup. Setting up CVSup for FreeBSD 4.3 is quite easy. As user root do the following: &prompt.root; cp /etc/defaults/make.conf /etc/make.conf &prompt.root; vi /etc/make.conf The file /etc/make.conf requires the following entries to be active: SUP_UPDATE= yes SUP= /usr/local/bin/cvsup SUPFLAGS= -g -L 2 SUPHOST= cvsup8.FreeBSD.org SUPFILE= /usr/share/examples/cvsup/stable-supfile PORTSSUPFILE= /usr/share/examples/cvsup/ports-supfile DOCSUPFILE= /usr/share/examples/cvsup/doc-supfile Change the SUPHOST-value appropriately. The supfiles in /usr/share/examples/cvsup should be fine. If you do not want to load all the docfiles, leave the corresponding DOCSUPFILE-entry inactive. Starting cvsup to get the latest stable-sources is then very easy: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src &prompt.root; make update <command>make world</command> and a New Kernel The first thing to do is to install the sources. As user root, do the following: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src &prompt.root; make world If this goes through, one can then continue creating and configuring the new kernel. Usually this is where to customize the kernel configuration file. As the computer is named troubadix, the natural name for the config file also is troubadix: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/sys/i386/conf &prompt.root; cp GENERIC TROUBADIX &prompt.root; vi TROUBADIX At this stage one can define the drivers to use and not to use, etc. See the appropriate documentation or have a look at file LINT for some additional explanations. One can then also include the parameters as described below Creating the new kernel then requires: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/sys/i386/conf &prompt.root; config TROUBADIX &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/sys/compile/TROUBADIX &prompt.root; make depend &prompt.root; make &prompt.root; make install After make install finished successfully, one should reboot the computer to have the new kernel available. Installing the Linux Environment I had some trouble downloading the required RPM-files (for 4.3 stable, 2nd May 2001), so you might try one of the following locations (if all the others fail and the following are not out of date): ftp7.de.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/distfiles/rpm ftp.redhat.com/pub/redhat/linux/6.1/en/os/i386/RedHat/RPMS Installing Linux Base-system First the Linux base-system needs to be installed (as root): &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/emulators/linux_base &prompt.root; make package Installing Linux Development Next, the Linux development is needed: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/devel/linux_devtools &prompt.root; make package Installing Necessary RPMs RPMs To start the R3SETUP-Program, pam support is needed. As this also requires some other packages, I ended up installing several packages. After that, pam still complained about a missing package, so I forced the installation and it worked. I wonder if the other packages are really needed or if it would have been sufficient to install the pam-package. Anyway, here is the list of packages I installed: cracklib-2.7-5.i386.rpm cracklib-dicts-2.7-5.i386.rpm pwdb-0.60-1.i386.rpm pam-0.68-7.i386.rpm I installed these packages with the following command: &prompt.root; rpm -i --ignoreos --root /compat/linux --dbpath /var/lib/rpm <package_name> except for the pam package, which I forced with &prompt.root; rpm -i --ignoreos --nodeps --root /compat/linux --dbpath /var/lib/rpm pam-0.68-7.i386.rpm For Oracle to run the intelligent agent, I also had to install the following RedHat Tcl package (as is stated in the FreeBSD Handbook): tcl-8.0.5-30.i386.rpm (otherwise the relinking during Oracle install will not work). There are some other issues regarding relinking of Oracle, but that is a Oracle-Linux issue, not FreeBSD specific as far as I understand it. Creating the SAP/R3 Environment Creating the Necessary Filesystems and Mountpoints For a simple installation, it is sufficient to create the following filesystems: mountpoint size in GB /compat/linux/oracle 45 GB /compat/linux/sapmnt 2 GB /compat/linux/usr/sap 2 GB I also created some links, so FreeBSD will also find the correct path: &prompt.root; ln -s /compat/linux/oracle /oracle &prompt.root; ln -s /compat/linux/sapmnt /sapmnt &prompt.root; ln -s /compat/linux/usr/sap /usr/sap Creating Users and Directories SAP R/3 needs two users and three groups. The usernames depend on the SAP system id (SID) which consists of three letters. Some of these SIDs are reserved by SAP (for example SAP and NIX. For a complete list please see the SAP documentation). For the IDES installation I used IDS. We have therefore the following groups (group ids might differ, these are just the values I used with my installation): group id group name description 100 dba Data Base Administrator 101 sapsys SAP System 102 oper Data Base Operator For a default Oracle-Installation, only group dba is used. As oper-group, one also uses group dba (see Oracle- and SAP-documentation for further information). We also need the following users: user id username generic name group additional groups description 1000 idsadm <sid>adm sapsys oper SAP Administrator 1002 oraids ora<sid> dba oper DB Administrator Adding the users with adduser requires the following (please note shell and home directory) entries for SAP-Administrator: Name: idsadm <sid>adm Password: ****** Fullname: SAP IDES Administrator Uid: 1000 Gid: 101 (sapsys) Class: Groups: sapsys dba HOME: /home/idsadm /home/<sid>adm Shell: /bin/sh and for Database-Administrator: Name: oraids ora<sid> Password: ****** Fullname: Oracle IDES Administrator Uid: 1002 Gid: 100 (dba) Class: Groups: dba HOME: /oracle/IDS /oracle/<sid> Shell: /bin/sh This should also include group oper in case you are using both groups dba and oper. Creating Directories These directories are usually created as separate filesystems. This depends entirely on your requirements. I choose to create them as simple directories, as they are all located on the same RAID 5 anyway: First we will set owners and right of some directories (as user root): &prompt.root; chmod 775 /oracle &prompt.root; chmod 777 /sapmnt &prompt.root; chown root:dba /oracle &prompt.root; chown idsadm:sapsys /compat/linux/usr/sap &prompt.root; chmow 775 /compat/linux/usr/sap Second we will create directories as user ora<sid>. These will all be subdirectories of /oracle/IDS: &prompt.root; su - oraids &prompt.root; mkdir mirrlogA mirrlogB origlogA origlogB &prompt.root; mkdir sapdata1 sapdata2 sapdata3 sapdata4 sapdata5 sapdata6 &prompt.root; mkdir saparch sapreorg &prompt.root; exit In the third step we create directories as user idsadm (<sid>adm): &prompt.root; su - idsadm &prompt.root; cd /usr/sap &prompt.root; mkdir IDS &prompt.root; mkdir trans &prompt.root; exit Entries in /etc/services SAP R/3 requires some entries in file /etc/services , which will not be set correctly during installation under FreeBSD. Please add the following entries (you need at least those entries corresponding to the instance number - in this case, 00. It'll do no harm adding all entries from 00 to 99 for dp, gw, sp and ms); sapdp00 3200/tcp # SAP Dispatcher. 3200 + Instance-Number sapgw00 3300/tcp # SAP Gateway. 3300 + Instance-Number sapsp00 3400/tcp # 3400 + Instance-Number sapms00 3500/tcp # 3500 + Instance-Number sapmsIDS 3600/tcp # SAP Message Server. 3600 + Instance-Number Necessary Locales locale SAP requires at least two locales that are not part of the default RedHat installation. SAP offers the required RPMs as download from their FTP-server (which is only accessible if you are a customer with OSS-access). See note 0171356 for a list of RPMs you need. It is also possible to just create appropriate links (for example from de_DE and en_US ), but I would not recommend this for a production system (so far it worked with the IDES system without any problems, though). The following locales are needed: de_DE.ISO-8859-1 en_US.ISO-8859-1 If they are not present, there will be some problems during the installation. If these are then subsequently ignored (eg by setting the status of the offending steps to OK in file CENTRDB.R3S), it will be impossible to log onto the SAP-system without some additional effort. Kernel Tuning kernel tuning SAP R/3 Systems need a lot of resources. I therefore added the following parameters to my kernel config-file: # Set these for memory pigs (SAP and Oracle): options MAXDSIZ="(1024*1024*1024)" options DFLDSIZ="(1024*1024*1024)" # System V options needed. options SYSVSHM #SYSV-style shared memory options SHMMAXPGS=262144 #max amount of shared mem. pages options SHMMNI=256 #max number of shared memory ident if. options SHMSEG=100 #max shared mem.segs per process options SYSVMSG #SYSV-style message queues options MSGSEG=32767 #max num. of mes.segments in system options MSGSSZ=32 #size of msg-seg. MUST be power of 2 options MSGMNB=65535 #max char. per message queue options MSGTQL=2046 #max amount of msgs in system options SYSVSEM #SYSV-style semaphores options SEMMNU=256 #number of semaphore UNDO structures options SEMMNS=1024 #number of semaphores in system options SEMMNI=520 #number of semaphore indentifiers options SEMUME=100 #number of UNDO keys The minimum values are specified in the documentation that comes from SAP. As there is no description for Linux, see the HP-UX-section (32-bit) for further information. Installing SAP R/3 Preparing SAP CDROMs There are lots of CDROMs to mount and unmount during installation. Assuming you have enough CDROM-drives, you can just mount them all. I decided to copy the CDROM contents to corresponding directories: /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/<cd-name> where <cd-name> was one of KERNEL, RDBMS, EXPORT1, EXPORT2, EXPORT3, EXPORT4, EXPORT5 and EXPORT6. All the filenames should be in capital letters, otherwise use the -g option for mounting. So use the following commands: &prompt.root; mount_cd9660 -g /dev/cd0a /mnt &prompt.root; cp -R /mnt/* /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/<cd-name> &prompt.root; umount /mnt Running the install-script First we need to prepare an install-directory: &prompt.root; cd /oracle/IDS/sapreorg &prompt.root; mkdir install &prompt.root; cd install Then the install-script is started, which will copy nearly all the relevant files into the install-directory: /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/KERNEL/UNIX/INSTTOOL.SH As this is an IDES-Installation with a fully customized SAP R/3 Demo-System, we have six instead of just three EXPORT-CDs. At this point the installation template CENTRDB.R3S is for installing a standard central instance (R/3 and Database), not an IDES central instance, so copy the corresponding CENTRDB.R3S from the EXPORT1 directory, otherwise R3SETUP will only ask for three EXPORT-CDs. Start R3SETUP Make sure LD_LIBRARY_PATH is set correctly: &prompt.root; export LD_LIBRARY_PATH=/oracle/IDS/lib:/sapmnt/IDS/exe:/oracle/805_32/lib Start R3SETUP as user root from installation directory: &prompt.root; cd /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/install &prompt.root; ./R3SETUP -f CENTRDB.R3S The script then asks some questions (defaults in brackets, followed by actual input): Question Default Input Enter SAP System ID [C11] IDS<ret> Enter SAP Instance Number [00] <ret> Enter SAPMOUNT Directory [/sapmnt] <ret> Enter name of SAP central host [troubadix.domain.de] <ret> Enter name of SAP db host [troubadix] <ret> Select character set [1] (WE8DEC) <ret> Enter Oracle server version (1) Oracle 8.0.5, (2) Oracle 8.0.6, (3) Oracle 8.1.5, (4) Oracle 8.1.6 1<ret> Extract Oracle Client archive [1] (Yes, extract) <ret> Enter path to KERNEL CD [/sapcd] /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/KERNEL Enter path to RDBMS CD [/sapcd] /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/RDBMS Enter path to EXPORT1 CD [/sapcd] /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/EXPORT1 Directory to copy EXPORT1 CD [/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/CD4_DIR] <ret> Enter path to EXPORT2 CD [/sapcd] /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/EXPORT2 Directory to copy EXPORT2 CD [/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/CD5_DIR] <ret> Enter path to EXPORT3 CD [/sapcd] /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/EXPORT3 Directory to copy EXPORT3 CD [/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/CD6_DIR] <ret> Enter path to EXPORT4 CD [/sapcd] /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/EXPORT4 Directory to copy EXPORT4 CD [/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/CD7_DIR] <ret> Enter path to EXPORT5 CD [/sapcd] /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/EXPORT5 Directory to copy EXPORT5 CD [/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/CD8_DIR] <ret> Enter path to EXPORT6 CD [/sapcd] /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/EXPORT6 Directory to copy EXPORT6 CD [/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/CD9_DIR] <ret> Enter amount of RAM for SAP + DB 850<ret> (in Megabytes) Service Entry Message Server [3600] <ret> Enter Group-ID of sapsys [101] <ret> Enter Group-ID of oper [102] <ret> Enter Group-ID of dba [100] <ret> Enter User-ID of <sid>adm [1000] <ret> Enter User-ID of ora<sid> [1002] <ret> Number of parallel procs [2] <ret> If I had not copied the CDs to the different locations, then the SAP-Installer cannot find the CD needed (identified by the LABEL.ASC-File on CD) and would then ask you to insert / mount the CD and confirm or enter the mount path. The CENTRDB.R3S might not be error-free. In my case, it requested EXPORT4 again (but indicated the correct key (6_LOCATI ON, then 7_LOCATION etc.), so one can just continue with entering the correct values. Do not get irritated. Apart from some problems mentioned below, everything should go straight through up to the point where the Oracle database software needs to be installed. Installing Oracle 8.0.5 Please see the corresponding SAP-Notes and Oracle Readmes regarding Linux and Oracle DB for possible problems. Most if not all problems stem from incompatible libraries For more information on installing Oracle, refer to the Installing Oracle chapter. Installing the Oracle 8.0.5 with orainst If Oracle 8.0.5 is to be used, some additional libraries are needed for successfully relinking, as Oracle 8.0.5 was linked with an old glibc (RedHat 6.0), but RedHat 6.1 already uses a new glibc. So you have to install the following additional packages to ensure that linking will work: compat-libs-5.2-2.i386.rpm compat-glibc-5.2-2.0.7.2.i386.rpm compat-egcs-5.2-1.0.3a.1.i386.rpm compat-egcs-c++-5.2-1.0.3a.1.i386.rpm compat-binutils-5.2-2.9.1.0.23.1.i386.rpm See the corresponding SAP-Notes or Oracle Readmes for further information. If this is no option (at the time of installation I did not have enough time to check this), one could use the original binaries, or use the relinked binaries from an original RedHat System. For compiling the intelligent agent, the RedHat Tcl package must be installed. If you cannot get tcl-8.0.3-20.i386.rpm, a newer one like tcl-8.0.5-30.i386.rpm for RedHat 6.1 should also do. Apart from relinking, the installation is straightforward: &prompt.root; su - oraids &prompt.root; export TERM=xterm &prompt.root; export ORACLE_TERM=xterm &prompt.root; export ORACLE_HOME=/oracle/IDS &prompt.root; cd /ORACLE_HOME/orainst_sap &prompt.root; ./orainst Confirm all Screens with Enter until the software is installed, except that one has to deselect the Oracle On-Line Text Viewer , as this is not currently available for Linux. Oracle then wants to relink with i386-glibc20-linux-gcc instead of the available gcc, egcs or i386-redhat-linux-gcc . Due to time constrains I decided to use the binaries from an Oracle 8.0.5 PreProduction release, after the first attempt at getting the version from the RDBMS-CD working, failed, and finding / accessing the correct RPMs was a nightmare at that time. Installing the Oracle 8.0.5 Pre-Production release for Linux (Kernel 2.0.33) This installation is quite easy. Mount the CD, start the installer. It will then ask for the location of the Oracle home directory, and copy all binaries there. I did not delete the remains of my previous RDBMS-installation tries, though. Afterwards, Oracle Database could be started with no problems. Continue with SAP R/3 Installation First check the environment settings of users idsamd (<sid>adm) and oraids (ora<sid>). They should now both have the files .profile , .login and .cshrc which are all using hostname. In case the system's hostname is the fully qualified name, you need to change hostname to hostname -s within all three files. Database Load Afterwards, R3SETUP can either be restarted or continued (depending on whether exit was chosen or not). R3SETUP then creates the tablespaces and loads the data from EXPORT1 to EXPORT6 (remember, it is an IDES system, otherwise it would only be EXPORT1 to EXPORT3) with R3load into the database. When the database load is finished (might take a few hours), some passwords are requested. For test installations, one can use the well known default passwords (use different ones if security is an issue!): Question Input Enter Password for sapr3 sap<ret> Confirum Password for sapr3 sap<ret> Enter Password for sys change_on_install<ret> Confirm Password for sys change_on_install<ret> Enter Password for system manager<ret> Confirm Password for system manager<ret> At this point I had a few problems with dipgntab. Listener Start the Oracle-Listener as user oraids (ora<sid>) as follows: umask 0; lsnrctl start Otherwise you might get ORA-12546 as the sockets will not have the correct permissions. See SAP note 072984. Post-installation Steps Request SAP R/3 License Key This is needed, as the temporary license is only valid for four weeks. Do not forget to enter the correct Operating System: (X) Other: FreeBSD 4.3 Stable. First get the hardware key. Log on as user idsadm and call saplicense: &prompt.root; /sapmnt/IDS/exe/saplicense -get Calling saplicense without options gives a list of options. Upon receiving the license key, it can be installed using &prompt.root; /sapmnt/IDS/exe/saplicense -install You are then required to enter the following values: SAP SYSTEM ID = <SID, 3 chars> CUSTOMER KEY = <hardware key, 11 chars> INSTALLATION NO = <installation, 10 digits> EXPIRATION DATE = <yyyymmdd, usually "99991231"> LICENSE KEY = <license key, 24 chars> Creating Users Create a user within client 000 (for some tasks required to be done within client 000, but with a user different from users sap* and ddic). As a username, I usually choose wartung (or service in English). Profiles required are sap_new and sap_all. For additional safety the passwords of default users within all clients should be changed (this includes users sap* and ddic). Configure Transport System, Profile, Operation Modes, Etc. Within client 000, user different from ddic and sap*, do at least the following: Task Transaction Configure Transport System, eg as Stand-Alone Transport Domain Entity STMS Create / Edit Profile for System RZ10 Maintain Operation Modes and Instances RZ04 These and all the other post-installation steps are thoroughly described in SAP installation guides. Edit init<sid>.sap (initIDS.sap) The file /oracle/IDS/dbs/initIDS.sap contains the SAP backup profile. Here the size of the tape to be used, type of compression and so on need to be defined. To get this running with sapdba / brbackup, I changed the following values: compress = hardware archive_function = copy_delete_save cpio_flags = "-ov --format=newc --block-size=128 --quiet" cpio_in_flags = "-iuv --block-size=128 --quiet" tape_size = 38000M tape_address = /dev/nsa0 tape_address_rew = /dev/sa0 Explanations: compress The tape I use is a HP DLT1 which does hardware compression. archive_function This defines the default behavior for saving Oracle archive logs: New logfiles are saved to tape, already saved logfiles are saved again and are then deleted. This prevents lots of trouble if one needs to recover the database, and one of the archive-tapes has gone bad. cpio_flags Default is to use -B which sets blocksize to 5120 Bytes. For DLT-Tapes, HP recommends at least 32K blocksize, so I used --block-size=128 for 64K. --format=newc is needed I have inode numbers greater than 65535. The last option --quiet is needed as otherwise brbackup complains as soon as cpio outputs the numbers of blocks saved. cpio_in_flags Flags needed for loading data back from tape. Format is recognized automagically. tape_size This usually gives the raw storage capability of the tape. For security reason (we use hardware compression), the value is slightly lower than the actual value. tape_address The non-rewindable device to be used with cpio. tape_address_rew The rewindable device to be used with cpio. Configuration Issues after Installation The following SAP-parameters should be tuned after installation: Name Value ztta/roll_extension 250000000 abap/heap_area_dia 300000000 abap/heap_area_nondia 400000000 em/initial_size_MB 256 em/blocksize_kB 1024 ipc/shm_psize_40 70000000 SAP-Note 0013026: Name Value ztta/dynpro_area 2500000 SAP-Note 0157246: Name Value rdisp/ROLL_MAXFS 16000 rdisp/PG_MAXFS 30000 With the above parameters, on a system with 1 gigabyte of memory, one may find memory consuption similar to: Mem: 547M Active, 305M Inact, 109M Wired, 40M Cache, 112M Buf, 3492K Free Problems During Installation OSUSERSIDADM_IND_ORA During R3SETUP If R3SETUP complains at this stage, edit file CENTRDB.R3S. Locate [OSUSERSIDADM_IND_ORA] and edit the following values: HOME=/home/idsadm (was empty) STATUS=OK (had status ERROR) Then you can restart R3SETUP with: &prompt.root; ./R3SETUP -f CENTRDB.R3S OSUSERDBSID_IND_ORA During R3SETUP Possibly R3SETUP also complains at this stage. Just edit CENTRDB.R3S. Locate [OSUSERDBSID_IND_ORA] and edit the following value in that section: STATUS=OK Then just restart R3SETUP again: &prompt.root; ./R3SETUP -f CENTRDB.R3S oraview.vrf FILE NOT FOUND During Oracle Installation You have not deselected Oracle On-Line Text Viewer before starting the installation. This is marked for installation even though this option is currently not available for Linux. Deselect this product inside the Oracle installation menu and restart installation. TEXTENV_INVALID During R3SETUP, RFC or SAPGUI Start If this error is encountered, the correct locale is missing. SAP note 0171356 lists the necessary RPMs that need be installed (eg saplocales-1.0-3, saposcheck-1.0-1 for RedHat 6.1). In case you ignored all the related errors and set the corresponding status from ERROR to OK (in CENTRDB.R3S) every time R3SETUP complained and just restarted R3SETUP, the SAP-System will not be properly configured and you will then not be able to connect to the system with a sapgui, even though the system can be started. Trying to connect with the old Linux sapgui gave the following messages: Sat May 5 14:23:14 2001 *** ERROR => no valid userarea given [trgmsgo. 0401] Sat May 5 14:23:22 2001 *** ERROR => ERROR NR 24 occured [trgmsgi. 0410] *** ERROR => Error when generating text environment. [trgmsgi. 0435] *** ERROR => function failed [trgmsgi. 0447] *** ERROR => no socket operation allowed [trxio.c 3363] Speicherzugriffsfehler This behavior is due to SAP R/3 being unable to correctly assign a locale and also not being properly configured itself (missing entries in some database tables). To be able to connect to SAP, add the following entries to file DEFAULT.PFL (see note 0043288): abap/set_etct_env_at_new_mode =0 install/collate/active =0 rscp/TCP0B =TCP0B Restart the SAP system. Now one can connect to the system, even though country-specific language settings might not work as expected. After correcting country-settings (and providing the correct locales), these entries can be removed from DEFAULT.PFL and the SAP system can be restarted. ORA-12546. Start Listener with Correct Permissions Start the Oracle Listener as user oraids with the following commands: &prompt.root; umask 0; lsnrctl start Otherwise one might get ORA-12546 as the sockets will not have the correct permissions. See SAP note 0072984. [DIPGNTAB_IND_IND] During R3SETUP In general, see SAP note 0130581 (R3SETUP step DIPGNTAB terminates). During this specific installation, for some reasons the installation process was not using the proper SAP system name "IDS", but the empty string "" instead. This lead to some minor problems with accessing directories, as the paths are generated dynamically using <sid> (in this case IDS). So instead of accessing: /usr/sap/IDS/SYS/... /usr/sap/IDS/DVMGS00 the following path were used: /usr/sap//SYS/... /usr/sap/D00i To continue with the installation, I created a link and an additional directory: &prompt.root; pwd /compat/linux/usr/sap &prompt.root; ls -l total 4 drwxr-xr-x 3 idsadm sapsys 512 May 5 11:20 D00 drwxr-x--x 5 idsadm sapsys 512 May 5 11:35 IDS lrwxr-xr-x 1 root sapsys 7 May 5 11:35 SYS -> IDS/SYS drwxrwxr-x 2 idsadm sapsys 512 May 5 13:00 tmp drwxrwxr-x 11 idsadm sapsys 512 May 4 14:20 trans I also found SAP notes (0029227 and 0008401) describing this behavior. [RFCRSWBOINI_IND_IND] During R3SETUP Set STATUS of the offending step from ERROR to OK (file CENTRDB.R3S) and restart R3SETUP. After installation, you have to execute the report RSWBOINS from transaction SE38. See SAP note 0162266 for additional information about phase RFCRSWBOINI and RFCRADDBDIF. [RFCRADDBDIF_IND_IND] During R3SETUP Set STATUS of the offending step from ERROR to OK (file CENTRDB.R3S) and restart R3SETUP. After installation, you have to execute the report RADDBDIF from transaction SE38. See SAP note 0162266 for further information. Advanced Topics If you are curious as to how the Linux binary compatibility works, this is the section you want to read. Most of what follows is based heavily on an email written to &a.chat; by Terry Lambert tlambert@primenet.com (Message ID: <199906020108.SAA07001@usr09.primenet.com>). How Does It Work? execution class loader FreeBSD has an abstraction called an execution class loader. This is a wedge into the &man.execve.2; system call. What happens is that FreeBSD has a list of loaders, instead of a single loader with a fallback to the #! loader for running any shell interpreters or shell scripts. Historically, the only loader on the Unix platform examined the magic number (generally the first 4 or 8 bytes of the file) to see if it was a binary known to the system, and if so, invoked the binary loader. If it was not the binary type for the system, the &man.execve.2; call returned a failure, and the shell attempted to start executing it as shell commands. The assumption was a default of whatever the current shell is. Later, a hack was made for &man.sh.1; to examine the first two characters, and if they were :\n, then it invoked the &man.csh.1; shell instead (we believe SCO first made this hack). What FreeBSD does now is go through a list of loaders, with a generic #! loader that knows about interpreters as the characters which follow to the next whitespace next to last, followed by a fallback to /bin/sh. ELF For the Linux ABI support, FreeBSD sees the magic number as an ELF binary (it makes no distinction between FreeBSD, Solaris, Linux, or any other OS which has an ELF image type, at this point). Solaris The ELF loader looks for a specialized brand, which is a comment section in the ELF image, and which is not present on SVR4/Solaris ELF binaries. For Linux binaries to function, they must be branded as type Linux; from &man.brandelf.1;: &prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux file When this is done, the ELF loader will see the Linux brand on the file. ELF branding When the ELF loader sees the Linux brand, the loader replaces a pointer in the proc structure. All system calls are indexed through this pointer (in a traditional Unix system, this would be the sysent[] structure array, containing the system calls). In addition, the process flagged for special handling of the trap vector for the signal trampoline code, and sever other (minor) fix-ups that are handled by the Linux kernel module. The Linux system call vector contains, among other things, a list of sysent[] entries whose addresses reside in the kernel module. When a system call is called by the Linux binary, the trap code dereferences the system call function pointer off the proc structure, and gets the Linux, not the FreeBSD, system call entry points. In addition, the Linux mode dynamically reroots lookups; this is, in effect, what the union option to FS mounts (not the unionfs!) does. First, an attempt is made to lookup the file in the /compat/linux/original-path directory, then only if that fails, the lookup is done in the /original-path directory. This makes sure that binaries that require other binaries can run (e.g., the Linux toolchain can all run under Linux ABI support). It also means that the Linux binaries can load and exec FreeBSD binaries, if there are no corresponding Linux binaries present, and that you could place a &man.uname.1; command in the /compat/linux directory tree to ensure that the Linux binaries could not tell they were not running on Linux. In effect, there is a Linux kernel in the FreeBSD kernel; the various underlying functions that implement all of the services provided by the kernel are identical to both the FreeBSD system call table entries, and the Linux system call table entries: file system operations, virtual memory operations, signal delivery, System V IPC, etc… The only difference is that FreeBSD binaries get the FreeBSD glue functions, and Linux binaries get the Linux glue functions (most older OS's only had their own glue functions: addresses of functions in a static global sysent[] structure array, instead of addresses of functions dereferenced off a dynamically initialized pointer in the proc structure of the process making the call). Which one is the native FreeBSD ABI? It does not matter. Basically the only difference is that (currently; this could easily be changed in a future release, and probably will be after this) the FreeBSD glue functions are statically linked into the kernel, and the Linux glue functions can be statically linked, or they can be accessed via a kernel module. Yeah, but is this really emulation? No. It is an ABI implementation, not an emulation. There is no emulator (or simulator, to cut off the next question) involved. So why is it sometimes called Linux emulation? To make it hard to sell FreeBSD! Really, it is because the historical implementation was done at a time when there was really no word other than that to describe what was going on; saying that FreeBSD ran Linux binaries was not true, if you did not compile the code in or load a module, and there needed to be a word to describe what was being loaded—hence the Linux emulator. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml index dbd6629187..b248a422b0 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml @@ -1,841 +1,841 @@ Bill Lloyd Original work by Jim Mock Rewritten by Electronic Mail Synopsis email electronic mail Electronic Mail, better known as email, is one of the most widely used forms of communication today. This chapter provides a basic introduction to running a mail server on FreeBSD. However, it is not a complete reference and in fact many important considerations are omitted. For more complete coverage of the subject, the reader is referred to the many excellent books listed in . - After reading this chapter you will know: + After reading this chapter, you will know: What software components are involved in sending and receiving electronic mail. Where basic sendmail configuration files are located in FreeBSD. How to block spammers from illegally using your mail server as a relay. How to troubleshoot common mail server problems. - Before reading this chapter you should: + Before reading this chapter, you should: Properly setup your network connection (). Properly setup the DNS information for your mail host (). Know how to install additional third-party software (). Using Electronic Mail POP IMAP DNS There are five major parts involved in an email exchange. They are: the user program, the server daemon, DNS, a POP or IMAP daemon, and of course, the mailhost itself. The User Program This includes command line programs such as mutt, pine, elm, and mail, and GUI programs such as balsa, xfmail to name a few, and something more sophisticated like a WWW browser. These programs simply pass off the email transactions to the local mailhost, either by calling one of the server daemons available or delivering it over TCP. Mailhost Server Daemon mail server daemons sendmail mail server daemons postfix mail server daemons qmail mail server daemons exim This is usually sendmail (by default with FreeBSD) or one of the other mail server daemons such as qmail, postfix, or exim. There are others, but those are the most widely used. The server daemon usually has two functions—it looks after receiving incoming mail and delivers outgoing mail. It does not allow you to connect to it via POP or IMAP to read your mail. You need an additional daemon for that. Be aware that some older versions of sendmail have some serious security problems, however as long as you run a current version of it you should not have any problems. As always, it is a good idea to stay up-to-date with any software you run. Email and DNS The Domain Name System (DNS) and its daemon named play a large role in the delivery of email. In order to deliver mail from your site to another, the server daemon will look up the site in the DNS to determine the host that will receive mail for the destination. It works the same way when you have mail sent to you. The DNS contains the database mapping hostname to an IP address, and a hostname to mailhost. The IP address is specified in an A record. The MX (Mail eXchanger) record specifies the mailhost that will receive mail for you. If you do not have an MX record for your hostname, the mail will be delivered directly to your host. Receiving Mail email receiving Receiving mail for your domain is done by the mail host. It will collect mail sent to you and store it for reading or pickup. In order to pick the stored mail up, you will need to connect to the mail host. This is done by either using POP or IMAP. If you want to read mail directly on the mail host, then a POP or IMAP server is not needed. POP IMAP If you want to run a POP or IMAP server, there are two things you need to do: Get a POP or IMAP daemon from the ports collection and install it on your system. Modify /etc/inetd.conf to load the POP or IMAP server. The Mail Host mail host The mail host is the name given to a server that is responsible for delivering and receiving mail for your host, and possibly your network. Christopher Shumway Contributed by <application>sendmail</application> Configuration sendmail &man.sendmail.8; is the default Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) in FreeBSD. sendmail's job is to accept mail from Mail User Agents (MUA) and deliver it to the appropriate mailer as defined by its configuration file. sendmail can also accept network connections and deliver mail to local mailboxes or deliver it to another program. sendmail uses the following configuration files: /etc/mail/access /etc/mail/aliases /etc/mail/local-host-names /etc/mail/mailer.conf /etc/mail/mailertable /etc/mail/sendmail.cf /etc/mail/virtusertable Filename Function /etc/mail/access sendmail access database file /etc/mail/aliases Mailbox aliases /etc/mail/local-host-names Lists of hosts sendmail accepts mail for /etc/mail/mailer.conf Mailer program configuration /etc/mail/mailertable Mailer delivery table /etc/mail/sendmail.cf sendmail master configuration file /etc/mail/virtusertable Virtual users and domain tables <filename>/etc/mail/access</filename> The access database defines what host(s) or IP addresses have access to the local mail server and what kind of access they have. Hosts can be listed as , , or simply passed to sendmail's error handling routine with a given mailer error. Hosts that are listed as , which is the default, are allowed to send mail to this host as long as the mail's final destination is the local machine. Hosts that are listed as are rejected for all mail connections. Hosts that have the option for their hostname are allowed to send mail for any destination through this mail server. Configuring the <application>sendmail</application> Access Database cyberspammer.com 550 We don't accept mail from spammers FREE.STEALTH.MAILER@ 550 We don't accept mail from spammers another.source.of.spam REJECT okay.cyberspammer.com OK 128.32 RELAY In this example we have five entries. Mail senders that match the left hand side of the table are affected by the action on the right side of the table. The first two examples give an error code to sendmail's error handling routine. The message is printed to the remote host when a mail matches the left hand side of the table. The next entry rejects mail from a specific host on the Internet, another.source.of.spam. The next entry accepts mail connections from a host okay.cyberspammer.com, which is more exact than the cyberspamer.com line above. More specific matches override less exact matches. The last entry allows relaying of electronic mail from hosts with an IP address that begins with 128.32. These hosts would be able to send mail through this mail server that are destined for other mail servers. When this file is updated, you need to run make in /etc/mail/ to update the database. <filename>/etc/mail/aliases</filename> The aliases database contains a list of virtual mailboxes that are expanded to other user(s), files, programs or other aliases. Here are a few examples that can be used in /etc/mail/aliases: Mail Aliases root: localuser ftp-bugs: joe,eric,paul bit.bucket: /dev/null procmail: "|/usr/local/bin/procmail" The aliases update matches the mailbox name on the left of the colon, and will expand it to the target(s) on the right. The first example simply expands the mailbox root to the mailbox localuser , which is then looked up again in the aliases database. If no match is found, then the message is delivered to the local user localuser. The next example shows a mail list. Mail to the mailbox ftp-bugs is expanded to the three local mailboxes joe, eric, and paul. Note that a remote mailbox could be specified as user@domain.com. The next example shows writing mail to a file, in this case /dev/null. The last example shows sending mail to a program, in this case the mail message is written to the standard input of /usr/local/bin/procmail through a Unix pipe. When this file is updated, you need to run make in /etc/mail/ to update the database. <filename>/etc/mail/local-host-names</filename> This is a list of hostnames &man.sendmail.8; is to accept as the local host name. Place any domains or hosts that sendmail is to be receiving mail for. For example, if this mail server was to accept mail for the domain example.com and the host mail.example.com, its local-host-names might look something like this: example.com mail.example.com When this file is updated, &man.sendmail.8; needs to be restarted for it to read the changes. <filename>/etc/mail/mailer.conf</filename> The mailer.conf configuration file holds a table containing the real mailer that is used for the given action. Very old software programs would hard-code in the name and path to the mailer, /usr/sbin/sendmail, which meant they where incompatible with other mailers such as postfix. Today, /usr/sbin/sendmail is a wrapper that looks at /etc/mail/mailer.conf and executes the correct binary. When another mail transfer agent is installed on the system, mailer.conf should be updated to reflect the correct programs to execute. <filename>/etc/mail/sendmail.cf</filename> sendmail's master configuration file, sendmail.cf controls the overall behavior of sendmail, including everything from rewriting e-mail addresses to printing reject messages for remote mail servers. Naturally, with such a diverse role, this configuration file is quite complex and its details are a bit out of the scope of this section. Fortunately, this file rarely needs to be changed for standard mail servers. The master sendmail configuration file can be built from &man.m4.1; macros that define features and behavior of sendmail. Please see /usr/src/contrib/sendmail/cf/README for some of the details. When changes to this file are made, sendmail needs to be restarted for the changes to take effect. <filename>/etc/mail/virtusertable</filename> The virtualusertable maps mail for virtual domains and mailboxes to real mailboxes. These mailboxes can be local, remote, an alias defined in /etc/mail/aliases or a file. Example Virtual Domain Mail Map root@example.com root postmaster@example.com postmaster@noc.example.net @example.com joe In the above example, we have a mapping for a domain example.com. This file is processed in a first match order down the file. The first item maps root@example.com to the local mailbox root. The next entry maps postmaster@example.com to the mailbox postmaster on the host noc.example.net. Finally, if nothing from example.com has matched so far, it will match the last mapping, which matches every other mail message addressed to someone at example.com. This will be mapped to the local mail box joe. Troubleshooting email troubleshooting Why do I have to use the FQDN for hosts on my site? You will probably find that the host is actually in a different domain; for example, if you are in foo.bar.edu and you wish to reach a host called mumble in the bar.edu domain, you will have to refer to it by the fully-qualified domain name, mumble.bar.edu, instead of just mumble. BIND Traditionally, this was allowed by BSD BIND resolvers. However the current version of BIND that ships with FreeBSD no longer provides default abbreviations for non-fully qualified domain names other than the domain you are in. So an unqualified host mumble must either be found as mumble.foo.bar.edu, or it will be searched for in the root domain. This is different from the previous behavior, where the search continued across mumble.bar.edu, and mumble.edu. Have a look at RFC 1535 for why this was considered bad practice, or even a security hole. As a good workaround, you can place the line: search foo.bar.edu bar.edu instead of the previous: domain foo.bar.edu into your /etc/resolv.conf. However, make sure that the search order does not go beyond the boundary between local and public administration, as RFC 1535 calls it. sendmail says mail loops back to myself This is answered in the sendmail FAQ as follows: * I am getting Local configuration error messages, such as: 553 relay.domain.net config error: mail loops back to myself 554 <user@domain.net>... Local configuration error How can I solve this problem? You have asked mail to the domain (e.g., domain.net) to be forwarded to a specific host (in this case, relay.domain.net) by using an MX record, but the relay machine does not recognize itself as domain.net. Add domain.net to /etc/sendmail.cw (if you are using FEATURE(use_cw_file)) or add Cw domain.net to /etc/sendmail.cf. The sendmail FAQ is in /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail and is recommended reading if you want to do any tweaking of your mail setup. PPP How can I run a mail server on a dial-up PPP host? You want to connect a FreeBSD box on a LAN to the Internet. The FreeBSD box will be a mail gateway for the LAN. The PPP connection is non-dedicated. UUCP There are at least two ways to do this, an alternative being UUCP. The key is to get a Internet site to provide secondary MX service for your domain. For example: bigco.com. MX 10 bigco.com. MX 20 smalliap.com. Only one host should be specified as the final recipient (add Cw bigco.com in /etc/sendmail.cf on bigco.com). When the senders' sendmail is trying to deliver the mail it will try to connect to you over the modem link. It will most likely time out because you are not online. sendmail will automatically deliver it to the secondary MX site, i.e., your Internet provider. The secondary MX site will try every (sendmail_flags = -bd -q15m in /etc/rc.conf) 15 minutes to connect to your host to deliver the mail to the primary MX site. You might want to use something like this as a login script. #!/bin/sh # Put me in /usr/local/bin/pppbigco ( sleep 60 ; /usr/sbin/sendmail -q ) & /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pppbigco If you are going to create a separate login script for a user you could use sendmail -qRbigco.com instead in the script above. This will force all mail in your queue for bigco.com to be processed immediately. A further refinement of the situation is as follows. Message stolen from the &a.isp;. > we provide the secondary MX for a customer. The customer connects to > our services several times a day automatically to get the mails to > his primary MX (We do not call his site when a mail for his domains > arrived). Our sendmail sends the mailqueue every 30 minutes. At the > moment he has to stay 30 minutes online to be sure that all mail is > gone to the primary MX. > > Is there a command that would initiate sendmail to send all the mails > now? The user has not root-privileges on our machine of course. In the privacy flags section of sendmail.cf, there is a definition Opgoaway,restrictqrun Remove restrictqrun to allow non-root users to start the queue processing. You might also like to rearrange the MXs. We are the 1st MX for our customers like this, and we have defined: # If we are the best MX for a host, try directly instead of generating # local config error. OwTrue That way a remote site will deliver straight to you, without trying the customer connection. You then send to your customer. Only works for hosts, so you need to get your customer to name their mail machine customer.com as well as hostname.customer.com in the DNS. Just put an A record in the DNS for customer.com. Advanced Topics The following section covers more involved topics such as mail configuration and setting up mail for your entire domain. Basic Configuration email configuration Out of the box, you should be able to send email to external hosts as long as you have set up /etc/resolv.conf or are running your own name server. If you would like to have mail for your host delivered to that specific host, there are two methods: Run your own name server and have your own domain. For example, FreeBSD.org Get mail delivered directly to your host. This is done by delivering mail directly to the current DNS name for your machine. For example, example.FreeBSD.org. SMTP Regardless of which of the above you choose, in order to have mail delivered directly to your host, you must have a permanent (static) IP address (no dynamic PPP dial-up). If you are behind a firewall, it must pass SMTP traffic on to you. If you want to receive mail at your host itself, you need to be sure of one of two things: MX record Make sure that the MX record in your DNS points to your host's IP address. Make sure there is no MX entry in your DNS for your host. Either of the above will allow you to receive mail directly at your host. Try this: &prompt.root; hostname example.FreeBSD.org &prompt.root; host example.FreeBSD.org example.FreeBSD.org has address 204.216.27.XX If that is what you see, mail directly to yourlogin@example.FreeBSD.org should work without problems. If instead you see something like this: &prompt.root; host example.FreeBSD.org example.FreeBSD.org has address 204.216.27.XX example.FreeBSD.org mail is handled (pri=10) by hub.FreeBSD.org All mail sent to your host (example.FreeBSD.org) will end up being collected on hub under the same username instead of being sent directly to your host. The above information is handled by your DNS server. The DNS record that carries mail routing information is the Mail eXchange entry. If no MX record exists, mail will be delivered directly to the host by way of its IP address. The MX entry for freefall.FreeBSD.org at one time looked like this: freefall MX 30 mail.crl.net freefall MX 40 agora.rdrop.com freefall MX 10 freefall.FreeBSD.org freefall MX 20 who.cdrom.com As you can see, freefall had many MX entries. The lowest MX number is the host that ends up receiving the mail in the end while the others will queue mail temporarily if freefall is busy or down. Alternate MX sites should have separate Internet connections from your own in order to be the most useful. Your ISP or other friendly site should have no problem providing this service for you. Mail for Your Domain In order to set up a mailhost (a.k.a., mail server) you need to have any mail sent to various workstations directed to it. Basically, you want to hijack any mail for your domain (in this case *.FreeBSD.org) and divert it to your mail server so your users can check their mail via POP or directly on the server. DNS To make life easiest, a user account with the same username should exist on both machines. Use adduser to do this. The mailhost you will be using must be the designated mail exchange for each workstation on the network. This is done in your DNS configuration like so: example.FreeBSD.org A 204.216.27.XX ; Workstation MX 10 hub.FreeBSD.org ; Mailhost This will redirect mail for the workstation to the mailhost no matter where the A record points. The mail is sent to the MX host. You cannot do this yourself unless you are running a DNS server. If you are not, or cannot, run your own DNS server, talk to your ISP or whoever does your DNS for you. If you are doing virtual email hosting, the following information will come in handy. For the sake of an example, we will assume you have a customer with their own domain, in this case customer1.org and you want all the mail for customer1.org sent to your mailhost, which is named mail.myhost.com. The entry in your DNS should look like this: customer1.org MX 10 mail.myhost.com You do not need an A record if you only want to handle email for the domain. Be aware that this means pinging customer1.org will not work unless an A record exists for it. The last thing that you must do is tell sendmail on your mailhost what domains and/or hostnames it should be accepting mail for. There are a few different ways this can be done. Either of the following will work: Add the hosts to your /etc/sendmail.cw file if you are using the FEATURE(use_cw_file). If you are using sendmail 8.10 or higher, the file is /etc/mail/local-host-names. Add a Cwyour.host.com line to your /etc/sendmail.cf or /etc/mail/sendmail.cf if you are using sendmail 8.10 or higher. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.sgml index eb04a41f3b..5fe664092b 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.sgml @@ -1,579 +1,579 @@ Moses Moore Contributed by Sound Synopsis FreeBSD supports a wide variety of sound cards, allowing you to enjoy high fidelity output from your computer. This includes the ability to record and playback audio in the MPEG Audio Layer 3 (MP3), WAV, and Ogg Vorbis formats as well as many other formats. The FreeBSD Ports Collection also contains applications allowing you to edit your recorded audio, add sound effects, and control attached MIDI devices. - After reading this chapter you will know: + After reading this chapter, you will know: How to locate your sound card. How to configure your system so that your sound card is recognized. Methods to test that your card is working using sample applications. How to troubleshoot your sound setup. How to playback and encode MP3s. How to rip CD audio tracks into data files. - Before reading this chapter you should: + Before reading this chapter, you should: Know how to configure and install a new kernel (). Locating the Correct Device PCI ISA sound cards Before you begin, you should know the model of the card you have, the chip it uses, and whether it is a PCI or ISA card. FreeBSD supports a wide variety of both PCI and ISA cards. If you do not see your card in the following list, check the &man.pcm.4; manual page. This is not a complete list; however, it does list some of the most common cards. Crystal 4237, 4236, 4232, 4231 Yamaha OPL-SAx OPTi931 Ensoniq AudioPCI 1370/1371 ESS Solo-1/1E NeoMagic 256AV/ZX Sound Blaster Pro, 16, 32, AWE64, AWE128, Live Creative ViBRA16 Advanced Asound 100, 110, and Logic ALS120 ES 1868, 1869, 1879, 1888 Gravis UltraSound Aureal Vortex 1 or 2 kernel configuration The driver you use in your kernel depends on the kind of card you have. The sections below provide more information and what you will need to add to your kernel configuration. Creative, Advance, and ESS Sound Cards If you have one of the above cards, you will need to add: device pcm to your kernel configuration file. If you have a PnP ISA card, you will also need to add: device sbc For a non-PnP ISA card, add: device pcm device sbc0 at isa? port 0x220 irq 5 drq 1 flags 0x15 to your kernel configuration file. The settings shown above are the defaults. You may need to change the IRQ or the other settings to match your card. See the &man.sbc.4; manual page for more information. The Sound Blaster Live is not supported under FreeBSD 4.0 without a patch, which this section will not cover. It is recommended that you update to the latest -STABLE before trying to use this card. Gravis UltraSound Cards For a PnP ISA card, you will need to add: device pcm device gusc to your kernel configuration file. If you have a non-PnP ISA card, you will need to add: device pcm device gus0 at isa? port 0x220 irq 5 drq 1 flags 0x13 to your kernel configuration file. You may need to change the IRQ or the other settings to match your card. See the &man.gusc.4; manual page for more information. Crystal Sound Cards For Crystal cards, you will need to add: device pcm device csa to your kernel configuration file. Generic Support For PnP ISA or PCI cards, you will need to add: device pcm to your kernel configuration file. If you have a non-PnP ISA sound card that does not have a bridge driver, you will need to add: device pcm0 at isa? irq 10 drq 1 flags 0x0 to your kernel configuration file. You may need to change the IRQ or the other settings to match your card. Onboard Sound Some systems with built-in motherboard sound devices may require the following option in your kernel configuration: options PNPBIOS Recompiling the Kernel After adding the requisite driver(s) to your kernel configuration file, you will need to recompile your kernel. Please see of the handbook for more information. Creating and Testing the Device Nodes device nodes After you reboot, log in and run dmesg | grep pcm as shown below: &prompt.root; dmesg | grep pcm pcm0: <SB16 DSP 4.11> on sbc0 The output from your system may look different. If no pcm devices show up, something went wrong earlier. If that happens, go through your kernel configuration file again and make sure you chose the correct device. Consult the troubleshooting section for additional options. If the previous command returned pcm0, you will have to run the following as root: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV snd0 If the command returned pcm1, follow the same steps as shown above, replacing snd0 with snd1. The above commands will not create a /dev/snd device! MAKEDEV will create a group of device nodes, including: Device Description /dev/audio SPARC-compatible audio device /dev/dsp Digitized voice device /dev/dspW Like /dev/dsp, but 16 bits per sample /dev/midi Raw midi access device /dev/mixer Control port mixer device /dev/music Level 2 sequencer interface /dev/sequencer Sequencer device /dev/pss Programmable device interface If all goes well, you should now have a functioning sound card. If you do not, read the next section. Common Problems device node I get an unsupported subdevice XX error! One or more of the device nodes was not created correctly. Repeat the steps above. I/O port I get a sb_dspwr(XX) timed out error! The I/O port is not set correctly. IRQ I get a bad irq XX error! The IRQ is set incorrectly. Make sure that the set IRQ and the sound IRQ are the same. I get a xxx: gus pcm not attached, out of memory error. What causes that? If this happens, it is because there is not enough available memory to use the device. Chern Lee Contributed by MP3 Audio MP3 (MPEG Layer 3 Audio) accomplishes near CD-quality sound, leaving no reason to let your FreeBSD workstation fall short of its offerings. MP3 Players By far, the most popular XFree86 MP3 player is XMMS (X Multimedia System). WinAmp skins can be used with XMMS since the GUI is almost identical to that of Nullsoft Winamp's. XMMS also has native plug-in support. XMMS can be installed from the audio/xmms port or package. XMMS' interface is intuitive, with a playlist, graphic equalizer, and more. Those familiar with WinAmp will find XMMS simple to use. The audio/mpg123 port is an alternative, command-line MP3 player. mpg123 can be run by specifying the sound device and the MP3 file on the command line, as shown below: &prompt.root; mpg123 -a /dev/dsp1.0 Foobar-GreatestHits.mp3 High Performance MPEG 1.0/2.0/2.5 Audio Player for Layer 1, 2 and 3. Version 0.59r (1999/Jun/15). Written and copyrights by Michael Hipp. Uses code from various people. See 'README' for more! THIS SOFTWARE COMES WITH ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY! USE AT YOUR OWN RISK! Playing MPEG stream from BT - Foobar-GreastHits.mp3 ... MPEG 1.0 layer III, 128 kbit/s, 44100 Hz joint-stereo /dev/dsp1.0 should be replaced with the dsp device entry on your system. Ripping CD Audio Tracks Before encoding a CD or CD track to MP3, the audio data on the CD must be ripped onto the hard drive. This is done by copying the raw CDDA (CD Digital Audio) data to WAV files. The cdda2wav tool, which is a part of the sysutils/cdrtools suite, is used for ripping audio information of CDs and the information associated with it. With the audio CD in the drive, the following command can be issued (as root) to rip an entire CD into individual (per track) WAV files: &prompt.root; cdda2wav -D 0,1,0 -B The indicates the SCSI device 0,1,0, which corresponds to the output of cdrecord -scanbus. To rip individual tracks, make use of the option as shown: &prompt.root; cdda2wav -D 0,1,0 -t 7 This example rips track seven of the audio CDROM. To rip a range of tracks, for example, track one to seven, specify a range: &prompt.root; cdda2wav -D 0,1,0 -t 1+7 cdda2wav only supports SCSI CDROM drives. For IDE drives, try out audio/cdd or some of the various other utilities in the audio ports collection. Encoding MP3s Nowadays, the mp3 encoder of choice is lame. Lame can be found at audio/lame in the ports tree. Using the ripped WAV files, the following command will convert audio01.wav to audio01.mp3: &prompt.root; lame -h -b 128 \ --tt "Foo Song Title" \ --ta "FooBar Artist" \ --tl "FooBar Album" \ --ty "2001" \ --tc "Ripped and encoded by Foo" \ --tg "Genre" \ audio01.wav audio01.mp3 128 kbits seems to be the standard MP3 bitrate in use. Many enjoy the higher quality 160, or 192. The higher the bitrate, the more disk space the resulting MP3 will consume--but the quality will be higher. The option turns on the higher quality but a little slower mode. The options beginning with indicate ID3 tags, which usually contain song information, to be embedded within the MP3 file. Additional encoding options can be found by consulting the lame man page. Decoding MP3s In order to burn an audio CD from MP3s, they must be converted to a non-compressed WAV format. Both XMMS and mpg123 support the output of MP3 to an uncompressed file format. Writing to Disk in XMMS: Launch XMMS. Right-click on the window to bring up the XMMS menu. Select Preference under Options. Change the Output Plugin to Disk Writer Plugin. Press Configure. Enter (or choose browse) a directory to write the uncompressed files to. Load the MP3 file into XMMS as usual, with volume at 100% and EQ settings turned off. Press Play — XMMS will appear as if it is playing the MP3, but no music will be heard. It is actually playing the MP3 to a file. Be sure to set the default Output Plugin back to what it was before in order to listen to MP3s again. Writing to stdout in mpg123: Run mpg123 -s audio01.mp3 > audio01.pcm XMMS writes a file in the WAV format, while mpg123 converts the MP3 into raw PCM audio data. Both of these formats can be used with cdrecord or burncd to create audio CDROMs. Read for more information on using a CD burner in FreeBSD. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml index b5666d92cd..ff816add2b 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml @@ -1,2870 +1,2870 @@ Jim Mock Restructured, reorganized, and updated by PPP and SLIP Synopsis PPP SLIP FreeBSD has a number of ways to link one computer to another. To establish a network or Internet connection through a dial-up modem, or to allow others to do so through you, requires the use of PPP or SLIP. This chapter describes setting up these modem-based communication services in detail. - After reading this chapter you will know: + After reading this chapter, you will know: How to setup User PPP. How to setup Kernel PPP. How to setup PPPoE (PPP over Ethernet). How to setup PPPoA (PPP over ATM). How to configure and setup a SLIP client and server. PPP user PPP PPP kernel PPP PPP over Ethernet - Before reading this chapter you should: + Before reading this chapter, you should: be familiar with basic network terminology. understand the basics and purpose of a dialup connection and PPP and/or SLIP. You may be wondering what the main difference is between User PPP and kernel PPP. The answer is simple; user PPP processes the inbound and outbound data in userland rather than in the kernel. This is expensive in terms of copying the data between the kernel and userland, but allows a far more feature-rich ppp implementation. User PPP uses the tun device to communicate with the outside world whereas kernel-ppp uses the ppp device. Throughout in this chapter, user ppp will simply be referred to as ppp unless a distinction needs to be made between it and any other PPP software such as pppd. Unless otherwise stated, all of the commands explained in this section should be executed as root. Brian Somers Originally contributed by Nik Clayton With input from Dirk Frömberg Peter Childs Using User PPP User PPP Assumptions This document assumes you have the following: ISP PPP An account with an Internet Service Provider (ISP) which you connect to using PPP. Further, you have a modem or other device connected to your system and configured correctly, which allows you to connect to your ISP. The dial-up number(s) of your ISP. PAP CHAP Unix login name password Your login name and password. (Either a regular Unix-style login and password pair, or a PAP or CHAP login and password pair.) nameserver The IP address of one or more name servers. Normally, you will be given two IP addresses by your ISP to use for this. If they have not given you at least one, then you can use the enable dns command in your ppp.conf file to tell ppp to set the name servers for you. This feature depends on your ISPs PPP implementation supporting DNS negotiation. The following information may be supplied by your ISP, but is not completely necessary: The IP address of your ISP's gateway. The gateway is the machine to which you will connect and will be set up as your default route. If you do not have this information, we can make one up and your ISP's PPP server will tell us the correct value when we connect. This IP number is referred to as HISADDR by ppp. The netmask you should use. If your ISP has not provided you with one, you can safely use 255.255.255.255. static IP address If your ISP provides you with a static IP address and hostname, you can enter it. Otherwise, we simply let the peer assign whatever IP address it sees fit. If you do not have any of the required information, contact your ISP. Throughout this section, many of the examples showing the contents of configuration files are numbered by line. These numbers serve to aid in the presentation and discussion only and are not meant to be placed in the actual file. Proper indentation with tab and space characters is also important. Preparing the Kernel As previously mentioned, ppp uses the tun device. If this device has not been compiled into your kernel, ppp will load it on demand as a module. The tunnel driver is dynamic, so any number of devices may be created (you are not limited by any kernel configuration values). It should be noted that the tunnel driver creates devices on demand, so ifconfig -a will not necessarily show any tun devices. Check the <devicename>tun</devicename> Device Under normal circumstances, most users will only use one tun device (/dev/tun0). References to tun0 below may be changed to tunN where N is any unit number corresponding to your system. For FreeBSD installations that do not have DEVFS enabled, the existence of the tun0 device should be verified (this is not necessary if DEVFS is enabled as device nodes will be created on demand). The easiest way to make sure that the tun0 device is configured correctly is to remake the device. To remake the device, do the following: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV tun0 If you need 16 tunnel devices in your kernel, you will need to create them. This can be done by executing the following commands: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV tun15 Name Resolution Configuration resolver hostname hosts The resolver is the part of the system that looks up IP addresses into hostnames and vice versa. It can be configured to look for maps that describe IP to hostname mappings in one of two places. The first is a file called /etc/hosts. Read &man.hosts.5; for more information. The second is the Internet Domain Name Service (DNS), a distributed data base. For more information on DNS and DNS services, refer to . The resolver is a set of system calls that perform the name mappings, but you have to tell it where to find the information. For versions of FreeBSD prior to 5.0. This is done by editing the file /etc/host.conf. FreeBSD 5.0 uses the /etc/nsswitch.conf file. Edit <filename>/etc/host.conf</filename> For versions of FreeBSD prior to 5.0, this file should contain the following two lines (in this order): hosts bind This instructs the resolver to first look in the file /etc/hosts, and to then consult the DNS if the name was not found. Edit <filename>/etc/nsswitch.conf</filename> For FreeBSD version 5.0 or above, this file should contain at least the following line: hosts: files, dns This instructs the resolver to first look in the file /etc/hosts, and to then consult DNS if the name was not found. Edit <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> This file may contain the IP addresses and names of machines on your local network. At a bare minimum it should contain entries for the machine which will be running ppp. Assuming that your machine is called foo.bar.com with the IP address 10.0.0.1, /etc/hosts should contain: 127.0.0.1 localhost.bar.com localhost ::1 localhost.bar.com localhost 10.0.0.1 foo.bar.com foo The first two lines define the alias localhost as a synonym for the current machine. Regardless of your own IP address, the IP addresses for these lines should always be 127.0.0.1 and ::1. The last line maps the name foo.bar.com (and the shorthand foo) to the IP address 10.0.0.1. 127.0.0.1 and localhost are known as loopback addresses, which loopback to the local machine. If your provider allocates you a static IP address and name, and you are not using that as your host name, add this to the /etc/hosts too. Edit <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> The /etc/resolv.conf file tells the resolver how to behave. Normally, you will need to enter the following line(s): domain bar.com nameserver x.x.x.x nameserver y.y.y.y The x.x.x.x and y.y.y.y addresses are those given to you by your ISP. Add as many nameserver lines as your ISP provides. The domain line is set to your hosts domain name. Refer to the &man.resolv.conf.5; manual page for details of other possible entries in this file. If you are running a local name server, replace the above nameserver lines with: nameserver 0.0.0.0 PPP ISP The enable dns command (entered in the /etc/ppp/ppp.conf file - see below) will tell PPP to request that your ISP confirms the nameserver values. If your ISP supplies different addresses (or if there are no nameserver lines in /etc/resolv.conf), PPP will rewrite the file with the ISP-supplied values. <application>PPP</application> Configuration PPPconfiguration Both ppp and pppd (the kernel level implementation of PPP) use the configuration files located in the /etc/ppp directory. Examples for user ppp can be found in /usr/share/examples/ppp/. Configuring ppp requires that you edit a number of files, depending on your requirements. What you put in them depends to some extent on whether your ISP allocates IP addresses statically (i.e., you get given one IP address, and always use that one) or dynamically (i.e., your IP address changes each time you connect to your ISP). PPP and Static IP Addresses PPPwith static IP addresses You will need to edit the /etc/ppp/ppp.conf configuration file. It should look similar to the example below. Lines that end in a : start in the first column (beginning of the line)— all other lines should be indented as shown using spaces or tabs. 1 default: 2 set log Phase Chat LCP IPCP CCP tun command 3 ident user-ppp VERSION (built COMPILATIONDATE) 4 set device /dev/cuaa0 5 set speed 115200 6 set dial "ABORT BUSY ABORT NO\\sCARRIER TIMEOUT 5 \ 7 \"\" AT OK-AT-OK ATE1Q0 OK \\dATDT\\TTIMEOUT 40 CONNECT" 8 set timeout 180 9 enable dns 10 11 provider: 12 set phone "(123) 456 7890" 13 set authname foo 14 set authkey bar 15 set login "TIMEOUT 10 \"\" \"\" gin:--gin: \\U word: \\P col: ppp" 16 set timeout 300 17 set ifaddr x.x.x.x y.y.y.y 255.255.255.255 0.0.0.0 18 add default HISADDR Line 1: Identifies the default entry. Commands in this entry are executed automatically when ppp is run. Line 2: Enables logging parameters. When the configuration is working satisfactorily, this line should be reduced to saying set log phase tun in order to avoid excessive log file sizes. Line 3: Tells PPP how to identify itself to the peer. PPP identifies itself to the peer if it has any trouble negotiating and setting up the link, providing information that the peers administrator may find useful when investigating such problems. Line 4: Identifies the device to which the modem is connected. COM1 is /dev/cuaa0 and COM2 is /dev/cuaa1. Line 5: Sets the speed you want to connect at. If 115200 does not work (it should with any reasonably new modem), try 38400 instead. Line 6 & 7: PPPuser PPP The dial string. User PPP uses an expect-send syntax similar to the &man.chat.8; program. Refer to the manual page for information on the features of this language. Note that this command continues onto the next line for readability. Any command in ppp.conf may do this if the last character on the line is a ``\'' character. Line 8: Sets the idle timeout for the link. 180 seconds is the default, so this line is purely cosmetic. Line 9: Tells PPP to ask the peer to confirm the local resolver settings. If you run a local name server, this line should be commented out or removed. Line 10: A blank line for readability. Blank lines are ignored by PPP. Line 11: Identifies an entry for a provider called provider. Line 12: Sets the phone number for this provider. Multiple phone numbers may be specified using the colon (:) or pipe character (|)as a separator. The difference between the two separators is described in &man.ppp.8;. To summarize, if you want to rotate through the numbers, use a colon. If you want to always attempt to dial the first number first and only use the other numbers if the first number fails, use the pipe character. Always quote the entire set of phone numbers as shown. Line 13 & 14: Identifies the user name and password. When connecting using a Unix-style login prompt, these values are referred to by the set login command using the \U and \P variables. When connecting using PAP or CHAP, these values are used at authentication time. Line 15: PAP CHAP If you are using PAP or CHAP, there will be no login at this point, and this line should be commented out or removed. See PAP and CHAP authentication for further details. The login string is of the same chat-like syntax as the dial string. In this example, the string works for a service whose login session looks like this: J. Random Provider login: foo password: bar protocol: ppp You will need to alter this script to suit your own needs. When you write this script for the first time, you should ensure that you have enabled chat logging so you can determine if the conversation is going as expected. Line 16: timeout Sets the default idle timeout (in seconds) for the connection. Here, the connection will be closed automatically after 300 seconds of inactivity. If you never want to timeout, set this value to zero or use the command line switch. Line 17: ISP Sets the interface addresses. The string x.x.x.x should be replaced by the IP address that your provider has allocated to you. The string y.y.y.y should be replaced by the IP address that your ISP indicated for their gateway (the machine to which you connect). If your ISP has not given you a gateway address, use 10.0.0.2/0. If you need to use a guessed address, make sure that you create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup as per the instructions for PPP and Dynamic IP addresses. If this line is omitted, ppp cannot run in mode. Line 18: Adds a default route to your ISP's gateway. The special word HISADDR is replaced with the gateway address specified on line 9. It is important that this line appears after line 9, otherwise HISADDR will not yet be initialized. If you do not wish to run ppp in , this line should be moved to the ppp.linkup file. It is not necessary to add an entry to ppp.linkup when you have a static IP address and are running ppp in mode as your routing table entries are already correct before you connect. You may however wish to create an entry to invoke programs after connection. This is explained later with the sendmail example. Example configuration files can be found in the /usr/share/examples/ppp/ directory. PPP and Dynamic IP Addresses PPPwith dynamic IP addresses IPCP If your service provider does not assign static IP addresses, ppp can be configured to negotiate the local and remote addresses. This is done by guessing an IP address and allowing ppp to set it up correctly using the IP Configuration Protocol (IPCP) after connecting. The ppp.conf configuration is the same as PPP and Static IP Addresses, with the following change: 17 set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0 255.255.255.255 Again, do not include the line number, it is just for reference. Indentation of at least one space is required. Line 17: The number after the / character is the number of bits of the address that ppp will insist on. You may wish to use IP numbers more appropriate to your circumstances, but the above example will always work. The last argument (0.0.0.0) tells PPP to start negotiations using address 0.0.0.0 rather than 10.0.0.1 and is necessary for some ISPs. Do not use 0.0.0.0 as the first argument to set ifaddr as it prevents PPP from setting up an initial route in mode. If you are not running in mode, you will need to create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. ppp.linkup is used after a connection has been established. At this point, ppp will have assigned the interface addresses and it will now be possible to add the routing table entries: 1 provider: 2 add default HISADDR Line 1: On establishing a connection, ppp will look for an entry in ppp.linkup according to the following rules: First, try to match the same label as we used in ppp.conf. If that fails, look for an entry for the IP address of our gateway. This entry is a four-octet IP style label. If we still have not found an entry, look for the MYADDR entry. Line 2: This line tells ppp to add a default route that points to HISADDR. HISADDR will be replaced with the IP number of the gateway as negotiated by the IPCP. See the pmdemand entry in the files /usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.conf.sample and /usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.linkup.sample for a detailed example. Receiving Incoming Calls PPPreceiving incoming calls When you configure ppp to receive incoming calls on a machine connected to a LAN, you must decide if you wish to forward packets to the LAN. If you do, you should allocate the peer an IP number from your LAN's subnet, and use the command enable proxy in your /etc/ppp/ppp.conf file. You should also confirm that the /etc/rc.conf file contains the following: gateway_enable="YES" Which getty? Configuring FreeBSD for Dial-up Services provides a good description on enabling dial-up services using &man.getty.8;. An alternative to getty is mgetty, a smarter version of getty designed with dial-up lines in mind. The advantages of using mgetty is that it actively talks to modems, meaning if port is turned off in /etc/ttys then your modem will not answer the phone. Later versions of mgetty (from 0.99beta onwards) also support the automatic detection of PPP streams, allowing your clients script-less access to your server. Refer to Mgetty and AutoPPP for more information on mgetty. <application>PPP</application> Permissions The ppp command must normally be run as the root user. If however, you wish to allow ppp to run in server mode as a normal user by executing ppp as described below, that user must be given permission to run ppp by adding them to the network group in /etc/group. You will also need to give them access to one or more sections of the configuration file using the allow command: allow users fred mary If this command is used in the default section, it gives the specified users access to everything. PPP Shells for Dynamic-IP Users PPP shells Create a file called /etc/ppp/ppp-shell containing the following: #!/bin/sh IDENT=`echo $0 | sed -e 's/^.*-\(.*\)$/\1/'` CALLEDAS="$IDENT" TTY=`tty` if [ x$IDENT = xdialup ]; then IDENT=`basename $TTY` fi echo "PPP for $CALLEDAS on $TTY" echo "Starting PPP for $IDENT" exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct $IDENT This script should be executable. Now make a symbolic link called ppp-dialup to this script using the following commands: &prompt.root; ln -s ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-dialup You should use this script as the shell for all of your dialup users. This is an example from /etc/password for a dialup PPP user with username pchilds (remember do not directly edit the password file, use vipw). pchilds:*:1011:300:Peter Childs PPP:/home/ppp:/etc/ppp/ppp-dialup Create a /home/ppp directory that is world readable containing the following 0 byte files: -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27 02:23 .hushlogin -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27 02:22 .rhosts which prevents /etc/motd from being displayed. PPP Shells for Static-IP Users PPP shells Create the ppp-shell file as above, and for each account with statically assigned IPs create a symbolic link to ppp-shell. For example, if you have three dialup customers, fred, sam, and mary, that you route class C networks for, you would type the following: &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-fred &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-sam &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-mary Each of these users dialup accounts should have their shell set to the symbolic link created above (for example, mary's shell should be /etc/ppp/ppp-mary). Setting up ppp.conf for Dynamic-IP Users The /etc/ppp/ppp.conf file should contain something along the lines of: default: set debug phase lcp chat set timeout 0 ttyd0: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20 255.255.255.255 enable proxy ttyd1: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.21 255.255.255.255 enable proxy The indenting is important. The default: section is loaded for each session. For each dialup line enabled in /etc/ttys create an entry similar to the one for ttyd0: above. Each line should get a unique IP address from your pool of IP addresses for dynamic users. Setting up <filename>ppp.conf</filename> for Static-IP Users Along with the contents of the sample /usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.conf above you should add a section for each of the statically assigned dialup users. We will continue with our fred, sam, and mary example. fred: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.101.1 255.255.255.255 sam: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.102.1 255.255.255.255 mary: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.103.1 255.255.255.255 The file /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup should also contain routing information for each static IP user if required. The line below would add a route for the 203.14.101.0 class C via the client's ppp link. fred: add 203.14.101.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR sam: add 203.14.102.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR mary: add 203.14.103.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR More on <command>mgetty</command>, AutoPPP, and MS Extensions <command>mgetty</command> and AutoPPP mgetty AutoPPP LCP Configuring and compiling mgetty with the AUTO_PPP option enabled allows mgetty to detect the LCP phase of PPP connections and automatically spawn off a ppp shell. However, since the default login/password sequence does not occur it is necessary to authenticate users using either PAP or CHAP. This section assumes the user has successfully configured, compiled, and installed a version of mgetty with the AUTO_PPP option (v0.99beta or later). Make sure your /usr/local/etc/mgetty+sendfax/login.config file has the following in it: /AutoPPP/ - - /etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup This will tell mgetty to run the ppp-pap-dialup script for detected PPP connections. Create a file called /etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup containing the following (the file should be executable): #!/bin/sh exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pap$IDENT For each dialup line enabled in /etc/ttys, create a corresponding entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. This will happily co-exist with the definitions we created above. pap: enable pap set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20-203.14.100.40 enable proxy Each user logging in with this method will need to have a username/password in /etc/ppp/ppp.secret file, or alternatively add the following option to authenticate users via PAP from /etc/password file. enable passwdauth If you wish to assign some users a static IP number, you can specify the number as the third argument in /etc/ppp/ppp.secret. See /usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.secret.sample for examples. MS Extensions DNS NetBIOS PPPMicrosoft extensions It is possible to configure PPP to supply DNS and NetBIOS nameserver addresses on demand. To enable these extensions with PPP version 1.x, the following lines might be added to the relevant section of /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. enable msext set ns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2 set nbns 203.14.100.5 And for PPP version 2 and above: accept dns set dns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2 set nbns 203.14.100.5 This will tell the clients the primary and secondary name server addresses, and a NetBIOS nameserver host. In version 2 and above, if the set dns line is omitted, PPP will use the values found in /etc/resolv.conf. PAP and CHAP Authentication PAP CHAP Some ISPs set their system up so that the authentication part of your connection is done using either of the PAP or CHAP authentication mechanisms. If this is the case, your ISP will not give a login: prompt when you connect, but will start talking PPP immediately. PAP is less secure than CHAP, but security is not normally an issue here as passwords, although being sent as plain text with PAP, are being transmitted down a serial line only. There's not much room for crackers to eavesdrop. Referring back to the PPP and Static IP addresses or PPP and Dynamic IP addresses sections, the following alterations must be made: 7 set login … 12 set authname MyUserName 13 set authkey MyPassword Line 7: Your ISP will not normally require that you log into the server if you are using PAP or CHAP. You must therefore disable your set login string. Line 12: This line specifies your PAP/CHAP user name. You will need to insert the correct value for MyUserName. Line 13: password This line specifies your PAP/CHAP password. You will need to insert the correct value for MyPassword. You may want to add an additional line, such as: 15 accept PAP or 15 accept CHAP to make it obvious that this is the intention, but PAP and CHAP are both accepted by default. Changing Your <command>ppp</command> Configuration on the Fly It is possible to talk to the ppp program while it is running in the background, but only if a suitable diagnostic port has been set up. To do this, add the following line to your configuration: set server /var/run/ppp-tun%d DiagnosticPassword 0177 This will tell PPP to listen to the specified Unix-domain socket, asking clients for the specified password before allowing access. The %d in the name is replaced with the tun device number that is in use. Once a socket has been set up, the &man.pppctl.8; program may be used in scripts that wish to manipulate the running program. Final System Configuration PPPconfiguration You now have ppp configured, but there are a few more things to do before it is ready to work. They all involve editing the /etc/rc.conf file. Working from the top down in this file, make sure the hostname= line is set, e.g.: hostname="foo.bar.com" If your ISP has supplied you with a static IP address and name, it is probably best that you use this name as your host name. Look for the network_interfaces variable. If you want to configure your system to dial your ISP on demand, make sure the tun0 device is added to the list, otherwise remove it. network_interfaces="lo0 tun0" ifconfig_tun0= The ifconfig_tun0 variable should be empty, and a file called /etc/start_if.tun0 should be created. This file should contain the line: ppp -auto mysystem This script is executed at network configuration time, starting your ppp daemon in automatic mode. If you have a LAN for which this machine is a gateway, you may also wish to use the switch. Refer to the manual page for further details. Set the router program to NO with following line in your /etc/rc.conf: router_enable="NO" routed It is important that the routed daemon is not started (it is started by default), as routed tends to delete the default routing table entries created by ppp. It is probably worth your while ensuring that the sendmail_flags line does not include the option, otherwise sendmail will attempt to do a network lookup every now and then, possibly causing your machine to dial out. You may try: sendmail_flags="-bd" sendmail The downside of this is that you must force sendmail to re-examine the mail queue whenever the ppp link is up by typing: &prompt.root; /usr/sbin/sendmail -q You may wish to use the !bg command in ppp.linkup to do this automatically: 1 provider: 2 delete ALL 3 add 0 0 HISADDR 4 !bg sendmail -bd -q30m SMTP If you do not like this, it is possible to set up a dfilter to block SMTP traffic. Refer to the sample files for further details. Now the only thing left to do is reboot the machine. All that is left is to reboot the machine. After rebooting, you can now either type: &prompt.root; ppp and then dial provider to start the PPP session, or, if you want ppp to establish sessions automatically when there is outbound traffic (and you have not created the start_if.tun0 script), type: &prompt.root; ppp -auto provider Summary To recap, the following steps are necessary when setting up ppp for the first time: Client side: Ensure that the tun device is built into your kernel. Ensure that the tunX device file is available in the /dev directory. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The pmdemand example should suffice for most ISPs. If you have a dynamic IP address, create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. Update your /etc/rc.conf file. Create a start_if.tun0 script if you require demand dialing. Server side: Ensure that the tun device is built into your kernel. Ensure that the tunX device file is available in the /dev directory. Create an entry in /etc/passwd (using the &man.vipw.8; program). Create a profile in this users home directory that runs ppp -direct direct-server or similar. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The direct-server example should suffice. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. Update your /etc/rc.conf file. Gennady B. Sorokopud Parts originally contributed by Robert Huff Using Kernel PPP Setting up Kernel PPP PPPkernel PPP Before you start setting up PPP on your machine make sure that pppd is located in /usr/sbin and the directory /etc/ppp exists. pppd can work in two modes: As a client — you want to connect your machine to the outside world via a PPP serial connection or modem line. PPPserver as a server — your machine is located on the network and used to connect other computers using PPP. In both cases you will need to set up an options file (/etc/ppp/options or ~/.ppprc if you have more than one user on your machine that uses PPP). You also will need some modem/serial software (preferably kermit) so you can dial and establish a connection with the remote host. Trev Roydhouse Based on information provided by Using <command>pppd</command> as a Client PPPclient Cisco The following /etc/ppp/options might be used to connect to a CISCO terminal server PPP line. crtscts # enable hardware flow control modem # modem control line noipdefault # remote PPP server must supply your IP address. # if the remote host doesn't send your IP during IPCP # negotiation , remove this option passive # wait for LCP packets domain ppp.foo.com # put your domain name here :<remote_ip> # put the IP of remote PPP host here # it will be used to route packets via PPP link # if you didn't specified the noipdefault option # change this line to <local_ip>:<remote_ip> defaultroute # put this if you want that PPP server will be your # default router To connect: kermit modem Dial to the remote host using kermit (or some other modem program), and enter your user name and password (or whatever is needed to enable PPP on the remote host). Exit kermit (without hanging up the line). Enter the following: &prompt.root; /usr/src/usr.sbin/pppd.new/pppd /dev/tty01 19200 Be sure to use the appropriate speed and device name. Now your computer is connected with PPP. If the connection fails, you can add the option to the /etc/ppp/options file and check messages on the console to track the problem. Following /etc/ppp/pppup script will make all 3 stages automatically: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.dial pppd /dev/tty01 19200 kermit /etc/ppp/kermit.dial is a kermit script that dials and makes all necessary authorization on the remote host (an example of such a script is attached to the end of this document). Use the following /etc/ppp/pppdown script to disconnect the PPP line: #!/bin/sh pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill -TERM ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi /sbin/ifconfig ppp0 down /sbin/ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.hup /etc/ppp/ppptest Check to see if PPP is still running by executing /usr/etc/ppp/ppptest, which should look like this: #!/bin/sh pid=`ps ax| grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then echo 'pppd running: PID=' ${pid-NONE} else echo 'No pppd running.' fi set -x netstat -n -I ppp0 ifconfig ppp0 To hang up the modem, execute /etc/ppp/kermit.hup, which should contain: set line /dev/tty01 ; put your modem device here set speed 19200 set file type binary set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none pau 1 out +++ inp 5 OK out ATH0\13 echo \13 exit Here is an alternate method using chat instead of kermit. The following two files are sufficient to accomplish a pppd connection. /etc/ppp/options: /dev/cuaa1 115200 crtscts # enable hardware flow control modem # modem control line connect "/usr/bin/chat -f /etc/ppp/login.chat.script" noipdefault # remote PPP serve must supply your IP address. # if the remote host doesn't send your IP during # IPCP negotiation, remove this option passive # wait for LCP packets domain <your.domain> # put your domain name here : # put the IP of remote PPP host here # it will be used to route packets via PPP link # if you didn't specified the noipdefault option # change this line to <local_ip>:<remote_ip> defaultroute # put this if you want that PPP server will be # your default router /etc/ppp/login.chat.script: The following should go on a single line. ABORT BUSY ABORT 'NO CARRIER' "" AT OK ATDT<phone.number> CONNECT "" TIMEOUT 10 ogin:-\\r-ogin: <login-id> TIMEOUT 5 sword: <password> Once these are installed and modified correctly, all you need to do is run pppd, like so: &prompt.root; pppd Using <command>pppd</command> as a Server /etc/ppp/options should contain something similar to the following: crtscts # Hardware flow control netmask 255.255.255.0 # netmask ( not required ) 192.114.208.20:192.114.208.165 # ip's of local and remote hosts # local ip must be different from one # you assigned to the ethernet ( or other ) # interface on your machine. # remote IP is ip address that will be # assigned to the remote machine domain ppp.foo.com # your domain passive # wait for LCP modem # modem line The following /etc/ppp/pppserv script will enable tell pppd to behave as a server: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi # reset ppp interface ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete # enable autoanswer mode kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.ans # run ppp pppd /dev/tty01 19200 Use this /etc/ppp/pppservdown script to stop the server: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.noans The following kermit script (/etc/ppp/kermit.ans) will enable/disable autoanswer mode on your modem. It should look like this: set line /dev/tty01 set speed 19200 set file type binary set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none pau 1 out +++ inp 5 OK out ATH0\13 inp 5 OK echo \13 out ATS0=1\13 ; change this to out ATS0=0\13 if you want to disable ; autoanswer mod inp 5 OK echo \13 exit A script named /etc/ppp/kermit.dial is used for dialing and authenticating on the remote host. You will need to customize it for your needs. Put your login and password in this script; you will also need to change the input statement depending on responses from your modem and remote host. ; ; put the com line attached to the modem here: ; set line /dev/tty01 ; ; put the modem speed here: ; set speed 19200 set file type binary ; full 8 bit file xfer set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none set modem hayes set dial hangup off set carrier auto ; Then SET CARRIER if necessary, set dial display on ; Then SET DIAL if necessary, set input echo on set input timeout proceed set input case ignore def \%x 0 ; login prompt counter goto slhup :slcmd ; put the modem in command mode echo Put the modem in command mode. clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer pause 1 output +++ ; hayes escape sequence input 1 OK\13\10 ; wait for OK if success goto slhup output \13 pause 1 output at\13 input 1 OK\13\10 if fail goto slcmd ; if modem doesn't answer OK, try again :slhup ; hang up the phone clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer pause 1 echo Hanging up the phone. output ath0\13 ; hayes command for on hook input 2 OK\13\10 if fail goto slcmd ; if no OK answer, put modem in command mode :sldial ; dial the number pause 1 echo Dialing. output atdt9,550311\13\10 ; put phone number here assign \%x 0 ; zero the time counter :look clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer increment \%x ; Count the seconds input 1 {CONNECT } if success goto sllogin reinput 1 {NO CARRIER\13\10} if success goto sldial reinput 1 {NO DIALTONE\13\10} if success goto slnodial reinput 1 {\255} if success goto slhup reinput 1 {\127} if success goto slhup if < \%x 60 goto look else goto slhup :sllogin ; login assign \%x 0 ; zero the time counter pause 1 echo Looking for login prompt. :slloop increment \%x ; Count the seconds clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer output \13 ; ; put your expected login prompt here: ; input 1 {Username: } if success goto sluid reinput 1 {\255} if success goto slhup reinput 1 {\127} if success goto slhup if < \%x 10 goto slloop ; try 10 times to get a login prompt else goto slhup ; hang up and start again if 10 failures :sluid ; ; put your userid here: ; output ppp-login\13 input 1 {Password: } ; ; put your password here: ; output ppp-password\13 input 1 {Entering SLIP mode.} echo quit :slnodial echo \7No dialtone. Check the telephone line!\7 exit 1 ; local variables: ; mode: csh ; comment-start: "; " ; comment-start-skip: "; " ; end: Jim Mock Contributed (from http://node.to/freebsd/how-tos/how-to-freebsd-pppoe.html) by Using <application>PPP</application> over Ethernet (PPPoE) PPPover Ethernet PPPoE PPP, over Ethernet This section how to set up PPP over Ethernet (PPPoE). Configuring the kernel No kernel configuration is necessary for PPPoE any longer. If the necessary netgraph support is not built into the kernel, it will be dynamically loaded by ppp. Setting up <filename>ppp.conf</filename> Here is an example of a working ppp.conf: default: set log Phase tun command # you can add more detailed logging if you wish set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0 name_of_service_provider: set device PPPoE:xl1 # replace xl1 with your ethernet device set authname YOURLOGINNAME set authkey YOURPASSWORD set dial set login add default HISADDR Running <application>PPP</application> As root, you can run: &prompt.root; ppp -ddial name_of_service_provider Starting <application>PPP</application> at Boot Add the following to your /etc/rc.conf file: ppp_enable="YES" ppp_mode="ddial" ppp_nat="YES" # if you want to enable nat for your local network, otherwise NO ppp_profile="name_of_service_provider" Using a PPPoE Service tag Sometimes it will be necessary to use a service tag to establish your connection. Service tags are used to distinguish between different PPPoE servers attached to a given network. You should have been given any required service tag information in the documentation provided by your ISP. If you cannot locate it there, ask your ISP's tech support personnel. As a last resort, you could try the method suggested by the Roaring Penguin PPPoE program which can be found in the ports collection. Bear in mind however, this may de-program your modem and render it useless, so think twice before doing it. Simply install the program shipped with the modem by your provider. Then, access the System menu from the program. The name of your profile should be listed there. It is usually ISP. The profile name (service tag) will be used in the PPPoE configuration entry in ppp.conf as the provider part of the set device command (see the &man.ppp.8; manual page for full details). It should look like this: set device PPPoE:xl1:ISP Do not forget to change xl1 to the proper device for your Ethernet card. Do not forget to change ISP to the profile you have just found above. For additional information, see: Cheaper Broadband with FreeBSD on DSL by Renaud Waldura in Daemon News. PPPoE with a 3Com HomeConnect ADSL Modem Dual Link This modem does not follow RFC 2516 (A Method for transmitting PPP over Ethernet (PPPoE), written by L. Mamakos, K. Lidl, J. Evarts, D. Carrel, D. Simone, and R. Wheeler). Instead, different packet type codes have been used for the Ethernet frames. Please complain to 3Com if you think it should comply with the PPPoE specification. In order to make FreeBSD capable of communicating with this device, a sysctl must be set. This can be done automatically at boot time by updating /etc/sysctl.conf: net.graph.nonstandard_pppoe=1 or can be done for immediate effect with the command sysctl -w net.graph.nonstandard_pppoe=1. Unfortunately, because this is a system-wide setting, it is not possible to talk to a normal PPPoE client or server and a 3Com HomeConnect ADSL Modem at the same time. Using <application>PPP</application> over ATM (PPPoA) PPPover ATM PPPoA PPP, over ATM The following describes how to set up PPP over ATM, a.k.a, PPPoA. Currently, the only hardware supported is the Alcatel Speedtouch USB ADSL modem Installing PPPoA PPPoA is supplied as a port in FreeBSD because the firmware is not distributable under Alcatel's license agreement. To install the port, simply use the ports collection to install the net/pppoa port and follow the instructions provided there. Satoshi Asami Originally contributed by Guy Helmer With input from Piero Serini Using SLIP SLIP Setting up a SLIP Client SLIPclient The following is one way to set up a FreeBSD machine for SLIP on a static host network. For dynamic hostname assignments (your address changes each time you dial up), you probably need to have a more complex setup. First, determine which serial port your modem is connected to. Many people setup a symbolic link, such as /dev/modem, to point to the real device name, /dev/cuaaN. This allows you to abstract the actual device name should you ever need to move the modem to a different port. It can become quite cumbersome when you need to fix a bunch of files in /etc and .kermrc files all over the system! /dev/cuaa0 is COM1, cuaa1 is COM2, etc. Make sure you have the following in your kernel configuration file: pseudo-device sl 1 It is included in the GENERIC kernel, so this should not be a problem unless you have deleted it. Things You Have to Do Only Once Add your home machine, the gateway and nameservers to your /etc/hosts file. Mine looks like this: 127.0.0.1 localhost loghost 136.152.64.181 water.CS.Example.EDU water.CS water 136.152.64.1 inr-3.CS.Example.EDU inr-3 slip-gateway 128.32.136.9 ns1.Example.EDU ns1 128.32.136.12 ns2.Example.EDU ns2 Make sure you have before in your /etc/host.conf. Otherwise, funny things may happen. Edit the /etc/rc.conf file. Set your hostname by editing the line that says: hostname=myname.my.domain Your machine's full Internet hostname should be placed here. Add sl0 to the list of network interfaces by changing the line that says: network_interfaces="lo0" to: network_interfaces=lo0 sl0 Set the startup flags of sl0 by adding a line: ifconfig_sl0="inet ${hostname} slip-gateway netmask 0xffffff00 up" default route Designate the default router by changing the line: defaultrouter=NO to: defaultrouter=slip-gateway Make a file /etc/resolv.conf which contains: domain CS.Example.EDU nameserver 128.32.136.9 nameserver 128.32.136.12 nameserver domain name As you can see, these set up the nameserver hosts. Of course, the actual domain names and addresses depend on your environment. Set the password for root and toor (and any other accounts that do not have a password). Reboot your machine and make sure it comes up with the correct hostname. Making a SLIP Connection SLIPconnecting with Dial up, type slip at the prompt, enter your machine name and password. What is required to be entered depends on your environment. If you use kermit, you can try a script like this: # kermit setup set modem hayes set line /dev/modem set speed 115200 set parity none set flow rts/cts set terminal bytesize 8 set file type binary # The next macro will dial up and login define slip dial 643-9600, input 10 =>, if failure stop, - output slip\x0d, input 10 Username:, if failure stop, - output silvia\x0d, input 10 Password:, if failure stop, - output ***\x0d, echo \x0aCONNECTED\x0a Of course, you have to change the hostname and password to fit yours. After doing so, you can just type slip from the kermit prompt to connect. Leaving your password in plain text anywhere in the filesystem is generally a bad idea. Do it at your own risk. Leave the kermit there (you can suspend it by Ctrl z ) and as root, type: &prompt.root; slattach -h -c -s 115200 /dev/modem If you are able to ping hosts on the other side of the router, you are connected! If it does not work, you might want to try instead of as an argument to slattach. How to Shutdown the Connection Do the following: &prompt.root; kill -INT `cat /var/run/slattach.modem.pid` to kill slattach. Keep in mind you must be root to do the above. Then go back to kermit (by running fg if you suspended it) and exit from it (q). The slattach manual page says you have to use ifconfig sl0 down to mark the interface down, but this does not seem to make any difference for me. (ifconfig sl0 reports the same thing.) Some times, your modem might refuse to drop the carrier (mine often does). In that case, simply start kermit and quit it again. It usually goes out on the second try. Troubleshooting If it does not work, feel free to ask me. The things that people tripped over so far: Not using or in slattach (This shouldn't be fatal, but some users have reported that this solves their problems.) Using instead of (might be hard to see the difference on some fonts). Try ifconfig sl0 to see your interface status. For example, you might get: &prompt.root; ifconfig sl0 sl0: flags=10<POINTOPOINT> inet 136.152.64.181 --> 136.152.64.1 netmask ffffff00 Also, netstat -r will give the routing table, in case you get the no route to host messages from ping. An example shown here: &prompt.root; netstat -r Routing tables Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use IfaceMTU Rtt Netmasks: (root node) (root node) Route Tree for Protocol Family inet: (root node) => default inr-3.Example.EDU UG 8 224515 sl0 - - localhost.Exampl localhost.Example. UH 5 42127 lo0 - 0.438 inr-3.Example.ED water.CS.Example.E UH 1 0 sl0 - - water.CS.Example localhost.Example. UGH 34 47641234 lo0 - 0.438 (root node) This is after the link has been up for a while, the numbers on your system will vary. Setting up a SLIP Server SLIPserver This document provides suggestions for setting up SLIP Server services on a FreeBSD system, which typically means configuring your system to automatically startup connections upon login for remote SLIP clients. Prerequisites TCP/IP networking This section is very technical in nature, so background knowledge is required. It is assumed that you are familiar with the TCP/IP network protocol, and in particular, network and node addressing, network address masks, subnetting, routing, and routing protocols, such as RIP. Configuring SLIP services on a dial-up server requires a knowledge of these concepts, and if you are not familiar with them, please read a copy of either Craig Hunt's TCP/IP Network Administration published by O'Reilly & Associates, Inc. (ISBN Number 0-937175-82-X), or Douglas Comer's books on the TCP/IP protocol. modem It is further assumed that you have already setup your modem(s) and configured the appropriate system files to allow logins through your modems. If you have not prepared your system for this yet, please see the tutorial for configuring dialup services; if you have a World-Wide Web browser available, browse the list of tutorials at http://www.FreeBSD.org/. You may also want to check the manual pages for &man.sio.4; for information on the serial port device driver and &man.ttys.5;, &man.gettytab.5;, &man.getty.8;, & &man.init.8; for information relevant to configuring the system to accept logins on modems, and perhaps &man.stty.1; for information on setting serial port parameters (such as clocal for directly-connected serial interfaces). Quick Overview In its typical configuration, using FreeBSD as a SLIP server works as follows: a SLIP user dials up your FreeBSD SLIP Server system and logs in with a special SLIP login ID that uses /usr/sbin/sliplogin as the special user's shell. The sliplogin program browses the file /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts to find a matching line for the special user, and if it finds a match, connects the serial line to an available SLIP interface and then runs the shell script /etc/sliphome/slip.login to configure the SLIP interface. An Example of a SLIP Server Login For example, if a SLIP user ID were Shelmerg, Shelmerg's entry in /etc/master.passwd would look something like this: Shelmerg:password:1964:89::0:0:Guy Helmer - SLIP:/usr/users/Shelmerg:/usr/sbin/sliplogin When Shelmerg logs in, sliplogin will search /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts for a line that had a matching user ID; for example, there may be a line in /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts that reads: Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmer 0xfffffc00 autocomp sliplogin will find that matching line, hook the serial line into the next available SLIP interface, and then execute /etc/sliphome/slip.login like this: /etc/sliphome/slip.login 0 19200 Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmer 0xfffffc00 autocomp If all goes well, /etc/sliphome/slip.login will issue an ifconfig for the SLIP interface to which sliplogin attached itself (slip interface 0, in the above example, which was the first parameter in the list given to slip.login) to set the local IP address (dc-slip), remote IP address (sl-helmer), network mask for the SLIP interface (0xfffffc00), and any additional flags (autocomp). If something goes wrong, sliplogin usually logs good informational messages via the daemon syslog facility, which usually logs to /var/log/messages (see the manual pages for &man.syslogd.8; and &man.syslog.conf.5; and perhaps check /etc/syslog.conf to see to what syslogd is logging and where it is logging to. OK, enough of the examples — let us dive into setting up the system. Kernel Configuration kernelconfiguration FreeBSD's default kernels usually come with two SLIP interfaces defined (sl0 and sl1); you can use netstat -i to see whether these interfaces are defined in your kernel. Sample output from netstat -i: Name Mtu Network Address Ipkts Ierrs Opkts Oerrs Coll ed0 1500 <Link>0.0.c0.2c.5f.4a 291311 0 174209 0 133 ed0 1500 138.247.224 ivory 291311 0 174209 0 133 lo0 65535 <Link> 79 0 79 0 0 lo0 65535 loop localhost 79 0 79 0 0 sl0* 296 <Link> 0 0 0 0 0 sl1* 296 <Link> 0 0 0 0 0 The sl0 and sl1 interfaces shown from netstat -i indicate that there are two SLIP interfaces built into the kernel. (The asterisks after the sl0 and sl1 indicate that the interfaces are down.) However, FreeBSD's default kernel does not come configured to forward packets (by default, your FreeBSD machine will not act as a router) due to Internet RFC requirements for Internet hosts (see RFCs 1009 [Requirements for Internet Gateways], 1122 [Requirements for Internet Hosts — Communication Layers], and perhaps 1127 [A Perspective on the Host Requirements RFCs]). If you want your FreeBSD SLIP Server to act as a router, you will have to edit the /etc/rc.conf file and change the setting of the gateway_enable variable to . You will then need to reboot for the new settings to take effect. You will notice that near the end of the default kernel configuration file (/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC) is a line that reads: pseudo-device sl 2 SLIP This is the line that defines the number of SLIP devices available in the kernel; the number at the end of the line is the maximum number of SLIP connections that may be operating simultaneously. Please refer to on Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel for help in reconfiguring your kernel. Sliplogin Configuration As mentioned earlier, there are three files in the /etc/sliphome directory that are part of the configuration for /usr/sbin/sliplogin (see &man.sliplogin.8; for the actual manual page for sliplogin): slip.hosts, which defines the SLIP users & their associated IP addresses; slip.login, which usually just configures the SLIP interface; and (optionally) slip.logout, which undoes slip.login's effects when the serial connection is terminated. <filename>slip.hosts</filename> Configuration /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts contains lines which have at least four items separated by whitespace: SLIP user's login ID Local address (local to the SLIP server) of the SLIP link Remote address of the SLIP link Network mask The local and remote addresses may be host names (resolved to IP addresses by /etc/hosts or by the domain name service, depending on your specifications in /etc/host.conf), and the network mask may be a name that can be resolved by a lookup into /etc/networks. On a sample system, /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts looks like this: # # login local-addr remote-addr mask opt1 opt2 # (normal,compress,noicmp) # Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmerg 0xfffffc00 autocomp At the end of the line is one or more of the options. — no header compression — compress headers — compress headers if the remote end allows it — disable ICMP packets (so any ping packets will be dropped instead of using up your bandwidth) SLIP TCP/IP networking Your choice of local and remote addresses for your SLIP links depends on whether you are going to dedicate a TCP/IP subnet or if you are going to use proxy ARP on your SLIP server (it is not true proxy ARP, but that is the terminology used in this section to describe it). If you are not sure which method to select or how to assign IP addresses, please refer to the TCP/IP books referenced in the SLIP Prerequisites () and/or consult your IP network manager. gated If you are going to use a separate subnet for your SLIP clients, you will need to allocate the subnet number out of your assigned IP network number and assign each of your SLIP client's IP numbers out of that subnet. Then, you will probably either need to configure a static route to the SLIP subnet via your SLIP server on your nearest IP router, or install gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server and configure it to talk the appropriate routing protocols to your other routers to inform them about your SLIP server's route to the SLIP subnet. Ethernet Otherwise, if you will use the proxy ARP method, you will need to assign your SLIP client's IP addresses out of your SLIP server's Ethernet subnet, and you will also need to adjust your /etc/sliphome/slip.login and /etc/sliphome/slip.logout scripts to use &man.arp.8; to manage the proxy-ARP entries in the SLIP server's ARP table. <filename>slip.login</filename> Configuration The typical /etc/sliphome/slip.login file looks like this: #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.login 5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90 # # generic login file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6 This slip.login file merely runs ifconfig for the appropriate SLIP interface with the local and remote addresses and network mask of the SLIP interface. If you have decided to use the proxy ARP method (instead of using a separate subnet for your SLIP clients), your /etc/sliphome/slip.login file will need to look something like this: #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.login 5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90 # # generic login file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6 # Answer ARP requests for the SLIP client with our Ethernet addr /usr/sbin/arp -s $5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pub The additional line in this slip.login, arp -s $5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pub, creates an ARP entry in the SLIP server's ARP table. This ARP entry causes the SLIP server to respond with the SLIP server's Ethernet MAC address whenever another IP node on the Ethernet asks to speak to the SLIP client's IP address. EthernetMAC address When using the example above, be sure to replace the Ethernet MAC address (00:11:22:33:44:55) with the MAC address of your system's Ethernet card, or your proxy ARP will definitely not work! You can discover your SLIP server's Ethernet MAC address by looking at the results of running netstat -i; the second line of the output should look something like: ed0 1500 <Link>0.2.c1.28.5f.4a 191923 0 129457 0 116 This indicates that this particular system's Ethernet MAC address is 00:02:c1:28:5f:4a — the periods in the Ethernet MAC address given by netstat -i must be changed to colons and leading zeros should be added to each single-digit hexadecimal number to convert the address into the form that &man.arp.8; desires; see the manual page on &man.arp.8; for complete information on usage. When you create /etc/sliphome/slip.login and /etc/sliphome/slip.logout, the execute bit (chmod 755 /etc/sliphome/slip.login /etc/sliphome/slip.logout) must be set, or sliplogin will be unable to execute it. <filename>slip.logout</filename> Configuration /etc/sliphome/slip.logout is not strictly needed (unless you are implementing proxy ARP), but if you decide to create it, this is an example of a basic slip.logout script: #!/bin/sh - # # slip.logout # # logout file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 down If you are using proxy ARP, you will want to have /etc/sliphome/slip.logout remove the ARP entry for the SLIP client: #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.logout # # logout file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 down # Quit answering ARP requests for the SLIP client /usr/sbin/arp -d $5 The arp -d $5 removes the ARP entry that the proxy ARP slip.login added when the SLIP client logged in. It bears repeating: make sure /etc/sliphome/slip.logout has the execute bit set after you create it (ie, chmod 755 /etc/sliphome/slip.logout). Routing Considerations SLIP routing If you are not using the proxy ARP method for routing packets between your SLIP clients and the rest of your network (and perhaps the Internet), you will probably either have to add static routes to your closest default router(s) to route your SLIP client subnet via your SLIP server, or you will probably need to install and configure gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server so that it will tell your routers via appropriate routing protocols about your SLIP subnet. Static Routes static routes Adding static routes to your nearest default routers can be troublesome (or impossible if you do not have authority to do so...). If you have a multiple-router network in your organization, some routers, such as those made by Cisco and Proteon, may not only need to be configured with the static route to the SLIP subnet, but also need to be told which static routes to tell other routers about, so some expertise and troubleshooting/tweaking may be necessary to get static-route-based routing to work. Running <command>gated</command> gated An alternative to the headaches of static routes is to install gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server and configure it to use the appropriate routing protocols (RIP/OSPF/BGP/EGP) to tell other routers about your SLIP subnet. You can use gated from the ports collection or retrieve and build it yourself from the GateD anonymous FTP site; the current version as of this writing is gated-R3_5Alpha_8.tar.Z, which includes support for FreeBSD out-of-the-box. Complete information and documentation on gated is available on the Web starting at the Merit GateD Consortium. Compile and install it, and then write a /etc/gated.conf file to configure your gated; here is a sample, similar to what the author used on a FreeBSD SLIP server: # # gated configuration file for dc.dsu.edu; for gated version 3.5alpha5 # Only broadcast RIP information for xxx.xxx.yy out the ed Ethernet interface # # # tracing options # traceoptions "/var/tmp/gated.output" replace size 100k files 2 general ; rip yes { interface sl noripout noripin ; interface ed ripin ripout version 1 ; traceoptions route ; } ; # # Turn on a bunch of tracing info for the interface to the kernel: kernel { traceoptions remnants request routes info interface ; } ; # # Propagate the route to xxx.xxx.yy out the Ethernet interface via RIP # export proto rip interface ed { proto direct { xxx.xxx.yy mask 255.255.252.0 metric 1; # SLIP connections } ; } ; # # Accept routes from RIP via ed Ethernet interfaces import proto rip interface ed { all ; } ; RIP The above sample gated.conf file broadcasts routing information regarding the SLIP subnet xxx.xxx.yy via RIP onto the Ethernet; if you are using a different Ethernet driver than the ed driver, you will need to change the references to the ed interface appropriately. This sample file also sets up tracing to /var/tmp/gated.output for debugging gated's activity; you can certainly turn off the tracing options if gated works OK for you. You will need to change the xxx.xxx.yy's into the network address of your own SLIP subnet (be sure to change the net mask in the proto direct clause as well). Once you have installed and configured gated on your system, you will need to tell the FreeBSD startup scripts to run gated in place of routed. The easiest way to accomplish this is to set the router and router_flags variables in /etc/rc.conf. Please see the manual page for gated for information on command-line parameters. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/printing/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/printing/chapter.sgml index 168d0b7904..17586edcbf 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/printing/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/printing/chapter.sgml @@ -1,4886 +1,4886 @@ Sean Kelly Contributed by Jim Mock Restructured and updated by Printing Synopsis LPD spooling system printing FreeBSD can be used to print to a wide variety of printers, from the oldest impact printer to the latest laser printers, and everything in between, allowing you to produce high quality printed output from the applications you run. FreeBSD can also be configured to act as a print server on a network; in this capacity FreeBSD can receive print jobs from a variety of other computers, including other FreeBSD computers, Windows and MacOS hosts. FreeBSD will ensure that one job at a time is printed, and can keep statistics on which users and machines are doing the most printing, produce banner pages showing who's printout is who's, and more. - After reading this chapter you will know: + After reading this chapter, you will know: How to configure the FreeBSD print spooler. How to install print filters, to handle special print jobs differently, including converting incoming documents to print formats that your printers understand. How to enable header, or banner pages on your printout. How to print to printers connected to other computers. How to print to printers connected directly to the network. How to control printer restrictions, including limiting the size of print jobs, and preventing certain users from printing. How to keep printer statistics, and account for printer usage. How to troubleshoot printing problems. - Before reading this chapter you should: + Before reading this chapter, you should: Know how to configure and install a new kernel (). Introduction In order to use printers with FreeBSD, you will need to set them up to work with the Berkeley line printer spooling system, also known as the LPD spooling system. It is the standard printer control system in FreeBSD. This chapter introduces the LPD spooling system, often simply called LPD, and will guide you through its configuration. If you are already familiar with LPD or another printer spooling system, you may wish to skip to section Setting up the spooling system. LPD controls everything about a host's printers. It is responsible for a number of things: It controls access to attached printers and printers attached to other hosts on the network. print jobs It enables users to submit files to be printed; these submissions are known as jobs. It prevents multiple users from accessing a printer at the same time by maintaining a queue for each printer. It can print header pages (also known as banner or burst pages) so users can easily find jobs they have printed in a stack of printouts. It takes care of communications parameters for printers connected on serial ports. It can send jobs over the network to a LPD spooler on another host. It can run special filters to format jobs to be printed for various printer languages or printer capabilities. It can account for printer usage. Through a configuration file (/etc/printcap), and by providing the special filter programs, you can enable the LPD system to do all or some subset of the above for a great variety of printer hardware. Why You Should Use the Spooler If you are the sole user of your system, you may be wondering why you should bother with the spooler when you do not need access control, header pages, or printer accounting. While it is possible to enable direct access to a printer, you should use the spooler anyway since: LPD prints jobs in the background; you do not have to wait for data to be copied to the printer. TeX LPD can conveniently run a job to be printed through filters to add date/time headers or convert a special file format (such as a TeX DVI file) into a format the printer will understand. You will not have to do these steps manually. Many free and commercial programs that provide a print feature usually expect to talk to the spooler on your system. By setting up the spooling system, you will more easily support other software you may later add or already have. Basic Setup To use printers with the LPD spooling system, you will need to set up both your printer hardware and the LPD software. This document describes two levels of setup: See section Simple Printer Setup to learn how to connect a printer, tell LPD how to communicate with it, and print plain text files to the printer. See section Advanced Printer Setup to find out how to print a variety of special file formats, to print header pages, to print across a network, to control access to printers, and to do printer accounting. Simple Printer Setup This section tells how to configure printer hardware and the LPD software to use the printer. It teaches the basics: Section Hardware Setup gives some hints on connecting the printer to a port on your computer. Section Software Setup shows how to setup the LPD spooler configuration file (/etc/printcap). If you are setting up a printer that uses a network protocol to accept data to print instead of a serial or parallel interface, see Printers With Networked Data Stream Interfaces. Although this section is called Simple Printer Setup, it is actually fairly complex. Getting the printer to work with your computer and the LPD spooler is the hardest part. The advanced options like header pages and accounting are fairly easy once you get the printer working. Hardware Setup This section tells about the various ways you can connect a printer to your PC. It talks about the kinds of ports and cables, and also the kernel configuration you may need to enable FreeBSD to speak to the printer. If you have already connected your printer and have successfully printed with it under another operating system, you can probably skip to section Software Setup. Ports and Cables Nearly all printers you can get for a PC today support one or both of the following interfaces: printer serial Serial interfaces use a serial port on your computer to send data to the printer. Serial interfaces are common in the computer industry and cables are readily available and also easy to construct. Serial interfaces sometimes need special cables and might require you to configure somewhat complex communications options. printer parallel Parallel interfaces use a parallel port on your computer to send data to the printer. Parallel interfaces are common in the PC market. Cables are readily available but more difficult to construct by hand. There are usually no communications options with parallel interfaces, making their configuration exceedingly simple. centronics parallel printers Parallel interfaces are sometimes known as Centronics interfaces, named after the connector type on the printer. In general, serial interfaces are slower than parallel interfaces. Parallel interfaces usually offer just one-way communication (computer to printer) while serial gives you two-way. Many newer parallel ports and printers can communicate in both directions under FreeBSD when a IEEE1284 compliant cable is used. PostScript Usually, the only time you need two-way communication with the printer is if the printer speaks PostScript. PostScript printers can be very verbose. In fact, PostScript jobs are actually programs sent to the printer; they need not produce paper at all and may return results directly to the computer. PostScript also uses two-way communication to tell the computer about problems, such as errors in the PostScript program or paper jams. Your users may be appreciative of such information. Furthermore, the best way to do effective accounting with a PostScript printer requires two-way communication: you ask the printer for its page count (how many pages it has printed in its lifetime), then send the user's job, then ask again for its page count. Subtract the two values and you know how much paper to charge the user. Parallel Ports To hook up a printer using a parallel interface, connect the Centronics cable between the printer and the computer. The instructions that came with the printer, the computer, or both should give you complete guidance. Remember which parallel port you used on the computer. The first parallel port is /dev/lpt0 to FreeBSD; the second is /dev/lpt1, and so on. Serial Ports To hook up a printer using a serial interface, connect the proper serial cable between the printer and the computer. The instructions that came with the printer, the computer, or both should give you complete guidance. If you are unsure what the proper serial cable is, you may wish to try one of the following alternatives: A modem cable connects each pin of the connector on one end of the cable straight through to its corresponding pin of the connector on the other end. This type of cable is also known as a DTE-to-DCE cable. null-modem cable A null-modem cable connects some pins straight through, swaps others (send data to receive data, for example), and shorts some internally in each connector hood. This type of cable is also known as a DTE-to-DTE cable. A serial printer cable, required for some unusual printers, is like the null-modem cable, but sends some signals to their counterparts instead of being internally shorted. baud rate parity flow control protocol You should also set up the communications parameters for the printer, usually through front-panel controls or DIP switches on the printer. Choose the highest bps (bits per second, sometimes baud rate) rate that both your computer and the printer can support. Choose 7 or 8 data bits; none, even, or odd parity; and 1 or 2 stop bits. Also choose a flow control protocol: either none, or XON/XOFF (also known as in-band or software) flow control. Remember these settings for the software configuration that follows. Software Setup This section describes the software setup necessary to print with the LPD spooling system in FreeBSD. Here is an outline of the steps involved: Configure your kernel, if necessary, for the port you are using for the printer; section Kernel Configuration tells you what you need to do. Set the communications mode for the parallel port, if you are using a parallel port; section Setting the Communication Mode for the Parallel Port gives details. Test if the operating system can send data to the printer. Section Checking Printer Communications gives some suggestions on how to do this. Set up LPD for the printer by modifying the file /etc/printcap. You will find out how to do this later in this chapter. Kernel Configuration The operating system kernel is compiled to work with a specific set of devices. The serial or parallel interface for your printer is a part of that set. Therefore, it might be necessary to add support for an additional serial or parallel port if your kernel is not already configured for one. To find out if the kernel you are currently using supports a serial interface, type: &prompt.root; dmesg | grep sioN Where N is the number of the serial port, starting from zero. If you see output similar to the following: sio2 at 0x3e8-0x3ef irq 5 on isa sio2: type 16550A then the kernel supports the port. To find out if the kernel supports a parallel interface, type: &prompt.root; dmesg | grep lptN Where N is the number of the parallel port, starting from zero. If you see output similar to the following lpt0 at 0x378-0x37f on isa then the kernel supports the port. You might have to reconfigure your kernel in order for the operating system to recognize and use the parallel or serial port you are using for the printer. To add support for a serial port, see the section on kernel configuration. To add support for a parallel port, see that section and the section that follows. Adding <filename>/dev</filename> Entries for the Ports Even though the kernel may support communication along a serial or parallel port, you will still need a software interface through which programs running on the system can send and receive data. That is what entries in the /dev directory are for. To add a /dev entry for a port: Become root with the &man.su.1; command. Enter the root password when prompted. Change to the /dev directory: &prompt.root; cd /dev Type: &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV port Where port is the device entry for the port you want to make. Use lpt0 for the first parallel port, lpt1 for the second, and so on; use ttyd0 for the first serial port, ttyd1 for the second, and so on. Type: &prompt.root; ls -l port to make sure the device entry got created. Setting the Communication Mode for the Parallel Port When you are using the parallel interface, you can choose whether FreeBSD should use interrupt-driven or polled communication with the printer. The interrupt-driven method is the default with the GENERIC kernel. With this method, the operating system uses an IRQ line to determine when the printer is ready for data. The polled method directs the operating system to repeatedly ask the printer if it is ready for more data. When it responds ready, the kernel sends more data. The interrupt-driven method is somewhat faster but uses up a precious IRQ line. You should use whichever one works. You can set the communications mode in two ways: by configuring the kernel or by using the &man.lptcontrol.8; program. To set the communications mode by configuring the kernel: Edit your kernel configuration file. Look for or add an lpt0 entry. If you are setting up the second parallel port, use lpt1 instead. Use lpt2 for the third port, and so on. If you want interrupt-driven mode, add the irq specifier: device lpt0 at isa? port? tty irq N vector lptintr Where N is the IRQ number for your computer's parallel port. If you want polled mode, do not add the irq specifier: device lpt0 at isa? port? tty vector lptintr Save the file. Then configure, build, and install the kernel, then reboot. See kernel configuration for more details. To set the communications mode with &man.lptcontrol.8;: Type: &prompt.root; lptcontrol -i -u N to set interrupt-driven mode for lptN. Type: &prompt.root; lptcontrol -p -u N to set polled-mode for lptN. You could put these commands in your /etc/rc.local file to set the mode each time your system boots. See &man.lptcontrol.8; for more information. Checking Printer Communications Before proceeding to configure the spooling system, you should make sure the operating system can successfully send data to your printer. It is a lot easier to debug printer communication and the spooling system separately. To test the printer, we will send some text to it. For printers that can immediately print characters sent to them, the program &man.lptest.1; is perfect: it generates all 96 printable ASCII characters in 96 lines. PostScript For a PostScript (or other language-based) printer, we will need a more sophisticated test. A small PostScript program, such as the following, will suffice: %!PS 100 100 moveto 300 300 lineto stroke 310 310 moveto /Helvetica findfont 12 scalefont setfont (Is this thing working?) show showpage The above PostScript code can be placed into a file and used as shown in the examples appearing in the following sections. PCL When this document refers to a printer language, it is assuming a language like PostScript, and not Hewlett Packard's PCL. Although PCL has great functionality, you can intermingle plain text with its escape sequences. PostScript cannot directly print plain text, and that is the kind of printer language for which we must make special accommodations. Checking a Parallel Printer printer parallel This section tells you how to check if FreeBSD can communicate with a printer connected to a parallel port. To test a printer on a parallel port: Become root with &man.su.1;. Send data to the printer. If the printer can print plain text, then use &man.lptest.1;. Type: &prompt.root; lptest > /dev/lptN Where N is the number of the parallel port, starting from zero. If the printer understands PostScript or other printer language, then send a small program to the printer. Type: &prompt.root; cat > /dev/lptN Then, line by line, type the program carefully as you cannot edit a line once you have pressed RETURN or ENTER. When you have finished entering the program, press CONTROL+D, or whatever your end of file key is. Alternatively, you can put the program in a file and type: &prompt.root; cat file > /dev/lptN Where file is the name of the file containing the program you want to send to the printer. You should see something print. Do not worry if the text does not look right; we will fix such things later. Checking a Serial Printer printer serial This section tells you how to check if FreeBSD can communicate with a printer on a serial port. To test a printer on a serial port: Become root with &man.su.1;. Edit the file /etc/remote. Add the following entry: printer:dv=/dev/port:br#bps-rate:pa=parity bits-per-second serial port parity Where port is the device entry for the serial port (ttyd0, ttyd1, etc.), bps-rate is the bits-per-second rate at which the printer communicates, and parity is the parity required by the printer (either even, odd, none, or zero). Here is a sample entry for a printer connected via a serial line to the third serial port at 19200 bps with no parity: printer:dv=/dev/ttyd2:br#19200:pa=none Connect to the printer with &man.tip.1;. Type: &prompt.root; tip printer If this step does not work, edit the file /etc/remote again and try using /dev/cuaaN instead of /dev/ttydN. Send data to the printer. If the printer can print plain text, then use &man.lptest.1;. Type: ~$lptest If the printer understands PostScript or other printer language, then send a small program to the printer. Type the program, line by line, very carefully as backspacing or other editing keys may be significant to the printer. You may also need to type a special end-of-file key for the printer so it knows it received the whole program. For PostScript printers, press CONTROL+D. Alternatively, you can put the program in a file and type: ~>file Where file is the name of the file containing the program. After &man.tip.1; sends the file, press any required end-of-file key. You should see something print. Do not worry if the text does not look right; we will fix that later. Enabling the Spooler: The <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> File At this point, your printer should be hooked up, your kernel configured to communicate with it (if necessary), and you have been able to send some simple data to the printer. Now, we are ready to configure LPD to control access to your printer. You configure LPD by editing the file /etc/printcap. The LPD spooling system reads this file each time the spooler is used, so updates to the file take immediate effect. printer capabilities The format of the &man.printcap.5; file is straightforward. Use your favorite text editor to make changes to /etc/printcap. The format is identical to other capability files like /usr/share/misc/termcap and /etc/remote. For complete information about the format, see the &man.cgetent.3;. The simple spooler configuration consists of the following steps: Pick a name (and a few convenient aliases) for the printer, and put them in the /etc/printcap file; see the Naming the Printer section for more information on naming. header pages Turn off header pages (which are on by default) by inserting the sh capability; see the Suppressing Header Pages section for more information. Make a spooling directory, and specify its location with the sd capability; see the Making the Spooling Directory section for more information. Set the /dev entry to use for the printer, and note it in /etc/printcap with the lp capability; see the Identifying the Printer Device for more information. Also, if the printer is on a serial port, set up the communication parameters with the fs, fc, xs, and xc capabilities; which is discussed in the Configuring Spooler Communications Parameters section. Install a plain text input filter; see the Installing the Text Filter section for details. Test the setup by printing something with the &man.lpr.1; command. More details are available in the Trying It Out and Troubleshooting sections. Language-based printers, such as PostScript printers, cannot directly print plain text. The simple setup outlined above and described in the following sections assumes that if you are installing such a printer you will print only files that the printer can understand. Users often expect that they can print plain text to any of the printers installed on your system. Programs that interface to LPD to do their printing usually make the same assumption. If you are installing such a printer and want to be able to print jobs in the printer language and print plain text jobs, you are strongly urged to add an additional step to the simple setup outlined above: install an automatic plain-text-to-PostScript (or other printer language) conversion program. The section entitled Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers tells how to do this. Naming the Printer The first (easy) step is to pick a name for your printer It really does not matter whether you choose functional or whimsical names since you can also provide a number of aliases for the printer. At least one of the printers specified in the /etc/printcap should have the alias lp. This is the default printer's name. If users do not have the PRINTER environment variable nor specify a printer name on the command line of any of the LPD commands, then lp will be the default printer they get to use. Also, it is common practice to make the last alias for a printer be a full description of the printer, including make and model. Once you have picked a name and some common aliases, put them in the /etc/printcap file. The name of the printer should start in the leftmost column. Separate each alias with a vertical bar and put a colon after the last alias. In the following example, we start with a skeletal /etc/printcap that defines two printers (a Diablo 630 line printer and a Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript laser printer): # # /etc/printcap for host rose # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4: In this example, the first printer is named rattan and has as aliases line, diablo, lp, and Diablo 630 Line Printer. Since it has the alias lp, it is also the default printer. The second is named bamboo, and has as aliases ps, PS, S, panasonic, and Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4. Suppressing Header Pages printing header pages The LPD spooling system will by default print a header page for each job. The header page contains the user name who requested the job, the host from which the job came, and the name of the job, in nice large letters. Unfortunately, all this extra text gets in the way of debugging the simple printer setup, so we will suppress header pages. To suppress header pages, add the sh capability to the entry for the printer in /etc/printcap. Here is an example /etc/printcap with sh added: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - no header pages anywhere # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh: Note how we used the correct format: the first line starts in the leftmost column, and subsequent lines are indented with a single TAB. Every line in an entry except the last ends in a backslash character. Making the Spooling Directory printer spool print jobs The next step in the simple spooler setup is to make a spooling directory, a directory where print jobs reside until they are printed, and where a number of other spooler support files live. Because of the variable nature of spooling directories, it is customary to put these directories under /var/spool. It is not necessary to backup the contents of spooling directories, either. Recreating them is as simple as running &man.mkdir.1;. It is also customary to make the directory with a name that is identical to the name of the printer, as shown below: &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/printer-name However, if you have a lot of printers on your network, you might want to put the spooling directories under a single directory that you reserve just for printing with LPD. We will do this for our two example printers rattan and bamboo: &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/lpd &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/lpd/rattan &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/lpd/bamboo If you are concerned about the privacy of jobs that users print, you might want to protect the spooling directory so it is not publicly accessible. Spooling directories should be owned and be readable, writable, and searchable by user daemon and group daemon, and no one else. We will do this for our example printers: &prompt.root; chown daemon:daemon /var/spool/lpd/rattan &prompt.root; chown daemon:daemon /var/spool/lpd/bamboo &prompt.root; chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/rattan &prompt.root; chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/bamboo Finally, you need to tell LPD about these directories using the /etc/printcap file. You specify the pathname of the spooling directory with the sd capability: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - added spooling directories # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo: Note that the name of the printer starts in the first column but all other entries describing the printer should be indented with a tab and each line escaped with a backslash. If you do not specify a spooling directory with sd, the spooling system will use /var/spool/lpd as a default. Identifying the Printer Device In the Adding /dev Entries for the Ports section, we identified which entry in the /dev directory FreeBSD will use to communicate with the printer. Now, we tell LPD that information. When the spooling system has a job to print, it will open the specified device on behalf of the filter program (which is responsible for passing data to the printer). List the /dev entry pathname in the /etc/printcap file using the lp capability. In our running example, let us assume that rattan is on the first parallel port, and bamboo is on a sixth serial port; here are the additions to /etc/printcap: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - identified what devices to use # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5: If you do not specify the lp capability for a printer in your /etc/printcap file, LPD uses /dev/lp as a default. /dev/lp currently does not exist in FreeBSD. If the printer you are installing is connected to a parallel port, skip to the section entitled, Installing the Text Filter. Otherwise, be sure to follow the instructions in the next section. Configuring Spooler Communication Parameters printer serial For printers on serial ports, LPD can set up the bps rate, parity, and other serial communication parameters on behalf of the filter program that sends data to the printer. This is advantageous since: It lets you try different communication parameters by simply editing the /etc/printcap file; you do not have to recompile the filter program. It enables the spooling system to use the same filter program for multiple printers which may have different serial communication settings. The following /etc/printcap capabilities control serial communication parameters of the device listed in the lp capability: br#bps-rate Sets the communications speed of the device to bps-rate, where bps-rate can be 50, 75, 110, 134, 150, 200, 300, 600, 1200, 1800, 2400, 4800, 9600, 19200, or 38400 bits-per-second. fc#clear-bits Clears the flag bits clear-bits in the sgttyb structure after opening the device. fs#set-bits Sets the flag bits set-bits in the sgttyb structure. xc#clear-bits Clears local mode bits clear-bits after opening the device. xs#set-bits Sets local mode bits set-bits. For more information on the bits for the fc, fs, xc, and xs capabilities, see the file /usr/include/sys/ioctl_compat.h. When LPD opens the device specified by the lp capability, it reads the flag bits in the sgttyb structure; it clears any bits in the fc capability, then sets bits in the fs capability, then applies the resultant setting. It does the same for the local mode bits as well. Let us add to our example printer on the sixth serial port. We will set the bps rate to 38400. For the flag bits, we will set the TANDEM, ANYP, LITOUT, FLUSHO, and PASS8 flags. For the local mode bits, we will set the LITOUT and PASS8 flags: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000c1:xs#0x820: Installing the Text Filter print filters We are now ready to tell LPD what text filter to use to send jobs to the printer. A text filter, also known as an input filter, is a program that LPD runs when it has a job to print. When LPD runs the text filter for a printer, it sets the filter's standard input to the job to print, and its standard output to the printer device specified with the lp capability. The filter is expected to read the job from standard input, perform any necessary translation for the printer, and write the results to standard output, which will get printed. For more information on the text filter, see the Filters section. For our simple printer setup, the text filter can be a small shell script that just executes /bin/cat to send the job to the printer. FreeBSD comes with another filter called lpf that handles backspacing and underlining for printers that might not deal with such character streams well. And, of course, you can use any other filter program you want. The filter lpf is described in detail in section entitled lpf: a Text Filter. First, let us make the shell script /usr/local/libexec/if-simple be a simple text filter. Put the following text into that file with your favorite text editor: #!/bin/sh # # if-simple - Simple text input filter for lpd # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/if-simple # # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. /bin/cat && exit 0 exit 2 Make the file executable: &prompt.root; chmod 555 /usr/local/libexec/if-simple And then tell LPD to use it by specifying it with the if capability in /etc/printcap. We will add it to the two printers we have so far in the example /etc/printcap: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - added text filter # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: Turn on <application>LPD</application> &man.lpd.8; is run from /etc/rc, controlled by the lpd_enable variable. This variable defaults to NO. If you have not done so already, add the line: lpd_enable="YES" to /etc/rc.conf, and then either restart your machine, or just run &man.lpd.8;. &prompt.root; lpd Trying It Out You have reached the end of the simple LPD setup. Unfortunately, congratulations are not quite yet in order, since we still have to test the setup and correct any problems. To test the setup, try printing something. To print with the LPD system, you use the command &man.lpr.1;, which submits a job for printing. You can combine &man.lpr.1; with the &man.lptest.1; program, introduced in section Checking Printer Communications to generate some test text. To test the simple LPD setup: Type: &prompt.root; lptest 20 5 | lpr -Pprinter-name Where printer-name is a the name of a printer (or an alias) specified in /etc/printcap. To test the default printer, type &man.lpr.1; without any argument. Again, if you are testing a printer that expects PostScript, send a PostScript program in that language instead of using &man.lptest.1;. You can do so by putting the program in a file and typing lpr file. For a PostScript printer, you should get the results of the program. If you are using &man.lptest.1;, then your results should look like the following: !"#$%&'()*+,-./01234 "#$%&'()*+,-./012345 #$%&'()*+,-./0123456 $%&'()*+,-./01234567 %&'()*+,-./012345678 To further test the printer, try downloading larger programs (for language-based printers) or running &man.lptest.1; with different arguments. For example, lptest 80 60 will produce 60 lines of 80 characters each. If the printer did not work, see the Troubleshooting section. Advanced Printer Setup This section describes filters for printing specially formatted files, header pages, printing across networks, and restricting and accounting for printer usage. Filters print filters Although LPD handles network protocols, queuing, access control, and other aspects of printing, most of the real work happens in the filters. Filters are programs that communicate with the printer and handle its device dependencies and special requirements. In the simple printer setup, we installed a plain text filter—an extremely simple one that should work with most printers (section Installing the Text Filter). However, in order to take advantage of format conversion, printer accounting, specific printer quirks, and so on, you should understand how filters work. It will ultimately be the filter's responsibility to handle these aspects. And the bad news is that most of the time you have to provide filters yourself. The good news is that many are generally available; when they are not, they are usually easy to write. Also, FreeBSD comes with one, /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf, that works with many printers that can print plain text. (It handles backspacing and tabs in the file, and does accounting, but that is about all it does.) There are also several filters and filter components in the FreeBSD Ports Collection. Here is what you will find in this section: Section How Filters Work, tries to give an overview of a filter's role in the printing process. You should read this section to get an understanding of what is happening under the hood when LPD uses filters. This knowledge could help you anticipate and debug problems you might encounter as you install more and more filters on each of your printers. LPD expects every printer to be able to print plain text by default. This presents a problem for PostScript (or other language-based printers) which cannot directly print plain text. Section Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers tells you what you should do to overcome this problem. You should read this section if you have a PostScript printer. PostScript is a popular output format for many programs. Even some people (myself included) write PostScript code directly. But PostScript printers are expensive. Section Simulating PostScript on Non-PostScript Printers tells how you can further modify a printer's text filter to accept and print PostScript data on a non-PostScript printer. You should read this section if you do not have a PostScript printer. Section Conversion Filters tells about a way you can automate the conversion of specific file formats, such as graphic or typesetting data, into formats your printer can understand. After reading this section, you should be able to set up your printers such that users can type lpr -t to print troff data, or lpr -d to print TeX DVI data, or lpr -v to print raster image data, and so forth. I recommend reading this section. Section Output Filters tells all about a not often used feature of LPD: output filters. Unless you are printing header pages (see Header Pages), you can probably skip that section altogether. Section lpf: a Text Filter describes lpf, a fairly complete if simple text filter for line printers (and laser printers that act like line printers) that comes with FreeBSD. If you need a quick way to get printer accounting working for plain text, or if you have a printer which emits smoke when it sees backspace characters, you should definitely consider lpf. How Filters Work As mentioned before, a filter is an executable program started by LPD to handle the device-dependent part of communicating with the printer. When LPD wants to print a file in a job, it starts a filter program. It sets the filter's standard input to the file to print, its standard output to the printer, and its standard error to the error logging file (specified in the lf capability in /etc/printcap, or /dev/console by default). troff Which filter LPD starts and the filter's arguments depend on what is listed in the /etc/printcap file and what arguments the user specified for the job on the &man.lpr.1; command line. For example, if the user typed lpr -t, LPD would start the troff filter, listed in the tf capability for the destination printer. If the user wanted to print plain text, it would start the if filter (this is mostly true: see Output Filters for details). There are three kinds of filters you can specify in /etc/printcap: The text filter, confusingly called the input filter in LPD documentation, handles regular text printing. Think of it as the default filter. LPD expects every printer to be able to print plain text by default, and it is the text filter's job to make sure backspaces, tabs, or other special characters do not confuse the printer. If you are in an environment where you have to account for printer usage, the text filter must also account for pages printed, usually by counting the number of lines printed and comparing that to the number of lines per page the printer supports. The text filter is started with the following argument list: filter-name -c -wwidth -llength -iindent -n login -h host acct-file where appears if the job is submitted with lpr -l width is the value from the pw (page width) capability specified in /etc/printcap, default 132 length is the value from the pl (page length) capability, default 66 indent is the amount of the indentation from lpr -i, default 0 login is the account name of the user printing the file host is the host name from which the job was submitted acct-file is the name of the accounting file from the af capability. printer filters A conversion filter converts a specific file format into one the printer can render onto paper. For example, ditroff typesetting data cannot be directly printed, but you can install a conversion filter for ditroff files to convert the ditroff data into a form the printer can digest and print. Section Conversion Filters tells all about them. Conversion filters also need to do accounting, if you need printer accounting. Conversion filters are started with the following arguments: filter-name -xpixel-width -ypixel-height -n login -h host acct-file where pixel-width is the value from the px capability (default 0) and pixel-height is the value from the py capability (default 0). The output filter is used only if there is no text filter, or if header pages are enabled. In my experience, output filters are rarely used. Section Output Filters describe them. There are only two arguments to an output filter: filter-name -wwidth -llength which are identical to the text filters and arguments. Filters should also exit with the following exit status: exit 0 If the filter printed the file successfully. exit 1 If the filter failed to print the file but wants LPD to try to print the file again. LPD will restart a filter if it exits with this status. exit 2 If the filter failed to print the file and does not want LPD to try again. LPD will throw out the file. The text filter that comes with the FreeBSD release, /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf, takes advantage of the page width and length arguments to determine when to send a form feed and how to account for printer usage. It uses the login, host, and accounting file arguments to make the accounting entries. If you are shopping for filters, see if they are LPD-compatible. If they are, they must support the argument lists described above. If you plan on writing filters for general use, then have them support the same argument lists and exit codes. Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers print jobs If you are the only user of your computer and PostScript (or other language-based) printer, and you promise to never send plain text to your printer and to never use features of various programs that will want to send plain text to your printer, then you do not need to worry about this section at all. But, if you would like to send both PostScript and plain text jobs to the printer, then you are urged to augment your printer setup. To do so, we have the text filter detect if the arriving job is plain text or PostScript. All PostScript jobs must start with %! (for other printer languages, see your printer documentation). If those are the first two characters in the job, we have PostScript, and can pass the rest of the job directly. If those are not the first two characters in the file, then the filter will convert the text into PostScript and print the result. How do we do this? printer serial If you have got a serial printer, a great way to do it is to install lprps. lprps is a PostScript printer filter which performs two-way communication with the printer. It updates the printer's status file with verbose information from the printer, so users and administrators can see exactly what the state of the printer is (such as toner low or paper jam). But more importantly, it includes a program called psif which detects whether the incoming job is plain text and calls textps (another program that comes with lprps) to convert it to PostScript. It then uses lprps to send the job to the printer. lprps is part of the FreeBSD Ports Collection (see The Ports Collection). You can fetch, build and install it yourself, of course. After installing lprps, just specify the pathname to the psif program that is part of lprps. If you installed lprps from the ports collection, use the following in the serial PostScript printer's entry in /etc/printcap: :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif: You should also specify the rw capability; that tells LPD to open the printer in read-write mode. If you have a parallel PostScript printer (and therefore cannot use two-way communication with the printer, which lprps needs), you can use the following shell script as the text filter: #!/bin/sh # # psif - Print PostScript or plain text on a PostScript printer # Script version; NOT the version that comes with lprps # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psif # read first_line first_two_chars=`expr "$first_line" : '\(..\)'` if [ "$first_two_chars" = "%!" ]; then # # PostScript job, print it. # echo "$first_line" && cat && printf "\004" && exit 0 exit 2 else # # Plain text, convert it, then print it. # ( echo "$first_line"; cat ) | /usr/local/bin/textps && printf "\004" && exit 0 exit 2 fi In the above script, textps is a program we installed separately to convert plain text to PostScript. You can use any text-to-PostScript program you wish. The FreeBSD Ports Collection (see The Ports Collection) includes a full featured text-to-PostScript program called a2ps that you might want to investigate. Simulating PostScript on Non-PostScript Printers PostScript emulating Ghostscript PostScript is the de facto standard for high quality typesetting and printing. PostScript is, however, an expensive standard. Thankfully, Alladin Enterprises has a free PostScript work-alike called Ghostscript that runs with FreeBSD. Ghostscript can read most PostScript files and can render their pages onto a variety of devices, including many brands of non-PostScript printers. By installing Ghostscript and using a special text filter for your printer, you can make your non-PostScript printer act like a real PostScript printer. Ghostscript is in the FreeBSD Ports Collection, if you would like to install it from there. You can fetch, build, and install it quite easily yourself, as well. To simulate PostScript, we have the text filter detect if it is printing a PostScript file. If it is not, then the filter will pass the file directly to the printer; otherwise, it will use Ghostscript to first convert the file into a format the printer will understand. Here is an example: the following script is a text filter for Hewlett Packard DeskJet 500 printers. For other printers, substitute the argument to the gs (Ghostscript) command. (Type gs -h to get a list of devices the current installation of Ghostscript supports.) #!/bin/sh # # ifhp - Print Ghostscript-simulated PostScript on a DeskJet 500 # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpif # # Treat LF as CR+LF: # printf "\033&k2G" || exit 2 # # Read first two characters of the file # read first_line first_two_chars=`expr "$first_line" : '\(..\)'` if [ "$first_two_chars" = "%!" ]; then # # It is PostScript; use Ghostscript to scan-convert and print it. # # Note that PostScript files are actually interpreted programs, # and those programs are allowed to write to stdout, which will # mess up the printed output. So, we redirect stdout to stderr # and then make descriptor 3 go to stdout, and have Ghostscript # write its output there. Exercise for the clever reader: # capture the stderr output from Ghostscript and mail it back to # the user originating the print job. # exec 3>&1 1>&2 /usr/local/bin/gs -dSAFER -dNOPAUSE -q -sDEVICE=djet500 \ -sOutputFile=/dev/fd/3 - && exit 0 # /usr/local/bin/gs -dSAFER -dNOPAUSE -q -sDEVICE=djet500 -sOutputFile=- - \ && exit 0 else # # Plain text or HP/PCL, so just print it directly; print a form feed # at the end to eject the last page. # echo $first_line && cat && printf "\033&l0H" && exit 0 fi exit 2 Finally, you need to notify LPD of the filter via the if capability: :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif: That is it. You can type lpr plain.text and lpr whatever.ps and both should print successfully. Conversion Filters After completing the simple setup described in Simple Printer Setup, the first thing you will probably want to do is install conversion filters for your favorite file formats (besides plain ASCII text). Why Install Conversion Filters? TeX printing dvi files Conversion filters make printing various kinds of files easy. As an example, suppose we do a lot of work with the TeX typesetting system, and we have a PostScript printer. Every time we generate a DVI file from TeX, we cannot print it directly until we convert the DVI file into PostScript. The command sequence goes like this: &prompt.user; dvips seaweed-analysis.dvi &prompt.user; lpr seaweed-analysis.ps By installing a conversion filter for DVI files, we can skip the hand conversion step each time by having LPD do it for us. Now, each time we get a DVI file, we are just one step away from printing it: &prompt.user; lpr -d seaweed-analysis.dvi We got LPD to do the DVI file conversion for us by specifying the option. Section Formatting and Conversion Options lists the conversion options. For each of the conversion options you want a printer to support, install a conversion filter and specify its pathname in /etc/printcap. A conversion filter is like the text filter for the simple printer setup (see section Installing the Text Filter) except that instead of printing plain text, the filter converts the file into a format the printer can understand. Which Conversions Filters Should I Install? You should install the conversion filters you expect to use. If you print a lot of DVI data, then a DVI conversion filter is in order. If you have got plenty of troff to print out, then you probably want a troff filter. The following table summarizes the filters that LPD works with, their capability entries for the /etc/printcap file, and how to invoke them with the lpr command: File type /etc/printcap capability lpr option cifplot cf DVI df plot gf ditroff nf FORTRAN text rf troff rf raster vf plain text if none, , or In our example, using lpr -d means the printer needs a df capability in its entry in /etc/printcap. fortran Despite what others might contend, formats like FORTRAN text and plot are probably obsolete. At your site, you can give new meanings to these or any of the formatting options just by installing custom filters. For example, suppose you would like to directly print Printerleaf files (files from the Interleaf desktop publishing program), but will never print plot files. You could install a Printerleaf conversion filter under the gf capability and then educate your users that lpr -g mean print Printerleaf files. Installing Conversion Filters Since conversion filters are programs you install outside of the base FreeBSD installation, they should probably go under /usr/local. The directory /usr/local/libexec is a popular location, since they are specialized programs that only LPD will run; regular users should not ever need to run them. To enable a conversion filter, specify its pathname under the appropriate capability for the destination printer in /etc/printcap. In our example, we will add the DVI conversion filter to the entry for the printer named bamboo. Here is the example /etc/printcap file again, with the new df capability for the printer bamboo. # # /etc/printcap for host rose - added df filter for bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: The DVI filter is a shell script named /usr/local/libexec/psdf. Here is that script: #!/bin/sh # # psdf - DVI to PostScript printer filter # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psdf # # Invoked by lpd when user runs lpr -d # exec /usr/local/bin/dvips -f | /usr/local/libexec/lprps "$@" This script runs dvips in filter mode (the argument) on standard input, which is the job to print. It then starts the PostScript printer filter lprps (see section Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers) with the arguments LPD passed to this script. lprps will use those arguments to account for the pages printed. More Conversion Filter Examples Since there is no fixed set of steps to install conversion filters, let me instead provide more examples. Use these as guidance to making your own filters. Use them directly, if appropriate. This example script is a raster (well, GIF file, actually) conversion filter for a Hewlett Packard LaserJet III-Si printer: #!/bin/sh # # hpvf - Convert GIF files into HP/PCL, then print # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpvf PATH=/usr/X11R6/bin:$PATH; export PATH giftopnm | ppmtopgm | pgmtopbm | pbmtolj -resolution 300 \ && exit 0 \ || exit 2 It works by converting the GIF file into a portable anymap, converting that into a portable graymap, converting that into a portable bitmap, and converting that into LaserJet/PCL-compatible data. Here is the /etc/printcap file with an entry for a printer using the above filter: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/hpvf: The following script is a conversion filter for troff data from the groff typesetting system for the PostScript printer named bamboo: #!/bin/sh # # pstf - Convert groff's troff data into PS, then print. # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/pstf # exec grops | /usr/local/libexec/lprps "$@" The above script makes use of lprps again to handle the communication with the printer. If the printer were on a parallel port, we would use this script instead: #!/bin/sh # # pstf - Convert groff's troff data into PS, then print. # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/pstf # exec grops That is it. Here is the entry we need to add to /etc/printcap to enable the filter: :tf=/usr/local/libexec/pstf: Here is an example that might make old hands at FORTRAN blush. It is a FORTRAN-text filter for any printer that can directly print plain text. We will install it for the printer teak: #!/bin/sh # # hprf - FORTRAN text filter for LaserJet 3si: # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hprf # printf "\033&k2G" && fpr && printf "\033&l0H" && exit 0 exit 2 And we will add this line to the /etc/printcap for the printer teak to enable this filter: :rf=/usr/local/libexec/hprf: Here is one final, somewhat complex example. We will add a DVI filter to the LaserJet printer teak introduced earlier. First, the easy part: updating /etc/printcap with the location of the DVI filter: :df=/usr/local/libexec/hpdf: Now, for the hard part: making the filter. For that, we need a DVI-to-LaserJet/PCL conversion program. The FreeBSD Ports Collection (see The Ports Collection) has one: dvi2xx is the name of the package. Installing this package gives us the program we need, dvilj2p, which converts DVI into LaserJet IIp, LaserJet III, and LaserJet 2000 compatible codes. dvilj2p makes the filter hpdf quite complex since dvilj2p cannot read from standard input. It wants to work with a filename. What is worse, the filename has to end in .dvi so using /dev/fd/0 for standard input is problematic. We can get around that problem by linking (symbolically) a temporary file name (one that ends in .dvi) to /dev/fd/0, thereby forcing dvilj2p to read from standard input. The only other fly in the ointment is the fact that we cannot use /tmp for the temporary link. Symbolic links are owned by user and group bin. The filter runs as user daemon. And the /tmp directory has the sticky bit set. The filter can create the link, but it will not be able clean up when done and remove it since the link will belong to a different user. Instead, the filter will make the symbolic link in the current working directory, which is the spooling directory (specified by the sd capability in /etc/printcap). This is a perfect place for filters to do their work, especially since there is (sometimes) more free disk space in the spooling directory than under /tmp. Here, finally, is the filter: #!/bin/sh # # hpdf - Print DVI data on HP/PCL printer # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpdf PATH=/usr/local/bin:$PATH; export PATH # # Define a function to clean up our temporary files. These exist # in the current directory, which will be the spooling directory # for the printer. # cleanup() { rm -f hpdf$$.dvi } # # Define a function to handle fatal errors: print the given message # and exit 2. Exiting with 2 tells LPD to do not try to reprint the # job. # fatal() { echo "$@" 1>&2 cleanup exit 2 } # # If user removes the job, LPD will send SIGINT, so trap SIGINT # (and a few other signals) to clean up after ourselves. # trap cleanup 1 2 15 # # Make sure we are not colliding with any existing files. # cleanup # # Link the DVI input file to standard input (the file to print). # ln -s /dev/fd/0 hpdf$$.dvi || fatal "Cannot symlink /dev/fd/0" # # Make LF = CR+LF # printf "\033&k2G" || fatal "Cannot initialize printer" # # Convert and print. Return value from dvilj2p does not seem to be # reliable, so we ignore it. # dvilj2p -M1 -q -e- dfhp$$.dvi # # Clean up and exit # cleanup exit 0 Automated Conversion: An Alternative To Conversion Filters All these conversion filters accomplish a lot for your printing environment, but at the cost forcing the user to specify (on the &man.lpr.1; command line) which one to use. If your users are not particularly computer literate, having to specify a filter option will become annoying. What is worse, though, is that an incorrectly specified filter option may run a filter on the wrong type of file and cause your printer to spew out hundreds of sheets of paper. Rather than install conversion filters at all, you might want to try having the text filter (since it is the default filter) detect the type of file it has been asked to print and then automatically run the right conversion filter. Tools such as file can be of help here. Of course, it will be hard to determine the differences between some file types—and, of course, you can still provide conversion filters just for them. apsfilter printer filters apsfilter The FreeBSD Ports Collection has a text filter that performs automatic conversion called apsfilter. It can detect plain text, PostScript, and DVI files, run the proper conversions, and print. Output Filters The LPD spooling system supports one other type of filter that we have not yet explored: an output filter. An output filter is intended for printing plain text only, like the text filter, but with many simplifications. If you are using an output filter but no text filter, then: LPD starts an output filter once for the entire job instead of once for each file in the job. LPD does not make any provision to identify the start or the end of files within the job for the output filter. LPD does not pass the user's login or host to the filter, so it is not intended to do accounting. In fact, it gets only two arguments: filter-name -wwidth -llength Where width is from the pw capability and length is from the pl capability for the printer in question. Do not be seduced by an output filter's simplicity. If you would like each file in a job to start on a different page an output filter will not work. Use a text filter (also known as an input filter); see section Installing the Text Filter. Furthermore, an output filter is actually more complex in that it has to examine the byte stream being sent to it for special flag characters and must send signals to itself on behalf of LPD. However, an output filter is necessary if you want header pages and need to send escape sequences or other initialization strings to be able to print the header page. (But it is also futile if you want to charge header pages to the requesting user's account, since LPD does not give any user or host information to the output filter.) On a single printer, LPD allows both an output filter and text or other filters. In such cases, LPD will start the output filter to print the header page (see section Header Pages) only. LPD then expects the output filter to stop itself by sending two bytes to the filter: ASCII 031 followed by ASCII 001. When an output filter sees these two bytes (031, 001), it should stop by sending SIGSTOP to itself. When LPD's done running other filters, it will restart the output filter by sending SIGCONT to it. If there is an output filter but no text filter and LPD is working on a plain text job, LPD uses the output filter to do the job. As stated before, the output filter will print each file of the job in sequence with no intervening form feeds or other paper advancement, and this is probably not what you want. In almost all cases, you need a text filter. The program lpf, which we introduced earlier as a text filter, can also run as an output filter. If you need a quick-and-dirty output filter but do not want to write the byte detection and signal sending code, try lpf. You can also wrap lpf in a shell script to handle any initialization codes the printer might require. <command>lpf</command>: a Text Filter The program /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf that comes with FreeBSD binary distribution is a text filter (input filter) that can indent output (job submitted with lpr -i), allow literal characters to pass (job submitted with lpr -l), adjust the printing position for backspaces and tabs in the job, and account for pages printed. It can also act like an output filter. lpf is suitable for many printing environments. And although it has no capability to send initialization sequences to a printer, it is easy to write a shell script to do the needed initialization and then execute lpf. page accounting accounting printer In order for lpf to do page accounting correctly, it needs correct values filled in for the pw and pl capabilities in the /etc/printcap file. It uses these values to determine how much text can fit on a page and how many pages were in a user's job. For more information on printer accounting, see Accounting for Printer Usage. Header Pages If you have lots of users, all of them using various printers, then you probably want to consider header pages as a necessary evil. banner pages header pages header pages Header pages, also known as banner or burst pages identify to whom jobs belong after they are printed. They are usually printed in large, bold letters, perhaps with decorative borders, so that in a stack of printouts they stand out from the real documents that comprise users' jobs. They enable users to locate their jobs quickly. The obvious drawback to a header page is that it is yet one more sheet that has to be printed for every job, their ephemeral usefulness lasting not more than a few minutes, ultimately finding themselves in a recycling bin or rubbish heap. (Note that header pages go with each job, not each file in a job, so the paper waste might not be that bad.) The LPD system can provide header pages automatically for your printouts if your printer can directly print plain text. If you have a PostScript printer, you will need an external program to generate the header page; see Header Pages on PostScript Printers. Enabling Header Pages In the Simple Printer Setup, we turned off header pages by specifying sh (meaning suppress header) in the /etc/printcap file. To enable header pages for a printer, just remove the sh capability. Sounds too easy, right? You are right. You might have to provide an output filter to send initialization strings to the printer. Here is an example output filter for Hewlett Packard PCL-compatible printers: #!/bin/sh # # hpof - Output filter for Hewlett Packard PCL-compatible printers # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpof printf "\033&k2G" || exit 2 exec /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf Specify the path to the output filter in the of capability. See Output Filters for more information. Here is an example /etc/printcap file for the printer teak that we introduced earlier; we enabled header pages and added the above output filter: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/hpvf:\ :of=/usr/local/libexec/hpof: Now, when users print jobs to teak, they get a header page with each job. If users want to spend time searching for their printouts, they can suppress header pages by submitting the job with lpr -h; see Header Page Options for more &man.lpr.1; options. LPD prints a form feed character after the header page. If your printer uses a different character or sequence of characters to eject a page, specify them with the ff capability in /etc/printcap. Controlling Header Pages By enabling header pages, LPD will produce a long header, a full page of large letters identifying the user, host, and job. Here is an example (kelly printed the job named outline from host rose): k ll ll k l l k l l k k eeee l l y y k k e e l l y y k k eeeeee l l y y kk k e l l y y k k e e l l y yy k k eeee lll lll yyy y y y y yyyy ll t l i t l oooo u u ttttt l ii n nnn eeee o o u u t l i nn n e e o o u u t l i n n eeeeee o o u u t l i n n e o o u uu t t l i n n e e oooo uuu u tt lll iii n n eeee r rrr oooo ssss eeee rr r o o s s e e r o o ss eeeeee r o o ss e r o o s s e e r oooo ssss eeee Job: outline Date: Sun Sep 17 11:04:58 1995 LPD appends a form feed after this text so the job starts on a new page (unless you have sf (suppress form feeds) in the destination printer's entry in /etc/printcap). If you prefer, LPD can make a short header; specify sb (short banner) in the /etc/printcap file. The header page will look like this: rose:kelly Job: outline Date: Sun Sep 17 11:07:51 1995 Also by default, LPD prints the header page first, then the job. To reverse that, specify hl (header last) in /etc/printcap. Accounting for Header Pages Using LPD's built-in header pages enforces a particular paradigm when it comes to printer accounting: header pages must be free of charge. Why? Because the output filter is the only external program that will have control when the header page is printed that could do accounting, and it is not provided with any user or host information or an accounting file, so it has no idea whom to charge for printer use. It is also not enough to just add one page to the text filter or any of the conversion filters (which do have user and host information) since users can suppress header pages with lpr -h. They could still be charged for header pages they did not print. Basically, lpr -h will be the preferred option of environmentally-minded users, but you cannot offer any incentive to use it. It is still not enough to have each of the filters generate their own header pages (thereby being able to charge for them). If users wanted the option of suppressing the header pages with lpr -h, they will still get them and be charged for them since LPD does not pass any knowledge of the option to any of the filters. So, what are your options? You can: Accept LPD's paradigm and make header pages free. Install an alternative to LPD, such as LPRng. Section Alternatives to the Standard Spooler tells more about other spooling software you can substitute for LPD. Write a smart output filter. Normally, an output filter is not meant to do anything more than initialize a printer or do some simple character conversion. It is suited for header pages and plain text jobs (when there is no text (input) filter). But, if there is a text filter for the plain text jobs, then LPD will start the output filter only for the header pages. And the output filter can parse the header page text that LPD generates to determine what user and host to charge for the header page. The only other problem with this method is that the output filter still does not know what accounting file to use (it is not passed the name of the file from the af capability), but if you have a well-known accounting file, you can hard-code that into the output filter. To facilitate the parsing step, use the sh (short header) capability in /etc/printcap. Then again, all that might be too much trouble, and users will certainly appreciate the more generous system administrator who makes header pages free. Header Pages on PostScript Printers As described above, LPD can generate a plain text header page suitable for many printers. Of course, PostScript cannot directly print plain text, so the header page feature of LPD is useless—or mostly so. One obvious way to get header pages is to have every conversion filter and the text filter generate the header page. The filters should use the user and host arguments to generate a suitable header page. The drawback of this method is that users will always get a header page, even if they submit jobs with lpr -h. Let us explore this method. The following script takes three arguments (user login name, host name, and job name) and makes a simple PostScript header page: #!/bin/sh # # make-ps-header - make a PostScript header page on stdout # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/make-ps-header # # # These are PostScript units (72 to the inch). Modify for A4 or # whatever size paper you are using: # page_width=612 page_height=792 border=72 # # Check arguments # if [ $# -ne 3 ]; then echo "Usage: `basename $0` <user> <host> <job>" 1>&2 exit 1 fi # # Save these, mostly for readability in the PostScript, below. # user=$1 host=$2 job=$3 date=`date` # # Send the PostScript code to stdout. # exec cat <<EOF %!PS % % Make sure we do not interfere with user's job that will follow % save % % Make a thick, unpleasant border around the edge of the paper. % $border $border moveto $page_width $border 2 mul sub 0 rlineto 0 $page_height $border 2 mul sub rlineto currentscreen 3 -1 roll pop 100 3 1 roll setscreen $border 2 mul $page_width sub 0 rlineto closepath 0.8 setgray 10 setlinewidth stroke 0 setgray % % Display user's login name, nice and large and prominent % /Helvetica-Bold findfont 64 scalefont setfont $page_width ($user) stringwidth pop sub 2 div $page_height 200 sub moveto ($user) show % % Now show the boring particulars % /Helvetica findfont 14 scalefont setfont /y 200 def [ (Job:) (Host:) (Date:) ] { 200 y moveto show /y y 18 sub def } forall /Helvetica-Bold findfont 14 scalefont setfont /y 200 def [ ($job) ($host) ($date) ] { 270 y moveto show /y y 18 sub def } forall % % That is it % restore showpage EOF Now, each of the conversion filters and the text filter can call this script to first generate the header page, and then print the user's job. Here is the DVI conversion filter from earlier in this document, modified to make a header page: #!/bin/sh # # psdf - DVI to PostScript printer filter # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psdf # # Invoked by lpd when user runs lpr -d # orig_args="$@" fail() { echo "$@" 1>&2 exit 2 } while getopts "x:y:n:h:" option; do case $option in x|y) ;; # Ignore n) login=$OPTARG ;; h) host=$OPTARG ;; *) echo "LPD started `basename $0` wrong." 1>&2 exit 2 ;; esac done [ "$login" ] || fail "No login name" [ "$host" ] || fail "No host name" ( /usr/local/libexec/make-ps-header $login $host "DVI File" /usr/local/bin/dvips -f ) | eval /usr/local/libexec/lprps $orig_args Notice how the filter has to parse the argument list in order to determine the user and host name. The parsing for the other conversion filters is identical. The text filter takes a slightly different set of arguments, though (see section How Filters Work). As we have mentioned before, the above scheme, though fairly simple, disables the suppress header page option (the option) to lpr. If users wanted to save a tree (or a few pennies, if you charge for header pages), they would not be able to do so, since every filter's going to print a header page with every job. To allow users to shut off header pages on a per-job basis, you will need to use the trick introduced in section Accounting for Header Pages: write an output filter that parses the LPD-generated header page and produces a PostScript version. If the user submits the job with lpr -h, then LPD will not generate a header page, and neither will your output filter. Otherwise, your output filter will read the text from LPD and send the appropriate header page PostScript code to the printer. If you have a PostScript printer on a serial line, you can make use of lprps, which comes with an output filter, psof, which does the above. Note that psof does not charge for header pages. Networked Printing printer network network printing FreeBSD supports networked printing: sending jobs to remote printers. Networked printing generally refers to two different things: Accessing a printer attached to a remote host. You install a printer that has a conventional serial or parallel interface on one host. Then, you set up LPD to enable access to the printer from other hosts on the network. Section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts tells how to do this. Accessing a printer attached directly to a network. The printer has a network interface in addition (or in place of) a more conventional serial or parallel interface. Such a printer might work as follows: It might understand the LPD protocol and can even queue jobs from remote hosts. In this case, it acts just like a regular host running LPD. Follow the same procedure in section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts to set up such a printer. It might support a data stream network connection. In this case, you attach the printer to one host on the network by making that host responsible for spooling jobs and sending them to the printer. Section Printers with Networked Data Stream Interfaces gives some suggestions on installing such printers. Printers Installed on Remote Hosts The LPD spooling system has built-in support for sending jobs to other hosts also running LPD (or are compatible with LPD). This feature enables you to install a printer on one host and make it accessible from other hosts. It also works with printers that have network interfaces that understand the LPD protocol. To enable this kind of remote printing, first install a printer on one host, the printer host, using the simple printer setup described in Simple Printer Setup. Do any advanced setup in Advanced Printer Setup that you need. Make sure to test the printer and see if it works with the features of LPD you have enabled. Also ensure that the local host has authorization to use the LPD service in the remote host (see Restricting Jobs from Remote Printers). printer network network printing If you are using a printer with a network interface that is compatible with LPD, then the printer host in the discussion below is the printer itself, and the printer name is the name you configured for the printer. See the documentation that accompanied your printer and/or printer-network interface. If you are using a Hewlett Packard Laserjet then the printer name text will automatically perform the LF to CRLF conversion for you, so you will not require the hpif script. Then, on the other hosts you want to have access to the printer, make an entry in their /etc/printcap files with the following: Name the entry anything you want. For simplicity, though, you probably want to use the same name and aliases as on the printer host. Leave the lp capability blank, explicitly (:lp=:). Make a spooling directory and specify its location in the sd capability. LPD will store jobs here before they get sent to the printer host. Place the name of the printer host in the rm capability. Place the printer name on the printer host in the rp capability. That is it. You do not need to list conversion filters, page dimensions, or anything else in the /etc/printcap file. Here is an example. The host rose has two printers, bamboo and rattan. We will enable users on the host orchid to print to those printers. Here is the /etc/printcap file for orchid (back from section Enabling Header Pages). It already had the entry for the printer teak; we have added entries for the two printers on the host rose: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid - added (remote) printers on rose # # # teak is local; it is connected directly to orchid: # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/ifhp:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/vfhp:\ :of=/usr/local/libexec/ofhp: # # rattan is connected to rose; send jobs for rattan to rose: # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=rattan:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: # # bamboo is connected to rose as well: # bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=bamboo:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo: Then, we just need to make spooling directories on orchid: &prompt.root; mkdir -p /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo &prompt.root; chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo &prompt.root; chown daemon:daemon /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo Now, users on orchid can print to rattan and bamboo. If, for example, a user on orchid typed &prompt.user; lpr -P bamboo -d sushi-review.dvi the LPD system on orchid would copy the job to the spooling directory /var/spool/lpd/bamboo and note that it was a DVI job. As soon as the host rose has room in its bamboo spooling directory, the two LPDs would transfer the file to rose. The file would wait in rose's queue until it was finally printed. It would be converted from DVI to PostScript (since bamboo is a PostScript printer) on rose. Printers with Networked Data Stream Interfaces Often, when you buy a network interface card for a printer, you can get two versions: one which emulates a spooler (the more expensive version), or one which just lets you send data to it as if you were using a serial or parallel port (the cheaper version). This section tells how to use the cheaper version. For the more expensive one, see the previous section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts. The format of the /etc/printcap file lets you specify what serial or parallel interface to use, and (if you are using a serial interface), what baud rate, whether to use flow control, delays for tabs, conversion of newlines, and more. But there is no way to specify a connection to a printer that is listening on a TCP/IP or other network port. To send data to a networked printer, you need to develop a communications program that can be called by the text and conversion filters. Here is one such example: the script netprint takes all data on standard input and sends it to a network-attached printer. We specify the hostname of the printer as the first argument and the port number to which to connect as the second argument to netprint. Note that this supports one-way communication only (FreeBSD to printer); many network printers support two-way communication, and you might want to take advantage of that (to get printer status, perform accounting, etc.). #!/usr/bin/perl # # netprint - Text filter for printer attached to network # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/netprint # $#ARGV eq 1 || die "Usage: $0 <printer-hostname> <port-number>"; $printer_host = $ARGV[0]; $printer_port = $ARGV[1]; require 'sys/socket.ph'; ($ignore, $ignore, $protocol) = getprotobyname('tcp'); ($ignore, $ignore, $ignore, $ignore, $address) = gethostbyname($printer_host); $sockaddr = pack('S n a4 x8', &AF_INET, $printer_port, $address); socket(PRINTER, &PF_INET, &SOCK_STREAM, $protocol) || die "Can't create TCP/IP stream socket: $!"; connect(PRINTER, $sockaddr) || die "Can't contact $printer_host: $!"; while (<STDIN>) { print PRINTER; } exit 0; We can then use this script in various filters. Suppose we had a Diablo 750-N line printer connected to the network. The printer accepts data to print on port number 5100. The host name of the printer is scrivener. Here is the text filter for the printer: #!/bin/sh # # diablo-if-net - Text filter for Diablo printer `scrivener' listening # on port 5100. Installed in /usr/local/libexec/diablo-if-net # exec /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf "$@" | /usr/local/libexec/netprint scrivener 5100 Restricting Printer Usage printer restricting access to This section gives information on restricting printer usage. The LPD system lets you control who can access a printer, both locally or remotely, whether they can print multiple copies, how large their jobs can be, and how large the printer queues can get. Restricting Multiple Copies The LPD system makes it easy for users to print multiple copies of a file. Users can print jobs with lpr -#5 (for example) and get five copies of each file in the job. Whether this is a good thing is up to you. If you feel multiple copies cause unnecessary wear and tear on your printers, you can disable the option to &man.lpr.1; by adding the sc capability to the /etc/printcap file. When users submit jobs with the option, they will see: lpr: multiple copies are not allowed Note that if you have set up access to a printer remotely (see section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts), you need the sc capability on the remote /etc/printcap files as well, or else users will still be able to submit multiple-copy jobs by using another host. Here is an example. This is the /etc/printcap file for the host rose. The printer rattan is quite hearty, so we will allow multiple copies, but the laser printer bamboo is a bit more delicate, so we will disable multiple copies by adding the sc capability: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - restrict multiple copies on bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: Now, we also need to add the sc capability on the host orchid's /etc/printcap (and while we are at it, let us disable multiple copies for the printer teak): # # /etc/printcap for host orchid - no multiple copies for local # printer teak or remote printer bamboo teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:sc:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/ifhp:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/vfhp:\ :of=/usr/local/libexec/ofhp: rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=rattan:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=bamboo:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc: By using the sc capability, we prevent the use of lpr -#, but that still does not prevent users from running &man.lpr.1; multiple times, or from submitting the same file multiple times in one job like this: &prompt.user; lpr forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign There are many ways to prevent this abuse (including ignoring it) which you are free to explore. Restricting Access To Printers You can control who can print to what printers by using the Unix group mechanism and the rg capability in /etc/printcap. Just place the users you want to have access to a printer in a certain group, and then name that group in the rg capability. Users outside the group (including root) will be greeted with lpr: Not a member of the restricted group if they try to print to the controlled printer. As with the sc (suppress multiple copies) capability, you need to specify rg on remote hosts that also have access to your printers, if you feel it is appropriate (see section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts). For example, we will let anyone access the printer rattan, but only those in group artists can use bamboo. Here is the familiar /etc/printcap for host rose: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - restricted group for bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: Let us leave the other example /etc/printcap file (for the host orchid) alone. Of course, anyone on orchid can print to bamboo. It might be the case that we only allow certain logins on orchid anyway, and want them to have access to the printer. Or not. There can be only one restricted group per printer. Controlling Sizes of Jobs Submitted print jobs If you have many users accessing the printers, you probably need to put an upper limit on the sizes of the files users can submit to print. After all, there is only so much free space on the filesystem that houses the spooling directories, and you also need to make sure there is room for the jobs of other users. print jobs controlling LPD enables you to limit the maximum byte size a file in a job can be with the mx capability. The units are in BUFSIZ blocks, which are 1024 bytes. If you put a zero for this capability, there will be no limit on file size; however, if no mx capability is specified, then a default limit of 1000 blocks will be used. The limit applies to files in a job, and not the total job size. LPD will not refuse a file that is larger than the limit you place on a printer. Instead, it will queue as much of the file up to the limit, which will then get printed. The rest will be discarded. Whether this is correct behavior is up for debate. Let us add limits to our example printers rattan and bamboo. Since those artists' PostScript files tend to be large, we will limit them to five megabytes. We will put no limit on the plain text line printer: # # /etc/printcap for host rose # # # No limit on job size: # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:mx#0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: # # Limit of five megabytes: # bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:mx#5000:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: Again, the limits apply to the local users only. If you have set up access to your printers remotely, remote users will not get those limits. You will need to specify the mx capability in the remote /etc/printcap files as well. See section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts for more information on remote printing. There is another specialized way to limit job sizes from remote printers; see section Restricting Jobs from Remote Printers. Restricting Jobs from Remote Printers The LPD spooling system provides several ways to restrict print jobs submitted from remote hosts: Host restrictions You can control from which remote hosts a local LPD accepts requests with the files /etc/hosts.equiv and /etc/hosts.lpd. LPD checks to see if an incoming request is from a host listed in either one of these files. If not, LPD refuses the request. The format of these files is simple: one host name per line. Note that the file /etc/hosts.equiv is also used by the &man.ruserok.3; protocol, and affects programs like &man.rsh.1; and &man.rcp.1;, so be careful. For example, here is the /etc/hosts.lpd file on the host rose: orchid violet madrigal.fishbaum.de This means rose will accept requests from the hosts orchid, violet, and madrigal.fishbaum.de. If any other host tries to access rose's LPD, the job will be refused. Size restrictions You can control how much free space there needs to remain on the filesystem where a spooling directory resides. Make a file called minfree in the spooling directory for the local printer. Insert in that file a number representing how many disk blocks (512 bytes) of free space there has to be for a remote job to be accepted. This lets you insure that remote users will not fill your filesystem. You can also use it to give a certain priority to local users: they will be able to queue jobs long after the free disk space has fallen below the amount specified in the minfree file. For example, let us add a minfree file for the printer bamboo. We examine /etc/printcap to find the spooling directory for this printer; here is bamboo's entry: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:mx#5000:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:mx#5000:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: The spooling directory is given in the sd capability. We will make three megabytes (which is 6144 disk blocks) the amount of free disk space that must exist on the filesystem for LPD to accept remote jobs: &prompt.root; echo 6144 > /var/spool/lpd/bamboo/minfree User restrictions You can control which remote users can print to local printers by specifying the rs capability in /etc/printcap. When rs appears in the entry for a locally-attached printer, LPD will accept jobs from remote hosts if the user submitting the job also has an account of the same login name on the local host. Otherwise, LPD refuses the job. This capability is particularly useful in an environment where there are (for example) different departments sharing a network, and some users transcend departmental boundaries. By giving them accounts on your systems, they can use your printers from their own departmental systems. If you would rather allow them to use only your printers and not your computer resources, you can give them token accounts, with no home directory and a useless shell like /usr/bin/false. Accounting for Printer Usage accounting printer So, you need to charge for printouts. And why not? Paper and ink cost money. And then there are maintenance costs—printers are loaded with moving parts and tend to break down. You have examined your printers, usage patterns, and maintenance fees and have come up with a per-page (or per-foot, per-meter, or per-whatever) cost. Now, how do you actually start accounting for printouts? Well, the bad news is the LPD spooling system does not provide much help in this department. Accounting is highly dependent on the kind of printer in use, the formats being printed, and your requirements in charging for printer usage. To implement accounting, you have to modify a printer's text filter (to charge for plain text jobs) and the conversion filters (to charge for other file formats), to count pages or query the printer for pages printed. You cannot get away with using the simple output filter, since it cannot do accounting. See section Filters. Generally, there are two ways to do accounting: Periodic accounting is the more common way, possibly because it is easier. Whenever someone prints a job, the filter logs the user, host, and number of pages to an accounting file. Every month, semester, year, or whatever time period you prefer, you collect the accounting files for the various printers, tally up the pages printed by users, and charge for usage. Then you truncate all the logging files, starting with a clean slate for the next period. Timely accounting is less common, probably because it is more difficult. This method has the filters charge users for printouts as soon as they use the printers. Like disk quotas, the accounting is immediate. You can prevent users from printing when their account goes in the red, and might provide a way for users to check and adjust their print quotas. But this method requires some database code to track users and their quotas. The LPD spooling system supports both methods easily: since you have to provide the filters (well, most of the time), you also have to provide the accounting code. But there is a bright side: you have enormous flexibility in your accounting methods. For example, you choose whether to use periodic or timely accounting. You choose what information to log: user names, host names, job types, pages printed, square footage of paper used, how long the job took to print, and so forth. And you do so by modifying the filters to save this information. Quick and Dirty Printer Accounting FreeBSD comes with two programs that can get you set up with simple periodic accounting right away. They are the text filter lpf, described in section lpf: a Text Filter, and &man.pac.8;, a program to gather and total entries from printer accounting files. As mentioned in the section on filters (Filters), LPD starts the text and the conversion filters with the name of the accounting file to use on the filter command line. The filters can use this argument to know where to write an accounting file entry. The name of this file comes from the af capability in /etc/printcap, and if not specified as an absolute path, is relative to the spooling directory. LPD starts lpf with page width and length arguments (from the pw and pl capabilities). lpf uses these arguments to determine how much paper will be used. After sending the file to the printer, it then writes an accounting entry in the accounting file. The entries look like this: 2.00 rose:andy 3.00 rose:kelly 3.00 orchid:mary 5.00 orchid:mary 2.00 orchid:zhang You should use a separate accounting file for each printer, as lpf has no file locking logic built into it, and two lpfs might corrupt each other's entries if they were to write to the same file at the same time. An easy way to insure a separate accounting file for each printer is to use af=acct in /etc/printcap. Then, each accounting file will be in the spooling directory for a printer, in a file named acct. When you are ready to charge users for printouts, run the &man.pac.8; program. Just change to the spooling directory for the printer you want to collect on and type pac. You will get a dollar-centric summary like the following: Login pages/feet runs price orchid:kelly 5.00 1 $ 0.10 orchid:mary 31.00 3 $ 0.62 orchid:zhang 9.00 1 $ 0.18 rose:andy 2.00 1 $ 0.04 rose:kelly 177.00 104 $ 3.54 rose:mary 87.00 32 $ 1.74 rose:root 26.00 12 $ 0.52 total 337.00 154 $ 6.74 These are the arguments &man.pac.8; expects: Which printer to summarize. This option works only if there is an absolute path in the af capability in /etc/printcap. Sort the output by cost instead of alphabetically by user name. Ignore host name in the accounting files. With this option, user smith on host alpha is the same user smith on host gamma. Without, they are different users. Compute charges with price dollars per page or per foot instead of the price from the pc capability in /etc/printcap, or two cents (the default). You can specify price as a floating point number. Reverse the sort order. Make an accounting summary file and truncate the accounting file. name … Print accounting information for the given user names only. In the default summary that &man.pac.8; produces, you see the number of pages printed by each user from various hosts. If, at your site, host does not matter (because users can use any host), run pac -m, to produce the following summary: Login pages/feet runs price andy 2.00 1 $ 0.04 kelly 182.00 105 $ 3.64 mary 118.00 35 $ 2.36 root 26.00 12 $ 0.52 zhang 9.00 1 $ 0.18 total 337.00 154 $ 6.74 To compute the dollar amount due, &man.pac.8; uses the pc capability in the /etc/printcap file (default of 200, or 2 cents per page). Specify, in hundredths of cents, the price per page or per foot you want to charge for printouts in this capability. You can override this value when you run &man.pac.8; with the option. The units for the option are in dollars, though, not hundredths of cents. For example, &prompt.root; pac -p1.50 makes each page cost one dollar and fifty cents. You can really rake in the profits by using this option. Finally, running pac -s will save the summary information in a summary accounting file, which is named the same as the printer's accounting file, but with _sum appended to the name. It then truncates the accounting file. When you run &man.pac.8; again, it rereads the summary file to get starting totals, then adds information from the regular accounting file. How Can You Count Pages Printed? In order to perform even remotely accurate accounting, you need to be able to determine how much paper a job uses. This is the essential problem of printer accounting. For plain text jobs, the problem is not that hard to solve: you count how many lines are in a job and compare it to how many lines per page your printer supports. Do not forget to take into account backspaces in the file which overprint lines, or long logical lines that wrap onto one or more additional physical lines. The text filter lpf (introduced in lpf: a Text Filter) takes into account these things when it does accounting. If you are writing a text filter which needs to do accounting, you might want to examine lpf's source code. How do you handle other file formats, though? Well, for DVI-to-LaserJet or DVI-to-PostScript conversion, you can have your filter parse the diagnostic output of dvilj or dvips and look to see how many pages were converted. You might be able to do similar things with other file formats and conversion programs. But these methods suffer from the fact that the printer may not actually print all those pages. For example, it could jam, run out of toner, or explode—and the user would still get charged. So, what can you do? There is only one sure way to do accurate accounting. Get a printer that can tell you how much paper it uses, and attach it via a serial line or a network connection. Nearly all PostScript printers support this notion. Other makes and models do as well (networked Imagen laser printers, for example). Modify the filters for these printers to get the page usage after they print each job and have them log accounting information based on that value only. There is no line counting nor error-prone file examination required. Of course, you can always be generous and make all printouts free. Using Printers printer usage This section tells you how to use printers you have setup with FreeBSD. Here is an overview of the user-level commands: &man.lpr.1; Print jobs &man.lpq.1; Check printer queues &man.lprm.1; Remove jobs from a printer's queue There is also an administrative command, &man.lpc.8;, described in the section Administrating the LPD Spooler, used to control printers and their queues. All three of the commands &man.lpr.1;, &man.lprm.1;, and &man.lpq.1; accept an option to specify on which printer/queue to operate, as listed in the /etc/printcap file. This enables you to submit, remove, and check on jobs for various printers. If you do not use the option, then these commands use the printer specified in the PRINTER environment variable. Finally, if you do not have a PRINTER environment variable, these commands default to the printer named lp. Hereafter, the terminology default printer means the printer named in the PRINTER environment variable, or the printer named lp when there is no PRINTER environment variable. Printing Jobs To print files, type: &prompt.user; lpr filename ... printing This prints each of the listed files to the default printer. If you list no files, &man.lpr.1; reads data to print from standard input. For example, this command prints some important system files: &prompt.user; lpr /etc/host.conf /etc/hosts.equiv To select a specific printer, type: &prompt.user; lpr -P printer-name filename ... This example prints a long listing of the current directory to the printer named rattan: &prompt.user; ls -l | lpr -P rattan Because no files were listed for the &man.lpr.1; command, lpr read the data to print from standard input, which was the output of the ls -l command. The &man.lpr.1; command can also accept a wide variety of options to control formatting, apply file conversions, generate multiple copies, and so forth. For more information, see the section Printing Options. Checking Jobs print jobs When you print with &man.lpr.1;, the data you wish to print is put together in a package called a print job, which is sent to the LPD spooling system. Each printer has a queue of jobs, and your job waits in that queue along with other jobs from yourself and from other users. The printer prints those jobs in a first-come, first-served order. To display the queue for the default printer, type &man.lpq.1;. For a specific printer, use the option. For example, the command &prompt.user; lpq -P bamboo shows the queue for the printer named bamboo. Here is an example of the output of the lpq command: bamboo is ready and printing Rank Owner Job Files Total Size active kelly 9 /etc/host.conf, /etc/hosts.equiv 88 bytes 2nd kelly 10 (standard input) 1635 bytes 3rd mary 11 ... 78519 bytes This shows three jobs in the queue for bamboo. The first job, submitted by user kelly, got assigned job number 9. Every job for a printer gets a unique job number. Most of the time you can ignore the job number, but you will need it if you want to cancel the job; see section Removing Jobs for details. Job number nine consists of two files; multiple files given on the &man.lpr.1; command line are treated as part of a single job. It is the currently active job (note the word active under the Rank column), which means the printer should be currently printing that job. The second job consists of data passed as the standard input to the &man.lpr.1; command. The third job came from user mary; it is a much larger job. The pathname of the file she is trying to print is too long to fit, so the &man.lpq.1; command just shows three dots. The very first line of the output from &man.lpq.1; is also useful: it tells what the printer is currently doing (or at least what LPD thinks the printer is doing). The &man.lpq.1; command also support a option to generate a detailed long listing. Here is an example of lpq -l: waiting for bamboo to become ready (offline ?) kelly: 1st [job 009rose] /etc/host.conf 73 bytes /etc/hosts.equiv 15 bytes kelly: 2nd [job 010rose] (standard input) 1635 bytes mary: 3rd [job 011rose] /home/orchid/mary/research/venus/alpha-regio/mapping 78519 bytes Removing Jobs If you change your mind about printing a job, you can remove the job from the queue with the &man.lprm.1; command. Often, you can even use &man.lprm.1; to remove an active job, but some or all of the job might still get printed. To remove a job from the default printer, first use &man.lpq.1; to find the job number. Then type: &prompt.user; lprm job-number To remove the job from a specific printer, add the option. The following command removes job number 10 from the queue for the printer bamboo: &prompt.user; lprm -P bamboo 10 The &man.lprm.1; command has a few shortcuts: lprm - Removes all jobs (for the default printer) belonging to you. lprm user Removes all jobs (for the default printer) belonging to user. The superuser can remove other users' jobs; you can remove only your own jobs. lprm With no job number, user name, or appearing on the command line, &man.lprm.1; removes the currently active job on the default printer, if it belongs to you. The superuser can remove any active job. Just use the option with the above shortcuts to operate on a specific printer instead of the default. For example, the following command removes all jobs for the current user in the queue for the printer named rattan: &prompt.user; lprm -P rattan - If you are working in a networked environment, &man.lprm.1; will let you remove jobs only from the host from which the jobs were submitted, even if the same printer is available from other hosts. The following command sequence demonstrates this: &prompt.user; lpr -P rattan myfile &prompt.user; rlogin orchid &prompt.user; lpq -P rattan Rank Owner Job Files Total Size active seeyan 12 ... 49123 bytes 2nd kelly 13 myfile 12 bytes &prompt.user; lprm -P rattan 13 rose: Permission denied &prompt.user; logout &prompt.user; lprm -P rattan 13 dfA013rose dequeued cfA013rose dequeued Beyond Plain Text: Printing Options The &man.lpr.1; command supports a number of options that control formatting text, converting graphic and other file formats, producing multiple copies, handling of the job, and more. This section describes the options. Formatting and Conversion Options The following &man.lpr.1; options control formatting of the files in the job. Use these options if the job does not contain plain text or if you want plain text formatted through the &man.pr.1; utility. TeX For example, the following command prints a DVI file (from the TeX typesetting system) named fish-report.dvi to the printer named bamboo: &prompt.user; lpr -P bamboo -d fish-report.dvi These options apply to every file in the job, so you cannot mix (say) DVI and ditroff files together in a job. Instead, submit the files as separate jobs, using a different conversion option for each job. All of these options except and require conversion filters installed for the destination printer. For example, the option requires the DVI conversion filter. Section Conversion Filters gives details. Print cifplot files. Print DVI files. Print FORTRAN text files. Print plot data. Indent the output by number columns; if you omit number, indent by 8 columns. This option works only with certain conversion filters. Do not put any space between the and the number. Print literal text data, including control characters. Print ditroff (device independent troff) data. -p Format plain text with &man.pr.1; before printing. See &man.pr.1; for more information. Use title on the &man.pr.1; header instead of the file name. This option has effect only when used with the option. Print troff data. Print raster data. Here is an example: this command prints a nicely formatted version of the &man.ls.1; manual page on the default printer: &prompt.user; zcat /usr/share/man/man1/ls.1.gz | troff -t -man | lpr -t The &man.zcat.1; command uncompresses the source of the &man.ls.1; manual page and passes it to the &man.troff.1; command, which formats that source and makes GNU troff output and passes it to &man.lpr.1;, which submits the job to the LPD spooler. Because we used the option to &man.lpr.1;, the spooler will convert the GNU troff output into a format the default printer can understand when it prints the job. Job Handling Options The following options to &man.lpr.1; tell LPD to handle the job specially: -# copies Produce a number of copies of each file in the job instead of just one copy. An administrator may disable this option to reduce printer wear-and-tear and encourage photocopier usage. See section Restricting Multiple Copies. This example prints three copies of parser.c followed by three copies of parser.h to the default printer: &prompt.user; lpr -#3 parser.c parser.h -m Send mail after completing the print job. With this option, the LPD system will send mail to your account when it finishes handling your job. In its message, it will tell you if the job completed successfully or if there was an error, and (often) what the error was. -s Do not copy the files to the spooling directory, but make symbolic links to them instead. If you are printing a large job, you probably want to use this option. It saves space in the spooling directory (your job might overflow the free space on the filesystem where the spooling directory resides). It saves time as well since LPD will not have to copy each and every byte of your job to the spooling directory. There is a drawback, though: since LPD will refer to the original files directly, you cannot modify or remove them until they have been printed. If you are printing to a remote printer, LPD will eventually have to copy files from the local host to the remote host, so the option will save space only on the local spooling directory, not the remote. It is still useful, though. -r Remove the files in the job after copying them to the spooling directory, or after printing them with the option. Be careful with this option! Header Page Options These options to &man.lpr.1; adjust the text that normally appears on a job's header page. If header pages are suppressed for the destination printer, these options have no effect. See section Header Pages for information about setting up header pages. -C text Replace the hostname on the header page with text. The hostname is normally the name of the host from which the job was submitted. -J text Replace the job name on the header page with text. The job name is normally the name of the first file of the job, or stdin if you are printing standard input. -h Do not print any header page. At some sites, this option may have no effect due to the way header pages are generated. See Header Pages for details. Administrating Printers As an administrator for your printers, you have had to install, set up, and test them. Using the &man.lpc.8; command, you can interact with your printers in yet more ways. With &man.lpc.8;, you can Start and stop the printers Enable and disable their queues Rearrange the order of the jobs in each queue. First, a note about terminology: if a printer is stopped, it will not print anything in its queue. Users can still submit jobs, which will wait in the queue until the printer is started or the queue is cleared. If a queue is disabled, no user (except root) can submit jobs for the printer. An enabled queue allows jobs to be submitted. A printer can be started for a disabled queue, in which case it will continue to print jobs in the queue until the queue is empty. In general, you have to have root privileges to use the &man.lpc.8; command. Ordinary users can use the &man.lpc.8; command to get printer status and to restart a hung printer only. Here is a summary of the &man.lpc.8; commands. Most of the commands take a printer-name argument to tell on which printer to operate. You can use all for the printer-name to mean all printers listed in /etc/printcap. abort printer-name Cancel the current job and stop the printer. Users can still submit jobs if the queue is enabled. clean printer-name Remove old files from the printer's spooling directory. Occasionally, the files that make up a job are not properly removed by LPD, particularly if there have been errors during printing or a lot of administrative activity. This command finds files that do not belong in the spooling directory and removes them. disable printer-name Disable queuing of new jobs. If the printer is running, it will continue to print any jobs remaining in the queue. The superuser (root) can always submit jobs, even to a disabled queue. This command is useful while you are testing a new printer or filter installation: disable the queue and submit jobs as root. Other users will not be able to submit jobs until you complete your testing and re-enable the queue with the enable command. down printer-name message Take a printer down. Equivalent to disable followed by stop. The message appears as the printer's status whenever a user checks the printer's queue with &man.lpq.1; or status with lpc status. enable printer-name Enable the queue for a printer. Users can submit jobs but the printer will not print anything until it is started. help command-name Print help on the command command-name. With no command-name, print a summary of the commands available. restart printer-name Start the printer. Ordinary users can use this command if some extraordinary circumstance hangs LPD, but they cannot start a printer stopped with either the stop or down commands. The restart command is equivalent to abort followed by start. start printer-name Start the printer. The printer will print jobs in its queue. stop printer-name Stop the printer. The printer will finish the current job and will not print anything else in its queue. Even though the printer is stopped, users can still submit jobs to an enabled queue. topq printer-name job-or-username Rearrange the queue for printer-name by placing the jobs with the listed job numbers or the jobs belonging to username at the top of the queue. For this command, you cannot use all as the printer-name. up printer-name Bring a printer up; the opposite of the down command. Equivalent to start followed by enable. &man.lpc.8; accepts the above commands on the command line. If you do not enter any commands, &man.lpc.8; enters an interactive mode, where you can enter commands until you type exit, quit, or end-of-file. Alternatives to the Standard Spooler If you have been reading straight through this manual, by now you have learned just about everything there is to know about the LPD spooling system that comes with FreeBSD. You can probably appreciate many of its shortcomings, which naturally leads to the question: What other spooling systems are out there (and work with FreeBSD)? LPRng LPRng LPRng, which purportedly means LPR: the Next Generation is a complete rewrite of PLP. Patrick Powell and Justin Mason (the principal maintainer of PLP) collaborated to make LPRng. The main site for LPRng is http://www.astart.com/lprng/LPRng.html. Troubleshooting After performing the simple test with &man.lptest.1;, you might have gotten one of the following results instead of the correct printout: It worked, after awhile; or, it did not eject a full sheet. The printer printed the above, but it sat for awhile and did nothing. In fact, you might have needed to press a PRINT REMAINING or FORM FEED button on the printer to get any results to appear. If this is the case, the printer was probably waiting to see if there was any more data for your job before it printed anything. To fix this problem, you can have the text filter send a FORM FEED character (or whatever is necessary) to the printer. This is usually sufficient to have the printer immediately print any text remaining in its internal buffer. It is also useful to make sure each print job ends on a full sheet, so the next job does not start somewhere on the middle of the last page of the previous job. The following replacement for the shell script /usr/local/libexec/if-simple prints a form feed after it sends the job to the printer: #!/bin/sh # # if-simple - Simple text input filter for lpd # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/if-simple # # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. # Writes a form feed character (\f) after printing job. /bin/cat && printf "\f" && exit 0 exit 2 It produced the staircase effect. You got the following on paper: !"#$%&'()*+,-./01234 "#$%&'()*+,-./012345 #$%&'()*+,-./0123456 MS-DOS OS/2 ASCII You have become another victim of the staircase effect, caused by conflicting interpretations of what characters should indicate a new line. Unix-style operating systems use a single character: ASCII code 10, the line feed (LF). MS-DOS, OS/2, and others uses a pair of characters, ASCII code 10 and ASCII code 13 (the carriage return or CR). Many printers use the MS-DOS convention for representing new-lines. When you print with FreeBSD, your text used just the line feed character. The printer, upon seeing a line feed character, advanced the paper one line, but maintained the same horizontal position on the page for the next character to print. That is what the carriage return is for: to move the location of the next character to print to the left edge of the paper. Here is what FreeBSD wants your printer to do: Printer received CR Printer prints CR Printer received LF Printer prints CR + LF Here are some ways to achieve this: Use the printer's configuration switches or control panel to alter its interpretation of these characters. Check your printer's manual to find out how to do this. If you boot your system into other operating systems besides FreeBSD, you may have to reconfigure the printer to use a an interpretation for CR and LF characters that those other operating systems use. You might prefer one of the other solutions, below. Have FreeBSD's serial line driver automatically convert LF to CR+LF. Of course, this works with printers on serial ports only. To enable this feature, set the CRMOD bit in fs capability in the /etc/printcap file for the printer. Send an escape code to the printer to have it temporarily treat LF characters differently. Consult your printer's manual for escape codes that your printer might support. When you find the proper escape code, modify the text filter to send the code first, then send the print job. PCL Here is an example text filter for printers that understand the Hewlett-Packard PCL escape codes. This filter makes the printer treat LF characters as a LF and CR; then it sends the job; then it sends a form feed to eject the last page of the job. It should work with nearly all Hewlett Packard printers. #!/bin/sh # # hpif - Simple text input filter for lpd for HP-PCL based printers # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpif # # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. # Tells printer to treat LF as CR+LF. Ejects the page when done. printf "\033&k2G" && cat && printf "\033&l0H" && exit 0 exit 2 Here is an example /etc/printcap from a host called orchid. It has a single printer attached to its first parallel port, a Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si named teak. It is using the above script as its text filter: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif: It overprinted each line. The printer never advanced a line. All of the lines of text were printed on top of each other on one line. This problem is the opposite of the staircase effect, described above, and is much rarer. Somewhere, the LF characters that FreeBSD uses to end a line are being treated as CR characters to return the print location to the left edge of the paper, but not also down a line. Use the printer's configuration switches or control panel to enforce the following interpretation of LF and CR characters: Printer receives Printer prints CR CR LF CR + LF The printer lost characters. While printing, the printer did not print a few characters in each line. The problem might have gotten worse as the printer ran, losing more and more characters. The problem is that the printer cannot keep up with the speed at which the computer sends data over a serial line (this problem should not occur with printers on parallel ports). There are two ways to overcome the problem: If the printer supports XON/XOFF flow control, have FreeBSD use it by specifying the TANDEM bit in the fs capability. If the printer supports carrier flow control, specify the MDMBUF bit in the fs capability. Make sure the cable connecting the printer to the computer is correctly wired for carrier flow control. If the printer does not support any flow control, use some combination of the NLDELAY, TBDELAY, CRDELAY, VTDELAY, and BSDELAY bits in the fs capability to add appropriate delays to the stream of data sent to the printer. It printed garbage. The printer printed what appeared to be random garbage, but not the desired text. This is usually another symptom of incorrect communications parameters with a serial printer. Double-check the bps rate in the br capability, and the parity bits in the fs and fc capabilities; make sure the printer is using the same settings as specified in the /etc/printcap file. Nothing happened. If nothing happened, the problem is probably within FreeBSD and not the hardware. Add the log file (lf) capability to the entry for the printer you are debugging in the /etc/printcap file. For example, here is the entry for rattan, with the lf capability: rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple:\ :lf=/var/log/rattan.log Then, try printing again. Check the log file (in our example, /var/log/rattan.log) to see any error messages that might appear. Based on the messages you see, try to correct the problem. If you do not specify a lf capability, LPD uses /dev/console as a default. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml index 8690e1b102..e84342d1b6 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml @@ -1,2615 +1,2615 @@ Serial Communications Synopsis serial communications Unix has always had support for serial communications. In fact, the very first Unix machines relied on serial lines for user input and output. Things have changed a lot from the days when the average terminal consisted of a 10-character-per-second serial printer and a keyboard. This chapter will cover some of the ways in which FreeBSD uses serial communications. - After reading this chapter you will know: + After reading this chapter, you will know: How to connect terminals to your FreeBSD system. How to use a modem to dial out to remote hosts. How to allow remote users to login to your system with a modem. How to boot your system from a serial console. - Before reading this chapter you should: + Before reading this chapter, you should: Know how to configure and install a new kernel (). Understand Unix permissions and processes (). Have access to the technical manual for the serial hardware (modem or multi-port card) that you would like to use with FreeBSD. Introduction Terminology bits-per-second bps Bits per Second — the rate at which data is transmitted DTE DTE Data Terminal Equipment — for example, your computer DCE DCE Data Communications Equipment — your modem RS-232 RS-232C cables EIA standard for hardware serial communications When talking about communications data rates, this section does not use the term baud. Baud refers to the number of electrical state transitions that may be made in a period of time, while bps (bits per second) is the correct term to use (at least it does not seem to bother the curmudgeons quite a much). Cables and Ports To connect a modem or terminal to your FreeBSD system, you will need a serial port on your computer and the proper cable to connect to your serial device. If you are already familiar with your hardware and the cable it requires, you can safely skip this section. Cables There are several different kinds of serial cables. The two most common types for our purposes are null-modem cables and standard ("straight") RS-232 cables. The documentation for your hardware should describe the type of cable required. Null-modem Cables null-modem cable A null-modem cable passes some signals straight through, like signal ground, but switches other signals. For example, the send data pin on one end goes to the receive data pin on the other end. If you like making your own cables, you can construct a null-modem cable for use with terminals. This table shows the RS-232C signal names and the pin numbers on a DB-25 connector. Signal Pin # Pin # Signal TxD 2 connects to 3 RxD RxD 3 connects to 2 TxD DTR 20 connects to 6 DSR DSR 6 connects to 20 DTR SG 7 connects to 7 SG DCD 8 connects to 4 RTS RTS 4 5 CTS CTS 5 connects to 8 DCD For DCD to RTS, connect pins 4 to 5 internally in the connector hood, and then to pin 8 in the remote hood. Standard RS-232C Cables RS-232C cables A standard serial cable passes all the RS-232C signals straight-through. That is, the send data pin on one end of the cable goes to the send data pin on the other end. This is the type of cable to connect a modem to your FreeBSD system, and the type of cable needed for some terminals. Ports Serial ports are the devices through which data is transferred between the FreeBSD host computer and the terminal. This section describes the kinds of ports that exist and how they are addressed in FreeBSD. Kinds of Ports Several kinds of serial ports exist. Before you purchase or construct a cable, you need to make sure it will fit the ports on your terminal and on the FreeBSD system. Most terminals will have DB25 ports. Personal computers, including PCs running FreeBSD, will have DB25 or DB9 ports. If you have a multiport serial card for your PC, you may have RJ-12 or RJ-45 ports. See the documentation that accompanied the hardware for specifications on the kind of port in use. A visual inspection of the port often works too. Port Names In FreeBSD, you access each serial port through an entry in the /dev directory. There are two different kinds of entries: Call-in ports are named /dev/ttydN where N is the port number, starting from zero. Generally, you use the call-in port for terminals. Call-in ports require that the serial line assert the data carrier detect (DCD) signal to work. Call-out ports are named /dev/cuaaN. You usually do not use the call-out port for terminals, just for modems. You may use the call-out port if the serial cable or the terminal does not support the carrier detect signal. If you have connected a terminal to the first serial port (COM1 in MS-DOS), then you want to use /dev/ttyd0 to refer to the terminal. If it is on the second serial port (also known as COM2), it is /dev/ttyd1, and so forth. Kernel Configuration FreeBSD supports four serial ports by default. In the MS-DOS world, these are known as COM1:, COM2:, COM3:, and COM4:. FreeBSD currently supports dumb multiport serial interface cards, such as the BocaBoard 1008 and 2016, as well as more intelligent multi-port cards such as those made by Digiboard and Stallion Technologies. However, the default kernel only looks for the standard COM ports. To see if your kernel recognizes any of your serial ports, watch for messages while the kernel is booting, or use the /sbin/dmesg command to replay the kernel's boot messages. In particular, look for messages that start with the characters sio. To view just the messages that have the word sio, use the command: &prompt.root; /sbin/dmesg | grep 'sio' For example, on a system with four serial ports, these are the serial-port specific kernel boot messages: sio0 at 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 on isa sio0: type 16550A sio1 at 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa sio1: type 16550A sio2 at 0x3e8-0x3ef irq 5 on isa sio2: type 16550A sio3 at 0x2e8-0x2ef irq 9 on isa sio3: type 16550A If your kernel does not recognize all of your serial ports, you will probably need to configure a custom FreeBSD kernel for your system. For detailed information on configuring your kernel, please see . The relevant device lines for your kernel configuration file would look like this: device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty irq 4 vector siointr device sio1 at isa? port "IO_COM2" tty irq 3 vector siointr device sio2 at isa? port "IO_COM3" tty irq 5 vector siointr device sio3 at isa? port "IO_COM4" tty irq 9 vector siointr You can comment-out or completely remove lines for devices you do not have. Please see the &man.sio.4; manual page for complete information on how to write configuration lines for multiport boards. Be careful if you are using a configuration file that was previously used for a different version of FreeBSD because the device flags have changed between versions. port "IO_COM1" is a substitution for port 0x3f8, IO_COM2 is 0x2f8, IO_COM3 is 0x3e8, and IO_COM4 is 0x2e8, which are fairly common port addresses for their respective serial ports; interrupts 4, 3, 5, and 9 are fairly common interrupt request lines. Also note that regular serial ports cannot share interrupts on ISA-bus PCs (multiport boards have on-board electronics that allow all the 16550A's on the board to share one or two interrupt request lines). Device Special Files Most devices in the kernel are accessed through device special files, which are located in the /dev directory. The sio devices are accessed through the /dev/ttydN (dial-in) and /dev/cuaaN (call-out) devices. FreeBSD also provides initialization devices (/dev/ttyidN and /dev/cuai0N) and locking devices (/dev/ttyldN and /dev/cual0N). The initialization devices are used to initialize communications port parameters each time a port is opened, such as crtscts for modems which use CTS/RTS signaling for flow control. The locking devices are used to lock flags on ports to prevent users or programs changing certain parameters; see the manual pages &man.termios.4;, &man.sio.4;, and &man.stty.1; for information on the terminal settings, locking and initializing devices, and setting terminal options, respectively. Making Device Special Files FreeBSD 5.0 includes the devfs filesystem which automatically creates device nodes as needed. If you are running a version of FreeBSD with devfs enabled then you can safely skip this section. A shell script called MAKEDEV in the /dev directory manages the device special files. To use MAKEDEV to make dial-up device special files for COM1: (port 0), cd to /dev and issue the command MAKEDEV ttyd0. Likewise, to make dial-up device special files for COM2: (port 1), use MAKEDEV ttyd1. MAKEDEV not only creates the /dev/ttydN device special files, but also the /dev/cuaaN, /dev/cuaiaN, /dev/cualaN, /dev/ttyldN, and /dev/ttyidN nodes. After making new device special files, be sure to check the permissions on the files (especially the /dev/cua* files) to make sure that only users who should have access to those device special files can read and write on them — you probably do not want to allow your average user to use your modems to dial-out. The default permissions on the /dev/cua* files should be sufficient: crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 129 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cuaa1 crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 161 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cuaia1 crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 193 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cuala1 These permissions allow the user uucp and users in the group dialer to use the call-out devices. Serial Port Configuration ttyd cuaa The ttydN (or cuaaN) device is the regular device you will want to open for your applications. When a process opens the device, it will have a default set of terminal I/O settings. You can see these settings with the command &prompt.root; stty -a -f /dev/ttyd1 When you change the settings to this device, the settings are in effect until the device is closed. When it is reopened, it goes back to the default set. To make changes to the default set, you can open and adjust the settings of the initial state device. For example, to turn on mode, 8 bit communication, and flow control by default for ttyd5, type: &prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyid5 clocal cs8 ixon ixoff rc files rc.serial System-wide initialization of the serial devices is controlled in /etc/rc.serial. This file affects the default settings of serial devices. To prevent certain settings from being changed by an application, make adjustments to the lock state device. For example, to lock the speed of ttyd5 to 57600 bps, type: &prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyld5 57600 Now, an application that opens ttyd5 and tries to change the speed of the port will be stuck with 57600 bps. MAKEDEV Naturally, you should make the initial state and lock state devices writable only by the root account. Sean Kelly Contributed by Terminals terminals Terminals provide a convenient and low-cost way to access your FreeBSD system when you are not at the computer's console or on a connected network. This section describes how to use terminals with FreeBSD. Uses and Types of Terminals The original Unix systems did not have consoles. Instead, people logged in and ran programs through terminals that were connected to the computer's serial ports. It is quite similar to using a modem and terminal software to dial into a remote system to do text-only work. Today's PCs have consoles capable of high quality graphics, but the ability to establish a login session on a serial port still exists in nearly every Unix-style operating system today; FreeBSD is no exception. By using a terminal attached to an unused serial port, you can log in and run any text program that you would normally run on the console or in an xterm window in the X Window System. For the business user, you can attach many terminals to a FreeBSD system and place them on your employees' desktops. For a home user, a spare computer such as an older IBM PC or a Macintosh can be a terminal wired into a more powerful computer running FreeBSD. You can turn what might otherwise be a single-user computer into a powerful multiple user system. For FreeBSD, there are three kinds of terminals: Dumb terminals PCs acting as terminals X terminals The remaining subsections describe each kind. Dumb Terminals Dumb terminals are specialized pieces of hardware that let you connect to computers over serial lines. They are called dumb because they have only enough computational power to display, send, and receive text. You cannot run any programs on them. It is the computer to which you connect them that has all the power to run text editors, compilers, email, games, and so forth. There are hundreds of kinds of dumb terminals made by many manufacturers, including Digital Equipment Corporation's VT-100 and Wyse's WY-75. Just about any kind will work with FreeBSD. Some high-end terminals can even display graphics, but only certain software packages can take advantage of these advanced features. Dumb terminals are popular in work environments where workers do not need access to graphic applications such as those provided by the X Window System. PCs Acting As Terminals If a dumb terminal has just enough ability to display, send, and receive text, then certainly any spare personal computer can be a dumb terminal. All you need is the proper cable and some terminal emulation software to run on the computer. Such a configuration is popular in homes. For example, if your spouse is busy working on your FreeBSD system's console, you can do some text-only work at the same time from a less powerful personal computer hooked up as a terminal to the FreeBSD system. X Terminals X terminals are the most sophisticated kind of terminal available. Instead of connecting to a serial port, they usually connect to a network like Ethernet. Instead of being relegated to text-only applications, they can display any X application. We introduce X terminals just for the sake of completeness. However, this chapter does not cover setup, configuration, or use of X terminals. Configuration This section describes what you need to configure on your FreeBSD system to enable a login session on a terminal. It assumes you have already configured your kernel to support the serial port to which the terminal is connected—and that you have connected it. Recall from that the init process is responsible for all process control and initialization at system startup. One of the tasks performed by init is to read the /etc/ttys file and start a getty process on the available terminals. The getty process is responsible for reading a login name and starting the login program. Thus, to configure terminals for your FreeBSD system the following steps should be taken as root : Add a line to /etc/ttys for the entry in the /dev directory for the serial port if it is not already there. Specify that /usr/libexec/getty be run on the port, and specify the appropriate getty type from the /etc/gettytab file. Specify the default terminal type. Set the port to on. Specify whether the port should be secure. Force init to reread the /etc/ttys file. As an optional step, you may wish to create a custom getty type for use in step 2 by making an entry in /etc/gettytab. This chapter does not explain how to do so; you are encouraged to see the &man.gettytab.5; and the &man.getty.8; manual pages for more information. Adding an Entry to <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> The /etc/ttys file lists all of the ports on your FreeBSD system where you want to allow logins. For example, the first virtual console ttyv0 has an entry in this file. You can log in on the console using this entry. This file also contains entries for the other virtual consoles, serial ports, and pseudo-ttys. For a hardwired terminal, just list the serial port's /dev entry without the /dev part (for example, /dev/ttyv0 would be listed as ttyv0). A default FreeBSD install includes an /etc/ttys file with support for the first four serial ports: ttyd0 through ttyd3. If you are attaching a terminal to one of those ports, you do not need to add another entry. Adding Terminal Entries to <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> Suppose we would like to connect two terminals to the system: a Wyse-50 and an old 286 IBM PC running Procomm terminal software emulating a VT-100 terminal. We connect the Wyse to the second serial port and the 286 to the sixth serial port (a port on a multiport serial card). The corresponding entries in the /etc/ttys file would look like this: ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wy50 on insecure ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" vt100 on insecure The first field normally specifies the name of the terminal special file as it is found in /dev. The second field is the command to execute for this line, which is usually &man.getty.8;. getty initializes and opens the line, sets the speed, prompts for a user name and then executes the &man.login.1; program. The getty program accepts one (optional) parameter on its command line, the getty type. A getty type tells about characteristics on the terminal line, like bps rate and parity. The getty program reads these characteristics from the file /etc/gettytab. The file /etc/gettytab contains lots of entries for terminal lines both old and new. In almost all cases, the entries that start with the text std will work for hardwired terminals. These entries ignore parity. There is a std entry for each bps rate from 110 to 115200. Of course, you can add your own entries to this file. The &man.gettytab.5; manual page provides more information. When setting the getty type in the /etc/ttys file, make sure that the communications settings on the terminal match. For our example, the Wyse-50 uses no parity and connects at 38400 bps. The 286 PC uses no parity and connects at 19200 bps. The third field is the type of terminal usually connected to that tty line. For dial-up ports, unknown or dialup is typically used in this field since users may dial up with practically any type of terminal or software. For hardwired terminals, the terminal type does not change, so you can put a real terminal type from the &man.termcap.5; database file in this field. For our example, the Wyse-50 uses the real terminal type while the 286 PC running Procomm will be set to emulate at VT-100. The fourth field specifies if the port should be enabled. Putting on here will have the init process start the program in the second field, getty. If you put off in this field, there will be no getty, and hence no logins on the port. The final field is used to specify whether the port is secure. Marking a port as secure means that you trust it enough to allow the root account (or any account with a user ID of 0) to login from that port. Insecure ports do not allow root logins. On an insecure port, users must login from unprivileged accounts and then use &man.su.1; or a similar mechanism to gain superuser privileges. It is highly recommended that you use insecure even for terminals that are behind locked doors. It is quite easy to login and use su if you need superuser privileges. Force <command>init</command> to Reread <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> After making the necessary changes to the /etc/ttys file you should send a SIGHUP (hangup) signal to the init process to force it to re-read its configuration file. For example : &prompt.root; kill -HUP 1 init is always the first process run on a system, therefore it will always have PID 1. If everything is set up correctly, all cables are in place, and the terminals are powered up, then a getty process should be running on each terminal and you should see login prompts on your terminals at this point. Troubleshooting Your Connection Even with the most meticulous attention to detail, something could still go wrong while setting up a terminal. Here is a list of symptoms and some suggested fixes. No login prompt appears Make sure the terminal is plugged in and powered up. If it is a personal computer acting as a terminal, make sure it is running terminal emulation software on the correct serial port. Make sure the cable is connected firmly to both the terminal and the FreeBSD computer. Make sure it is the right kind of cable. Make sure the terminal and FreeBSD agree on the bps rate and parity settings. If you have a video display terminal, make sure the contrast and brightness controls are turned up. If it is a printing terminal, make sure paper and ink are in good supply. Make sure that a getty process is running and serving the terminal. For example, to get a list of running getty processes with ps, type: &prompt.root; ps -axww|grep getty You should see an entry for the terminal. For example, the following display shows that a getty is running on the second serial port ttyd1 and is using the std.38400 entry in /etc/gettytab: 22189 d1 Is+ 0:00.03 /usr/libexec/getty std.38400 ttyd1 If no getty process is running, make sure you have enabled the port in /etc/ttys. Also remember to run kill -HUP 1 after modifying the ttys file. Garbage appears instead of a login prompt Make sure the terminal and FreeBSD agree on the bps rate and parity settings. Check the getty processes to make sure the correct getty type is in use. If not, edit /etc/ttys and run kill -HUP 1. Characters appear doubled; the password appears when typed Switch the terminal (or the terminal emulation software) from half duplex or local echo to full duplex. Guy Helmer Contributed by Sean Kelly Additions by Dial-in Service dial-in service Configuring your FreeBSD system for dial-in service is very similar to connecting terminals except that you are dealing with modems instead of terminals. External vs. Internal Modems External modems seem to be more convenient for dial-up, because external modems often can be semi-permanently configured via parameters stored in non-volatile RAM and they usually provide lighted indicators that display the state of important RS-232 signals. Blinking lights impress visitors, but lights are also very useful to see whether a modem is operating properly. Internal modems usually lack non-volatile RAM, so their configuration may be limited only to setting DIP switches. If your internal modem has any signal indicator lights, it is probably difficult to view the lights when the system's cover is in place. Modems and Cables modem If you are using an external modem, then you will of course need the proper cable. A standard RS-232C serial cable should suffice as long as all of the normal signals are wired : Transmitted Data (SD) Received Data (RD) Request to Send (RTS) Clear to Send (CTS) Data Set Ready (DSR) Data Terminal Ready (DTR) Carrier Detect (CD) Signal Ground (SG) FreeBSD needs the RTS and CTS signals for flow-control at speeds above 2400bps, the CD signal to detect when a call has been answered or the line has been hung up, and the DTR signal to reset the modem after a session is complete. Some cables are wired without all of the needed signals, so if you have problems, such as a login session not going away when the line hangs up, you may have a problem with your cable. Like other Unix-like operating systems, FreeBSD uses the hardware signals to find out when a call has been answered or a line has been hung up and to hangup and reset the modem after a call. FreeBSD avoids sending commands to the modem or watching for status reports from the modem. If you are familiar with connecting modems to PC-based bulletin board systems, this may seem awkward. Serial Interface Considerations FreeBSD supports NS8250-, NS16450-, NS16550-, and NS16550A-based EIA RS-232C (CCITT V.24) communications interfaces. The 8250 and 16450 devices have single-character buffers. The 16550 device provides a 16-character buffer, which allows for better system performance. (Bugs in plain 16550's prevent the use of the 16-character buffer, so use 16550A's if possible). Because single-character-buffer devices require more work by the operating system than the 16-character-buffer devices, 16550A-based serial interface cards are much preferred. If the system has many active serial ports or will have a heavy load, 16550A-based cards are better for low-error-rate communications. Quick Overview getty As with terminals, init spawns a getty process for each configured serial port for dial-in connections. For example, if a modem is attached to /dev/ttyd0, the command ps ax might show this: 4850 ?? I 0:00.09 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0 When a user dials the modem's line and the modems connect, the CD (Carrier Detect) line is reported by the modem. The kernel notices that carrier has been detected and completes getty's open of the port. getty sends a login: prompt at the specified initial line speed. getty watches to see if legitimate characters are received, and, in a typical configuration, if it finds junk (probably due to the modem's connection speed being different than getty's speed), getty tries adjusting the line speeds until it receives reasonable characters. /usr/bin/login After the user enters his/her login name, getty executes /usr/bin/login, which completes the login by asking for the user's password and then starting the user's shell. Configuration Files There are three system configuration files in the /etc directory that you will probably need to edit to allow dial-up access to your FreeBSD system. The first, /etc/gettytab, contains configuration information for the /usr/libexec/getty daemon. Second, /etc/ttys holds information that tells /sbin/init what tty devices should have getty processes running on them. Lastly, you can place port initialization commands in the /etc/rc.serial script. There are two schools of thought regarding dial-up modems on Unix. One group likes to configure their modems and systems so that no matter at what speed a remote user dials in, the local computer-to-modem RS-232 interface runs at a locked speed. The benefit of this configuration is that the remote user always sees a system login prompt immediately. The downside is that the system does not know what a user's true data rate is, so full-screen programs like Emacs will not adjust their screen-painting methods to make their response better for slower connections. The other school configures their modems' RS-232 interface to vary its speed based on the remote user's connection speed. For example, V.32bis (14.4 Kbps) connections to the modem might make the modem run its RS-232 interface at 19.2 Kbps, while 2400 bps connections make the modem's RS-232 interface run at 2400 bps. Because getty does not understand any particular modem's connection speed reporting, getty gives a login: message at an initial speed and watches the characters that come back in response. If the user sees junk, it is assumed that they know they should press the Enter key until they see a recognizable prompt. If the data rates do not match, getty sees anything the user types as junk, tries going to the next speed and gives the login: prompt again. This procedure can continue ad nauseam, but normally only takes a keystroke or two before the user sees a good prompt. Obviously, this login sequence does not look as clean as the former locked-speed method, but a user on a low-speed connection should receive better interactive response from full-screen programs. This section will try to give balanced configuration information, but is biased towards having the modem's data rate follow the connection rate. <filename>/etc/gettytab</filename> /etc/gettytab /etc/gettytab is a &man.termcap.5;-style file of configuration information for &man.getty.8;. Please see the &man.gettytab.5; manual page for complete information on the format of the file and the list of capabilities. Locked-Speed Config If you are locking your modem's data communications rate at a particular speed, you probably will not need to make any changes to /etc/gettytab. Matching-Speed Config You will need to setup an entry in /etc/gettytab to give getty information about the speeds you wish to use for your modem. If you have a 2400 bps modem, you can probably use the existing D2400 entry. # # Fast dialup terminals, 2400/1200/300 rotary (can start either way) # D2400|d2400|Fast-Dial-2400:\ :nx=D1200:tc=2400-baud: 3|D1200|Fast-Dial-1200:\ :nx=D300:tc=1200-baud: 5|D300|Fast-Dial-300:\ :nx=D2400:tc=300-baud: If you have a higher speed modem, you will probably need to add an entry in /etc/gettytab; here is an entry you could use for a 14.4 Kbps modem with a top interface speed of 19.2 Kbps: # # Additions for a V.32bis Modem # um|V300|High Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\ :nx=V19200:tc=std.300: un|V1200|High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\ :nx=V300:tc=std.1200: uo|V2400|High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\ :nx=V1200:tc=std.2400: up|V9600|High Speed Modem at 9600,8-bit:\ :nx=V2400:tc=std.9600: uq|V19200|High Speed Modem at 19200,8-bit:\ :nx=V9600:tc=std.19200: This will result in 8-bit, no parity connections. The example above starts the communications rate at 19.2 Kbps (for a V.32bis connection), then cycles through 9600 bps (for V.32), 2400 bps, 1200 bps, 300 bps, and back to 19.2 Kbps. Communications rate cycling is implemented with the nx= (next table) capability. Each of the lines uses a tc= (table continuation) entry to pick up the rest of the standard settings for a particular data rate. If you have a 28.8 Kbps modem and/or you want to take advantage of compression on a 14.4 Kbps modem, you need to use a higher communications rate than 19.2 Kbps. Here is an example of a gettytab entry starting a 57.6 Kbps: # # Additions for a V.32bis or V.34 Modem # Starting at 57.6 Kbps # vm|VH300|Very High Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\ :nx=VH57600:tc=std.300: vn|VH1200|Very High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\ :nx=VH300:tc=std.1200: vo|VH2400|Very High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\ :nx=VH1200:tc=std.2400: vp|VH9600|Very High Speed Modem at 9600,8-bit:\ :nx=VH2400:tc=std.9600: vq|VH57600|Very High Speed Modem at 57600,8-bit:\ :nx=VH9600:tc=std.57600: If you have a slow CPU or a heavily loaded system and do not have 16550A-based serial ports, you may receive sio silo errors at 57.6 Kbps. <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> /etc/ttys Configuration of the /etc/ttys file was covered in . Configuration for modems is similar but we must pass a different argument to getty and specify a different terminal type. The general format for both locked-speed and matching-speed configurations is: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty xxx" dialup on The first item in the above line is the device special file for this entry — ttyd0 means /dev/ttyd0 is the file that this getty will be watching. The second item, "/usr/libexec/getty xxx" (xxx will be replaced by the initial gettytab capability) is the process init will run on the device. The third item, dialup, is the default terminal type. The fourth parameter, on, indicates to init that the line is operational. There can be a fifth parameter, secure, but it should only be used for terminals which are physically secure (such as the system console). The default terminal type (dialup in the example above) may depend on local preferences. dialup is the traditional default terminal type on dial-up lines so that users may customize their login scripts to notice when the terminal is dialup and automatically adjust their terminal type. However, the author finds it easier at his site to specify vt102 as the default terminal type, since the users just use VT102 emulation on their remote systems. After you have made changes to /etc/ttys, you may send the init process a HUP signal to re-read the file. You can use the command &prompt.root; kill -HUP 1 to send the signal. If this is your first time setting up the system, you may want to wait until your modem(s) are properly configured and connected before signaling init. Locked-Speed Config For a locked-speed configuration, your ttys entry needs to have a fixed-speed entry provided to getty. For a modem whose port speed is locked at 19.2 Kbps, the ttys entry might look like this: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" dialup on If your modem is locked at a different data rate, substitute the appropriate value for std.speed instead of std.19200. Make sure that you use a valid type listed in /etc/gettytab. Matching-Speed Config In a matching-speed configuration, your ttys entry needs to reference the appropriate beginning auto-baud (sic) entry in /etc/gettytab. For example, if you added the above suggested entry for a matching-speed modem that starts at 19.2 Kbps (the gettytab entry containing the V19200 starting point), your ttys entry might look like this: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty V19200" dialup on <filename>/etc/rc.serial</filename> rc files rc.serial High-speed modems, like V.32, V.32bis, and V.34 modems, need to use hardware (RTS/CTS) flow control. You can add stty commands to /etc/rc.serial to set the hardware flow control flag in the FreeBSD kernel for the modem ports. For example to set the termios flag crtscts on serial port #1's (COM2:) dial-in and dial-out initialization devices, the following lines could be added to /etc/rc.serial : # Serial port initial configuration stty -f /dev/ttyid1 crtscts stty -f /dev/cuai01 crtscts Modem Settings If you have a modem whose parameters may be permanently set in non-volatile RAM, you will need to use a terminal program (such as Telix under MS-DOS or tip under FreeBSD) to set the parameters. Connect to the modem using the same communications speed as the initial speed getty will use and configure the modem's non-volatile RAM to match these requirements: CD asserted when connected DTR asserted for operation; dropping DTR hangs up line and resets modem CTS transmitted data flow control Disable XON/XOFF flow control RTS received data flow control Quiet mode (no result codes) No command echo Please read the documentation for your modem to find out what commands and/or DIP switch settings you need to give it. For example, to set the above parameters on a USRobotics Sportster 14,400 external modem, one could give these commands to the modem: ATZ AT&C1&D2&H1&I0&R2&W You might also want to take this opportunity to adjust other settings in the modem, such as whether it will use V.42bis and/or MNP5 compression. The USR Sportster 14,400 external modem also has some DIP switches that need to be set; for other modems, perhaps you can use these settings as an example: Switch 1: UP — DTR Normal Switch 2: N/A (Verbal Result Codes/Numeric Result Codes) Switch 3: UP — Suppress Result Codes Switch 4: DOWN — No echo, offline commands Switch 5: UP — Auto Answer Switch 6: UP — Carrier Detect Normal Switch 7: UP — Load NVRAM Defaults Switch 8: N/A (Smart Mode/Dumb Mode) Result codes should be disabled/suppressed for dial-up modems to avoid problems that can occur if getty mistakenly gives a login: prompt to a modem that is in command mode and the modem echoes the command or returns a result code. This sequence can result in a extended, silly conversation between getty and the modem. Locked-speed Config For a locked-speed configuration, you will need to configure the modem to maintain a constant modem-to-computer data rate independent of the communications rate. On a USR Sportster 14,400 external modem, these commands will lock the modem-to-computer data rate at the speed used to issue the commands: ATZ AT&B1&W Matching-speed Config For a variable-speed configuration, you will need to configure your modem to adjust its serial port data rate to match the incoming call rate. On a USR Sportster 14,400 external modem, these commands will lock the modem's error-corrected data rate to the speed used to issue the commands, but allow the serial port rate to vary for non-error-corrected connections: ATZ AT&B2&W Checking the Modem's Configuration Most high-speed modems provide commands to view the modem's current operating parameters in a somewhat human-readable fashion. On the USR Sportster 14,400 external modems, the command ATI5 displays the settings that are stored in the non-volatile RAM. To see the true operating parameters of the modem (as influenced by the USR's DIP switch settings), use the commands ATZ and then ATI4. If you have a different brand of modem, check your modem's manual to see how to double-check your modem's configuration parameters. Troubleshooting Here are a few steps you can follow to check out the dial-up modem on your system. Checking out the FreeBSD System Hook up your modem to your FreeBSD system, boot the system, and, if your modem has status indication lights, watch to see whether the modem's DTR indicator lights when the login: prompt appears on the system's console — if it lights up, that should mean that FreeBSD has started a getty process on the appropriate communications port and is waiting for the modem to accept a call. If the DTR indicator does not light, login to the FreeBSD system through the console and issue a ps ax to see if FreeBSD is trying to run a getty process on the correct port. You should see a lines like this among the processes displayed: 114 ?? I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0 115 ?? I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd1 If you see something different, like this: 114 d0 I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0 and the modem has not accepted a call yet, this means that getty has completed its open on the communications port. This could indicate a problem with the cabling or a mis-configured modem, because getty should not be able to open the communications port until CD (carrier detect) has been asserted by the modem. If you do not see any getty processes waiting to open the desired ttydN port, double-check your entries in /etc/ttys to see if there are any mistakes there. Also, check the log file /var/log/messages to see if there are any log messages from init or getty regarding any problems. If there are any messages, triple-check the configuration files /etc/ttys and /etc/gettytab, as well as the appropriate device special files /dev/ttydN, for any mistakes, missing entries, or missing device special files. Try Dialing In Try dialing into the system; be sure to use 8 bits, no parity, and 1 stop bit on the remote system. If you do not get a prompt right away, or get garbage, try pressing Enter about once per second. If you still do not see a login: prompt after a while, try sending a BREAK. If you are using a high-speed modem to do the dialing, try dialing again after locking the dialing modem's interface speed (via AT&B1 on a USR Sportster, for example). If you still cannot get a login: prompt, check /etc/gettytab again and double-check that The initial capability name specified in /etc/ttys for the line matches a name of a capability in /etc/gettytab Each nx= entry matches another gettytab capability name Each tc= entry matches another gettytab capability name If you dial but the modem on the FreeBSD system will not answer, make sure that the modem is configured to answer the phone when DTR is asserted. If the modem seems to be configured correctly, verify that the DTR line is asserted by checking the modem's indicator lights (if it has any). If you have gone over everything several times and it still does not work, take a break and come back to it later. If it still does not work, perhaps you can send an electronic mail message to the &a.questions;describing your modem and your problem, and the good folks on the list will try to help. Dial-out Service dial-out service The following are tips to getting your host to be able to connect over the modem to another computer. This is appropriate for establishing a terminal session with a remote host. This is useful to log onto a BBS. This kind of connection can be extremely helpful to get a file on the Internet if you have problems with PPP. If you need to FTP something and PPP is broken, use the terminal session to FTP it. Then use zmodem to transfer it to your machine. My Stock Hayes Modem Is Not Supported, What Can I Do? Actually, the manual page for tip is out of date. There is a generic Hayes dialer already built in. Just use at=hayes in your /etc/remote file. The Hayes driver is not smart enough to recognize some of the advanced features of newer modems—messages like BUSY, NO DIALTONE, or CONNECT 115200 will just confuse it. You should turn those messages off when you use tip (using ATX0&W). Also, the dial timeout for tip is 60 seconds. Your modem should use something less, or else tip will think there is a communication problem. Try ATS7=45&W. As shipped, tip does not yet support Hayes modems fully. The solution is to edit the file tipconf.h in the directory /usr/src/usr.bin/tip/tip. Obviously you need the source distribution to do this. Edit the line #define HAYES 0 to #define HAYES 1. Then make and make install. Everything works nicely after that. How Am I Expected to Enter These AT Commands? /etc/remote Make what is called a direct entry in your /etc/remote file. For example, if your modem is hooked up to the first serial port, /dev/cuaa0, then put in the following line: cuaa0:dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#19200:pa=none Use the highest bps rate your modem supports in the br capability. Then, type tip cuaa0 and you will be connected to your modem. If there is no /dev/cuaa0 on your system, do this: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV cuaa0 Or use cu as root with the following command: &prompt.root; cu -lline -sspeed line is the serial port (e.g./dev/cuaa0) and speed is the speed (e.g.57600). When you are done entering the AT commands hit ~. to exit. The <literal>@</literal> Sign for the pn Capability Does Not Work! The @ sign in the phone number capability tells tip to look in /etc/phones for a phone number. But the @ sign is also a special character in capability files like /etc/remote. Escape it with a backslash: pn=\@ How Can I Dial a Phone Number on the Command Line? Put what is called a generic entry in your /etc/remote file. For example: tip115200|Dial any phone number at 115200 bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#115200:at=hayes:pa=none:du: tip57600|Dial any phone number at 57600 bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du: Then you can things like: &prompt.root; tip -115200 5551234 If you prefer cu over tip, use a generic cu entry: cu115200|Use cu to dial any number at 115200bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa1:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du: and type: &prompt.root; cu 5551234 -s 115200 Do I Have to Type in the bps Rate Every Time I Do That? Put in an entry for tip1200 or cu1200, but go ahead and use whatever bps rate is appropriate with the br capability. tip thinks a good default is 1200 bps which is why it looks for a tip1200 entry. You do not have to use 1200 bps, though. I Access a Number of Hosts through a Terminal Server. Rather than waiting until you are connected and typing CONNECT <host> each time, use tip's cm capability. For example, these entries in /etc/remote: pain|pain.deep13.com|Forrester's machine:\ :cm=CONNECT pain\n:tc=deep13: muffin|muffin.deep13.com|Frank's machine:\ :cm=CONNECT muffin\n:tc=deep13: deep13:Gizmonics Institute terminal server:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa2:br#38400:at=hayes:du:pa=none:pn=5551234: will let you type tip pain or tip muffin to connect to the hosts pain or muffin, and tip deep13 to get to the terminal server. Can Tip Try More Than one Line for each Site? This is often a problem where a university has several modem lines and several thousand students trying to use them... Make an entry for your university in /etc/remote and use @ for the pn capability: big-university:\ :pn=\@:tc=dialout dialout:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa3:br#9600:at=courier:du:pa=none: Then, list the phone numbers for the university in /etc/phones: big-university 5551111 big-university 5551112 big-university 5551113 big-university 5551114 tip will try each one in the listed order, then give up. If you want to keep retrying, run tip in a while loop. Why Do I Have to Hit <keycombo action="simul"> <keycap>Ctrl</keycap> <keycap>P</keycap> </keycombo> Twice to Send <keycombo action="simul"> <keycap>Ctrl</keycap> <keycap>P</keycap> </keycombo> Once? CtrlP is the default force character, used to tell tip that the next character is literal data. You can set the force character to any other character with the ~s escape, which means set a variable. Type ~sforce=single-char followed by a newline. single-char is any single character. If you leave out single-char, then the force character is the nul character, which you can get by typing Ctrl2 or CtrlSpace . A pretty good value for single-char is Shift Ctrl 6 , which is only used on some terminal servers. You can have the force character be whatever you want by specifying the following in your $HOME/.tiprc file: force=<single-char> Suddenly Everything I Type Is in UPPER CASE?? You must have pressed Ctrl A , tip's raise character, specially designed for people with broken caps-lock keys. Use ~s as above and set the variable raisechar to something reasonable. In fact, you can set it to the same as the force character, if you never expect to use either of these features. Here is a sample .tiprc file perfect for Emacs users who need to type Ctrl2 and CtrlA a lot: force=^^ raisechar=^^ The ^^ is ShiftCtrl6 . How Can I Do File Transfers with <command>tip</command>? If you are talking to another Unix system, you can send and receive files with ~p (put) and ~t (take). These commands run cat and echo on the remote system to accept and send files. The syntax is: ~p local-file remote-file ~t remote-file local-file There is no error checking, so you probably should use another protocol, like zmodem. How Can I Run zmodem with <command>tip</command>? To receive files, start the sending program on the remote end. Then, type ~C rz to begin receiving them locally. To send files, start the receiving program on the remote end. Then, type ~C sz files to send them to the remote system. Kazutaka YOKOTA Contributed by Bill Paul Based on a document by Setting Up the Serial Console serial console Introduction FreeBSD has the ability to boot on a system with only a dumb terminal on a serial port as a console. Such a configuration should be useful for two classes of people: system administrators who wish to install FreeBSD on machines that have no keyboard or monitor attached, and developers who want to debug the kernel or device drivers. As described in , FreeBSD employs a three stage bootstrap. The first two stages are in the boot block code which is stored at the beginning of the FreeBSD slice on the boot disk. The boot block will then load and run the boot loader (/boot/loader) as the third stage code. In order to set up the serial console you must configure the boot block code, the boot loader code and the kernel. Serial Console Configuration Prepare a serial cable. null-modem cable You will need either a null-modem cable or a standard serial cable and a null-modem adapter. See for a discussion on serial cables. Unplug your keyboard. Most PC systems probe for the keyboard during the Power-On Self-Test (POST) and will generate an error if the keyboard is not detected. Some machines complain loudly about the lack of a keyboard and will not continue to boot until it is plugged in. If your computer complains about the error, but boots anyway, then you do not have to do anything special. (Some machines with Phoenix BIOS installed merely say Keyboard failed and continue to boot normally.) If your computer refuses to boot without a keyboard attached then you will have to configure the BIOS so that it ignores this error (if it can). Consult your motherboard's manual for details on how to do this. Setting the keyboard to Not installed in the BIOS setup does not mean that you will not be able to use your keyboard. All this does is tell the BIOS not to probe for a keyboard at power-on, so it will not complain if the keyboard is not plugged in. You can leave the keyboard plugged in even with this flag set to Not installed and the keyboard will still work. If your system has a PS/2 mouse, chances are very good that you may have to unplug your mouse as well as your keyboard. This is because PS/2 mice share some hardware with the keyboard and leaving the mouse plugged in can fool the keyboard probe into thinking the keyboard is still there. It is said that a Gateway 2000 Pentium 90MHz system with an AMI BIOS that behaves this way. In general, this is not a problem since the mouse is not much good without the keyboard anyway. Plug a dumb terminal into COM1: (sio0). If you do not have a dumb terminal, you can use an old PC/XT with a modem program, or the serial port on another Unix box. If you do not have a COM1: (sio0), get one. At this time, there is no way to select a port other than COM1: for the boot blocks without recompiling the boot blocks. If you are already using COM1: for another device, you will have to temporarily remove that device and install a new boot block and kernel once you get FreeBSD up and running. (It is assumed that COM1: will be available on a file/compute/terminal server anyway; if you really need COM1: for something else (and you cannot switch that something else to COM2: (sio1)), then you probably should not even be bothering with all this in the first place.) Make sure the configuration file of your kernel has appropriate flags set for COM1: (sio0). Relevant flags are: 0x10 Enables console support for this unit. The other console flags are ignored unless this is set. Currently, at most one unit can have console support; the first one (in config file order) with this flag set is preferred. This option alone will not make the serial port the console. Set the following flag or use the option described below, together with this flag. 0x20 Forces this unit to be the console (unless there is another higher priority console), regardless of the option discussed below. This flag replaces the COMCONSOLE option in FreeBSD versions 2.X. The flag 0x20 must be used together with the flag. 0x40 Reserves this unit (in conjunction with 0x10) and makes the unit unavailable for normal access. You should not set this flag to the serial port unit which you want to use as the serial console. The only use of this flag is to designate the unit for kernel remote debugging. See The Developer's Handbook for more information on remote debugging. In FreeBSD 4.0-CURRENT or later the semantics of the flag 0x40 are slightly different and there is another flag to specify a serial port for remote debugging. Example: device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty flags 0x10 irq 4 See the &man.sio.4; manual page for more details. If the flags were not set, you need to run UserConfig (on a different console) or recompile the kernel. Create boot.config in the root directory of the a partition on the boot drive. This file will instruct the boot block code how you would like to boot the system. In order to activate the serial console, you need one or more of the following options—if you want multiple options, include them all on the same line: Toggles internal and serial consoles. You can use this to switch console devices. For instance, if you boot from the internal (video) console, you can use to direct the boot loader and the kernel to use the serial port as its console device. Alternatively, if you boot from the serial port, you can use the to tell the boot loader and the kernel to use the video display as the console instead. Toggles single and dual console configurations. In the single configuration the console will be either the internal console (video display) or the serial port, depending on the state of the option above. In the dual console configuration, both the video display and the serial port will become the console at the same time, regardless of the state of the option. However, that the dual console configuration takes effect only during the boot block is running. Once the boot loader gets control, the console specified by the option becomes the only console. Makes the boot block probe the keyboard. If no keyboard is found, the and options are automatically set. Due to space constraints in the current version of the boot blocks, the option is capable of detecting extended keyboards only. Keyboards with less than 101 keys (and without F11 and F12 keys) may not be detected. Keyboards on some laptop computers may not be properly found because of this limitation. If this is the case with your system, you have to abandon using the option. Unfortunately there is no workaround for this problem. Use either the option to select the console automatically, or the option to activate the serial console. You may include other options described in &man.boot.8; as well. The options, except for , will be passed to the boot loader (/boot/loader). The boot loader will determine which of the internal video or the serial port should become the console by examining the state of the option alone. This means that if you specify the option but not the option in /boot.config, you can use the serial port as the console only during the boot block; the boot loader will use the internal video display as the console. Boot the machine. When you start your FreeBSD box, the boot blocks will echo the contents of /boot.config to the console. For example; /boot.config: -P Keyboard: no The second line appears only if you put in /boot.config and indicates presence/absence of the keyboard. These messages go to either serial or internal console, or both, depending on the option in /boot.config. Options Message goes to none internal console serial console serial and internal consoles serial and internal consoles , keyboard present internal console , keyboard absent serial console After the above messages, there will be a small pause before the boot blocks continue loading the boot loader and before any further messages printed to the console. Under normal circumstances, you do not need to interrupt the boot blocks, but you may want to do so in order to make sure things are set up correctly. Hit any key, other than Enter, at the console to interrupt the boot process. The boot blocks will then prompt you for further action. You should now see something like: >> FreeBSD/i386 BOOT Default: 0:wd(0,a)/boot/loader boot: Verify the above message appears on either the serial or internal console or both, according to the options you put in /boot.config. If the message appears in the correct console, hit Enter to continue the boot process. If you want the serial console but you do not see the prompt on the serial terminal, something is wrong with your settings. In the meantime, you enter and hit Enter/Return (if possible) to tell the boot block (and then the boot loader and the kernel) to choose the serial port for the console. Once the system is up, go back and check what went wrong. After the boot loader is loaded and you are in the third stage of the boot process you can still switch between the internal console and the serial console by setting appropriate environment variables in the boot loader. See . Summary Here is the summary of various settings discussed in this section and the console eventually selected. Case 1: You Set the flags to 0x10 for <devicename>sio0</devicename> device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty flags 0x10 irq 4 Options in /boot.config Console during boot blocks Console during boot loader Console in kernel nothing internal internal internal serial serial serial serial and internal internal internal serial and internal serial serial , keyboard present internal internal internal , keyboard absent serial and internal serial serial Case 2: You Set the flags to 0x30 for sio0 device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty flags 0x30 irq 4 Options in /boot.config Console during boot blocks Console during boot loader Console in kernel nothing internal internal serial serial serial serial serial and internal internal serial serial and internal serial serial , keyboard present internal internal serial , keyboard absent serial and internal serial serial Tips for the Serial Console Setting a Faster Serial Port Speed By default, the serial port settings are: 9600 baud, 8 bits, no parity, and 1 stop bit. If you wish to change the speed, you need to recompile at least the boot blocks. Add the following line to /etc/make.conf and compile new boot blocks: BOOT_COMCONSOLE_SPEED=19200 If the serial console is configured in some other way than by booting with , or if the serial console used by the kernel is different from the one used by the boot blocks, then you must also add the following option to the kernel configuration file and compile a new kernel: options CONSPEED=19200 Using Serial Port Other Than <devicename>sio0</devicename> for the Console Using a port other than sio0 as the console requires some recompiling. If you want to use another serial port for whatever reasons, recompile the boot blocks, the boot loader and the kernel as follows. Get the kernel source. (See ) Edit /etc/make.conf and set BOOT_COMCONSOLE_PORT to the address of the port you want to use (0x3F8, 0x2F8, 0x3E8 or 0x2E8). Only sio0 through sio3 (COM1: through COM4:) can be used; multiport serial cards will not work. No interrupt setting is needed. Create a custom kernel configuration file and add appropriate flags for the serial port you want to use. For example, if you want to make sio1 (COM2:) the console: device sio1 at isa? port "IO_COM2" tty flags 0x10 irq 3 or device sio1 at isa? port "IO_COM2" tty flags 0x30 irq 3 The console flags for the other serial ports should not be set. Recompile and install the boot blocks: &prompt.root; cd /sys/boot/i386/boot2 &prompt.root; make &prompt.root; make install Recompile and install the boot loader: &prompt.root; cd /sys/boot/i386/loader &prompt.root; make &prompt.root; make install Rebuild and install the kernel. Write the boot blocks to the boot disk with &man.disklabel.8; and boot from the new kernel. Entering the DDB Debugger from the Serial Line If you wish to drop into the kernel debugger from the serial console (useful for remote diagnostics, but also dangerous if you generate a spurious BREAK on the serial port!) then you should compile your kernel with the following options: options BREAK_TO_DEBUGGER options DDB Getting a Login Prompt on the Serial Console While this is not required, you may wish to get a login prompt over the serial line, now that you can see boot messages and can enter the kernel debugging session through the serial console. Here is how to do it. Open the file /etc/ttys with an editor and locate the lines: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd2 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd3 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd0 through ttyd3 corresponds to COM1 through COM4. Change off to on for the desired port. If you have changed the speed of the serial port, you need to change std.9600 to match the current setting, e.g. std.19200. You may also want to change the terminal type from unknown to the actual type of your serial terminal. After editing the file, you must kill -HUP 1 to make this change take effect. Changing Console from the Boot Loader Previous sections described how to set up the serial console by tweaking the boot block. This section shows that you can specify the console by entering some commands and environment variables in the boot loader. As the boot loader is invoked at the third stage of the boot process, after the boot block, the settings in the boot loader will override the settings in the boot block. Setting up the Serial Console You can easily specify the boot loader and the kernel to use the serial console by writing just one line in /boot/loader.rc: set console=comconsole This will take effect regardless of the settings in the boot block discussed in the previous section. You had better put the above line as the first line of /boot/loader.rc so as to see boot messages on the serial console as early as possible. Likewise, you can specify the internal console as: set console=vidconsole If you do not set the boot loader environment variable console, the boot loader, and subsequently the kernel, will use whichever console indicated by the option in the boot block. In versions 3.2 or later, you may specify the console in /boot/loader.conf.local or /boot/loader.conf, rather than in /boot/loader.rc. In this method your /boot/loader.rc should look like: include /boot/loader.4th start Then, create /boot/loader.conf.local and put the following line there. console=comconsole or console=vidconsole See &man.loader.conf.5; for more information. At the moment, the boot loader has no option equivalent to the option in the boot block, and there is no provision to automatically select the internal console and the serial console based on the presence of the keyboard. Using Serial Port Other than <devicename>sio0</devicename> for the Console You need to recompile the boot loader to use a serial port other than sio0 for the serial console. Follow the procedure described in . Caveats The idea here is to allow people to set up dedicated servers that require no graphics hardware or attached keyboards. Unfortunately, while most systems will let you boot without a keyboard, there are quite a few that will not let you boot without a graphics adapter. Machines with AMI BIOSes can be configured to boot with no graphics adapter installed simply by changing the `graphics adapter' setting in the CMOS configuration to `Not installed.' However, many machines do not support this option and will refuse to boot if you have no display hardware in the system. With these machines, you will have to leave some kind of graphics card plugged in, (even if it is just a junky mono board) although you will not have to attach a monitor into it. You might also try installing an AMI BIOS. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/sound/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/sound/chapter.sgml index eb04a41f3b..5fe664092b 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/sound/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/sound/chapter.sgml @@ -1,579 +1,579 @@ Moses Moore Contributed by Sound Synopsis FreeBSD supports a wide variety of sound cards, allowing you to enjoy high fidelity output from your computer. This includes the ability to record and playback audio in the MPEG Audio Layer 3 (MP3), WAV, and Ogg Vorbis formats as well as many other formats. The FreeBSD Ports Collection also contains applications allowing you to edit your recorded audio, add sound effects, and control attached MIDI devices. - After reading this chapter you will know: + After reading this chapter, you will know: How to locate your sound card. How to configure your system so that your sound card is recognized. Methods to test that your card is working using sample applications. How to troubleshoot your sound setup. How to playback and encode MP3s. How to rip CD audio tracks into data files. - Before reading this chapter you should: + Before reading this chapter, you should: Know how to configure and install a new kernel (). Locating the Correct Device PCI ISA sound cards Before you begin, you should know the model of the card you have, the chip it uses, and whether it is a PCI or ISA card. FreeBSD supports a wide variety of both PCI and ISA cards. If you do not see your card in the following list, check the &man.pcm.4; manual page. This is not a complete list; however, it does list some of the most common cards. Crystal 4237, 4236, 4232, 4231 Yamaha OPL-SAx OPTi931 Ensoniq AudioPCI 1370/1371 ESS Solo-1/1E NeoMagic 256AV/ZX Sound Blaster Pro, 16, 32, AWE64, AWE128, Live Creative ViBRA16 Advanced Asound 100, 110, and Logic ALS120 ES 1868, 1869, 1879, 1888 Gravis UltraSound Aureal Vortex 1 or 2 kernel configuration The driver you use in your kernel depends on the kind of card you have. The sections below provide more information and what you will need to add to your kernel configuration. Creative, Advance, and ESS Sound Cards If you have one of the above cards, you will need to add: device pcm to your kernel configuration file. If you have a PnP ISA card, you will also need to add: device sbc For a non-PnP ISA card, add: device pcm device sbc0 at isa? port 0x220 irq 5 drq 1 flags 0x15 to your kernel configuration file. The settings shown above are the defaults. You may need to change the IRQ or the other settings to match your card. See the &man.sbc.4; manual page for more information. The Sound Blaster Live is not supported under FreeBSD 4.0 without a patch, which this section will not cover. It is recommended that you update to the latest -STABLE before trying to use this card. Gravis UltraSound Cards For a PnP ISA card, you will need to add: device pcm device gusc to your kernel configuration file. If you have a non-PnP ISA card, you will need to add: device pcm device gus0 at isa? port 0x220 irq 5 drq 1 flags 0x13 to your kernel configuration file. You may need to change the IRQ or the other settings to match your card. See the &man.gusc.4; manual page for more information. Crystal Sound Cards For Crystal cards, you will need to add: device pcm device csa to your kernel configuration file. Generic Support For PnP ISA or PCI cards, you will need to add: device pcm to your kernel configuration file. If you have a non-PnP ISA sound card that does not have a bridge driver, you will need to add: device pcm0 at isa? irq 10 drq 1 flags 0x0 to your kernel configuration file. You may need to change the IRQ or the other settings to match your card. Onboard Sound Some systems with built-in motherboard sound devices may require the following option in your kernel configuration: options PNPBIOS Recompiling the Kernel After adding the requisite driver(s) to your kernel configuration file, you will need to recompile your kernel. Please see of the handbook for more information. Creating and Testing the Device Nodes device nodes After you reboot, log in and run dmesg | grep pcm as shown below: &prompt.root; dmesg | grep pcm pcm0: <SB16 DSP 4.11> on sbc0 The output from your system may look different. If no pcm devices show up, something went wrong earlier. If that happens, go through your kernel configuration file again and make sure you chose the correct device. Consult the troubleshooting section for additional options. If the previous command returned pcm0, you will have to run the following as root: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV snd0 If the command returned pcm1, follow the same steps as shown above, replacing snd0 with snd1. The above commands will not create a /dev/snd device! MAKEDEV will create a group of device nodes, including: Device Description /dev/audio SPARC-compatible audio device /dev/dsp Digitized voice device /dev/dspW Like /dev/dsp, but 16 bits per sample /dev/midi Raw midi access device /dev/mixer Control port mixer device /dev/music Level 2 sequencer interface /dev/sequencer Sequencer device /dev/pss Programmable device interface If all goes well, you should now have a functioning sound card. If you do not, read the next section. Common Problems device node I get an unsupported subdevice XX error! One or more of the device nodes was not created correctly. Repeat the steps above. I/O port I get a sb_dspwr(XX) timed out error! The I/O port is not set correctly. IRQ I get a bad irq XX error! The IRQ is set incorrectly. Make sure that the set IRQ and the sound IRQ are the same. I get a xxx: gus pcm not attached, out of memory error. What causes that? If this happens, it is because there is not enough available memory to use the device. Chern Lee Contributed by MP3 Audio MP3 (MPEG Layer 3 Audio) accomplishes near CD-quality sound, leaving no reason to let your FreeBSD workstation fall short of its offerings. MP3 Players By far, the most popular XFree86 MP3 player is XMMS (X Multimedia System). WinAmp skins can be used with XMMS since the GUI is almost identical to that of Nullsoft Winamp's. XMMS also has native plug-in support. XMMS can be installed from the audio/xmms port or package. XMMS' interface is intuitive, with a playlist, graphic equalizer, and more. Those familiar with WinAmp will find XMMS simple to use. The audio/mpg123 port is an alternative, command-line MP3 player. mpg123 can be run by specifying the sound device and the MP3 file on the command line, as shown below: &prompt.root; mpg123 -a /dev/dsp1.0 Foobar-GreatestHits.mp3 High Performance MPEG 1.0/2.0/2.5 Audio Player for Layer 1, 2 and 3. Version 0.59r (1999/Jun/15). Written and copyrights by Michael Hipp. Uses code from various people. See 'README' for more! THIS SOFTWARE COMES WITH ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY! USE AT YOUR OWN RISK! Playing MPEG stream from BT - Foobar-GreastHits.mp3 ... MPEG 1.0 layer III, 128 kbit/s, 44100 Hz joint-stereo /dev/dsp1.0 should be replaced with the dsp device entry on your system. Ripping CD Audio Tracks Before encoding a CD or CD track to MP3, the audio data on the CD must be ripped onto the hard drive. This is done by copying the raw CDDA (CD Digital Audio) data to WAV files. The cdda2wav tool, which is a part of the sysutils/cdrtools suite, is used for ripping audio information of CDs and the information associated with it. With the audio CD in the drive, the following command can be issued (as root) to rip an entire CD into individual (per track) WAV files: &prompt.root; cdda2wav -D 0,1,0 -B The indicates the SCSI device 0,1,0, which corresponds to the output of cdrecord -scanbus. To rip individual tracks, make use of the option as shown: &prompt.root; cdda2wav -D 0,1,0 -t 7 This example rips track seven of the audio CDROM. To rip a range of tracks, for example, track one to seven, specify a range: &prompt.root; cdda2wav -D 0,1,0 -t 1+7 cdda2wav only supports SCSI CDROM drives. For IDE drives, try out audio/cdd or some of the various other utilities in the audio ports collection. Encoding MP3s Nowadays, the mp3 encoder of choice is lame. Lame can be found at audio/lame in the ports tree. Using the ripped WAV files, the following command will convert audio01.wav to audio01.mp3: &prompt.root; lame -h -b 128 \ --tt "Foo Song Title" \ --ta "FooBar Artist" \ --tl "FooBar Album" \ --ty "2001" \ --tc "Ripped and encoded by Foo" \ --tg "Genre" \ audio01.wav audio01.mp3 128 kbits seems to be the standard MP3 bitrate in use. Many enjoy the higher quality 160, or 192. The higher the bitrate, the more disk space the resulting MP3 will consume--but the quality will be higher. The option turns on the higher quality but a little slower mode. The options beginning with indicate ID3 tags, which usually contain song information, to be embedded within the MP3 file. Additional encoding options can be found by consulting the lame man page. Decoding MP3s In order to burn an audio CD from MP3s, they must be converted to a non-compressed WAV format. Both XMMS and mpg123 support the output of MP3 to an uncompressed file format. Writing to Disk in XMMS: Launch XMMS. Right-click on the window to bring up the XMMS menu. Select Preference under Options. Change the Output Plugin to Disk Writer Plugin. Press Configure. Enter (or choose browse) a directory to write the uncompressed files to. Load the MP3 file into XMMS as usual, with volume at 100% and EQ settings turned off. Press Play — XMMS will appear as if it is playing the MP3, but no music will be heard. It is actually playing the MP3 to a file. Be sure to set the default Output Plugin back to what it was before in order to listen to MP3s again. Writing to stdout in mpg123: Run mpg123 -s audio01.mp3 > audio01.pcm XMMS writes a file in the WAV format, while mpg123 converts the MP3 into raw PCM audio data. Both of these formats can be used with cdrecord or burncd to create audio CDROMs. Read for more information on using a CD burner in FreeBSD. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/users/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/users/chapter.sgml index 5360950a80..c6bf83c12b 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/users/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/users/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1067 +1,1067 @@ Neil Blakey-Milner Contributed by Users and Basic Account Management Synopsis FreeBSD allows multiple users to use the computer at the same time. Obviously, only one of those users can be sitting in front of the screen and keyboard at any one time Well, unless you hook up multiple terminals, but we'll save that for , but any number of users can log in through the network to get their work done. To use the system every user must have an account. - After reading this chapter you will know: + After reading this chapter, you will know: The differences between the various user accounts on a FreeBSD system. How to add user accounts. How to remove user accounts. How to change account details, such as the user's full name, or preferred shell. How to set limits on a per-account basis, to control the resources such as memory and CPU time that accounts and groups of accounts are allowed to access. How to use groups to make account management easier. - Before reading this chapter you should: + Before reading this chapter, you should: Understand the basics of Unix and FreeBSD (). Introduction All access to the system is achieved via accounts, and all processes are run by users, so user and account management are of integral importance on FreeBSD systems. Every account on a FreeBSD system has certain information associated with it to identify the account. User name The user name as it would be typed at the login: prompt. User names must be unique across the computer; you may not have two users with the same user name. There are a number of rules for creating valid user names, documented in &man.passwd.5;; you would typically use user names that consist of eight or fewer all lower case characters. Password Each account has a password associated with it. The password may be blank, in which case no password will be required to access the system. This is normally a very bad idea; every account should have a password. User ID (UID) The UID is a number from 0 to 65536 used to uniquely identify the user to the system. Internally, FreeBSD uses the UID to identify users—any FreeBSD commands that allow you to specify a user name will convert it to the UID before working with it. This means that you can have several accounts with different user names but the same UID. As far as FreeBSD is concerned these accounts are one user. It is unlikely you will ever need to do this. Group ID (GID) The GID is a number from 0 to 65536 used to uniquely identify the primary group that the user belongs to. Groups are a mechanism for controlling access to resources based on a user's GID rather than their UID. This can significantly reduce the size of some configuration files. A user may also be in more than one group. Login class Login classes are an extension to the group mechanism that provide additional flexibility when tailoring the system to different users. Password change time By default FreeBSD does not force users to change their passwords periodically. You can enforce this on a per-user basis, forcing some or all of your users to change their passwords after a certain amount of time has elapsed. Account expiry time By default FreeBSD does not expire accounts. If you are creating accounts that you know have a limited lifespan, for example, in a school where you have accounts for the students, then you can specify when the account expires. After the expiry time has elapsed the account cannot be used to log in to the system, although the account's directories and files will remain. User's full name The user name uniquely identifies the account to FreeBSD, but does not necessarily reflect the user's real name. This information can be associated with the account. Home directory The home directory is the full path to a directory on the system in which the user will start when logging on to the system. A common convention is to put all user home directories under /home/username or /usr/home/username. The user would store their personal files in their home directory, and any directories they may create in there. User shell The shell provides the default environment users use to interact with the system. There are many different kinds of shells, and experienced users will have their own preferences, which can be reflected in their account settings. There are three main types of accounts; the Superuser, system users, and user accounts. The Superuser account, usually called root, is used to manage the system with no limitations on privileges. System users run services. Finally, user accounts are used by real people, who log on, read mail, and so forth. The Superuser Account accounts superuser (root) The superuser account, usually called root, comes preconfigured to facilitate system administration, and should not be used for day-to-day tasks like sending and receiving mail, general exploration of the system, or programming. This is because the superuser, unlike normal user accounts, can operate without limits, and misuse of the superuser account may result in spectacular disasters. User accounts are unable to destroy the system by mistake, so it is generally best to use normal user accounts whenever possible, unless you especially need the extra privilege. You should always double and triple-check commands you issue as the superuser, since an extra space or missing character can mean irreparable data loss. So, the first thing you should do after reading this chapter is to create an unprivileged user account for yourself for general usage if you have not already. This applies equally whether you are running a multi-user or single-user machine. Later in this chapter, we discuss how to create additional accounts, and how to change between the normal user and superuser. System Accounts accounts system System users are those used to run services such as DNS, mail, web servers, and so forth. The reason for this is security; if all services ran as the superuser, they could act without restriction. accounts daemon accounts operator Examples of system users are daemon, operator, bind (for the Domain Name Service), and news. Often sysadmins create httpd to run web servers they install. accounts nobody nobody is the generic unprivileged system user. However, it is important to keep in mind that the more services that use nobody, the more files and processes that user will become associated with, and hence the more privileged that user becomes. User Accounts accounts user User accounts are the primary means of access for real people to the system, and these accounts insulate the user and the environment, preventing the users from damaging the system or other users, and allowing users to customize their environment without affecting others. Every person accessing your system should have a unique user account. This allows you to find out who is doing what, prevent people from clobbering each others' settings or reading each others' mail, and so forth. Each user can set up their own environment to accommodate their use of the system, by using alternate shells, editors, key bindings, and language. Modifying Accounts accounts modifying There are a variety of different commands available in the Unix environment to manipulate user accounts. The most common commands are summarized below, followed by more detailed examples of their usage. Command Summary adduser The recommended command-line application for adding new users. rmuser The recommended command-line application for removing users. chpass A flexible tool to change user database information. passwd The simple command-line tool to change user passwords. pw A powerful and flexible tool to modify all aspects of user accounts. adduser accounts adding adduser /usr/share/skel skeleton directory adduser is a simple program for adding new users. It creates entries in the system passwd and group files. It will also create a home directory for the new user, copy in the default configuration files (dotfiles) from /usr/share/skel, and can optionally mail the new user a welcome message. To create the initial configuration file, use adduser -s -config_create. The makes adduser default to quiet. We use later when we want to change defaults. Next, we configure adduser defaults, and create our first user account, since using root for normal usage is evil and nasty. Configuring adduser &prompt.root; adduser -v Use option ``-silent'' if you don't want to see all warnings and questions. Check /etc/shells Check /etc/master.passwd Check /etc/group Enter your default shell: csh date no sh tcsh zsh [sh]: zsh Your default shell is: zsh -> /usr/local/bin/zsh Enter your default HOME partition: [/home]: Copy dotfiles from: /usr/share/skel no [/usr/share/skel]: Send message from file: /etc/adduser.message no [/etc/adduser.message]: no Do not send message Use passwords (y/n) [y]: y Write your changes to /etc/adduser.conf? (y/n) [n]: y Ok, let's go. Don't worry about mistakes. I will give you the chance later to correct any input. Enter username [a-z0-9_-]: jru Enter full name []: J. Random User Enter shell csh date no sh tcsh zsh [zsh]: Enter home directory (full path) [/home/jru]: Uid [1001]: Enter login class: default []: Login group jru [jru]: Login group is ``jru''. Invite jru into other groups: guest no [no]: wheel Enter password []: Enter password again []: Name: jru Password: **** Fullname: J. Random User Uid: 1001 Gid: 1001 (jru) Class: Groups: jru wheel HOME: /home/jru Shell: /usr/local/bin/zsh OK? (y/n) [y]: y Added user ``jru'' Copy files from /usr/share/skel to /home/jru Add another user? (y/n) [y]: n Goodbye! &prompt.root; In summary, we changed the default shell to zsh (an additional shell found in the Ports Collection), and turned off the sending of a welcome mail to added users. We then saved the configuration, created an account for jru, and made sure jru is in wheel group (so that she may assume the role of root with the su command.) The password you type in is not echoed, nor are asterisks displayed. Make sure you do not mistype the password twice. Just use adduser without arguments from now on, and you will not have to go through changing the defaults. If the program asks you to change the defaults, exit the program, and try the option. <application>rmuser</application> rmuser accounts removing You can use rmuser to completely remove a user from the system. rmuser performs the following steps: Removes the user's &man.crontab.1; entry (if any). Removes any &man.at.1; jobs belonging to the user. Kills all processes owned by the user. Removes the user from the system's local password file. Removes the user's home directory (if it is owned by the user). Removes the incoming mail files belonging to the user from /var/mail. Removes all files owned by the user from temporary file storage areas such as /tmp. Finally, removes the username from all groups to which it belongs in /etc/group. If a group becomes empty and the group name is the same as the username, the group is removed; this complements the per-user unique groups created by &man.adduser.8;. rmuser cannot be used to remove superuser accounts, since that is almost always an indication of massive destruction. By default, an interactive mode is used, which attempts to make sure you know what you are doing. rmuser Interactive Account Removal &prompt.root; rmuser jru Matching password entry: jru:*:1001:1001::0:0:J. Random User:/home/jru:/usr/local/bin/tcsh Is this the entry you wish to remove? y Remove user's home directory (/home/jru)? y Updating password file, updating databases, done. Updating group file: trusted (removing group jru -- personal group is empty) done. Removing user's incoming mail file /var/mail/jru: done. Removing files belonging to jru from /tmp: done. Removing files belonging to jru from /var/tmp: done. Removing files belonging to jru from /var/tmp/vi.recover: done. &prompt.root; <application>chpass</application> chpass chpass changes user database information such as passwords, shells, and personal information. Only system administrators, as the superuser, may change other users' information and passwords with chpass. When passed no options, aside from an optional username, chpass displays an editor containing user information. When the user exists from the editor, the user database is updated with the new information. Interactive chpass by Superuser #Changing user database information for jru. Login: jru Password: * Uid [#]: 1000 Gid [# or name]: 1000 Change [month day year]: Expire [month day year]: Class: Home directory: /home/jru Shell: /usr/local/bin/tcsh Full Name: J. Random User Office Location: Office Phone: Home Phone: Other information: The normal user can change only a small subset of this information, and only for themselves. Interactive chpass by Normal User #Changing user database information for jru. Shell: /usr/local/bin/tcsh Full Name: J. Random User Office Location: Office Phone: Home Phone: Other information: chfn and chsh are just links to chpass, as are ypchpass, ypchfn, and ypchsh. NIS support is automatic, so specifying the yp before the command is not necessary. If this is confusing to you, do not worry, NIS will be covered in passwd passwd accounts changing password passwd is the usual way to change your own password as a user, or another user's password as the superuser. Users must type in their original password before changing their password, to prevent an unauthorized person from changing their password when the user is away from their console. Changing Your Password &prompt.user; passwd Changing local password for jru. Old password: New password: Retype new password: passwd: updating the database... passwd: done Changing Another User's Password as the Superuser &prompt.root; passwd jru Changing local password for jru. New password: Retype new password: passwd: updating the database... passwd: done As with chpass, yppasswd is just a link to passwd, so NIS works with either command. <application>pw</application> pw &man.pw.8; is a command line utility to create, remove, modify, and display users and groups. It functions as a front end to the system user and group files. pw has a very powerful set of command line options that make it suitable for use in shell scripts, but new users may find it more complicated than the other commands presented here. Limiting Users limiting users accounts limiting If you run a multi-user system, chances are that you do not trust all of your users not to damage your system. FreeBSD provides a number of ways a system administrator can limit the amount of system resources an individual user can use. These limits are generally divided into two sections: disk quotas, and other resource limits. quotas limiting users quotas disk quotas Disk quotas are a way for the system administrator to tell the filesystem the amount of disk space a user may use; moreover, they provide a way to quickly check on the disk usage of a user without having to calculate it every time. Quotas are discussed in . The other resource limits include ways to limit the amount of CPU, memory, and other resources a user may consume. These are defined using login classes and are discussed here. /etc/login.conf Login classes are defined in /etc/login.conf. The precise semantics are beyond the scope of this section, but are described in detail in the &man.login.conf.5; manual page. It is sufficient to say that each user is assigned to a login class (default by default), and that each login class has a set of login capabilities associated with it. A login capability is a name=value pair, where name is a well-known identifier and value is an arbitrary string processed accordingly depending on the name. Setting up login classes and capabilities is rather straight-forward and is also described in &man.login.conf.5;. Resource limits are different from plain vanilla login capabilities in two ways. First, for every limit, there is a soft (current) and hard limit. A soft limit may be adjusted by the user or application, but may be no higher than the hard limit. The latter may be lowered by the user, but never raised. Second, most resource limits apply per process to a specific user, not the user as a whole. Note, however, that these differences are mandated by the specific handling of the limits, not by the implementation of the login capability framework (i.e., they are not really a special case of login capabilities). And so, without further ado, below are the most commonly used resource limits (the rest, along with all the other login capabilities, may be found in &man.login.conf.5;). coredumpsize coredumpsize limiting users coredumpsize The limit on the size of a core file generated by a program is, for obvious reasons, subordinate to other limits on disk usage (e.g., filesize, or disk quotas). Nevertheless, it is often used as a less-severe method of controlling disk space consumption: since users do not generate core files themselves, and often do not delete them, setting this may save them from running out of disk space should a large program (e.g., emacs) crash. cputime cputime limiting users cputime This is the maximum amount of CPU time a user's process may consume. Offending processes will be killed by the kernel. This is a limit on CPU time consumed, not percentage of the CPU as displayed in some fields by &man.top.1; and &man.ps.1;. A limit on the latter is, at the time of this writing, not possible, and would be rather useless: a compiler—probably a legitimate task—can easily use almost 100% of a CPU for some time. filesize filesize limiting users filesize This is the maximum size of a file the user may possess. Unlike disk quotas, this limit is enforced on individual files, not the set of all files a user owns. maxproc maxproc limiting users maxproc This is the maximum number of processes a user may be running. This includes foreground and background processes alike. For obvious reasons, this may not be larger than the system limit specified by the kern.maxproc sysctl. Also note that setting this too small may hinder a user's productivity: it is often useful to be logged in multiple times or execute pipelines. Some tasks, such as compiling a large program, also spawn multiple processes (e.g., &man.make.1;, &man.cc.1;, and other intermediate preprocessors). memorylocked memorylocked limiting users memorylocked This is the maximum amount a memory a process may have requested to be locked into main memory (e.g., see &man.mlock.2;). Some system-critical programs, such as &man.amd.8;, lock into main memory such that in the event of being swapped out, they do not contribute to a system's trashing in time of trouble. memoryuse memoryuse limiting users memoryuse This is the maximum amount of memory a process may consume at any given time. It includes both core memory and swap usage. This is not a catch-all limit for restricting memory consumption, but it is a good start. openfiles openfiles limiting users openfiles This is the maximum amount of files a process may have open. In FreeBSD, files are also used to represent sockets and IPC channels; thus, be careful not to set this too low. The system-wide limit for this is defined by the kern.maxfiles sysctl. sbsize sbsize limiting users sbsize This is the limit on the amount of network memory, and thus mbufs, a user may consume. This originated as a response to an old DoS attack by creating a lot of sockets, but can be generally used to limit network communications. stacksize stacksize limiting users stacksize This is the maximum size a process' stack may grow to. This alone is not sufficient to limit the amount of memory a program may use; consequently, it should be used in conjunction with other limits. There are a few other things to remember when setting resource limits. Following are some general tips, suggestions, and miscellaneous comments. Processes started at system startup by /etc/rc are assigned to the daemon login class. Although the /etc/login.conf that comes with the system is a good source of reasonable values for most limits, only you, the administrator, can know what is appropriate for your system. Setting a limit too high may open your system up to abuse, while setting it too low may put a strain on productivity. Users of the X Window System (X11) should probably be granted more resources than other users. X11 by itself takes a lot of resources, but it also encourages users to run more programs simultaneously. Remember that many limits apply to individual processes, not the user as a whole. For example, setting openfiles to 50 means that each process the user runs may open up to 50 files. Thus, the gross amount of files a user may open is the value of openfiles multiplied by the value of maxproc. This also applies to memory consumption. For further information on resource limits and login classes and capabilities in general, please consult the relevant manual pages: &man.cap.mkdb.1;, &man.getrlimit.2;, &man.login.conf.5;. Personalizing Users Localization is an environment set up by the system administrator or user to accommodate different languages, character sets, date and time standards, and so on. This is discussed in the localization chapter. Groups groups /etc/groups accounts groups A group is simply a list of users. Groups are identified by their group name and gid (group ID). In FreeBSD (and most other Unix systems), the two factors the kernel uses to decide whether a process is allowed to do something is its user ID and list of groups it belongs to. Unlike a user ID, a process has a list of groups associated with it. You may hear some things refer to the "group ID" of a user or process; most of the time, this just means the first group in the list. The group name to group ID map is in /etc/group. This is a plain text file with four colon-delimited fields. The first field is the group name, the second is the encrypted password, the third the group ID, and the fourth the comma-delimited list of members. It can safely be edited by hand (assuming, of course, that you do not make any syntax errors!). For a more complete description of the syntax, see the &man.group.5; manual page. If you do not want to edit /etc/group manually, you can use the &man.pw.8; command to add and edit groups. For example, to add a group called teamtwo and then confirm that it exists you can use: Adding a Group Using &man.pw.8; &prompt.root; pw groupadd teamtwo &prompt.root; pw groupshow teamtwo teamtwo:*:1100: The number 1100 above is the group ID of the group teamtwo. Right now, teamtwo has no members, and is thus rather useless. Let's change that by inviting jru to the teamtwo group. Adding Somebody to a Group Using &man.pw.8; &prompt.root; pw groupmod teamtwo jru &prompt.root; pw groupshow teamtwo teamtwo:*:1100:jru The argument to the option is a comma-delimited list of users who are members of the group. From the preceding sections, we know that the password file also contains a group for each user. The latter (the user) is automatically added to the group list by the system; the user will not show up as a member when using the groupshow command to &man.pw.8;, but will show up when the information is queried via &man.id.1; or similar tool. In other words, &man.pw.8; only manipulates the /etc/group file; it will never attempt to read additionally data from /etc/passwd. Using &man.id.1; to Determine Group Membership &prompt.user; id jru uid=1001(jru) gid=1001(jru) groups=1001(jru), 1100(teamtwo) As you can see, jru is a member of the groups jru and teamtwo. For more information about &man.pw.8;, see its manual page, and for more information on the format of /etc/group, consult the &man.group.5; manual page. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.sgml index 28b0d24403..dddecf767b 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1420 +1,1420 @@ The X Window System Synopsis FreeBSD uses XFree86 to provide users with a powerful graphical user interface. XFree86 is a open-source implementation of the X Window System. This chapter will cover installation and configuration of XFree86 on a FreeBSD system. For more information on XFree86 and video hardware that it supports, check the XFree86 web site. - After reading this chapter you will know: + After reading this chapter, you will know: The various components of the X window system, and how they interoperate. How to install and configure XFree86. How to install and use different window managers. How to use TrueType fonts in XFree86. How to setup your system for graphical logins (XDM). - Before reading this chapter you should: + Before reading this chapter, you should: Know how to install additional third-party software (). Understanding X Using X for the first time can be somewhat of a shock to someone familiar with other graphical environments, such as Microsoft Windows or MacOS. It is not necessary to understand all of the details of various X components and how they interact, however, some basic knowledge makes it possible to take advantage of X's strengths. Why X? X is not the first window system written for Unix, but it is the most popular. X's original development team had worked on another window system before writing X. That system's name was W (for Window). X is just the next letter in the Roman alphabet. X can be called X, X Window System, X11, and other terms. X Windows is to be avoided wherever possible; see &man.X.1; for more information. The X Client/Server Model X was designed from the beginning to be network-centric, and adopts a client-server model. In the X model, the X server runs on the computer that has the keyboard, monitor, and mouse attached. The server is responsible for managing the display, handling input from the keyboard and mouse, and so on. Each X application (such as XTerm, or Netscape) is a client. A client sends messages to the server such as Please draw a window at these coordinates, and the server sends back messages such as The user just clicked on the OK button. If there is only one computer involved, such as in a home or small office environment, the X server and the X clients will be running on the same computer. However, it is perfectly possible to run the X server on a less powerful desktop computer, and run X applications (the clients) on, say, the powerful and expensive machine that serves the office. In this scenario the communication between the X client and server takes place over the network. This confuses some people, because the X terminology is exactly backward to what they expect. They expect the X server to be the big powerful machine down the hall, and the X client to be the machine on their desk. Remember that the X server is the machine with the monitor and keyboard, and the X clients are the programs that display the windows. There is nothing in the protocol that forces the client and server machines to be running the same operating system, or even to be running on the same type of computer. It is certainly possible to run an X server on Microsoft Windows or Apple's MacOS, and there are various free and commercial applications available that do exactly that. The X server that ships with FreeBSD is called XFree86, and is available for free, under a license very similar to the FreeBSD license. Commercial X servers for FreeBSD are also available. The Window Manager The X design philosophy is much like the Unix design philosophy, tools, not policy. This means that X does not try to dictate how a task is to be accomplished. Instead, tools are provided to the user, and it is the user's responsibility to decide how to use those tools. This philosophy extends to X not dictating what windows should look like on screen, how to move them around with the mouse, what keystrokes to should use to move between windows (i.e., Alt Tab , in the case of Microsoft Windows), what the title bars on each window should look like, whether or not they have close buttons on them, and so on. Instead, X delegates this responsibility to an application called a Window Manager. There are dozens of window managers available for X; AfterStep, Blackbox, ctwm, Enlightenment, fvwm, Sawfish, twm, Window Maker, and more. Each of these window managers provides a different look and feel; some of them support virtual desktops; some of them allow customized keystrokes to manage the desktop; some have a Start button or similar device; some are themeable, allowing a complete change of look-and-feel by applying a new theme. These window managers, and many more, are available in the x11-wm category of the Ports Collection. In addition, the KDE and GNOME desktop environments both have their own window managers which integrate with the desktop. Each window manager also has a different configuration mechanism; some expect configuration file written by hand, others feature GUI tools for most of the configuration tasks; at least one (sawfish) has a configuration file written in a dialect of the Lisp language. Focus Policy Another feature the window manager is responsible for is the mouse focus policy. Every windowing system needs some means of choosing a window to be actively receiving keystrokes, and should visibly indicate which window is active as well. A familiar focus policy is called click-to-focus. This is the model utilized by Microsoft Windows, in which a window becomes active upon receiving a mouse click. X does not support any particular focus policy. Instead, the window manager controls which window has the focus at any one time. Different window managers will support different focus methods. All of them support click to focus, and the majority of them support several others. The most popular focus policies are: focus-follows-mouse The window that is under the mouse pointer is the window that has the focus. This may not necessarily be the window that is on top of all the other windows. The focus is changed by pointing at another window, there is no need to click in it as well. sloppy-focus This policy is a small extension to focus-follows-mouse. With focus-follows-mouse, if the mouse is moved over the root window (or background) then no window has the focus, and keystrokes are simply lost. With sloppy-focus, focus is only changed when the cursor enters a new window, and not when exiting the current window. click-to-focus The active window is selected by mouse click. The window may then be raised, and appear in front of all other windows. All keystrokes will now be directed to this window, even if the cursor is moved to another window. Many window managers support other policies, as well as variations on these. Be sure to consult the documentation for the window manager itself. Widgets The X approach of providing tools and not policy extends to the widgets that seen on screen in each application. Widget is a term for all the items in the user interface that can be clicked or manipulated in some way; buttons, check boxes, radio buttons, icons, lists, and so on. Microsoft Windows calls these controls. Microsoft Windows and Apple's MacOS both have a very rigid widget policy. Application developers are supposed to ensure that their applications share a common look and feel. With X, it was not considered sensible to mandate a particular graphical style, or set of widgets to adhere to. As a result, do not expect X applications to have a common look and feel. There are several popular widget sets and variations, including the original Athena widget set from MIT, Motif (on which the widget set in Microsoft Windows was modeled, all bevelled edges and three shades of grey), OpenLook, and others. Most newer X applications today will use a modern-looking widget set, either Qt, used by KDE, or GTK, used by the GNOME project. In this respect, there is some convergence in look-and-feel of the Unix desktop, which certainly makes things easier for the novice user. Installing XFree86 Before installing XFree86, decide on which version to run. XFree86 3.X is a maintenance branch of XFree86 development. It is very stable, and it supports a huge number of graphics cards. However, no new development is being done on the software. XFree86 4.X is a complete redesign of the system with many new features such as better support for fonts and anti-aliasing. Unfortunately this new architecture requires that the video drivers be rewritten, and some of the older cards that were supported in 3.X are not yet supported in 4.X. The FreeBSD setup program offers users the opportunity to install and configure XFree86 3.3.6 during installation (covered in ). To run XFree86 4.X, wait until after the base FreeBSD system is installed, and then install XFree86. For example, to build and install XFree86 4.X from the ports collection: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11/XFree86-4 &prompt.root; make all install clean Alternatively, XFree86 4.X can be installed from a binary package with the pkg_add tool or directly from the FreeBSD binaries provided on the XFree86 web site. The rest of this chapter will explain how to configure XFree86, and how to setup a productive desktop environment. Christopher Shumway Contributed by XFree86 Configuration XFree86 4.X XFree86 Before Starting Before configuration of XFree86 4.X, the the following information about the target system is needed: Monitor specifications Video Adapter chipset Video Adapter memory horizontal scan rate vertical scan rate The specifications for the monitor are used by XFree86 to determine the resolution and refresh rate to run at. These specifications can usually be obtained from the documentation that came with the monitor or from the manufacturer's website. There are two ranges of numbers that are needed, the horizontal scan rate and the vertical synchronization rate. The video adapter's chipset defines what driver module XFree86 uses to talk to the graphics hardware. With most chipsets, this can be automatically determined, but it is still useful to know in case the automatic detection does not work correctly. Video memory on the graphic adapter determines the resolution and color depth the system can run at. This is important to know so the user knows the limitations of the system. Configuring XFree86 4.X Configuration of XFree86 4.X is a multi-step process. The first step is to build an initial configuration file with the option to XFree86. As the super user, simply run: &prompt.root; XFree86 -configure This will generate a skeleton XFree86 configuration file in the current working directory called XF86Config.new. The XFree86 program will attempt to probe the graphics hardware on the system and will write a configuration file to load the proper drivers for the detected hardware on the target system. The next step is to test the existing configuration to verify that XFree86 can work with the graphics hardware on the target system. To preform this task, the user needs to run: &prompt.root; XFree86 -xf86config XF86Config.new If a black and grey grid and an X mouse cursor appears, then the configuration was successful. To exit the test, just press Ctrl Alt Backspace simultaneously. XFree86 4 Tuning Next, tune the XF86Config.new configuration file to taste. Open up the file in a text editor such as &man.emacs.1; or &man.ee.1;. The first thing to do is add the frequencies for the target system's monitor. These are usually expressed as a horizontal and vertical synchronization rate. These values are added to the XF86Config.new file under the "Monitor" section: Section "Monitor" Identifier "Monitor0" VendorName "Monitor Vendor" ModelName "Monitor Model" Horizsync 30-107 VertRefresh 48-120 EndSection The Horizsync and VertRefresh keywords may not exist in the configuration file. If they do not, they need to be added, with the correct horizontal synchronization rate placed after the Horizsync keyword and the vertical synchronization rate after the VertRefresh keyword. In the example above the target monitor's rates where entered. XF86Config While the XF86Config.new configuration file is still open in an editor, next select what the default resolution and color depth is desired. This is defined in the Screen section: Section "Screen" Identifier "Screen0" Device "Card0" Monitor "Monitor0" DefaultColorDepth 24 SubSection "Display" Depth 24 Modes "1024x768" EndSubSection EndSection The DefaultColorDepth keyword describes the color depth to run at by default. This can be overridden with the -bpp command line switch to XFree86 1. The Modes keyword describes the resolution to run at for the given color depth. In the example above, the default color depth is twenty four bits per pixel. At this color depth, the accepted resolution is one thousand twenty four pixels by seven hundred and sixty eight pixels. To run at a resolution of one thousand twenty four pixels by seven hundred sixty eight pixels at twenty four bits per pixel, then add the DefaultColorDepth keyword with the value of twenty four, and add to the "Display" subsection with the desired Depth the Modes keyword with the resolution the user wishes to run at. Note that only VESA standard modes are supported as defined by the target system's graphics hardware. Finally, write out the configuration file and test it using the test mode given above. If all is well, then the configuration file needs to be installed in a common location where XFree86 1 can find it. This is typically /etc/X11/XF86Config or /usr/X11R6/etc/X11/XF86Config. &prompt.root; cp XF86Config.new /etc/X11/XF86Config Once the configuration file has been placed in a common location, configuration is complete. In order to start XFree86 4.X with &man.startx.1;, install the x11/wrapper port. XFree86 4.X can also be started with &man.xdm.1;. Advanced Configuration Topics Configuration with Intel i810 Graphics Chipsets Intel i810 graphic chipset Configuration with Intel i810 integrated chipsets requires the agpgart AGP programming interface for XFree86 to to drive the card. To agpgart, the agp.ko kernel loadable module needs to be loaded into the kernel with &man.kldload.8;. This can be done automatically with the &man.loader.8; at boot time. Simply add this line to /boot/loader.conf: agp_load="YES" Next, a device node needs to be created for the programming interface. To create the AGP device node, run &man.MAKEDEV.8; in the /dev directory: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV agpgart This will allow configuration the hardware as any other graphics board. Murray Stokely Contributed by Using Fonts in XFree86 Type1 Fonts The default fonts that ship with XFree86 are less than ideal for typical desktop publishing applications. Large presentation fonts show up jagged and unprofessional looking, and small fonts in Netscape are almost completely unintelligible. However, there are several free, high quality Type1 (PostScript) fonts available which can be readily used with XFree86, either version 3.X or version 4.X. For instance, the URW font collection (x11-fonts/urwfonts) includes high quality versions of standard type1 fonts (Times Roman, Helvetica, Palatino and others). The Freefont collection (x11-fonts/freefont) includes many more fonts, but most of them are intended for use in graphics software such as the Gimp, and are not complete enough to serve as screen fonts. In addition, XFree86 can be configured to use TrueType fonts with a minimum of effort: see the section on TrueType fonts later. To install the above Type1 font collections from the ports collection, run the following commands: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11-fonts/urwfonts &prompt.root; make install clean And likewise with the freefont or other collections. To tell the X server that these fonts exist, add an appropriate line to the XF86Config file (in /etc/ for XFree86 version 3, or in /etc/X11/ for version 4), which reads: FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/URW/" Alternatively, at the command line in the X session run: &prompt.user; xset fp+ /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/URW &prompt.user; xset fp rehash This will work but will be lost when the X session is closed, unless it is added to the startup file (~/.xinitrc for a normal startx session, or ~/.xsession when logging in through a graphical login manager like XDM). A third way is to use the new XftConfig file: see the section on anti-aliasing. TrueType Fonts XFree86 4.X has built in support for rendering TrueType fonts. There are two different modules that can enable this functionality. The "freetype" module is used in this example because it is more consistent with the other font rendering back-ends. To enable the freetype module just add the following line to the module section of the /etc/X11/XF86Config file. Load "freetype" For XFree86 3.3.X, a separate TrueType font server is needed. Xfstt is commonly used for this purpose. To install Xfstt, simply install the port x11-servers/Xfstt. Now make a directory for the TrueType fonts (for example, /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/TrueType) and copy all of the TrueType fonts into this directory. Keep in mind that TrueType fonts cannot be directly taken from a Macintosh; they must be in Unix/DOS/Windows format for use by XFree86. Once the files have been copied into this directory, use ttmkfdir to create a fonts.dir file, so that the X font renderer knows that these new files have been installed. ttmkfdir is available from the FreeBSD Ports Collection as x11-fonts/ttmkfdir. &prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/TrueType &prompt.root; ttmkfdir > fonts.dir Now add the TrueType directory to the font path. This is just the same as described above for Type1 fonts, that is, use &prompt.user; xset fp+ /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/TrueType &prompt.user; xset fp rehash or add a line to the XF86Config file. That's it. Now Netscape, Gimp, StarOffice, and all of the other X applications should now recognize the installed TrueType fonts. Extremely small fonts (as with text in a high resolution display on a web page) and extremely large fonts (within StarOffice) will look much better now. Anti-Aliased Fonts Starting with version 4.0.2, XFree86 supports anti-aliased fonts. Currently, most software has not been updated to take advantage of this new functionality. However, Qt (the toolkit for the KDE desktop) does; so if XFree86 4.0.2 is used (or higher), Qt 2.3 (or higher) and KDE, all KDE/Qt applications can be made to use anti-aliased fonts. To configure anti-aliasing, create (or edit, if it already exists) the file /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/XftConfig. Several advanced things can be done with this file; this section describes only the simplest possibilities. First, tell the X server about the fonts that are to be anti-aliased. For each font directory, add a line similar to this: dir "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/Type1" Likewise for the other font directories (URW, truetype, etc) containing fonts to be anti-aliased. Anti-aliasing makes sense only for scalable fonts (basically, Type1 and TrueType) so do not include bitmap font directories here. The directories included here can now be commented out of the XF86Config file. Antialiasing makes borders slightly fuzzy, which makes very small text more readable and removes staircases from large text, but can cause eyestrain if applied to normal text. To exclude point sizes between 9 and 13 from anti-aliasing, include these lines: match any size > 8 any size < 14 edit antialias = false; Spacing for some monospaced fonts may also be inappropriate with anti-aliasing. This seems to be an issue with KDE, in particular. One possible fix for this is to force the spacing for such fonts to be 100. Add the following lines: match any family == "fixed" edit family =+ "mono"; match any family == "console" edit family =+ "mono"; (this aliases the other common names for fixed fonts as "mono"), and then add: match any family == "mono" edit spacing = 100; Supposing the Lucidux fonts as desired whenever monospaced fonts are required (these look nice, and do not seem to suffer from the spacing problem), replace that last line with these: match any family == "mono" edit family += "LuciduxMono"; match any family == "Lucidux Mono" edit family += "LuciduxMono"; match any family == "LuciduxMono" edit family =+ "Lucidux Mono"; (the last lines alias different equivalent family names). Finally, it is nice to allow users to add commands to this file, via their personal .xftconfig files. To do this, add a last line: includeif "~/.xftconfig" One last point: with an LCD screen, sub-pixel sampling may be desired. This basically treats the (horizontally separated) red, green and blue components separately to improve the horizontal resolution; the results can be dramatic. To enable this, add the line somewhere in the XftConfig file match edit rgba=rgb; (depending on the sort of display, the last word may need to be changed from from ``rgb'' to ``bgr'', ``vrgb'' or ``vbgr'': experiment and see which works best.) Anti-aliasing should be enabled the next time the X server is started. However, note that programs must know how to take advantage of it. At the present time, the toolkit Qt does, so the entire KDE environment can use anti-aliased fonts (see on KDE for details); there are patches for gtk+ to do the same, so if compiled against such a patched gtk+, the GNOME environment and Mozilla can also use anti-aliased fonts. In fact, there is now a port called x11/gdkxft which allows one to use antialiased fonts without recompiling: see for details. Anti-aliasing is still new to FreeBSD and XFree86; configuring it should get easier with time, and it will soon be supported by many more applications. Seth Kingsley Contributed by The X Display Manager Overview The X Display Manager (XDM) is an optional part of the X Window System that is used for login session management. This is useful for several types of situations, including minimal X Terminals, desktops, and large network display servers. Since the X Window System is network and protocol independent, there are a wide variety of possible configurations for running X clients and servers on different machines connected by a network. XDM provides a graphical interface for choosing which display server to connect to, and entering authorization information such as a login and password combination. Think of XDM as providing the same functionality to the user as the &man.getty.8; utility (see for details). That is, it performs system logins to the display being connected to and then runs a session manager on behalf of the user (usually an X window manager). XDM then waits for this program to exit, signaling that the user is done and should be logged out of the display. At this point, XDM can display the login and display chooser screens for the next user to login. Using XDM The XDM daemon program is located in /usr/X11R6/bin/xdm. This program can be run at any time as root and it will start managing the X display on the local machine. If XDM is to be run every time the machine boots up, a convenient way to do this is by adding an entry to /etc/ttys. For more information about the format and usage of this file, see . There is a line in the default /etc/ttys file for running the XDM daemon on a virtual terminal: ttyv8 "/usr/X11R6/bin/xdm -nodaemon" xterm off secure By default this entry is disabled, and in order to enable it change field 5 from off to on and then restart &man.init.8; using the directions in . The first field, the name of the terminal this program will manage, is ttyv8. This means that XDM will start running on the 9th virtual terminal. Configuring XDM The XDM configuration directory is located in /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/xdm. In this directory there are several files used to change the behavior and appearance of XDM. Typically these files will be found: File Description Xaccess Client authorization ruleset. Xresources Default X resource values. Xservers List of remote and local displays to manage. Xsession Default session script for logins. Xsetup_* Script to launch applications before the login interface. xdm-config Global configuration for all displays running on this machine. xdm-errors Errors generated by the server program. xdm-pid The process ID of the currently running XDM. Also in this directory are a few scripts and programs used to setup the desktop when XDM is running. The purpose of each of these files will be briefly described. The exact syntax and usage of all of these files is described in &man.xdm.1; The default configuration is a simple rectangular login window with the hostname of the machine displayed at the top in a large font and Login: and Password: prompts below. This is a good starting point for changing the look and feel of XDM screens. Xaccess The protocol for connecting to XDM controlled displays is called the X Display Manager Connection Protocol (XDMCP). This file is a ruleset for controlling XDMCP connections from remote machines. By default, it allows any client to connect, but that does not matter unless the xdm-config is changed to listen for for remote connections. Xresources This is an application-defaults file for the display chooser and the login screens. This is where the appearance of the login program can be modified. The format is identical to the app-defaults file described in the XFree86 documentation. Xservers This is a list of the remote displays the chooser should provide as choices. Xsession This is the default session script for XDM to run after a user has logged in. Normally each user will have a customized session script in ~/.xsessionrc that overrides this script. Xsetup_* These will be run automatically before displaying the chooser or login interfaces. There is a script for each display being used, named Xsetup_ followed by the local display number (for instance Xsetup_0). Typically these scripts will run one or two programs in the background such as xconsole. xdm-config This contains settings in the form of app-defaults that are applicable to every display that this installation manages. xdm-errors This contains the output of the X servers that XDM is trying to run. If a display that XDM is trying to start hangs for some reason, this is a good place to look for error messages. These messages are also written to the user's ~/.xsession-errors file on a per-session basis. Running a Network Display Server In order for other clients to connect to the display server, edit the access control rules, and enable the connection listener. By default these are set to conservative values. To make XDM listen for connections, first comment out a line in the xdm-config file: ! SECURITY: do not listen for XDMCP or Chooser requests ! Comment out this line if you want to manage X terminals with xdm DisplayManager.requestPort: 0 and then restart XDM. Remember that comments in app-defaults files begin with a ! character, not the usual #. More strict access controls may be desired. Look at the example entries in Xaccess file, and refer to the &man.xdm.1; manual page. Replacements for XDM Several replacements for the default XDM program exist. One of them, KDM (bundled with KDE) is described later in this chapter. KDM offers many visual improvements and cosmetic frills, as well as the functionality to allow users to choose their window manager of choice at login time. Valentino Vaschetto Contributed by Desktop Environments This section describes the different desktop environments available for X on FreeBSD. A desktop environment will mean anything ranging from a simple window manager, to a complete suite of desktop applications such as KDE or GNOME. GNOME About GNOME GNOME is a user-friendly desktop environment that enables users to easily use and configure their computers. GNOME includes a panel (for starting applications and displaying status), a desktop (where data and applications can be placed), a set of standard desktop tools and applications, and a set of conventions that make it easy for applications to cooperate and be consistent with each other. Users of other operating systems or environments should feel right at home using the powerful graphics-driven environment that GNOME provides. Installing GNOME The easiest way to install GNOME is through the Desktop Configuration menu during the FreeBSD installation process as described in Chapter 2. They can also be easily installed from a package or the ports collection: To install the GNOME package from the network, simply type: &prompt.root; pkg_add -r gnome To build GNOME from source, use the ports tree: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11/gnome &prompt.root; make install clean Once GNOME is installed, the X server must be told to start GNOME instead of a default window manager. If a custom .xinitrc is already in place, simply replace the line that starts the current window manager with one that starts /usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-session instead. If nothing special has been done to configuration file, then it is enough to simply type: &prompt.root; echo "/usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-session" > ~/.xinitrc Next, type startx, and the GNOME desktop environment will be started. If a display manager, like XDM, is being used, this will not work. Instead, create an executable .xsession file with the same command in it. To do this, edit the file and replace the existing window manager command with /usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-session: &prompt.root; echo "#!/bin/sh" > ~/.xsession &prompt.root; echo "/usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-session" >> ~/.xsession &prompt.root; chmod +x ~/.xsession Another option is to configure the display manager to allow choosing the window manager at login time; the section on KDE2 details explains how to do this for kdm, the display manager of KDE. Anti-aliased fonts with GNOME While anti-aliased fonts made their first appearance on XFree86 desktops in the KDE environment and are supported there in the standard installation, it is also possible to use them with gtk applications such as the GNOME environment. The most straightforward way is probably by using the libgdkxft library, in the x11/gdkxft port. After installing this port, read the /usr/X11R6/share/doc/gdkxft/README file carefully. Then, all that is needed is to do is tell gtk applications to look for their font-rendering functions in libgdkxft.so before looking in the standard place, libgdk.so. This is easily accomplished by setting an environment variable to point to the right place; with the Bourne shell (/bin/sh) or similar shells, type the command (to start The Gimp, say) &prompt.user; LD_PRELOAD=/usr/X11R6/lib/libgdkxft.so gimp and with csh and similar shells, type &prompt.user; setenv LD_PRELOAD /usr/X11R6/lib/libgdkxft.so &prompt.user; gimp Or, the commands LD_PRELOAD=/usr/X11R6/lib/libgdkxft.so export LD_PRELOAD can be put into .xinitrc, .xsession or in the appropriate place(s) in /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/xdm/Xsession, depending on how X is normally started. However, this short-cut may cause problems if Linux GTK binaries are run. KDE2 About KDE2 KDE is an easy to use contemporary desktop environment. Some of the things that KDE brings to the user are: A beautiful contemporary desktop A desktop exhibiting complete network transparency An integrated help system allowing for convenient, consistent access to help on the use of the KDE desktop and its applications Consistent look and feel of all KDE applications Standardized menu and toolbars, keybindings, color-schemes, etc. Internationalization: KDE is available in more than 40 languages Centralized consisted dialog driven desktop configuration A great number of useful KDE applications KDE has an office application suite based on KDE's KParts technology consisting of a spread-sheet, a presentation application, an organizer, a news client and more. KDE also comes with a web browser called Konqeuror, which represents a solid competitor to other existing web browsers on Unix systems. More information on KDE can be found on the KDE website. Installing KDE2 Just like with GNOME or any other desktop environment, the easiest way to install KDE is through the Desktop Configuration menu during the FreeBSD installation process as described in Chapter 2. Once again, the software can be easily installed from a package or from the ports collection: To install the KDE2 package from the network, simply type: &prompt.root; pkg_add -r kde2 To build KDE from source, use the ports tree: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11/kde2 &prompt.root; make install clean After KDE2 has been installed, the X server must be told to launch this application instead of the default window manager. This is accomplished by editing the .xinitrc file: &prompt.root; echo "/usr/X11R6/bin/startkde" > ~/.xinitrc Now, whenever invoke X-Windows with startx, KDE2 will be the desktop. If a display manager such as xdm is being used, then configuration is slightly different. Edit the .xsession file instead. Instructions for kdm are described later in this chapter. More Details on KDE2 Now that KDE2 is installed on the system, most things can be discovered through the help pages, or just by pointing and clicking at various menus. Windows or Mac users will feel quite at home. The best reference for KDE is the on-line documentation. KDE comes with its own web browser, Konqueror, dozens of useful applications, and extensive documentation. The remainder of this section discusses the technical items that are difficult to learn by random exploration. The KDE display manager An administrator of a multi-user system may wish to have a graphical login screen to welcome users. xdm can be used, as described earlier. However, KDE includes an alternative, KDM, which is designed to look more attractive and include more login-time options. In particular, users can easily choose (via a menu) which desktop environment (KDE2, GNOME, or something else) to run after logging on. To begin with, run the KDE2 control panel, kcontrol, as root. It is generally considered unsafe to run the entire X environment as root. Instead, run the window manager as a normal user, open a terminal window (such as xterm or KDE's konsole, become root with su (the user must be in the wheel group in /etc/group for this), and then type kcontrol. Click on the icon on the left marked System, then on Login manager. On the right there are various configurable options, which the KDE manual will explain in greater detail. Click on sessions on the right. Click New type to add various window managers and desktop environments. These are just labels, so they can say KDE and GNOME rather than startkde or gnome-session. Include a label failsafe. Play with the other menus as well, they are mainly cosmetic and self-explanatory. When are done, click on Apply at the bottom, and quit the control center. To make sure kdm understands what the labels (KDE, GNOME etc) mean, edit the files used by xdm. In KDE 2.2 this has changed: kdm now uses its own configuration files. Please see the KDE 2.2 documentation for details. In a terminal window, as root, edit the file /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/xdm/Xsession. There is a section in the middle like this: case $# in 1) case $1 in failsafe) exec xterm -geometry 80x24-0-0 ;; esac esac A few lines need to be added to this section. Assuming the labels from used were KDE2 and GNOME, use the following: case $# in 1) case $1 in KDE2) exec /usr/X11R6/bin/startkde ;; GNOME) exec /usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-session ;; failsafe) exec xterm -geometry 80x24-0-0 ;; esac esac For the KDE login-time desktop background to be honored, the following line needs to be added to /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/xdm/Xsetup_0: /usr/X11R6/bin/kdmdesktop Now, make sure kdm is listed in /etc/ttys to be started at the next bootup. To do this, simply follow the instructions from the previous section on xdm and replace references to the /usr/X11R6/bin/xdm program with /usr/local/bin/kdm. Anti-aliased Fonts Starting with version 4.0.2, XFree86 supports anti-aliasing via its "RENDER" extension, and starting with version 2.3, Qt (the toolkit used by KDE) supports this extension. Configuring this is described in on antialiasing X11 fonts. So, with up-to-date software, anti-aliasing is possible on a KDE2 desktop. Just go to the KDE2 menu, go to Preferences -> Look and Feel -> Style, and click on the check box Use Anti-Aliasing for Fonts and Icons. For a Qt application which is not part of KDE, the environment variable QT_XFT needs to be set to true before starting the program. XFCE About XFCE XFCE is a desktop environment based on the GTK toolkit used by GNOME, but is much more lightweight and meant for those who want a simple, efficient desktop which is nevertheless easy to use and configure. Visually, it looks very much like CDE, found on commercial Unix systems. Some of XFCE's features are: A simple, easy-to-handle desktop Fully configurable via mouse, with drag and drop, etc Main panel similar to CDE, with menus, applets and app launchers Integrated window manager, file manager, sound manager, GNOME compliance module, and other things Themeable (since it uses GTK) Fast, light and efficient: ideal for older/slower machines or machines with memory limitations More information on XFCE can be found on the XFCE website. Installing XFCE A binary package for xfce exists (at the time of writing). To install, simply type: &prompt.root; pkg_add -r xfce Alternatively, to build from source, use the ports collection: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11-wm/xfce &prompt.root; make install clean Now, tell the X server to launch XFCE the next time X is started. Simply type this: &prompt.root; echo "/usr/X11R6/bin/startxfce" > ~/.xinitrc The next time X is started, XFCE will be the desktop. As before, if a display manager like xdm is being used, create an .xsession, as described in the section on GNOME, but with the /usr/X11R6/bin/startxfce command; or, configure the display manager to allow choosing a desktop at login time, as explained in the section on kdm.