It is important to note that the FreeBSD VM system attempts
to separate clean and dirty pages for the express reason of
avoiding unnecessary flushes of dirty pages (which eats I/O
bandwidth), nor does it move pages between the various page
queues gratuitously when the memory subsystem is not being
stressed. This is why you will see some systems with very low
cache queue counts and high active queue counts when doing a
systat -vm command.
How is the separation of clean and dirty (inactive) pages
related to the situation where you see low cache queue counts and
high active queue counts in systat -vm? Do the
systat stats roll the active and dirty pages together for the
active queue count?Yes, that is confusing. The relationship is
goal verses reality. Our goal is to
separate the pages but the reality is that if we are not in a
memory crunch, we do not really have to.What this means is that FreeBSD will not try very hard to
separate out dirty pages (inactive queue) from clean pages (cache
queue) when the system is not being stressed, nor will it try to
deactivate pages (active queue -> inactive queue) when the system
is not being stressed, even if they are not being used. In the &man.ls.1; / vmstat 1 example,
would not some of the page faults be data page faults (COW from
executable file to private page)? I.e., I would expect the page
faults to be some zero-fill and some program data. Or are you
implying that FreeBSD does do pre-COW for the program data?A COW fault can be either zero-fill or program-data. The
mechanism is the same either way because the backing program-data
is almost certainly already in the cache. I am indeed lumping the
two together. FreeBSD does not pre-COW program data or zero-fill,
but it does pre-map pages that exist in its
cache.In your section on page table optimizations, can you give a
little more detail about pv_entry and
vm_page (or should vm_page be
vm_pmap—as in 4.4, cf. pp. 180-181 of
McKusick, Bostic, Karel, Quarterman)? Specifically, what kind of
operation/reaction would require scanning the mappings?How does Linux do in the case where FreeBSD breaks down
(sharing a large file mapping over many processes)?A vm_page represents an (object,index#)
tuple. A pv_entry represents a hardware page
table entry (pte). If you have five processes sharing the same
physical page, and three of those processes's page tables actually
map the page, that page will be represented by a single
vm_page structure and three
pv_entry structures.pv_entry structures only represent pages
mapped by the MMU (one pv_entry represents one
pte). This means that when we need to remove all hardware
references to a vm_page (in order to reuse the
page for something else, page it out, clear it, dirty it, and so
forth) we can simply scan the linked list of
pv_entry's associated with that
vm_page to remove or modify the pte's from
their page tables.Under Linux there is no such linked list. In order to remove
all the hardware page table mappings for a
vm_page linux must index into every VM object
that might have mapped the page. For
example, if you have 50 processes all mapping the same shared
library and want to get rid of page X in that library, you need to
index into the page table for each of those 50 processes even if
only 10 of them have actually mapped the page. So Linux is
trading off the simplicity of its design against performance.
Many VM algorithms which are O(1) or (small N) under FreeBSD wind
up being O(N), O(N^2), or worse under Linux. Since the pte's
representing a particular page in an object tend to be at the same
offset in all the page tables they are mapped in, reducing the
number of accesses into the page tables at the same pte offset
will often avoid blowing away the L1 cache line for that offset,
which can lead to better performance.FreeBSD has added complexity (the pv_entry
scheme) in order to increase performance (to limit page table
accesses to only those pte's that need to be
modified).But FreeBSD has a scaling problem that Linux does not in that
there are a limited number of pv_entry
structures and this causes problems when you have massive sharing
of data. In this case you may run out of
pv_entry structures even though there is plenty
of free memory available. This can be fixed easily enough by
bumping up the number of pv_entry structures in
the kernel config, but we really need to find a better way to do
it.In regards to the memory overhead of a page table verses the
pv_entry scheme: Linux uses
permanent page tables that are not throw away, but
does not need a pv_entry for each potentially
mapped pte. FreeBSD uses throw away page tables but
adds in a pv_entry structure for each
actually-mapped pte. I think memory utilization winds up being
about the same, giving FreeBSD an algorithmic advantage with its
ability to throw away page tables at will with very low
overhead.Finally, in the page coloring section, it might help to have a
little more description of what you mean here. I did not quite
follow it.Do you know how an L1 hardware memory cache works? I will
explain: Consider a machine with 16MB of main memory but only 128K
of L1 cache. Generally the way this cache works is that each 128K
block of main memory uses the same 128K of
cache. If you access offset 0 in main memory and then offset
offset 128K in main memory you can wind up throwing away the
cached data you read from offset 0!Now, I am simplifying things greatly. What I just described
is what is called a direct mapped hardware memory
cache. Most modern caches are what are called
2-way-set-associative or 4-way-set-associative caches. The
set-associatively allows you to access up to N different memory
regions that overlap the same cache memory without destroying the
previously cached data. But only N.So if I have a 4-way set associative cache I can access offset
0, offset 128K, 256K and offset 384K and still be able to access
offset 0 again and have it come from the L1 cache. If I then
access offset 512K, however, one of the four previously cached
data objects will be thrown away by the cache.It is extremely important…
extremely important for most of a processor's
memory accesses to be able to come from the L1 cache, because the
L1 cache operates at the processor frequency. The moment you have
an L1 cache miss and have to go to the L2 cache or to main memory,
the processor will stall and potentially sit twiddling its fingers
for hundreds of instructions worth of time
waiting for a read from main memory to complete. Main memory (the
dynamic ram you stuff into a computer) is
slow, when compared to the speed of a modern
processor core.Ok, so now onto page coloring: All modern memory caches are
what are known as physical caches. They
cache physical memory addresses, not virtual memory addresses.
This allows the cache to be left alone across a process context
switch, which is very important.But in the Unix world you are dealing with virtual address
spaces, not physical address spaces. Any program you write will
see the virtual address space given to it. The actual
physical pages underlying that virtual
address space are not necessarily physically contiguous! In fact,
you might have two pages that are side by side in a processes
address space which wind up being at offset 0 and offset 128K in
physical memory.A program normally assumes that two side-by-side pages will be
optimally cached. That is, that you can access data objects in
both pages without having them blow away each other's cache entry.
But this is only true if the physical pages underlying the virtual
address space are contiguous (insofar as the cache is
concerned).This is what Page coloring does. Instead of assigning
random physical pages to virtual addresses,
- which may result in non-optimal cache performance , Page coloring
+ which may result in non-optimal cache performance, Page coloring
assigns reasonably-contiguous physical pages
to virtual addresses. Thus programs can be written under the
assumption that the characteristics of the underlying hardware
cache are the same for their virtual address space as they would
be if the program had been run directly in a physical address
space.Note that I say reasonably contiguous rather
than simply contiguous. From the point of view of a
128K direct mapped cache, the physical address 0 is the same as
the physical address 128K. So two side-by-side pages in your
virtual address space may wind up being offset 128K and offset
132K in physical memory, but could also easily be offset 128K and
offset 4K in physical memory and still retain the same cache
performance characteristics. So page-coloring does
not have to assign truly contiguous pages of
physical memory to contiguous pages of virtual memory, it just
needs to make sure it assigns contiguous pages from the point of
view of cache performance and operation.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/arch-handbook/jail/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/arch-handbook/jail/chapter.sgml
index 47f6523a78..697c7b630e 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/arch-handbook/jail/chapter.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/arch-handbook/jail/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,611 +1,611 @@
Evan Sarmientoevms@cs.bu.edu2001Evan SarmientoThe Jail SubsystemOn most UNIX systems, root has omnipotent power. This promotes
insecurity. If an attacker were to gain root on a system, he would
have every function at his fingertips. In FreeBSD there are
sysctls which dilute the power of root, in order to minimize the
damage caused by an attacker. Specifically, one of these functions
is called secure levels. Similarly, another function which is
present from FreeBSD 4.0 and onward, is a utility called
&man.jail.8;. Jail chroots an
environment and sets certain restrictions on processes which are
forked from within. For example, a jailed process cannot affect
processes outside of the jail, utilize certain system calls, or
inflict any damage on the main computer.Jail is becoming the new security
model. People are running potentially vulnerable servers such as
Apache, BIND, and sendmail within jails, so that if an attacker
gains root within the Jail, it is only
an annoyance, and not a devastation. This article focuses on the
internals (source code) of Jail and
Jail NG. It will also suggest
improvements upon the jail code base which are already being
worked on. If you are looking for a how-to on setting up a
Jail, I suggest you look at my other
article in Sys Admin Magazine, May 2001, entitled "Securing
FreeBSD using Jail."ArchitectureJail consists of two realms: the
user-space program, jail, and the code implemented within the
kernel: the jail() system call and associated
restrictions. I will be discussing the user-space program and
then how jail is implemented within the kernel.Userland codeThe source for the user-land jail is located in
/usr/src/usr.sbin/jail, consisting of
one file, jail.c. The program takes these
arguments: the path of the jail, hostname, ip address, and the
command to be executed.Data StructuresIn jail.c, the first thing I would
note is the declaration of an important structure
struct jail j; which was included from
- /usr/include/sys/jail.h .
+ /usr/include/sys/jail.h.
The definition of the jail structure is:/usr/include/sys/jail.h:
struct jail {
u_int32_t version;
char *path;
char *hostname;
u_int32_t ip_number;
};As you can see, there is an entry for each of the
arguments passed to the jail program, and indeed, they are
set during it's execution./usr/src/usr.sbin/jail.c
j.version = 0;
j.path = argv[1];
j.hostname = argv[2];NetworkingOne of the arguments passed to the Jail program is an IP
address with which the jail can be accessed over the
network. Jail translates the ip address given into network
byte order and then stores it in j (the jail structure)./usr/src/usr.sbin/jail/jail.c:
struct in.addr in;
...
i = inet.aton(argv[3], );
...
j.ip.number = ntohl(in.s.addr);The
inet_aton3
function "interprets the specified character string as an
Internet address, placing the address into the structure
provided." The ip number node in the jail structure is set
only when the ip address placed onto the in structure by
inet aton is translated into network byte order by
ntohl().Jailing The ProcessFinally, the userland program jails the process, and
executes the command specified. Jail now becomes an
imprisoned process itself and forks a child process which
then executes the command given using &man.execv.3;
/usr/src/sys/usr.sbin/jail/jail.c
i = jail();
...
i = execv(argv[4], argv + 4);As you can see, the jail function is being called, and
its argument is the jail structure which has been filled
with the arguments given to the program. Finally, the
program you specify is executed. I will now discuss how Jail
is implemented within the kernel.Kernel SpaceWe will now be looking at the file
/usr/src/sys/kern/kern_jail.c. This is
the file where the jail system call, appropriate sysctls, and
networking functions are defined.sysctlsIn kern_jail.c, the following
sysctls are defined:/usr/src/sys/kern/kern_jail.c:
int jail_set_hostname_allowed = 1;
SYSCTL_INT(_jail, OID_AUTO, set_hostname_allowed, CTLFLAG_RW,
_set_hostname_allowed, 0,
"Processes in jail can set their hostnames");
int jail_socket_unixiproute_only = 1;
SYSCTL_INT(_jail, OID_AUTO, socket_unixiproute_only, CTLFLAG_RW,
_socket_unixiproute_only, 0,
"Processes in jail are limited to creating UNIX/IPv4/route sockets only
");
int jail_sysvipc_allowed = 0;
SYSCTL_INT(_jail, OID_AUTO, sysvipc_allowed, CTLFLAG_RW,
_sysvipc_allowed, 0,
"Processes in jail can use System V IPC primitives");Each of these sysctls can be accessed by the user
through the sysctl program. Throughout the kernel, these
specific sysctls are recognized by their name. For example,
the name of the first sysctl is
jail.set.hostname.allowed.&man.jail.2; system callLike all system calls, the &man.jail.2; system call takes
two arguments, struct proc *p and
struct jail_args
*uap. p is a pointer to a proc
structure which describes the calling process. In this
context, uap is a pointer to a structure which specifies the
arguments given to &man.jail.2; from the userland program
jail.c. When I described the userland
program before, you saw that the &man.jail.2; system call was
given a jail structure as its own argument./usr/src/sys/kern/kern_jail.c:
int
jail(p, uap)
struct proc *p;
struct jail_args /* {
syscallarg(struct jail *) jail;
} */ *uap;Therefore, uap->jail would access the
jail structure which was passed to the system call. Next,
the system call copies the jail structure into kernel space
using the copyin()
function. copyin() takes three arguments:
the data which is to be copied into kernel space,
uap->jail, where to store it,
j and the size of the storage. The jail
structure uap->jail is copied into kernel
space and stored in another jail structure,
j./usr/src/sys/kern/kern_jail.c:
error = copyin(uap->jail, , sizeof j);There is another important structure defined in
jail.h. It is the prison structure
(pr). The prison structure is used
exclusively within kernel space. The &man.jail.2; system call
copies everything from the jail structure onto the prison
structure. Here is the definition of the prison structure./usr/include/sys/jail.h:
struct prison {
int pr_ref;
char pr_host[MAXHOSTNAMELEN];
u_int32_t pr_ip;
void *pr_linux;
};The jail() system call then allocates memory for a
pointer to a prison structure and copies data between the two
structures./usr/src/sys/kern/kern_jail.c:
MALLOC(pr, struct prison *, sizeof *pr , M_PRISON, M_WAITOK);
bzero((caddr_t)pr, sizeof *pr);
error = copyinstr(j.hostname, pr_host]]>, sizeof pr->pr_host, 0);
if (error)
goto bail;Finally, the jail system call chroots the path
specified. The chroot function is given two arguments. The
first is p, which represents the calling process, the second
is a pointer to the structure chroot args. The structure
chroot args contains the path which is to be chrooted. As
you can see, the path specified in the jail structure is
copied to the chroot args structure and used./usr/src/sys/kern/kern_jail.c:
ca.path = j.path;
error = chroot(p, );These next three lines in the source are very important,
as they specify how the kernel recognizes a process as
jailed. Each process on a Unix system is described by its
own proc structure. You can see the whole proc structure in
/usr/include/sys/proc.h. For example,
the p argument in any system call is actually a pointer to
that process' proc structure, as stated before. The proc
structure contains nodes which can describe the owner's
identity (p_cred), the process resource
limits (p_limit), and so on. In the
definition of the process structure, there is a pointer to a
prison structure. (p_prison)./usr/include/sys/proc.h:
struct proc {
...
struct prison *p_prison;
...
};In kern_jail.c, the function then
copies the pr structure, which is filled with all the
information from the original jail structure, over to the
p->p_prison structure. It then does a
bitwise OR of p->p_flag with the constant
P_JAILED, meaning that the calling
process is now recognized as jailed. The parent process of
each process, forked within the jail, is the program jail
itself, as it calls the &man.jail.2; system call. When the
program is executed through execve, it inherits the
properties of its parents proc structure, therefore it has
the p->p_flag set, and the
p->p_prison structure is filled./usr/src/sys/kern/kern_jail.c
p->p.prison = pr;
p->p.flag --= P.JAILED;When a process is forked from a parent process, the
&man.fork.2; system call deals differently with imprisoned
processes. In the fork system call, there are two pointers
to a proc structure p1
and p2. p1 points to
the parent's proc structure and p2 points
to the child's unfilled proc
structure. After copying all relevant data between the
structures, &man.fork.2; checks if the structure
p->p_prison is filled on
p2. If it is, it increments the
pr.ref by one, and sets the
p_flag to one on the child process./usr/src/sys/kern/kern_fork.c:
if (p2->p_prison) {
p2->p_prison->pr_ref++;
p2->p_flag |= P_JAILED;
}RestrictionsThroughout the kernel there are access restrictions relating
to jailed processes. Usually, these restrictions only check if
the process is jailed, and if so, returns an error. For
example:if (p->p_prison)
return EPERM;SysV IPCSystem V IPC is based on messages. Processes can send each
other these messages which tell them how to act. The functions
which deal with messages are: msgsys,
msgctl, msgget,
msgsend and msgrcv.
Earlier, I mentioned that there were certain sysctls you could
turn on or off in order to affect the behavior of Jail. One of
these sysctls was jail_sysvipc_allowed. On
most systems, this sysctl is set to 0. If it were set to 1, it
would defeat the whole purpose of having a jail; privleged
users from within the jail would be able to affect processes
outside of the environment. The difference between a message
and a signal is that the message only consists of the signal
number./usr/src/sys/kern/sysv_msg.c:&man.msgget.3;: msgget returns (and possibly
creates) a message descriptor that designates a message queue
for use in other system calls.&man.msgctl.3;: Using this function, a process
can query the status of a message
descriptor.&man.msgsnd.3;: msgsnd sends a message to a
process.&man.msgrcv.3;: a process receives messages using
this functionIn each of these system calls, there is this
conditional:/usr/src/sys/kern/sysv msg.c:
if (!jail.sysvipc.allowed && p->p_prison != NULL)
return (ENOSYS);Semaphore system calls allow processes to synchronize
execution by doing a set of operations atomically on a set of
semaphores. Basically semaphores provide another way for
processes lock resources. However, process waiting on a
semaphore, that is being used, will sleep until the resources
are relinquished. The following semaphore system calls are
blocked inside a jail: semsys,
semget, semctl and
semop./usr/src/sys/kern/sysv_sem.c:&man.semctl.2;(id, num, cmd, arg):
Semctl does the specified cmd on the semaphore queue
indicated by id.&man.semget.2;(key, nsems, flag):
Semget creates an array of semaphores, corresponding to
key.Key and flag take on the same meaning as they
do in msgget.&man.semop.2;(id, ops, num):
Semop does the set of semaphore operations in the array of
structures ops, to the set of semaphores identified by
id.System V IPC allows for processes to share
memory. Processes can communicate directly with each other by
sharing parts of their virtual address space and then reading
and writing data stored in the shared memory. These system
calls are blocked within a jailed environment: shmdt,
shmat, oshmctl, shmctl, shmget, and
shmsys./usr/src/sys/kern/sysv shm.c:&man.shmctl.2;(id, cmd, buf):
shmctl does various control operations on the shared memory
region identified by id.&man.shmget.2;(key, size,
flag): shmget accesses or creates a shared memory
region of size bytes.&man.shmat.2;(id, addr, flag):
shmat attaches a shared memory region identified by id to the
address space of a process.&man.shmdt.2;(addr): shmdt
detaches the shared memory region previously attached at
addr.SocketsJail treats the &man.socket.2; system call and related
lower-level socket functions in a special manner. In order to
determine whether a certain socket is allowed to be created,
it first checks to see if the sysctl
jail.socket.unixiproute.only is set. If
set, sockets are only allowed to be created if the family
specified is either PF_LOCAL,
PF_INET or
PF_ROUTE. Otherwise, it returns an
error./usr/src/sys/kern/uipc_socket.c:
int socreate(dom, aso, type, proto, p)
...
register struct protosw *prp;
...
{
if (p->p_prison && jail_socket_unixiproute_only &&
prp->pr_domain->dom_family != PR_LOCAL && prp->pr_domain->dom_family != PF_INET
&& prp->pr_domain->dom_family != PF_ROUTE)
return (EPROTONOSUPPORT);
...
}Berkeley Packet FilterThe Berkeley Packet Filter provides a raw interface to
data link layers in a protocol independent fashion. The
function bpfopen() opens an Ethernet
device. There is a conditional which disallows any jailed
processes from accessing this function./usr/src/sys/net/bpf.c:
static int bpfopen(dev, flags, fmt, p)
...
{
if (p->p_prison)
return (EPERM);
...
}ProtocolsThere are certain protocols which are very common, such as
TCP, UDP, IP and ICMP. IP and ICMP are on the same level: the
- network layer 2 . There are certain precautions which are
+ network layer 2. There are certain precautions which are
taken in order to prevent a jailed process from binding a
protocol to a certain port only if the nam
parameter is set. nam is a pointer to a sockaddr structure,
which describes the address on which to bind the service. A
more exact definition is that sockaddr "may be used as a
template for reffering to the identifying tag and length of
- each address"[2] . In the function in
+ each address"[2]. In the function in
pcbbind, sin is a
pointer to a sockaddr.in structure, which contains the port,
address, length and domain family of the socket which is to be
bound. Basically, this disallows any processes from jail to be
able to specify the domain family./usr/src/sys/kern/netinet/in_pcb.c:
int in.pcbbind(int, nam, p)
...
struct sockaddr *nam;
struct proc *p;
{
...
struct sockaddr.in *sin;
...
if (nam) {
sin = (struct sockaddr.in *)nam;
...
if (sin->sin_addr.s_addr != INADDR_ANY)
if (prison.ip(p, 0, ->sin.addr.s_addr))
return (EINVAL);
....
}
...
}You might be wondering what function
prison_ip() does. prison.ip is given three
arguments, the current process (represented by
p), any flags, and an ip address. It
returns 1 if the ip address belongs to a jail or 0 if it does
not. As you can see from the code, if it is indeed an ip
address belonging to a jail, the protcol is not allowed to
bind to a certain port./usr/src/sys/kern/kern_jail.c:
int prison_ip(struct proc *p, int flag, u_int32_t *ip) {
u_int32_t tmp;
if (!p->p_prison)
return (0);
if (flag)
tmp = *ip;
else tmp = ntohl (*ip);
if (tmp == INADDR_ANY) {
if (flag)
*ip = p->p_prison->pr_ip;
else *ip = htonl(p->p_prison->pr_ip);
return (0);
}
if (p->p_prison->pr_ip != tmp)
return (1);
return (0);
}Jailed users are not allowed to bind services to an ip
which does not belong to the jail. The restriction is also
written within the function in_pcbbind:/usr/src/sys/net inet/in_pcb.c
if (nam) {
...
lport = sin->sin.port;
... if (lport) {
...
if (p && p->p_prison)
prison = 1;
if (prison &&
prison_ip(p, 0, ->sin_addr.s_addr))
return (EADDRNOTAVAIL);FilesystemEven root users within the jail are not allowed to set any
file flags, such as immutable, append, and no unlink flags, if
the securelevel is greater than 0./usr/src/sys/ufs/ufs/ufs_vnops.c:
int ufs.setattr(ap)
...
{
if ((cred->cr.uid == 0) && (p->prison == NULL)) {
if ((ip->i_flags
& (SF_NOUNLINK | SF_IMMUTABLE | SF_APPEND)) &&
securelevel > 0)
return (EPERM);
}Jail NGJail NG is a "from-scratch re-implementation of Jail" by
Robert Watson, a FreeBSD committer. Some of the new features
include the ability to add processes to a jail, an improved
management tool, and per-jail sysctls. For example, you could
have sysvipc_permitted set on one jail while
another jail may be allowed to use System V IPC. You can
download the kernel patches and utilities for Jail NG from his
website at:
.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/developers-handbook/jail/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/developers-handbook/jail/chapter.sgml
index 47f6523a78..697c7b630e 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/developers-handbook/jail/chapter.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/developers-handbook/jail/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,611 +1,611 @@
Evan Sarmientoevms@cs.bu.edu2001Evan SarmientoThe Jail SubsystemOn most UNIX systems, root has omnipotent power. This promotes
insecurity. If an attacker were to gain root on a system, he would
have every function at his fingertips. In FreeBSD there are
sysctls which dilute the power of root, in order to minimize the
damage caused by an attacker. Specifically, one of these functions
is called secure levels. Similarly, another function which is
present from FreeBSD 4.0 and onward, is a utility called
&man.jail.8;. Jail chroots an
environment and sets certain restrictions on processes which are
forked from within. For example, a jailed process cannot affect
processes outside of the jail, utilize certain system calls, or
inflict any damage on the main computer.Jail is becoming the new security
model. People are running potentially vulnerable servers such as
Apache, BIND, and sendmail within jails, so that if an attacker
gains root within the Jail, it is only
an annoyance, and not a devastation. This article focuses on the
internals (source code) of Jail and
Jail NG. It will also suggest
improvements upon the jail code base which are already being
worked on. If you are looking for a how-to on setting up a
Jail, I suggest you look at my other
article in Sys Admin Magazine, May 2001, entitled "Securing
FreeBSD using Jail."ArchitectureJail consists of two realms: the
user-space program, jail, and the code implemented within the
kernel: the jail() system call and associated
restrictions. I will be discussing the user-space program and
then how jail is implemented within the kernel.Userland codeThe source for the user-land jail is located in
/usr/src/usr.sbin/jail, consisting of
one file, jail.c. The program takes these
arguments: the path of the jail, hostname, ip address, and the
command to be executed.Data StructuresIn jail.c, the first thing I would
note is the declaration of an important structure
struct jail j; which was included from
- /usr/include/sys/jail.h .
+ /usr/include/sys/jail.h.
The definition of the jail structure is:/usr/include/sys/jail.h:
struct jail {
u_int32_t version;
char *path;
char *hostname;
u_int32_t ip_number;
};As you can see, there is an entry for each of the
arguments passed to the jail program, and indeed, they are
set during it's execution./usr/src/usr.sbin/jail.c
j.version = 0;
j.path = argv[1];
j.hostname = argv[2];NetworkingOne of the arguments passed to the Jail program is an IP
address with which the jail can be accessed over the
network. Jail translates the ip address given into network
byte order and then stores it in j (the jail structure)./usr/src/usr.sbin/jail/jail.c:
struct in.addr in;
...
i = inet.aton(argv[3], );
...
j.ip.number = ntohl(in.s.addr);The
inet_aton3
function "interprets the specified character string as an
Internet address, placing the address into the structure
provided." The ip number node in the jail structure is set
only when the ip address placed onto the in structure by
inet aton is translated into network byte order by
ntohl().Jailing The ProcessFinally, the userland program jails the process, and
executes the command specified. Jail now becomes an
imprisoned process itself and forks a child process which
then executes the command given using &man.execv.3;
/usr/src/sys/usr.sbin/jail/jail.c
i = jail();
...
i = execv(argv[4], argv + 4);As you can see, the jail function is being called, and
its argument is the jail structure which has been filled
with the arguments given to the program. Finally, the
program you specify is executed. I will now discuss how Jail
is implemented within the kernel.Kernel SpaceWe will now be looking at the file
/usr/src/sys/kern/kern_jail.c. This is
the file where the jail system call, appropriate sysctls, and
networking functions are defined.sysctlsIn kern_jail.c, the following
sysctls are defined:/usr/src/sys/kern/kern_jail.c:
int jail_set_hostname_allowed = 1;
SYSCTL_INT(_jail, OID_AUTO, set_hostname_allowed, CTLFLAG_RW,
_set_hostname_allowed, 0,
"Processes in jail can set their hostnames");
int jail_socket_unixiproute_only = 1;
SYSCTL_INT(_jail, OID_AUTO, socket_unixiproute_only, CTLFLAG_RW,
_socket_unixiproute_only, 0,
"Processes in jail are limited to creating UNIX/IPv4/route sockets only
");
int jail_sysvipc_allowed = 0;
SYSCTL_INT(_jail, OID_AUTO, sysvipc_allowed, CTLFLAG_RW,
_sysvipc_allowed, 0,
"Processes in jail can use System V IPC primitives");Each of these sysctls can be accessed by the user
through the sysctl program. Throughout the kernel, these
specific sysctls are recognized by their name. For example,
the name of the first sysctl is
jail.set.hostname.allowed.&man.jail.2; system callLike all system calls, the &man.jail.2; system call takes
two arguments, struct proc *p and
struct jail_args
*uap. p is a pointer to a proc
structure which describes the calling process. In this
context, uap is a pointer to a structure which specifies the
arguments given to &man.jail.2; from the userland program
jail.c. When I described the userland
program before, you saw that the &man.jail.2; system call was
given a jail structure as its own argument./usr/src/sys/kern/kern_jail.c:
int
jail(p, uap)
struct proc *p;
struct jail_args /* {
syscallarg(struct jail *) jail;
} */ *uap;Therefore, uap->jail would access the
jail structure which was passed to the system call. Next,
the system call copies the jail structure into kernel space
using the copyin()
function. copyin() takes three arguments:
the data which is to be copied into kernel space,
uap->jail, where to store it,
j and the size of the storage. The jail
structure uap->jail is copied into kernel
space and stored in another jail structure,
j./usr/src/sys/kern/kern_jail.c:
error = copyin(uap->jail, , sizeof j);There is another important structure defined in
jail.h. It is the prison structure
(pr). The prison structure is used
exclusively within kernel space. The &man.jail.2; system call
copies everything from the jail structure onto the prison
structure. Here is the definition of the prison structure./usr/include/sys/jail.h:
struct prison {
int pr_ref;
char pr_host[MAXHOSTNAMELEN];
u_int32_t pr_ip;
void *pr_linux;
};The jail() system call then allocates memory for a
pointer to a prison structure and copies data between the two
structures./usr/src/sys/kern/kern_jail.c:
MALLOC(pr, struct prison *, sizeof *pr , M_PRISON, M_WAITOK);
bzero((caddr_t)pr, sizeof *pr);
error = copyinstr(j.hostname, pr_host]]>, sizeof pr->pr_host, 0);
if (error)
goto bail;Finally, the jail system call chroots the path
specified. The chroot function is given two arguments. The
first is p, which represents the calling process, the second
is a pointer to the structure chroot args. The structure
chroot args contains the path which is to be chrooted. As
you can see, the path specified in the jail structure is
copied to the chroot args structure and used./usr/src/sys/kern/kern_jail.c:
ca.path = j.path;
error = chroot(p, );These next three lines in the source are very important,
as they specify how the kernel recognizes a process as
jailed. Each process on a Unix system is described by its
own proc structure. You can see the whole proc structure in
/usr/include/sys/proc.h. For example,
the p argument in any system call is actually a pointer to
that process' proc structure, as stated before. The proc
structure contains nodes which can describe the owner's
identity (p_cred), the process resource
limits (p_limit), and so on. In the
definition of the process structure, there is a pointer to a
prison structure. (p_prison)./usr/include/sys/proc.h:
struct proc {
...
struct prison *p_prison;
...
};In kern_jail.c, the function then
copies the pr structure, which is filled with all the
information from the original jail structure, over to the
p->p_prison structure. It then does a
bitwise OR of p->p_flag with the constant
P_JAILED, meaning that the calling
process is now recognized as jailed. The parent process of
each process, forked within the jail, is the program jail
itself, as it calls the &man.jail.2; system call. When the
program is executed through execve, it inherits the
properties of its parents proc structure, therefore it has
the p->p_flag set, and the
p->p_prison structure is filled./usr/src/sys/kern/kern_jail.c
p->p.prison = pr;
p->p.flag --= P.JAILED;When a process is forked from a parent process, the
&man.fork.2; system call deals differently with imprisoned
processes. In the fork system call, there are two pointers
to a proc structure p1
and p2. p1 points to
the parent's proc structure and p2 points
to the child's unfilled proc
structure. After copying all relevant data between the
structures, &man.fork.2; checks if the structure
p->p_prison is filled on
p2. If it is, it increments the
pr.ref by one, and sets the
p_flag to one on the child process./usr/src/sys/kern/kern_fork.c:
if (p2->p_prison) {
p2->p_prison->pr_ref++;
p2->p_flag |= P_JAILED;
}RestrictionsThroughout the kernel there are access restrictions relating
to jailed processes. Usually, these restrictions only check if
the process is jailed, and if so, returns an error. For
example:if (p->p_prison)
return EPERM;SysV IPCSystem V IPC is based on messages. Processes can send each
other these messages which tell them how to act. The functions
which deal with messages are: msgsys,
msgctl, msgget,
msgsend and msgrcv.
Earlier, I mentioned that there were certain sysctls you could
turn on or off in order to affect the behavior of Jail. One of
these sysctls was jail_sysvipc_allowed. On
most systems, this sysctl is set to 0. If it were set to 1, it
would defeat the whole purpose of having a jail; privleged
users from within the jail would be able to affect processes
outside of the environment. The difference between a message
and a signal is that the message only consists of the signal
number./usr/src/sys/kern/sysv_msg.c:&man.msgget.3;: msgget returns (and possibly
creates) a message descriptor that designates a message queue
for use in other system calls.&man.msgctl.3;: Using this function, a process
can query the status of a message
descriptor.&man.msgsnd.3;: msgsnd sends a message to a
process.&man.msgrcv.3;: a process receives messages using
this functionIn each of these system calls, there is this
conditional:/usr/src/sys/kern/sysv msg.c:
if (!jail.sysvipc.allowed && p->p_prison != NULL)
return (ENOSYS);Semaphore system calls allow processes to synchronize
execution by doing a set of operations atomically on a set of
semaphores. Basically semaphores provide another way for
processes lock resources. However, process waiting on a
semaphore, that is being used, will sleep until the resources
are relinquished. The following semaphore system calls are
blocked inside a jail: semsys,
semget, semctl and
semop./usr/src/sys/kern/sysv_sem.c:&man.semctl.2;(id, num, cmd, arg):
Semctl does the specified cmd on the semaphore queue
indicated by id.&man.semget.2;(key, nsems, flag):
Semget creates an array of semaphores, corresponding to
key.Key and flag take on the same meaning as they
do in msgget.&man.semop.2;(id, ops, num):
Semop does the set of semaphore operations in the array of
structures ops, to the set of semaphores identified by
id.System V IPC allows for processes to share
memory. Processes can communicate directly with each other by
sharing parts of their virtual address space and then reading
and writing data stored in the shared memory. These system
calls are blocked within a jailed environment: shmdt,
shmat, oshmctl, shmctl, shmget, and
shmsys./usr/src/sys/kern/sysv shm.c:&man.shmctl.2;(id, cmd, buf):
shmctl does various control operations on the shared memory
region identified by id.&man.shmget.2;(key, size,
flag): shmget accesses or creates a shared memory
region of size bytes.&man.shmat.2;(id, addr, flag):
shmat attaches a shared memory region identified by id to the
address space of a process.&man.shmdt.2;(addr): shmdt
detaches the shared memory region previously attached at
addr.SocketsJail treats the &man.socket.2; system call and related
lower-level socket functions in a special manner. In order to
determine whether a certain socket is allowed to be created,
it first checks to see if the sysctl
jail.socket.unixiproute.only is set. If
set, sockets are only allowed to be created if the family
specified is either PF_LOCAL,
PF_INET or
PF_ROUTE. Otherwise, it returns an
error./usr/src/sys/kern/uipc_socket.c:
int socreate(dom, aso, type, proto, p)
...
register struct protosw *prp;
...
{
if (p->p_prison && jail_socket_unixiproute_only &&
prp->pr_domain->dom_family != PR_LOCAL && prp->pr_domain->dom_family != PF_INET
&& prp->pr_domain->dom_family != PF_ROUTE)
return (EPROTONOSUPPORT);
...
}Berkeley Packet FilterThe Berkeley Packet Filter provides a raw interface to
data link layers in a protocol independent fashion. The
function bpfopen() opens an Ethernet
device. There is a conditional which disallows any jailed
processes from accessing this function./usr/src/sys/net/bpf.c:
static int bpfopen(dev, flags, fmt, p)
...
{
if (p->p_prison)
return (EPERM);
...
}ProtocolsThere are certain protocols which are very common, such as
TCP, UDP, IP and ICMP. IP and ICMP are on the same level: the
- network layer 2 . There are certain precautions which are
+ network layer 2. There are certain precautions which are
taken in order to prevent a jailed process from binding a
protocol to a certain port only if the nam
parameter is set. nam is a pointer to a sockaddr structure,
which describes the address on which to bind the service. A
more exact definition is that sockaddr "may be used as a
template for reffering to the identifying tag and length of
- each address"[2] . In the function in
+ each address"[2]. In the function in
pcbbind, sin is a
pointer to a sockaddr.in structure, which contains the port,
address, length and domain family of the socket which is to be
bound. Basically, this disallows any processes from jail to be
able to specify the domain family./usr/src/sys/kern/netinet/in_pcb.c:
int in.pcbbind(int, nam, p)
...
struct sockaddr *nam;
struct proc *p;
{
...
struct sockaddr.in *sin;
...
if (nam) {
sin = (struct sockaddr.in *)nam;
...
if (sin->sin_addr.s_addr != INADDR_ANY)
if (prison.ip(p, 0, ->sin.addr.s_addr))
return (EINVAL);
....
}
...
}You might be wondering what function
prison_ip() does. prison.ip is given three
arguments, the current process (represented by
p), any flags, and an ip address. It
returns 1 if the ip address belongs to a jail or 0 if it does
not. As you can see from the code, if it is indeed an ip
address belonging to a jail, the protcol is not allowed to
bind to a certain port./usr/src/sys/kern/kern_jail.c:
int prison_ip(struct proc *p, int flag, u_int32_t *ip) {
u_int32_t tmp;
if (!p->p_prison)
return (0);
if (flag)
tmp = *ip;
else tmp = ntohl (*ip);
if (tmp == INADDR_ANY) {
if (flag)
*ip = p->p_prison->pr_ip;
else *ip = htonl(p->p_prison->pr_ip);
return (0);
}
if (p->p_prison->pr_ip != tmp)
return (1);
return (0);
}Jailed users are not allowed to bind services to an ip
which does not belong to the jail. The restriction is also
written within the function in_pcbbind:/usr/src/sys/net inet/in_pcb.c
if (nam) {
...
lport = sin->sin.port;
... if (lport) {
...
if (p && p->p_prison)
prison = 1;
if (prison &&
prison_ip(p, 0, ->sin_addr.s_addr))
return (EADDRNOTAVAIL);FilesystemEven root users within the jail are not allowed to set any
file flags, such as immutable, append, and no unlink flags, if
the securelevel is greater than 0./usr/src/sys/ufs/ufs/ufs_vnops.c:
int ufs.setattr(ap)
...
{
if ((cred->cr.uid == 0) && (p->prison == NULL)) {
if ((ip->i_flags
& (SF_NOUNLINK | SF_IMMUTABLE | SF_APPEND)) &&
securelevel > 0)
return (EPERM);
}Jail NGJail NG is a "from-scratch re-implementation of Jail" by
Robert Watson, a FreeBSD committer. Some of the new features
include the ability to add processes to a jail, an improved
management tool, and per-jail sysctls. For example, you could
have sysvipc_permitted set on one jail while
another jail may be allowed to use System V IPC. You can
download the kernel patches and utilities for Jail NG from his
website at:
.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq/book.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq/book.sgml
index 6574740b97..c8aca1c162 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq/book.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq/book.sgml
@@ -1,12287 +1,12287 @@
%man;
%freebsd;
%authors;
%teams;
%bookinfo;
%mailing-lists;
]>
Frequently Asked Questions for FreeBSD 2.X, 3.X and 4.XThe FreeBSD Documentation Project$FreeBSD$19951996199719981999200020012002The FreeBSD Documentation Project
&bookinfo.legalnotice;
This is the FAQ for FreeBSD versions 2.X, 3.X, and 4.X.
All entries are assumed to be relevant to FreeBSD 2.0.5 and later,
unless otherwise noted. Any entries with a <XXX> are under
construction. If you are interested in helping with this project,
send email to the &a.doc;. The latest version of this
document is always available from the FreeBSD World Wide Web
server. It may also be downloaded as one large HTML file with HTTP or as plain text,
postscript, PDF, etc. from the FreeBSD FTP
server. You may also want to Search the
FAQ.IntroductionWelcome to the FreeBSD 2.X-4.X FAQ!As is usual with Usenet FAQs, this document aims to cover the
most frequently asked questions concerning the FreeBSD operating
system (and of course answer them!). Although originally intended
to reduce bandwidth and avoid the same old questions being asked
over and over again, FAQs have become recognized as valuable
information resources.Every effort has been made to make this FAQ as informative as
possible; if you have any suggestions as to how it may be improved,
please feel free to mail them to the &a.faq;.What is FreeBSD?Briefly, FreeBSD is a UN*X-like operating system for
the i386 and Alpha/AXP platforms based on U.C. Berkeley's
4.4BSD-Lite release, with some
4.4BSD-Lite2 enhancements. It is also based
indirectly on William Jolitz's port of U.C. Berkeley's
Net/2 to the i386, known as
386BSD, though very little of the 386BSD
code remains. A fuller description of what FreeBSD is and
how it can work for you may be found on the FreeBSD home
page.FreeBSD is used by companies, Internet Service Providers,
researchers, computer professionals, students and home users
all over the world in their work, education and recreation.
See some of them in the FreeBSD
Gallery.For more detailed information on FreeBSD, please see the
FreeBSD
Handbook.What is the goal of the FreeBSD Project?The goal of the FreeBSD Project is to provide software
that may be used for any purpose and without strings attached.
Many of us have a significant investment in the code (and
project) and would certainly not mind a little financial
compensation now and then, but we are definitely not prepared
to insist on it. We believe that our first and foremost
mission is to provide code to any and all
comers, and for whatever purpose, so that the code gets the
widest possible use and provides the widest possible benefit.
This is, we believe, one of the most fundamental goals of Free
Software and one that we enthusiastically support.That code in our source tree which falls under the
GNU
General Public License (GPL) or GNU
Library General Public License (LGPL) comes with
slightly more strings attached, though at least on the
side of enforced access rather than the usual opposite.
Due to the additional complexities that can evolve in the
commercial use of GPL software, we do, however, endeavor
to replace such software with submissions under the more
relaxed
FreeBSD copyright whenever possible.Does the FreeBSD license have any restrictions?Yes. Those restrictions do not control how you use
the code, merely how you treat the FreeBSD Project itself.
If you have serious license concerns, read the actual
license. For the simply curious, the license can
be summarized like this.Do not claim that you wrote this.Do not sue us if it breaks.Can FreeBSD replace my current operating system?For most people, yes. But this question is not quite
that cut-and-dried.Most people do not actually use an operating system.
They use applications. The applications are what really
use the operating system. FreeBSD is designed to provide
a robust and full-featured environment for applications.
It supports a wide variety of web browsers, office suites,
email readers, graphics programs, programming
environments, network servers, and just about everything
else you might want. Most of these applications can be
managed through the Ports
Collection.If you need to use an application that is only
available on one operating system, you simply cannot
replace that operating system. Chances are there is a very
similar application on FreeBSD, however. If you want a
solid office or Internet server, a reliable workstation,
or just the ability to do your job without interruptions,
FreeBSD will almost certainly do everything you need.
Many computer users across the world, including both
novices and experienced UNIX administrators, use FreeBSD
as their only desktop operating system.If you are migrating to FreeBSD from some other UNIX
environment, you already know most of what you need to.
If your background is in graphic-driven operating systems
such as Windows and older versions of Mac OS, expect to
invest additional time learning the UNIX way of doing
things. This FAQ and the FreeBSD Handbook are
excellent places to start.Why is it called FreeBSD?It may be used free of charge, even by commercial
users.Full source for the operating system is freely
available, and the minimum possible restrictions have
been placed upon its use, distribution and incorporation
into other work (commercial or non-commercial).Anyone who has an improvement or bug fix is free
to submit their code and have it added to the source tree
(subject to one or two obvious provisions).It is worth pointing out that the word
free is being used in two ways here, one meaning
at no cost, the other meaning you can do
whatever you like. Apart from one or two things you
cannot do with the FreeBSD code, for
example pretending you wrote it, you really can do whatever you
like with it.What is the latest version of FreeBSD?Version &rel.current;
is the latest RELEASE version; it was
released in &rel.current.date;. This is also the latest
STABLE version.Briefly, -STABLE is aimed
at the ISP, corporate user, or any user who wants stability and a
low change count over the wizzy new features of the latest
-CURRENT snapshot. Releases can come
from either branch, but -CURRENT
should only be used if you are prepared for its increased volatility (relative to
-STABLE, that is).Releases are made every
few months. While many people stay more up-to-date with
the FreeBSD sources (see the questions on FreeBSD-CURRENT and FreeBSD-STABLE) than that, doing so
is more of a commitment, as the sources are a moving
target.What is FreeBSD-CURRENT?FreeBSD-CURRENT
is the development version of the operating system, which
will in due course become 5.0-RELEASE. As such, it is
really only of interest to developers working on the
system and die-hard hobbyists. See the relevant
section in the handbook for details
on running -CURRENT.If you are not familiar with the operating system or are
not capable of identifying the difference between a real
problem and a temporary problem, you should not use
FreeBSD-CURRENT. This branch sometimes evolves quite quickly
and can be un-buildable for a number of days at a time.
People that use FreeBSD-CURRENT are expected to be able to
analyze any problems and only report them if they are deemed
to be mistakes rather than glitches. Questions
such as make world produces some error about
groups on the -CURRENT mailing list may be
treated with contempt.Every day, snapshot
releases are made based on the current state of the
-CURRENT and -STABLE branches. Nowadays, distributions of the
occasional snapshot are now being made available. The goals
behind each snapshot release are:To test the latest version of the installation
software.To give people who would like to run -CURRENT or
-STABLE but who do not have the time or bandwidth to
follow it on a day-to-day basis an easy way of
bootstrapping it onto their systems.To preserve a fixed reference point for the code in
question, just in case we break something really badly
later. (Although CVS normally prevents anything horrible
like this happening :)To ensure that any new features in need of testing
have the greatest possible number of potential
testers.No claims are made that any -CURRENT snapshot can be
considered production quality for any purpose.
If you want to run a stable and fully tested system, you will
have to stick to full releases, or use the -STABLE
snapshots.Snapshot releases are directly available from
ftp://current.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ for 5.0-CURRENT
and
releng4.FreeBSD.org for 4-STABLE snapshots.
3-STABLE snapshots are not being produced at the time of
this writing (May 2000).Snapshots are generated, on the average, once a day for
all actively developed branches.What is the FreeBSD-STABLE concept?Back when FreeBSD 2.0.5 was released, we decided to
branch FreeBSD development into two parts. One branch was
named -STABLE,
with the intention that only well-tested bug fixes and
small incremental enhancements would be made to it (for
Internet Service Providers and other commercial
enterprises for whom sudden shifts or experimental
features are quite undesirable). The other branch was
-CURRENT,
which essentially has been one unbroken line leading
towards 5.0-RELEASE (and beyond) since 2.0 was
released. If a little ASCII art would help, this is how it
looks: 2.0
|
|
| [2.1-STABLE]
*BRANCH* 2.0.5 -> 2.1 -> 2.1.5 -> 2.1.6 -> 2.1.7.1 [2.1-STABLE ends]
| (Mar 1997)
|
|
| [2.2-STABLE]
*BRANCH* 2.2.1 -> 2.2.2-RELEASE -> 2.2.5 -> 2.2.6 -> 2.2.7 -> 2.2.8 [end]
| (Mar 1997) (Oct 97) (Apr 98) (Jul 98) (Dec 98)
|
|
3.0-SNAPs (started Q1 1997)
|
|
3.0-RELEASE (Oct 1998)
|
| [3.0-STABLE]
*BRANCH* 3.1-RELEASE (Feb 1999) -> 3.2 -> 3.3 -> 3.4 -> 3.5 -> 3.5.1
| (May 1999) (Sep 1999) (Dec 1999) (June 2000) (July 2000)
|
| [4.0-STABLE]
*BRANCH* 4.0 (Mar 2000) -> 4.1 -> 4.1.1 -> 4.2 -> 4.3 -> 4.4 -> ... future 4.x releases ...
|
| (July 2000) (Sep 2000) (Nov 2000)
\|/
+
[5.0-CURRENT continues]The 2.2-STABLE branch was retired with the release of 2.2.8.
The 3-STABLE branch has ended with the release of 3.5.1, the
final 3.X release. The only changes made to either of these
branches will be, for the most part, security-related bug
fixes.4-STABLE is the actively developed -STABLE branch.
The latest release on the 4-STABLE is
&rel.current;-RELEASE, which was released in
&rel.current.date;.The 5-CURRENT branch is slowly progressing toward
5.0-RELEASE and beyond. See What
is FreeBSD-CURRENT? for more information on this
branch.When are FreeBSD releases made?As a general principle, the FreeBSD core team only release
a new version of FreeBSD when they believe that there are
sufficient new features and/or bug fixes to justify one, and
are satisfied that these new developments have been tested
sufficiently to avoid compromising the stability of the
release. Release dates are generally announced well in
advance, so that the people working on the system know
when their projects need to be finished and tested.
Many users regard this caution as one of the best
things about FreeBSD, although
waiting for all the latest goodies to reach -STABLE
can be a little frustrating.Releases are made about every 4 months on average.For people who need or want a little more excitement,
binary snapshots are made every day as discussed above.Who is responsible for FreeBSD?The key decisions concerning the FreeBSD project, such
as the overall direction of the project and who is allowed
to add code to the source tree, are made by a core
team of 9 people. There is a much larger team of
more than 200 committers
who are authorized to make changes directly to the FreeBSD
source tree.However, most non-trivial changes are discussed in advance
in the mailing lists, and there
are no restrictions on who may take part in the
discussion.Where can I get FreeBSD?Every significant release of FreeBSD is available via
anonymous FTP from the
FreeBSD FTP site:For the current 3.X-STABLE release, 3.5.1-RELEASE, see
the 3.5.1-RELEASE directory.The current 4-STABLE release, &rel.current;-RELEASE can be
found in the &rel.current;-RELEASE directory.4.X
snapshots are usually made once a day.
5.0 Snapshot releases are made once a day for the
-CURRENT branch, these being
of service purely to bleeding-edge testers and
developers.Information about obtaining FreeBSD on CD, DVD, and other
media can be found in the
Handbook.How do I access the Problem Report database?The Problem Report database of all user change requests
may be queried (or submitted to) by using our web-based PR
submission
and
query
interfaces. The &man.send-pr.1; command can
also be used to submit problem reports and change requests via
electronic mail.Before submitting a problem report, please read this
article on how to write good problem
reports.How do I become a FreeBSD Web mirror?There are multiple ways to mirror the Web
pages.You can retrieve the formatted files from a
FreeBSD CVSup server using the application
net/cvsup. The file
/usr/share/examples/cvsup/www-supfile
contains an example CVSup configuration file for web
mirrors.
You can download the web site source code from any
FreeBSD FTP server using your favorite ftp mirror
tool. Keep in mind that you have to build these
sources before publishing them. Start mirroring at
ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-current/www.What other sources of information are there?Please check the Documentation
list on the main FreeBSD web
site.Documentation and SupportWhat good books are there about FreeBSD?The project produces a wide range of documentation, available
from this link:
http://www.FreeBSD.org/docs.html.
In addition, the Bibliography at the end of this FAQ, and the
one in the Handbook reference other recommended books.Is the documentation available in other formats, such as plain
text (ASCII), or Postscript?Yes. The documentation is available in a number of
different formats and compression schemes on the FreeBSD
FTP site, in the /pub/FreeBSD/doc/
directory.The documentation is categorised in a number of different
ways. These include:The document's name, such as faq, or
handbook.The document's language and encoding. These are based on
the locale names you will find under
/usr/share/locale on your FreeBSD
system. The current languages and encodings that we have for
documentation are as follows:NameMeaningen_US.ISO8859-1US Englishde_DE.ISO8859-1Germanes_ES.ISO8859-1Spanishfr_FR.ISO8859-1Frenchja_JP.eucJPJapanese (EUC encoding)ru_RU.KOI8-RRussian (KOI8-R encoding)zh_TW.Big5Chinese (Big5 encoding)Some documents may not be available in all
languages.The document's format. We produce the documentation in a
number of different output formats to try and make it as
flexible as possible. The current formats are;FormatMeaninghtml-splitA collection of small, linked, HTML
files.htmlOne large HTML file containing the entire
documentpdbPalm Pilot database format, for use with the
iSilo
reader.pdfAdobe's Portable Document FormatpsPostscriptrtfMicrosoft's Rich Text FormatPage numbers are not automatically updated
when loading this format in to Word. Press
CTRLA,
CTRLEND,
F9 after loading the document, to
update the page numbers.txtPlain textThe compression and packaging scheme. There are three of
these currently in use.Where the format is html-split, the
files are bundled up using &man.tar.1;. The resulting
.tar file is then compressed using
the compression schemes detailed in the next point.All the other formats generate one file, called
book.format
(i.e., book.pdb,
book.html, and so on).These files are then compressed using three
compression schemes.SchemeDescriptionzipThe Zip format. If you want to uncompress
this on FreeBSD you will need to install the
archivers/unzip port
first.gzThe GNU Zip format. Use &man.gunzip.1; to
uncompress these files, which is part of
FreeBSD.bz2The BZip2 format. Less widespread than the
others, but generally gives smaller files.
Install the archivers/bzip2
port to uncompress these files.So the Postscript version of the Handbook, compressed
using BZip2 will be stored in a file called
book.ps.bz2 in the
handbook/ directory.The formatted documentation is also available as a
FreeBSD package, of which more later.After choosing the format and compression mechanism that you
want to download, you must then decide whether or not you want to
download the document as a FreeBSD
package.The advantage of downloading and installing the package is
that the documentation can then be managed using the normal
FreeBSD package management comments, such as &man.pkg.add.1; and
&man.pkg.delete.1;.If you decide to download and install the package then you
must know the filename to download. The documentation-as-packages
files are stored in a directory called
packages. Each package file looks like
document-name.lang.encoding.format.tgz.For example, the FAQ, in English, formatted as PDF, is in the
package called
faq.en_US.ISO8859-1.pdf.tgz.Knowing this, you can use the following command to install the
English PDF FAQ package.&prompt.root; pkg_add ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/doc/packages/faq.en_US.ISO8859-1.pdf.tgzHaving done that, you can use &man.pkg.info.1; to determine
where the file has been installed.&prompt.root; pkg_info -f faq.en_US.ISO8859-1.pdf
Information for faq.en_US.ISO8859-1.pdf:
Packing list:
Package name: faq.en_US.ISO8859-1.pdf
CWD to /usr/share/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq
File: book.pdf
CWD to .
File: +COMMENT (ignored)
File: +DESC (ignored)As you can see, book.pdf will have been
installed in to
/usr/share/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq.
If you do not want to use the packages then you will have to
download the compressed files yourself, uncompress them, and then
copy the appropriate documents in to place.For example, the split HTML version of the FAQ, compressed
using &man.gzip.1;, can be found in the
doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq/book.html-split.tar.gz
file. To download and uncompress that file you would have to do
this.&prompt.root; fetch ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq/book.html-split.tar.gz
&prompt.root; gzip -d book.html-split.tar.gz
&prompt.root; tar xvf book.html-split.tarYou will be left with a collection of
.html files. The main one is called
index.html, which will contain the table of
contents, introductory material, and links to the other parts of
the document. You can then copy or move these to their final
location as necessary.Where do I find info on the FreeBSD mailing lists?You can find full information in the Handbook
entry on mailing-lists.Where do I find the FreeBSD Y2K info?You can find full information in the FreeBSD Y2K
page.What FreeBSD news groups are available?You can find full information in the Handbook entry on
newsgroups.Are there FreeBSD IRC (Internet Relay Chat)
channels?Yes, most major IRC networks host a FreeBSD chat
channel:Channel #FreeBSD on
EFNet
is a FreeBSD forum, but do not go there for tech
support or to try and get folks there to help you avoid
the pain of reading man pages or doing your own research.
It is a chat channel, first and foremost, and topics there
are just as likely to involve sex, sports or nuclear
weapons as they are FreeBSD. You Have Been Warned!
Available at server irc.chat.org.Channel #FreeBSDhelp on
EFNet
is a channel dedicated to helping FreeBSD users. They
are much more sympathetic to questions then
#FreeBSD is.Channel #FreeBSD on
DALNET
is available at irc.dal.net in the
US and irc.eu.dal.net in Europe.Channel #FreeBSD on
UNDERNET
is available at us.undernet.org
in the US and eu.undernet.org in Europe.
Since it is a help channel, be prepared to read the
documents you are referred to.Channel #FreeBSD on HybNet. This channel
is a help channel. A list of servers
can be found on the HybNet web site.Each of these channels are distinct and are not
connected to each other. Their chat styles also differ,
so you may need to try each to find one suited to your
chat style. As with all types of IRC
traffic, if you are easily offended or cannot deal with
lots of young people (and more than a few older ones)
doing the verbal equivalent of jello wrestling, do not
even bother with it.Where can I get commercial FreeBSD training and support?DaemonNews provides commercial training and support for
FreeBSD. More information can be found at their
BSD Mall
site.The FreeBSD Mall provides commercial FreeBSD support.
You can get more information at their web site.Any other organisations providing training and support should
contact the project in order to be listed here.NikClaytonnik@FreeBSD.orgInstallationWhich file do I download to get FreeBSD?Prior to release 3.1, you only needed one floppy image to
install FreeBSD, namely floppies/boot.flp.
However, since release 3.1 the Project has added out-of-the-box
support for a wide variety of hardware, which takes up more
space. For 3.x and later you need two floppy images:
floppies/kernel.flp and
floppies/mfsroot.flp. These images need to
be copied onto floppies by tools like
fdimage or &man.dd.1;.If you need to download the distributions yourself (for a
DOS filesystem install, for instance), below are some
recommendations for distributions to grab:bin/manpages/compat*/doc/src/ssys.*Full instructions on this procedure and a little bit more
about installation issues in general can be found in the
Handbook entry on
installing FreeBSD.What do I do if the floppy images does not fit on a single
floppy?A 3.5 inch (1.44MB) floppy can accommodate 1474560 bytes
of data. The boot image is exactly 1474560 bytes in size.Common mistakes when preparing the boot floppy are:Not downloading the floppy image in
binary mode when using
FTP.Some FTP clients default their transfer mode to
ascii and attempt to change any
end-of-line characters received to match the conventions
used by the client's system. This will almost invariably
corrupt the boot image. Check the size of the downloaded
boot image: if it is not exactly that
on the server, then the download process is suspect.To workaround: type binary at the
FTP command prompt after getting connected to the server
and before starting the download of the image.Using the DOS copy command (or
equivalent GUI tool) to transfer the boot image to
floppy.Programs like copy will not work as
the boot image has been created to be booted into directly.
The image has the complete content of the floppy, track for
track, and is not meant to be placed on the floppy as a
regular file. You have to transfer it to the floppy
raw, using the low-level tools (e.g.
fdimage or rawrite)
described in the installation guide to
FreeBSD.Where are the instructions for installing FreeBSD?Installation instructions can be found in the
Handbook entry on installing FreeBSD.What do I need in order to run FreeBSD?You will need a 386 or better PC, with 5 MB or more of RAM
and at least 60 MB of hard disk space. It can run with a low
end MDA graphics card but to run X11R6, a VGA or better video
card is needed.See also
I have only 4 MB of RAM. Can I install FreeBSD?FreeBSD 2.1.7 was the last version of FreeBSD that
could be installed on a 4MB system. FreeBSD 2.2 and later
needs at least 5MB to install on a new system.All versions of FreeBSD will run
in 4MB of RAM, they just cannot run the installation
program in 4MB. You can add extra memory for the install
process, if you like, and then after the system is up and
running, go back to 4MB. Or you could swap your disk into
a system which has >4MB, install onto the disk and then
swap it back.FreeBSD 2.1.7 will not install with 640 kB base + 3 MB
extended memory. If your motherboard can remap some of the
lost memory out of the 640kB to 1MB region,
then you may still be able to get FreeBSD 2.1.7 up. Try
to go into your BIOS setup and look for a
remap option. Enable it. You may also
have to disable ROM shadowing. It may be easier to get 4
more MB just for the install. Build a custom kernel with
only the options you need and then remove the 4MB out.
You can also install 2.0.5 and then upgrade your system to
2.1.7 with the upgrade option of the 2.1.7
installation program.After the installation, if you build a custom kernel,
it will run in 4 MB. Someone has even successfully booted
with 2 MB, although the system was almost unusable.How can I make my own custom install floppy?Currently there is no way to just
make a custom install floppy. You have to cut a whole new
release, which will include your install floppy.To make a custom release, follow the instructions in the
Release
Engineering article.Can I have more than one operating system on my PC?Have a look at
the multi-OS page.Can Windows 95/98 co-exist with FreeBSD?Install Windows 95/98 first, after that FreeBSD.
FreeBSD's boot manager will then manage to boot Win95/98 and
FreeBSD. If you install Windows 95/98 second, it will boorishly
overwrite your boot manager without even asking. If that
happens, see the next section.Windows 95/98 killed my boot manager!
How do I get it back?You can reinstall the boot manager FreeBSD comes with in
one of three ways:Running DOS, go into the tools/ directory of your
FreeBSD distribution and look for
bootinst.exe. You run it like
so:...\TOOLS>bootinst.exe boot.binand the boot manager will be reinstalled.Boot the FreeBSD boot floppy again and go to the
Custom installation menu item. Choose Partition. Select the
drive which used to contain your boot manager (likely the
first one) and when you come to the partition editor for
it, as the very first thing (e.g. do not make any changes)
select (W)rite. This will ask for confirmation, say yes,
and when you get the Boot Manager selection prompt, be
sure to select Boot Manager. This will
re-write the boot manager to disk. Now quit out of the
installation menu and reboot off the hard disk as
normal.Boot the FreeBSD boot floppy (or CDROM) and choose the
Fixit menu item. Select either the Fixit
floppy or CDROM #2 (the live file system
option) as appropriate and enter the fixit shell. Then
execute the following command:Fixit#fdisk -B -b /boot/boot0 bootdevicesubstituting bootdevice for
your real
boot device such as ad0 (first IDE
disk), ad4 (first IDE disk on
auxiliary controller), da0 (first
SCSI disk), etc.My A, T, or X series IBM Thinkpad locks up when I first
booted up my FreeBSD installation. How can I solve this?A bug in early revisions of IBM's BIOS on these machines
mistakenly identifies the FreeBSD partition as a potential FAT
suspend-to-disk partition. When the BIOS tries to parse the
FreeBSD partition it hangs.According to IBMIn an e-mail from Keith
Frechette
kfrechet@us.ibm.com., the
following model/BIOS release numbers incorporate the fix.ModelBIOS revisionT20IYET49WW or laterT21KZET22WW or laterA20pIVET62WW or laterA20mIWET54WW or laterA21pKYET27WW or laterA21mKXET24WW or laterA21eKUET30WWIt has been reported that later IBM BIOS revisions may have
reintroduced the bug. This message
from Jacques Vidrine to the &a.mobile; describes a procedure
which may work if your newer IBM laptop does not boot FreeBSD
properly, and you can upgrade or downgrade the BIOS..If you have an earlier BIOS, and upgrading is not an option a
workaround is to install FreeBSD, change the partition ID FreeBSD
uses, and install new boot blocks that can handle the different
partition ID.First, you will need to restore the machine to a state where
it can get through its self-test screen. Doing this requires
powering up the machine without letting it find a FreeBSD
partition on its primary disk. One way is to remove the hard disk
and temporarily move it to an older ThinkPad (such as a ThinkPad
600) or a desktop PC with an appropriate conversion cable. Once
it is there, you can delete the FreeBSD partition and move the hard
disk back. The ThinkPad should now be in a bootable state
again.With the machine functional again, you can use the workaround
procedure described here to get a working FreeBSD
installation.Download boot1 and
boot2 from http://people.FreeBSD.org/~bmah/ThinkPad/.
Put these files somewhere you will be able to retrieve them
later.Install FreeBSD as normal on to the ThinkPad.
Do not use Dangerously
Dedicated mode. Do not
reboot when the install has finished.Either switch to the Emergency Holographic
Shell (ALTF4) or start a
fixit shell.Use &man.fdisk.8; to change the FreeBSD partition ID from
165 to 166 (this is the
type used by OpenBSD).Bring the boot1 and
boot2 files to the local
filesystem.Use &man.disklabel.8; to write boot1
and boot2 to your FreeBSD slice.&prompt.root; disklabel -B -b boot1 -s boot2 ad0snn is the number of the slice
where you installed FreeBSD.Reboot. At the boot prompt you will be given the option
of booting OpenBSD. This will actually
boot FreeBSD.Getting this to work in the case where you want to dual boot
OpenBSD and FreeBSD on the same laptop is left as an exercise for
the reader.Can I install on a disk with bad blocks?Prior to 3.0, FreeBSD included a utility known as
bad144, which automatically remapped bad
blocks. Because modern IDE drives perform this function
themselves, bad144 has been removed from the
FreeBSD source tree. If you wish to install FreeBSD 3.0 or
later, we strongly suggest you purchase a newer disk drive. If
you do not wish to do this, you must run FreeBSD 2.x.If you are seeing bad block errors with a modern IDE
drive, chances are the drive is going to die very soon (the
drive's internal remapping functions are no longer sufficient
to fix the bad blocks, which means the disk is heavily
corrupted); we suggest you buy a new hard drive.If you have a SCSI drive with bad blocks, see
this answer.I have just upgraded from 3.X to 4.X, and my first boot
failed with bad sector table not
supportedFreeBSD 3.X and earlier supported
bad144, which automatically remapped
bad blocks. FreeBSD 4.X and later do not support this, as
modern IDE drives include this functionality. See this question for
more information.To fix this after an upgrade, you need to physically
place the drive in a working system and use
&man.disklabel.8; as discussed in the following
questions.How do I tell if a drive has bad144
information on it before I try to upgrade to FreeBSD 4.0
and it fails?Use &man.disklabel.8; for this. disklabel -r
drive device will
give you the contents of your disk label. Look for a
flags field. If you see
flags: badsect, this drive is using
bad144. For example, the following drive has
bad144 enabled.:&prompt.root; disklabel -r wd0
# /dev/rwd0c:
type: ESDI
disk: wd0s1
label:
flags: badsect
bytes/sector: 512
sectors/track: 63How do I remove bad144 from my
pre-4.X system so I can upgrade safely?Use disklabel -e -rwd0 to edit the
disklabel in place. Just remove the word
badsect from the flags field, save, and
exit. The bad144 file will still take up some space on
your drive, but the disk itself will be usable.We still recommend you purchase a new disk if you have
a large number of bad blocks.Strange things happen when I boot the install floppy!
What is happening?If you are seeing things like the machine grinding to a halt
or spontaneously rebooting when you try to boot the install
floppy, here are three questions to ask yourself:-Did you use a new, freshly-formatted, error-free floppy
(preferably a brand-new one straight out of the box, as
opposed to the magazine cover disk that has been lying under
the bed for the last three years)?Did you download the floppy image in binary (or image)
mode? (do not be embarrassed, even the best of us have
accidentally downloaded a binary file in ASCII mode at
least once!)If you are using Windows95 or Win98 did you run
fdimage or rawrite in
pure DOS mode? These operating systems can interfere with programs that
write directly to hardware, which the disk creation program
does; even running it inside a DOS shell in the GUI can
cause this problem.There have also been reports of Netscape causing problems
when downloading the boot floppy, so it is probably best to use
a different FTP client if you can.I booted from my ATAPI CDROM, but the install program says no
CDROM is found. Where did it go?The usual cause of this problem is a mis-configured CDROM
drive. Many PCs now ship with the CDROM as the slave device on
the secondary IDE controller, with no master device on that
controller. This is illegal according to the ATAPI specification,
but Windows plays fast and loose with the specification, and the
BIOS ignores it when booting. This is why the BIOS was able to
see the CDROM to boot from it, but why FreeBSD cannot see it to
complete the install.Reconfigure your system so that the CDROM is either the
master device on the IDE controller it is attached to, or make
sure that it is the slave on an IDE controller that also has a
master device.Why can I not install from tape?If you are installing 2.1.7R from tape, you must create
the tape using a tar blocksize of 10 (5120 bytes). The default
tar blocksize is 20 (10240 bytes), and tapes created using this
default size cannot be used to install 2.1.7R; with these
tapes, you will get an error that complains about the record
size being too big.Can I install on my laptop over PLIP (Parallel Line
IP)?Yes. Use a standard Laplink cable. If necessary, you
can check out the PLIP
section of the Handbook for details on parallel
port networking.If you are running FreeBSD 3.X or earlier, also look at
the Mobile
Computing page.Which geometry should I use for a disk drive?By the geometry of a disk, we mean
the number of cylinders, heads and sectors/track on a
disk. We will refer to this as C/H/S for
convenience. This is how the PC's BIOS works out which
area on a disk to read/write from.This causes a lot of confusion among new system
administrators. First of all, the
physical geometry of a SCSI drive is
totally irrelevant, as FreeBSD works in term of disk
blocks. In fact, there is no such thing as
the physical geometry, as the sector
density varies across the disk. What manufacturers claim
is the physical geometry is usually the
geometry that they have determined wastes the least
space. For IDE disks, FreeBSD does work in terms of C/H/S,
but all modern drives internally convert this into block
references.
All that matters is the logical
geometry. This is the answer that the BIOS gets when it
asks the drive what is your geometry? It
then uses this geometry to access the disk. As FreeBSD
uses the BIOS when booting, it is very important to get
this right. In particular, if you have more than one
operating system on a disk, they must all agree on the
geometry. Otherwise you will have serious problems
booting!For SCSI disks, the geometry to use depends on whether
extended translation support is turned on in your
controller (this is often referred to as support for
DOS disks >1GB or something similar). If it is
turned off, then use N
cylinders, 64 heads and 32 sectors/track, where
N is the capacity of the disk in
MB. For example, a 2GB disk should pretend to have 2048
cylinders, 64 heads and 32 sectors/track.If it is turned on (it is often
supplied this way to get around certain limitations in
MSDOS) and the disk capacity is more than 1GB, use M
cylinders, 63 sectors per track (not
64), and 255 heads, where 'M' is the disk capacity in MB
divided by 7.844238 (!). So our example 2GB drive would
have 261 cylinders, 63 sectors per track and 255
heads.If you are not sure about this, or FreeBSD fails to
detect the geometry correctly during installation, the
simplest way around this is usually to create a small DOS
partition on the disk. The BIOS should then detect the
correct geometry, and you can always remove the DOS
partition in the partition editor if you do not want to
keep it. You might want to leave it around for
programming network cards and the like, however.Alternatively, there is a freely available utility
distributed with FreeBSD called
pfdisk.exe. You can find it in the
tools subdirectory on the FreeBSD
CDROM or on the various FreeBSD FTP sites. This program
can be used to work out what geometry the other operating
systems on the disk are using. You can then enter this
geometry in the partition editor.Are there any restrictions on how I divide the disk up?Yes. You must make sure that your root partition is below
1024
cylinders so the BIOS can boot the kernel from it. (Note that
this is a limitation in the PC's BIOS, not FreeBSD).For a SCSI drive, this will normally imply that the root
partition will be in the first 1024MB (or in the first 4096MB
if extended translation is turned on - see previous question).
For IDE, the corresponding figure is 504MB.Is FreeBSD compatible with any disk managers?FreeBSD recognizes the Ontrack Disk Manager and makes
allowances for it. Other disk managers are not supported.If you just want to use the disk with FreeBSD you do not
need a disk manager. Just configure the disk for as much space
as the BIOS can deal with (usually 504 megabytes), and FreeBSD
should figure out how much space you really have. If you are
using an old disk with an MFM controller, you may need to
explicitly tell FreeBSD how many cylinders to use.If you want to use the disk with FreeBSD and another
operating system, you may be able to do without a disk manager:
just make sure the FreeBSD boot partition and the slice for
the other operating system are in the first 1024 cylinders. If
you are reasonably careful, a 20 megabyte boot partition should
be plenty.When I boot FreeBSD I get Missing Operating
System. What is happening?This is classically a case of FreeBSD and DOS or some other
OS conflicting over their ideas of disk geometry. You will have to reinstall
FreeBSD, but obeying the instructions given above will almost
always get you going.Why can I not get past the boot manager's F?
prompt?This is another symptom of the problem described in the
preceding question. Your BIOS geometry and FreeBSD geometry
settings do not agree! If your controller or BIOS supports
cylinder translation (often marked as >1GB drive
support), try toggling its setting and reinstalling
FreeBSD.Do I need to install the complete sources?In general, no. However, we would strongly recommend that
you install, at a minimum, the base source
kit, which includes several of the files mentioned here, and
the sys (kernel) source kit, which includes
sources for the kernel. There is nothing in the system which
requires the presence of the sources to operate, however,
except for the kernel-configuration program &man.config.8;.
With the exception of the kernel sources, our build structure
is set up so that you can read-only mount the sources from
elsewhere via NFS and still be able to make new binaries.
(Because of the kernel-source restriction, we recommend that
you not mount this on /usr/src directly,
but rather in some other location with appropriate symbolic
links to duplicate the top-level structure of the source
tree.)Having the sources on-line and knowing how to build a
system with them will make it much easier for you to upgrade
to future releases of FreeBSD.To actually select a subset of the sources, use the Custom
menu item when you are in the Distributions menu of the
system installation tool.Do I need to build a kernel?Building a new kernel was originally pretty much a required
step in a FreeBSD installation, but more recent releases have
benefited from the introduction of a much friendlier kernel
configuration tool. When at the FreeBSD boot prompt (boot:),
use the flag and you will be dropped into a
visual configuration screen which allows you to configure the
kernel's settings for most common ISA cards.It is still recommended that you eventually build a new
kernel containing just the drivers that you need, just to save a
bit of RAM, but it is no longer a strict requirement for most
systems.Should I use DES passwords, or MD5, and how do I specify
which form my users receive?The default password format on FreeBSD is to use
MD5-based passwords. These are believed to
be more secure than the traditional Unix password format, which
used a scheme based on the DES algorithm.
DES passwords are still available if you need to share your
password file with legacy operating systems which still use the
less secure password format (they are available if you choose
to install the crypto distribution in
sysinstall, or by installing the crypto sources if building
from source). Which password format to use for new passwords is
controlled by the passwd_format login capability
in /etc/login.conf, which takes values of
either des (if available) or md5.
See the &man.login.conf.5; manpage for more information about login
capabilities.Why does the boot floppy start, but hang at the
Probing Devices... screen?If you have a IDE Zip or Jaz drive installed, remove it
and try again. The boot floppy can get confused by the drives.
After the system is installed you can reconnect the drive.
Hopefully this will be fixed in a later release.Why do I get a panic: can't mount root
error when rebooting the system after installation?This error comes from confusion between the boot block's
and the kernel's understanding of the disk devices. The error
usually manifests on two-disk IDE systems, with the hard disks
arranged as the master or single device on separate IDE
controllers, with FreeBSD installed on the secondary IDE
controller. The boot blocks think the system is installed on
wd1 (the second BIOS disk) while the kernel assigns the first
disk on the secondary controller device wd2. After the device
probing, the kernel tries to mount what the boot blocks think
is the boot disk, wd1, while it is really wd2, and
fails.To fix the problem, do one of the following:For FreeBSD 3.3 and later, reboot the system and hit
Enter at the Booting kernel
in 10 seconds; hit [Enter] to interrupt prompt.
This will drop you into the boot loader.Then type
set root_disk_unit="disk_number"
. disk_number
will be 0 if FreeBSD is installed on
the master drive on the first IDE controller,
1 if it is installed on the slave on
the first IDE controller, 2 if it is
installed on the master of the second IDE controller, and
3 if it is installed on the slave of
the second IDE controller.Then type boot, and your system
should boot correctly.To make this change permanent (ie so you do not have to
do this every time you reboot or turn on your FreeBSD
machine), put the line
root_disk_unit="disk_number" in /boot/loader.conf.local
.If using FreeBSD 3.2 or earlier, at the Boot: prompt,
enter 1:wd(2,a)kernel and press Enter.
If the system starts, then run the command
echo "1:wd(2,a)kernel" > /boot.config
to make it the default boot string.Move the FreeBSD disk onto the primary IDE controller,
so the hard disks are consecutive.Rebuild
your kernel, modify the wd configuration lines to
read:controller wdc0 at isa? port "IO_WD1" bio irq 14 vector wdintr
disk wd0 at wdc0 drive 0
# disk wd1 at wdc0 drive 1 # comment out this line
controller wdc1 at isa? port "IO_WD2" bio irq 15 vector wdintr
disk wd1 at wdc1 drive 0 # change from wd2 to wd1
disk wd2 at wdc1 drive 1 # change from wd3 to wd2Install the new kernel. If you moved your disks and
wish to restore the previous configuration, replace the
disks in the desired configuration and reboot. Your
system should boot successfully.What are the limits for memory?For memory, the limit is 4 gigabytes. This configuration
has been tested, see wcarchive's
configuration for more details. If you plan to install
this much memory into a machine, you need to be careful. You will
probably want to use ECC memory and to reduce capacitive
loading use 9 chip memory modules versus 18 chip memory
modules.What are the limits for ffs filesystems?For ffs filesystems, the maximum theoretical limit is 8
terabytes (2G blocks), or 16TB for the default block size of
8K. In practice, there is a soft limit of 1 terabyte, but with
modifications filesystems with 4 terabytes are possible (and
exist).The maximum size of a single ffs file is approximately 1G
blocks (4TB) if the block size is 4K.
Maximum file sizesfs block size2.2.7-stable3.0-currentworksshould work4K4T-14T-14T-1>4T8K>32G8T-1>32G32T-116K>128G16T-1>128G32T-132K>512G32T-1>512G64T-164K>2048G64T-1>2048G128T-1
When the fs block size is 4K, triple indirect blocks work
and everything should be limited by the maximum fs block number
that can be represented using triple indirect blocks (approx.
1K^3 + 1K^2 + 1K), but everything is limited by a (wrong) limit
of 1G-1 on fs block numbers. The limit on fs block numbers
should be 2G-1. There are some bugs for fs block numbers near
2G-1, but such block numbers are unreachable when the fs block
size is 4K.For block sizes of 8K and larger, everything should be
limited by the 2G-1 limit on fs block numbers, but is actually
limited by the 1G-1 limit on fs block numbers, except under
-STABLE triple indirect blocks are unreachable, so the limit is
the maximum fs block number that can be represented using
double indirect blocks (approx. (blocksize/4)^2 +
(blocksize/4)), and under -CURRENT exceeding this limit may
cause problems. Using the correct limit of 2G-1 blocks does
cause problems.Why do I get an error message,
archsw.readin.failed after compiling
and booting a new kernel?You can boot by specifying the kernel directly at the second
stage, pressing any key when the | shows up before loader is
started. More specifically, you have upgraded the source for
your kernel, and installed a new kernel builtin from them
without making world. This is not
supported. Make world.How do I upgrade from 3.X -> 4.X?We strongly recommend that you use
binary snapshots to do this. 4-STABLE snapshots are available at
ftp://releng4.FreeBSD.org/.Because of the many changes between 3.X and 4-STABLE,
a direct upgrade from source will probably fail. A source
upgrade can be done, but only in stages. First, upgrade
to the latest 3-STABLE (RELENG_3).
Then upgrade to 4.1.1-RELEASE
(RELENG_4_1_1_RELEASE). Finally,
upgrade to 4-STABLE (RELENG_4).If you wish to upgrade using source, please see the FreeBSD
Handbook for more information.Upgrading via source is never recommended for new
users, and upgrading from 3.X to 4.X is even less so; make sure
you have read the instructions carefully before attempting to
upgrade via source.What are these security profiles?A security profile is a set of configuration
options that attempts to achieve the desired ratio of security
to convenience by enabling and disabling certain programs and
other settings. For full details, see the Security
Profile section of the Handbook's post-install
chapter.Hardware compatibilityDoes FreeBSD support architectures other than the
x86?Yes. FreeBSD currently runs on both Intel x86 and
DEC (now Compaq) Alpha architectures. Interest has also
been expressed in a port of FreeBSD to the SPARC architecture,
join the freebsd-sparc@FreeBSD.org mailing list if you are interested
in joining that project. Most recent additions to the list of
upcoming platforms are IA-64 and PowerPC, join the
freebsd-ia64@FreeBSD.org and/or
freebsd-ppc@FreeBSD.org mailing lists for more information.
For general discussion on new architectures, join
the freebsd-platforms@FreeBSD.org
mailing list.If your machine has a different architecture and you need
something right now, we suggest you look at NetBSD or OpenBSD.I want to get a piece of hardware for my FreeBSD
system. Which model/brand/type is best?This is discussed continually on the FreeBSD mailing
lists. Since hardware changes so quickly, however, we
expect this. We still strongly
recommend that you read through the
Hardware Notes
and search the mailing list
archives before asking about the latest and
greatest hardware. Chances are a discussion about the
type of hardware you are looking for took place just last
week.If you are looking for a laptop, check the
FreeBSD-mobile mailing list archives. Otherwise, you
probably want the archives for FreeBSD-questions, or
possibly a specific mailing list for a particular hardware
type.What kind of hard drives does FreeBSD support?FreeBSD supports EIDE and SCSI drives (with a compatible
controller; see the next section), and all drives using the
original Western Digital interface (MFM, RLL,
ESDI, and of course IDE). A few ESDI controllers that use
proprietary interfaces may not work: stick to WD1002/3/6/7
interfaces and clones.Which SCSI controllers are supported?See the complete list in the current Hardware Notes.Which CDROM drives are supported by FreeBSD?Any SCSI drive connected to a supported controller is
supported.The following proprietary CDROM interfaces are also
supported:Mitsumi LU002 (8bit), LU005 (16bit) and FX001D
(16bit 2x Speed).Sony CDU 31/33ASound Blaster Non-SCSI CDROMMatsushita/Panasonic CDROMATAPI compatible IDE CDROMsAll non-SCSI cards are known to be extremely slow compared
to SCSI drives, and some ATAPI CDROMs may not work.As of 2.2 the FreeBSD CDROM from the FreeBSD Mall supports
booting directly from the CD.Which CD-RW drives are supported by FreeBSD?FreeBSD supports any ATAPI-compatible IDE CD-R or CD-RW
drive. For FreeBSD versions 4.0 and later, see the man page for
&man.burncd.8;. For earlier FreeBSD versions, see the examples
in /usr/share/examples/atapi.FreeBSD also supports any SCSI CD-R or CD-RW drives.
Install and use the cdrecord command from the
ports or packages system, and make sure that you have the
pass device compiled in your
kernel.Does FreeBSD support ZIP drives?FreeBSD supports the SCSI ZIP drive out of the box, of
course. The ZIP drive can only be set to run at SCSI target IDs
5 or 6, but if your SCSI host adapter's BIOS supports it you
can even boot from it. It is not clear which host
adapters support booting from targets other than 0 or 1,
so you will have to consult your adapter's documentation
if you would like to use this feature.ATAPI (IDE) Zip drives are supported in FreeBSD 2.2.6 and
later releases.FreeBSD has contained support for Parallel Port Zip Drives
since version 3.0. If you are using a sufficiently up to date
version, then you should check that your kernel contains the
scbus0, da0,
ppbus0, and
vp0 drivers (the GENERIC kernel
contains everything except vp0). With
all these drivers present, the Parallel Port drive should be
available as /dev/da0s4. Disks can be
mounted using mount /dev/da0s4 /mnt OR (for
dos disks) mount_msdos /dev/da0s4 /mnt as
appropriate.Also check out the FAQ on removable
drives later in this chapter, and the note on
formattingin the Administration chapter.Does FreeBSD support JAZ, EZ and other removable
drives?Apart from the IDE version of the EZ drive, these are all
SCSI devices, so they should all look like SCSI disks to
FreeBSD, and the IDE EZ should look like an IDE drive.I am not sure how well FreeBSD supports
changing the media out while running. You will of course need
to dismount the drive before swapping media, and make sure that
any external units are powered on when you boot the system so
FreeBSD can see them.See this note on
formatting.Which multi-port serial cards are supported by
FreeBSD?There is a list of these in the Miscellaneous
devices section of the handbook.Some unnamed clone cards have also been known to work,
especially those that claim to be AST compatible.Check the &man.sio.4;
man page to get more information on configuring such cards.Does FreeBSD support my USB keyboard?USB device support was added to FreeBSD 3.1. However, it
is still in preliminary state and may not always work as of
version 3.2. If you want to experiment with the USB keyboard
support, follow the procedure described below.Use FreeBSD 3.2 or later.Add the following lines to your kernel configuration
file, and rebuild the kernel.device uhci
device ohci
device usb
device ukbd
options KBD_INSTALL_CDEVIn versions of FreeBSD before 4.0, use this
instead:controller uhci0
controller ohci0
controller usb0
controller ukbd0
options KBD_INSTALL_CDEVGo to the /dev directory and create
device nodes as follows:&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV kbd0 kbd1Edit /etc/rc.conf and add the
following lines:usbd_enable="YES"
usbd_flags=""After the system is rebooted, the AT keyboard becomes
/dev/kbd0 and the USB keyboard becomes
/dev/kbd1, if both are connected to the
system. If there is the USB keyboard only, it will be
/dev/ukbd0.If you want to use the USB keyboard in the console, you
have to explicitly tell the console driver to use the existing
USB keyboard. This can be done by running the following
command as a part of system initialization.&prompt.root; kbdcontrol -k /dev/kbd1 < /dev/ttyv0 > /dev/nullNote that if the USB keyboard is the only keyboard, it is
accessed as /dev/kbd0, thus, the command
should look like:&prompt.root; kbdcontrol -k /dev/kbd0 < /dev/ttyv0 > /dev/null/etc/rc.i386 is a good place to add the
above command.Once this is done, the USB keyboard should work in the X
environment as well without any special settings.Hot-plugging and unplugging of the USB keyboard may not
work quite right yet. It is a good idea to connect the keyboard
before you start the system and leave it connected until the
system is shutdown to avoid troubles.See the &man.ukbd.4; man page for more information.I have an unusual bus mouse. How do I set it up?FreeBSD supports the bus mouse and the InPort bus mouse
from such manufactures as Microsoft, Logitech and ATI. The bus
device driver is compiled in the GENERIC kernel by default in
FreeBSD versions 2.X, but not included in version 3.0 or later.
If you are building a custom kernel with the bus mouse driver,
make sure to add the following line to the kernel config
fileIn FreeBSD 3.0 or before, add:device mse0 at isa? port 0x23c tty irq5 vector mseintrIn FreeBSD 3.X, the line should be:device mse0 at isa? port 0x23c tty irq5And in FreeBSD 4.X and later, the line should read:device mse0 at isa? port 0x23c irq5Bus mice usually comes with dedicated interface cards.
These cards may allow you to set the port address and the IRQ
number other than shown above. Refer to the manual of your
mouse and the &man.mse.4; man page for more information.How do I use my PS/2 (mouse port or
keyboard) mouse?If you are running a post-2.2.5 version of FreeBSD, the
necessary driver, psm, is included and
enabled in the kernel. The kernel should detect your PS/2 mouse
at boot time.If you are running a previous but relatively recent version
of FreeBSD (2.1.x or better) then you can simply enable it in
the kernel configuration menu at installation time, otherwise
later with at the boot:
prompt. It is disabled by default, so you will need to enable
it explicitly.If you are running an older version of FreeBSD then you will
have to add the following lines to your kernel configuration
file and compile a new kernel.In FreeBSD 3.0 or earlier, the line should be:device psm0 at isa? port "IO_KBD" conflicts tty irq 12 vector psmintrIn FreeBSD 3.1 or later, the line should be:device psm0 at isa? tty irq 12In FreeBSD 4.0 or later, the line should be:device psm0 at atkbdc? irq 12See the Handbook entry on
configuring the kernel if you have no experience with
building kernels.Once you have a kernel detecting
psm0 correctly at boot time, make sure
that an entry for psm0 exists in
/dev. You can do this by typing:&prompt.root; cd /dev; sh MAKEDEV psm0when logged in as root.Is it possible to make use of a mouse in any way outside
the X Window system?If you are using the default console driver, syscons, you
can use a mouse pointer in text consoles to cut & paste
text. Run the mouse daemon, moused, and turn on the mouse
pointer in the virtual console:&prompt.root; moused -p /dev/xxxx -t yyyy
&prompt.root; vidcontrol -m onWhere xxxx is the mouse device
name and yyyy is a protocol type for
the mouse. See the &man.moused.8; man page for supported
protocol types.You may wish to run the mouse daemon automatically when the
system starts. In version 2.2.1, set the following variables in
/etc/sysconfig.mousedtype="yyyy"
mousedport="xxxx"
mousedflags=""In versions 2.2.2 to 3.0, set the following variables in
/etc/rc.conf.moused_type="yyyy"
moused_port="xxxx"
moused_flags=""In 3.1 and later, assuming you have a PS/2 mouse, all you
need to is add moused_enable="YES" to
/etc/rc.conf.In addition, if you would like to be able to use the mouse
daemon on all virtual terminals instead of just console at
boot-time, add the following to
/etc/rc.conf.allscreens_flags="-m on"Staring from FreeBSD 2.2.6, the mouse daemon is capable of
determining the correct protocol type automatically unless the
mouse is a relatively old serial mouse model. Specify
auto the protocol to invoke automatic
detection.When the mouse daemon is running, access to the mouse
needs to be coordinated between the mouse daemon and other
programs such as the X Window. Refer to another section on this
issue.How do I cut and paste text with mouse in the text
console?Once you get the mouse daemon running (see
previous section), hold down the
button 1 (left button) and move the mouse to select a region of
text. Then, press the button 2 (middle button) or the button 3
(right button) to paste it at the text cursor.In versions 2.2.6 and later, pressing the button 2 will
paste the text. Pressing the button 3 will
extend the selected region of text. If your
mouse does not have the middle button, you may wish to emulate
it or remap buttons using moused options. See the
&man.moused.8; man page for details.Does FreeBSD support any USB mice?Preliminary USB device support was added to FreeBSD
3.1. It did not always work through early versions of
3.X. As of FreeBSD 4.0, USB devices should work out of
the box. If you want to experiment with the USB mouse
support under FreeBSD 3.X, follow the procedure described
below.Use FreeBSD 3.2 or later.Add the following lines to your kernel configuration
file, and rebuild the kernel.device uhci
device ohci
device usb
device umsIn versions of FreeBSD before 4.0, use this
instead:controller uhci0
controller ohci0
controller usb0
device ums0Go to the /dev directory and
create a device node as follows:&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV ums0Edit /etc/rc.conf and add the
following lines:moused_enable="YES"
moused_type="auto"
moused_port="/dev/ums0"
moused_flags=""
usbd_enable="YES"
usbd_flags=""See the previous section
for more detailed discussion on moused.In order to use the USB mouse in the X session, edit
XF86Config. If you are using XFree86
3.3.2 or later, be sure to have the following lines in the
Pointer section:Device "/dev/sysmouse"
Protocol "Auto"If you are using earlier versions of XFree86, be sure to
have the following lines in the Pointer
section:Device "/dev/sysmouse"
Protocol "SysMouse"Refer to another section
on the mouse support in the X environment.Hot-plugging and unplugging of the USB mouse may not work
quite right yet. It is a good idea connect the mouse before you
start the system and leave it connected until the system is
shutdown to avoid trouble.My mouse has a fancy wheel and buttons. Can I use them in
FreeBSD?The answer is, unfortunately, It depends.
These mice with additional features require specialized driver
in most cases. Unless the mouse device driver or the user
program has specific support for the mouse, it will act just
like a standard two, or three button mouse.For the possible usage of wheels in the X Window
environment, refer to that
section.Why does my wheel-equipped PS/2 mouse cause my mouse cursor
to jump around the screen?The PS/2 mouse driver psm in FreeBSD versions 3.2 or
earlier has difficulty with some wheel mice, including Logitech
model M-S48 and its OEM siblings. Apply the following patch to
/sys/i386/isa/psm.c and rebuild the
kernel.Index: psm.c
===================================================================
RCS file: /src/CVS/src/sys/i386/isa/Attic/psm.c,v
retrieving revision 1.60.2.1
retrieving revision 1.60.2.2
diff -u -r1.60.2.1 -r1.60.2.2
--- psm.c 1999/06/03 12:41:13 1.60.2.1
+++ psm.c 1999/07/12 13:40:52 1.60.2.2
@@ -959,14 +959,28 @@
sc->mode.packetsize = vendortype[i].packetsize;
/* set mouse parameters */
+#if 0
+ /*
+ * A version of Logitech FirstMouse+ won't report wheel movement,
+ * if SET_DEFAULTS is sent... Don't use this command.
+ * This fix was found by Takashi Nishida.
+ */
i = send_aux_command(sc->kbdc, PSMC_SET_DEFAULTS);
if (verbose >= 2)
printf("psm%d: SET_DEFAULTS return code:%04x\n", unit, i);
+#endif
if (sc->config & PSM_CONFIG_RESOLUTION) {
sc->mode.resolution
= set_mouse_resolution(sc->kbdc,
- (sc->config & PSM_CONFIG_RESOLUTION) - 1);
+ (sc->config & PSM_CONFIG_RESOLUTION) - 1);
+ } else if (sc->mode.resolution >= 0) {
+ sc->mode.resolution
+ = set_mouse_resolution(sc->kbdc, sc->dflt_mode.resolution);
+ }
+ if (sc->mode.rate > 0) {
+ sc->mode.rate = set_mouse_sampling_rate(sc->kbdc, sc->dflt_mode.rate);
}
+ set_mouse_scaling(sc->kbdc, 1);
/* request a data packet and extract sync. bits */
if (get_mouse_status(sc->kbdc, stat, 1, 3) < 3) {Versions later than 3.2 should be all right.How do I use the mouse/trackball/touchpad on my
laptop?Please refer to the answer to
the previous question. Also check out the Mobile
Computing page.What types of tape drives are supported?FreeBSD supports SCSI and QIC-36 (with a QIC-02 interface).
This includes 8-mm (aka Exabyte) and DAT drives.Some of the early 8-mm drives are not quite compatible
with SCSI-2, and may not work well with FreeBSD.Does FreeBSD support tape changers?FreeBSD 2.2 supports SCSI changers using the
&man.ch.4;
device and the
&man.chio.1;
command. The details of how you actually control the changer
can be found in the
&man.chio.1;
man page.If you are not using AMANDA
or some other product that already understands changers,
remember that they only know how to move a tape from one
point to another, so you need to keep track of which slot a
tape is in, and which slot the tape currently in the drive
needs to go back to.Which sound cards are supported by FreeBSD?FreeBSD supports the SoundBlaster, SoundBlaster Pro,
SoundBlaster 16, Pro Audio Spectrum 16, AdLib and Gravis
UltraSound sound cards. There is also limited support for
MPU-401 and compatible MIDI cards. Cards conforming to the
Microsoft Sound System specification are also supported through
the pcm driver.This is only for sound! This driver does not support
CDROMs, SCSI or joysticks on these cards, except for the
SoundBlaster. The SoundBlaster SCSI interface and some
non-SCSI CDROMS are supported, but you cannot boot off this
device.Workarounds for no sound from es1370 with pcm driver?You can run the following command every time the machine
booted up:&prompt.root; mixer pcm 100 vol 100 cd 100Which network cards does FreeBSD support?See the
Ethernet cards section of the handbook for a more
complete list.I do not have a math co-processor - is that bad?This will only affect 386/486SX/486SLC owners - other
machines will have one built into the CPU.In general this will not cause any problems, but there are
circumstances where you will take a hit, either in performance
or accuracy of the math emulation code (see the section on FP emulation). In particular, drawing
arcs in X will be VERY slow. It is highly recommended that you
buy a math co-processor; it is well worth it.Some math co-processors are better than others. It
pains us to say it, but nobody ever got fired for buying
Intel. Unless you are sure it works with FreeBSD, beware of
clones.What other devices does FreeBSD support?See the Handbook
for the list of other devices supported.Does FreeBSD support power management on my laptop?FreeBSD supports APM on certain machines. Please look in
the LINT kernel config file, searching for
the
APM
keyword. Further information can be found in &man.apm.4;.Why does my Micron system hang at boot time?Certain Micron motherboards have a non-conforming PCI BIOS
implementation that causes grief when FreeBSD boots because PCI
devices do not get configured at their reported addresses.Disable the Plug and Play Operating System
flag in the BIOS to work around this problem. More information
can be found at
http://cesdis.gsfc.nasa.gov/linux/drivers/vortex.html#micronWhy does FreeBSD not recognize my Adaptec SCSI
controller card?The newer AIC789x series Adaptec chips are supported under
the CAM SCSI framework which made its debut in 3.0. Patches
against 2.2-STABLE are in
ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/development/cam/.
A CAM-enhanced boot floppy is available at
http://people.FreeBSD.org/~abial/cam-boot/.
In both cases read the README before beginning.Why is FreeBSD not finding my internal Plug & Play
modem?You will need to add the modem's PnP ID to the PnP ID
list in the serial driver. To enable Plug & Play support,
compile a new kernel with controller pnp0 in
the configuration file, then reboot the system. The kernel will
print the PnP IDs of all the devices it finds. Copy the PnP ID
from the modem to the table in
/sys/i386/isa/sio.c, at about line 2777.
Look for the string SUP1310 in the structure
siopnp_ids[] to find the table. Build the
kernel again, install, reboot, and your modem should be
found.You may have to manually configure the PnP devices using
the pnp command in the boot-time
configuration with a command likepnp 1 0 enable os irq0 3 drq0 0 port0 0x2f8to make the modem show.Does FreeBSD support software modems, such as
Winmodems?FreeBSD supports many software modems via add-on
software. The comms/ltmdm port adds
support for modems based on the very popular Lucent LT
chipset. The comms/mwavem port
supports the modem in IBM Thinkpad 600 and 700
laptops.You cannot install FreeBSD via a software modem; this
software must be installed after the OS is
installed.How do I get the boot: prompt to show on the serial
console?Build a kernel with
options COMCONSOLE.Create /boot.config and place
as the only text in the file.Unplug the keyboard from the system.See
/usr/src/sys/i386/boot/biosboot/README.serial
for information.Why does my 3Com PCI network card not work with my Micron
computer?Certain Micron motherboards have a non-conforming PCI BIOS
implementation that does not configure PCI devices at the
addresses reported. This causes grief when FreeBSD
boots.To work around this problem, disable the
Plug and Play Operating System flag in the
BIOS.More information on this problem is available at URL:
http://cesdis.gsfc.nasa.gov/linux/drivers/vortex.html#micronDoes FreeBSD support Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP)?SMP is supported in 3.0-STABLE and later releases only.
SMP is not enabled in the GENERIC kernel,
so you will have to recompile your kernel to enable SMP. Take a
look at /sys/i386/conf/LINT to figure out
what options to put in your kernel config file.The boot floppy hangs on a system with an ASUS K7V
motherboard. How do I fix this?Go in to the BIOS setup and disable the boot virus
protection.TroubleshootingWhat do I do when I have bad blocks on my hard drive?With SCSI drives, the drive should be capable of re-mapping
these automatically. However, many drives are shipped with
this feature disabled, for some mysterious reason...To enable this, you will need to edit the first device page
mode, which can be done on FreeBSD by giving the command
(as root)&prompt.root; scsi -f /dev/rsd0c -m 1 -e -P 3and changing the values of AWRE and ARRE from 0 to 1:-AWRE (Auto Write Reallocation Enbld): 1
ARRE (Auto Read Reallocation Enbld): 1The following paragraphs were submitted by Ted Mittelstaedt
tedm@toybox.placo.com:For IDE drives, any bad block is usually a sign of
potential trouble. All modern IDE drives come with internal
bad-block remapping turned on. All IDE hard drive manufacturers
today offer extensive warranties and will replace drives with
bad blocks on them.If you still want to attempt to rescue an IDE drive with
bad blocks, you can attempt to download the IDE drive
manufacturer's IDE diagnostic program, and run this against the
drive. Sometimes these programs can be set to force the drive
electronics to rescan the drive for bad blocks and lock them
out.For ESDI, RLL and MFM drives, bad blocks are a normal part
of the drive and are no sign of trouble, generally. With a PC,
the disk drive controller card and BIOS handle the task of
locking out bad sectors. This is fine for operating systems
like DOS that use BIOS code to access the disk. However,
FreeBSD's disk driver does not go through BIOS, therefore a
mechanism, bad144, exists that replaces this functionality.
bad144 only works with the wd driver (which means it is not
supported in FreeBSD 4.0), it is NOT able to be used with SCSI.
bad144 works by entering all bad sectors found into a special
file.One caveat with bad144 - the bad block special file is
placed on the last track of the disk. As this file may possibly
contain a listing for a bad sector that would occur near the
beginning of the disk, where the /kernel file might be located,
it therefore must be accessible to the bootstrap program that
uses BIOS calls to read the kernel file. This means that the
disk with bad144 used on it must not exceed 1024 cylinders, 16
heads, and 63 sectors. This places an effective limit of 500MB
on a disk that is mapped with bad144.To use bad144, simply set the Bad Block
scanning to ON in the FreeBSD fdisk screen during the initial
install. This works up through FreeBSD 2.2.7. The disk must
have less than 1024 cylinders. It is generally recommended that
the disk drive has been in operation for at least 4 hours prior
to this to allow for thermal expansion and track
wandering.If the disk has more than 1024 cylinders (such as a large
ESDI drive) the ESDI controller uses a special translation mode
to make it work under DOS. The wd driver understands about
these translation modes, IF you enter the
translated geometry with the set
geometry command in fdisk. You must also NOT use the
dangerously dedicated mode of creating the
FreeBSD partition, as this ignores the geometry. Also, even
though fdisk will use your overridden geometry, it still knows
the true size of the disk, and will attempt to create a too
large FreeBSD partition. If the disk geometry is changed to the
translated geometry, the partition MUST be manually created
with the number of blocks.A quick trick to use is to set up the large ESDI disk with
the ESDI controller, boot it with a DOS disk and format it with
a DOS partition. Then, boot the FreeBSD install and in the
fdisk screen, read off and write down the blocksize and block
numbers for the DOS partition. Then, reset the geometry to the
same that DOS uses, delete the DOS partition, and create a
cooperative FreeBSD partition using the
blocksize you recorded earlier. Then, set the partition
bootable and turn on bad block scanning. During the actual
install, bad144 will run first, before any filesystems are
created. (you can view this with an Alt-F2) If it has any
trouble creating the badsector file, you have set too large a
disk geometry - reboot the system and start all over again
(including repartitioning and reformatting with DOS).If remapping is enabled and you are seeing bad blocks,
consider replacing the drive. The bad blocks will only get
worse as time goes on.Why does FreeBSD not recognize my Bustek 742a EISA
SCSI controller?This info is specific to the 742a but may also cover
other Buslogic cards. (Bustek = Buslogic)There are 2 general versions of the 742a
card. They are hardware revisions A-G, and revisions H -
onwards. The revision letter is located after the Assembly
number on the edge of the card. The 742a has 2 ROM chips on it,
one is the BIOS chip and the other is the Firmware chip.
FreeBSD does not care what version of BIOS chip you have but it
does care about what version of firmware chip. Buslogic will
send upgrade ROMS out if you call their tech support dept. The
BIOS and Firmware chips are shipped as a matched pair. You must
have the most current Firmware ROM in your adapter card for
your hardware revision.The REV A-G cards can only accept BIOS/Firmware sets up to
2.41/2.21. The REV H- up cards can accept the most current
BIOS/Firmware sets of 4.70/3.37. The difference between the
firmware sets is that the 3.37 firmware supports round
robinThe Buslogic cards also have a serial number on them. If
you have a old hardware revision card you can call the Buslogic
RMA department and give them the serial number and attempt to
exchange the card for a newer hardware revision. If the card is
young enough they will do so.FreeBSD 2.1 only supports Firmware revisions 2.21 onward.
If you have a Firmware revision older than this your card will
not be recognized as a Buslogic card. It may be recognized as
an Adaptec 1540, however. The early Buslogic firmware contains
an AHA1540 emulation mode. This is not a good
thing for an EISA card, however.If you have an old hardware revision card and you obtain
the 2.21 firmware for it, you will need to check the position
of jumper W1 to B-C, the default is A-B.Why does FreeBSD not detect my HP Netserver's SCSI
controller?This is basically a known problem. The EISA on-board SCSI
controller in the HP Netserver machines occupies EISA slot
number 11, so all the true EISA slots are in
front of it. Alas, the address space for EISA slots >= 10
collides with the address space assigned to PCI, and FreeBSD's
auto-configuration currently cannot handle this situation very
well.So now, the best you can do is to pretend there is no
address range clash :), by bumping the kernel option
EISA_SLOTS to a value of 12. Configure and
compile a kernel, as described in the Handbook entry on
configuring the kernel.Of course, this does present you with a chicken-and-egg
problem when installing on such a machine. In order to work
around this problem, a special hack is available inside
UserConfig. Do not use the
visual interface, but the plain command-line
interface there. Simply typeeisa 12
quitat the prompt, and install your system as usual. While
it is recommended you compile and install a custom kernel
anyway.Hopefully, future versions will have a proper fix for
this problem.You cannot use a
dangerously dedicated disk
with an HP Netserver. See this
note for more info.What is going on with my CMD640 IDE controller?It is broken. It cannot handle commands on both channels
simultaneously.There is a workaround available now and it is enabled
automatically if your system uses this chip. For the details
refer to the manual page of the disk driver (man 4 wd).If you are already running FreeBSD 2.2.1 or 2.2.2 with a
CMD640 IDE controller and you want to use the second channel,
build a new kernel with options "CMD640"
enabled. This is the default for 2.2.5 and later.I keep seeing messages like
ed1: timeout. What do these messages
mean?This is usually caused by an interrupt conflict (e.g.,
two boards using the same IRQ). FreeBSD prior to 2.0.5R used to
be tolerant of this, and the network driver would still
function in the presence of IRQ conflicts. However, with 2.0.5R
and later, IRQ conflicts are no longer tolerated. Boot with the
-c option and change the ed0/de0/... entry to match your
board.If you are using the BNC connector on your network card,
you may also see device timeouts because of bad termination. To
check this, attach a terminator directly to the NIC (with no
cable) and see if the error messages go away.Some NE2000 compatible cards will give this error if there
is no link on the UTP port or if the cable is disconnected.Why did my 3COM 3C509 card stop working for no
apparent reason?This card has a bad habit of losing its configuration
information. Refresh your card's settings with the DOS
utility 3c5x9.exe.My parallel printer is ridiculously slow. What can I do?If the only problem is that the printer is terribly
slow, try changing your printer
port mode as discussed in the Printer
Setup section of the Handbook.Why do my programs occasionally die with
Signal 11 errors?Signal 11 errors are caused when your process has attempted
to access memory which the operating system has not granted it
access to. If something like this is happening at seemingly
random intervals then you need to start investigating things
very carefully.These problems can usually be attributed to either:If the problem is occurring only in a specific
application that you are developing yourself it is probably
a bug in your code.If it is a problem with part of the base FreeBSD system,
it may also be buggy code, but more often than not these
problems are found and fixed long before us general FAQ
readers get to use these bits of code (that is what -current
is for).In particular, a dead giveaway that this is not a FreeBSD
bug is if you see the problem when you are compiling a program,
but the activity that the compiler is carrying out changes
each time.For example, suppose you are running make
buildworld, and the compile fails while trying to
compile ls.c in to
ls.o. If you then run make
buildworld again, and the compile fails in the same
place then this is a broken build -- try updating your sources
and try again. If the compile fails elsewhere then this is
almost certainly hardware.What you should do:In the first case you can use a debugger e.g. gdb to find
the point in the program which is attempting to access a bogus
address and then fix it.In the second case you need to verify that it is not your
hardware at fault.Common causes of this include:Your hard disks might be overheating: Check the fans in
your case are still working, as your disk (and perhaps
other hardware might be overheating).The processor running is overheating: This might be
because the processor has been overclocked, or the fan on
the processor might have died. In either case you need to
ensure that you have hardware running at what it is
specified to run at, at least while trying to solve this
problem. i.e. Clock it back to the default settings.If you are overclocking then note that it is far cheaper
to have a slow system than a fried system that needs
replacing! Also the wider community is not often
sympathetic to problems on overclocked systems, whether you
believe it is safe or not.Dodgy memory: If you have multiple memory SIMMS/DIMMS
installed then pull them all out and try running the
machine with each SIMM or DIMM individually and narrow the
problem down to either the problematic DIMM/SIMM or perhaps
even a combination.Over-optimistic Motherboard settings: In your BIOS
settings, and some motherboard jumpers you have options to
set various timings, mostly the defaults will be
sufficient, but sometimes, setting the wait states on RAM
too low, or setting the RAM Speed: Turbo option, or
similar in the BIOS will cause strange behaviour. A
possible idea is to set to BIOS defaults, but it might be
worth noting down your settings first!Unclean or insufficient power to the motherboard. If you
have any unused I/O boards, hard disks, or CDROMs in your
system, try temporarily removing them or disconnecting the
power cable from them, to see if your power supply can
manage a smaller load. Or try another power supply,
preferably one with a little more power (for instance, if
your current power supply is rated at 250 Watts try one
rated at 300 Watts).You should also read the SIG11 FAQ (listed below) which has
excellent explanations of all these problems, albeit from a
Linux viewpoint. It also discusses how memory testing software
or hardware can still pass faulty memory.Finally, if none of this has helped it is possible that
you have just found a bug in FreeBSD, and you should follow the
instructions to send a problem report.There is an extensive FAQ on this at
the SIG11 problem FAQMy system crashes with either Fatal
trap 12: page fault in kernel mode, or
panic:, and spits out a
bunch of information. What should I do?The FreeBSD developers are very interested in these
errors, but need some more information than just the
error you see. Copy your full crash message. Then
consult the FAQ section on kernel panics,
build a debugging kernel, and get a backtrace. This
might sound difficult, but you do not need any
programming skills; you just have to follow the
instructions.Why does the screen go black and lose sync when I
boot?This is a known problem with the ATI Mach 64 video card.
The problem is that this card uses address
2e8, and the fourth serial port does too.
Due to a bug (feature?) in the &man.sio.4;
driver it will touch this port even if you do not have the
fourth serial port, and even if
you disable sio3 (the fourth port) which normally uses this
address.Until the bug has been fixed, you can use this
workaround:Enter at the boot prompt.
(This will put the kernel into configuration mode).Disable sio0,
sio1,
sio2 and
sio3 (all of them). This way
the sio driver does not get activated -> no
problems.Type exit to continue booting.If you want to be able to use your serial ports, you will
have to build a new kernel with the following modification: in
/usr/src/sys/i386/isa/sio.c find the one
occurrence of the string 0x2e8 and remove
that string and the preceding comma (keep the trailing comma).
Now follow the normal procedure of building a new
kernel.Even after applying these workarounds, you may still find
that the X Window System does not work properly. If this is the
case, make sure that the XFree86 version you are using is at
least XFree86 3.3.3 or higher. This version and upwards has
built-in support for the Mach64 cards and even a dedicated X
server for those cards.Why does FreeBSD only use 64 MB of RAM when my system has
128 MB of RAM installed?Due to the manner in which FreeBSD gets the memory size
from the BIOS, it can only detect 16 bits worth of Kbytes in
size (65535 Kbytes = 64MB) (or less... some BIOSes peg the
memory size to 16M). If you have more than 64MB, FreeBSD will
attempt to detect it; however, the attempt may fail.To work around this problem, you need to use the kernel
option specified below. There is a way to get complete memory
information from the BIOS, but we do not have room in the
bootblocks to do it. Someday when lack of room in the
bootblocks is fixed, we will use the extended BIOS functions to
get the full memory information...but for now we are stuck with
the kernel option.options "MAXMEM=n"Where n is your memory in
Kilobytes. For a 128 MB machine, you would want to use
131072.Why does FreeBSD 2.0 panic with
kmem_map too small!?The message may also be
mb_map too small!The panic indicates that the system ran out of virtual
memory for network buffers (specifically, mbuf clusters). You
can increase the amount of VM available for mbuf clusters by
adding:options "NMBCLUSTERS=n"to your kernel config file, where
n is a number in the range 512-4096,
depending on the number of concurrent TCP connections you need
to support. I would recommend trying 2048 - this should get rid of
the panic completely. You can monitor the number of mbuf
clusters allocated/in use on the system with
netstat
-m (see &man.netstat.1;). The default value for NMBCLUSTERS is 512 +
MAXUSERS * 16.Why do I get the error /kernel: proc: table
is full?The FreeBSD kernel will only allow a certain number of
processes to exist at one time. The number is based on
the MAXUSERS option in the kernel
configuration. MAXUSERS also affects
various other in-kernel limits, such as network buffers
(see this
earlier question). If your machine is heavily loaded, you
probably want to increase MAXUSERS.
This will increase these other system limits in addition
to the maximum number of processes.After FreeBSD 4.4, MAXUSERS became
a tunable value that could be set with
kern.maxusers in
/boot/loader.conf. In earlier
versions of FreeBSD, you need to adjust
MAXUSERS in your kernel
configuration.If your machine is lightly loaded, and you are simply
running a very large number of processes, you can adjust
this with the kern.maxproc sysctl. If
these processes are being run by a single user, you will
also need to adjust kern.maxprocperuid
to be one less than your new
kern.maxproc value. (It must be at
least one less because one system program, &man.init.8;,
must always be running.)To make a sysctl permanent across reboots, set this in
/etc/sysctl.conf in recent versions
of FreeBSD, or /etc/rc.local in older
versions.Why do I get an error reading CMAP
busy when rebooting with a new
kernel?The logic that attempts to detect an out of date
/var/db/kvm_*.db files sometimes fails
and using a mismatched file can sometimes lead to panics.If this happens, reboot single-user and do:&prompt.root; rm /var/db/kvm_*.dbWhat does the message ahc0: brkadrint,
Illegal Host Access at seqaddr 0x0
mean?This is a conflict with an Ultrastor SCSI Host Adapter.During the boot process enter the kernel configuration
menu and disable
uha0,
which is causing the problem.When I boot my system, I get the error
ahc0: illegal cable configuration.
My cabling is correct. What is going on?Your motherboard lacks the external logic to support
automatic termination. Switch your SCSI BIOS to specify
the correct termination for your configuration rather
than automatic termination. The AIC7XXX driver cannot
determine if the external logic for cable detection (and
thus auto-termination) is available. The driver simply
assumes that this support must exist if the configuration
contained in the serial EEPROM is set to "automatic
termination". Without the external cable detection logic
the driver will often configure termination incorrectly,
which can compromise the reliability of the SCSI
bus.Why does Sendmail give me an error reading
mail loops back to
myself?This is answered in the sendmail FAQ as follows:- * I'm getting "Local configuration error" messages, such as:
553 relay.domain.net config error: mail loops back to myself
554 <user@domain.net>... Local configuration error
How can I solve this problem?
You have asked mail to the domain (e.g., domain.net) to be
forwarded to a specific host (in this case, relay.domain.net)
by using an MX record, but the relay machine does not recognize
itself as domain.net. Add domain.net to /etc/sendmail.cw
(if you are using FEATURE(use_cw_file)) or add "Cw domain.net"
to /etc/sendmail.cf.
The current version of the sendmail
FAQ is no longer maintained with the sendmail release.
It is however regularly posted to comp.mail.sendmail,
comp.mail.misc, comp.mail.smail, comp.answers, and news.answers. You can also
receive a copy via email by sending a message to
mail-server@rtfm.mit.edu with the command
send usenet/news.answers/mail/sendmail-faq
as the body of the message.Why do full screen applications on remote machines
misbehave?The remote machine may be setting your terminal type
to something other than the cons25 terminal
type required by the FreeBSD console.There are a number of possible work-arounds for this
problem:After logging on to the remote machine, set your
TERM shell variable to ansi or
sco if the remote machine knows
about these terminal types.Use a VT100 emulator like
screen at the FreeBSD console.
screen offers you the ability
to run multiple concurrent sessions from one terminal,
and is a neat program in its own right. Each
screen window behaves like a
VT100 terminal, so the TERM variable at the remote end
should be set to vt100.Install the cons25 terminal
database entry on the remote machine. The way to do this
depends on the operating system on the remote machine.
The system administration manuals for the remote system
should be able to help you here.Fire up an X server at the FreeBSD end and login to
the remote machine using an X based terminal emulator
such as xterm or
rxvt. The TERM variable at the remote
host should be set to xterm or
vt100.Why does my machine print
calcru: negative time...?This can be caused by various hardware and/or software
ailments relating to interrupts. It may be due to bugs but can
also happen by nature of certain devices. Running TCP/IP over
the parallel port using a large MTU is one good way to provoke
this problem. Graphics accelerators can also get you here, in
which case you should check the interrupt setting of the card
first.A side effect of this problem are dying processes with the
message SIGXCPU exceeded cpu time limit.For FreeBSD 3.0 and later from Nov 29, 1998 forward: If the
problem cannot be fixed otherwise the solution is to set
this sysctl variable:&prompt.root; sysctl -w kern.timecounter.method=1This means a performance impact, but considering the cause
of this problem, you probably will not notice. If the problem
persists, keep the sysctl set to one and set the
NTIMECOUNTER option in your kernel to
increasingly large values. If by the time you have reached
NTIMECOUNTER=20 the problem is not solved,
interrupts are too hosed on your machine for reliable
time keeping.I see pcm0 not found or my sound card is
found as pcm1 but I have
device pcm0 in my kernel config file. What is
going on?This occurs in FreeBSD 3.x with PCI sound cards. The
pcm0 device is reserved exclusively for
ISA-based cards so, if you have a PCI card, then you will see
this error, and your card will appear as pcm1.
You cannot remove the warning by simply changing the
line in the kernel config file to device
pcm1 as this will result in
pcm1 being reserved for ISA cards and
your PCI card being found as pcm2 (along
with the warning pcm1 not found).
If you have a PCI sound card you will also have to make the
snd1 device rather than
snd0:&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV snd1This situation does not arise in FreeBSD 4.x as a lot
of work has been done to make it more
PnP-centric and the
pcm0 device is no longer reserved
exclusively for ISA cardsWhy is my PnP card no longer found (or found as
unknown) since upgrading to FreeBSD 4.x?FreeBSD 4.x is now much more PnP-centric
and this has had the side effect of some PnP devices (e.g. sound
cards and internal modems) not working even though they worked
under FreeBSD 3.x.The reasons for this behaviour are explained by the following
e-mail, posted to the freebsd-questions mailing list by Peter
Wemm, in answer to a question about an internal modem that was
no longer found after an upgrade to FreeBSD 4.x (the comments
in [] have been added to clarify the
context.
The PNP bios preconfigured it [the modem] and left it
laying around in port space, so [in 3.x] the old-style ISA
probes found it there.Under 4.0, the ISA code is much more PnP-centric. It was
possible [in 3.x] for an ISA probe to find a
stray device and then for the PNP device id to
match and then fail due to resource conflicts. So, it
disables the programmable cards first so this double probing
cannot happen. It also means that it needs to know the PnP
id's for supported PnP hardware. Making this more user
tweakable is on the TODO list.
To get the device working again requires finding its PnP id
and adding it to the list that the ISA probes use to identify
PnP devices. This is obtained using &man.pnpinfo.8; to probe the
device, for example this is the output from &man.pnpinfo.8; for
an internal modem:&prompt.root; pnpinfo
Checking for Plug-n-Play devices...
Card assigned CSN #1
Vendor ID PMC2430 (0x3024a341), Serial Number 0xffffffff
PnP Version 1.0, Vendor Version 0
Device Description: Pace 56 Voice Internal Plug & Play Modem
Logical Device ID: PMC2430 0x3024a341 #0
Device supports I/O Range Check
TAG Start DF
I/O Range 0x3f8 .. 0x3f8, alignment 0x8, len 0x8
[16-bit addr]
IRQ: 4 - only one type (true/edge)[more TAG lines elided]TAG End DF
End Tag
Successfully got 31 resources, 1 logical fdevs
-- card select # 0x0001
CSN PMC2430 (0x3024a341), Serial Number 0xffffffff
Logical device #0
IO: 0x03e8 0x03e8 0x03e8 0x03e8 0x03e8 0x03e8 0x03e8 0x03e8
IRQ 5 0
DMA 4 0
IO range check 0x00 activate 0x01The information you require is in the
Vendor ID line at the start of the output. The
hexadecimal number in parentheses (0x3024a341 in this example)
is the PnP id and the string immediately before this (PMC2430)
is a unique ASCII id. This information needs adding to the file
/usr/src/sys/isa/sio.c.You should first make a backup of sio.c
just in case things go wrong. You will also need it to make the
patch to submit with your PR (you are going to submit a PR,
are you not?) then edit sio.c and search
for the linestatic struct isa_pnp_id sio_ids[] = {then scroll down to find the correct place to add the entry
for your device. The entries look like this, and are sorted on
the ASCII Vendor ID string which should be included in the
comment to the right of the line of code along with all (if it
will fit) or part of the Device Description
from the output of &man.pnpinfo.8;:{0x0f804f3f, NULL}, /* OZO800f - Zoom 2812 (56k Modem) */
{0x39804f3f, NULL}, /* OZO8039 - Zoom 56k flex */
{0x3024a341, NULL}, /* PMC2430 - Pace 56 Voice Internal Modem */
{0x1000eb49, NULL}, /* ROK0010 - Rockwell ? */
{0x5002734a, NULL}, /* RSS0250 - 5614Jx3(G) Internal Modem */Add the hexadecimal Vendor ID for your device in the
correct place, save the file, rebuild your kernel, and reboot.
Your device should now be found as an sio
device as it was under FreeBSD 3.xWhy do I get the error nlist failed when
running, for example, top or
systat?The problem is that the application you are trying to run is
looking for a specific kernel symbol, but, for whatever reason,
cannot find it; this error stems from one of two problems:Your kernel and userland are not synchronized (i.e., you
built a new kernel but did not do an
installworld, or vice versa), and
thus the symbol table is different from what the user
application thinks it is. If this is the case, simply
complete the upgrade process (see
/usr/src/UPDATING for the correct
sequence).You are not using /boot/loader to load
your kernel, but doing it directly from boot2 (see
&man.boot.8;). While there is nothing wrong with bypassing
/boot/loader, it generally does a better
job of making the kernel symbols available to user
applications.Why does it take so long to connect to my computer via
ssh or telnet?The symptom: there is a long delay between the time the TCP
connection is established and the time when the client software
asks for a password (or, in &man.telnet.1;'s case, when a login
prompt appears).The problem: more likely than not, the delay is caused by
the server software trying to resolve the client's IP address
into a hostname. Many servers, including the Telnet and SSH
servers that come with FreeBSD, do this in order to, among
other things, store the hostname in a log file for future
reference by the administrator.The remedy: if the problem occurs whenever you connect from
your computer (the client) to any server, the problem is with
the client; likewise, if the problem only occurs when someone
connects to your computer (the server) the problem is with the
server.If the problem is with the client, the only remedy is to
fix the DNS so the server can resolve it. If this is on a
local network, consider it a server problem and keep reading;
conversely, if this is on the global Internet, you will most
likely need to contact your ISP and ask them to fix it for
you.If the problem is with the server, and this is on a local
network, you need to configure the server to be able to resolve
address-to-hostname queries for your local address range. See
the &man.hosts.5; and &man.named.8; manual pages for more
information. If this is on the global Internet, the problem
may be that your server's resolver is not functioning
correctly. To check, try to look up another host--say,
www.yahoo.com. If it does not work, that is
your problem.What does stray IRQ mean?Stray IRQs are indications of hardware IRQ glitches,
mostly from hardware that removes its interrupt request in
the middle of the interrupt request acknowledge
cycle.One has three options for dealing with this:Live with the warnings. All except the first 5
per irq are suppressed anyway.Break the warnings by changing 5 to 0 in
isa_strayintr() so that all the
warnings are suppressed.Break the warnings by installing parallel port
hardware that uses irq 7 and the PPP driver for it (this
happens on most systems), and install an ide drive or
other hardware that uses irq 15 and a suitable driver
for it.Why does file: table is full show up
repeatedly in dmesg?
This error message indicates you have exhausted the number
of available file descriptors on your system. Please see
the kern.maxfiles
section of the Tuning
Kernel Limits section of the Handbook for a
discussion and solution.Why does the clock on my laptop keep incorrect time?Your laptop has two or more clocks, and FreeBSD has chosen to
use the wrong one.Run &man.dmesg.8;, and check for lines that contain
Timecounter. The last line printed is the one
that FreeBSD chose, and will almost certainly be
TSC.&prompt.root; dmesg | grep Timecounter
Timecounter "i8254" frequency 1193182 Hz
Timecounter "TSC" frequency 595573479 HzYou can confirm this by checking the
kern.timecounter.hardware
&man.sysctl.3;.&prompt.root; sysctl kern.timecounter.hardware
kern.timecounter.hardware: TSCThe BIOS may modify the TSC clock—perhaps to change the
speed of the processor when running from batteries, or going in to
a power saving mode, but FreeBSD is unaware of these adjustments,
and appears to gain or lose time.In this example, the i8254 clock is also
available, and can be selected by writing its name to the
kern.timecounter.hardware
&man.sysctl.3;.&prompt.root; sysctl -w kern.timecounter.hardware=i8254
kern.timecounter.hardware: TSC -> i8254Your laptop should now start keeping more accurate
time.To have this change automatically run at boot time, add the
following line to /etc/sysctl.conf.kern.timecounter.hardware=i8254Why does FreeBSD's boot loader display
Read error and stop after the BIOS
screen?FreeBSD's boot loader is incorrectly recognizing the hard
drive's geometry. This must be manually set within fdisk when
creating or modifying FreeBSD's slice.
The correct drive geometry values can be found within the
machine's BIOS. Look for the number of cylinders, heads and
sectors for the particular drive.
Within &man.sysinstall.8;'s fdisk, hit
G to set the drive geometry.A dialog will pop up requesting the number of cylinders, heads
and sectors. Type the numbers found from the BIOS separates by
forward slashes.
5000 cylinders, 250 sectors and 60 sectors would be entered as
5000/250/60Press enter to set the values, and hit
W to write the
new partition table to the drive.
Another operating system destroyed my Boot Manager. How do I
get it back?
Enter &man.sysinstall.8; and choose Configure,
then Fdisk. Select the disk the Boot Manager resided on
with the space key. Press
W to write changes to the drive. A prompt
will appear asking which boot loader to install. Select this,
and it will be restored.
What does the error swap_pager: indefinite
wait buffer: mean?This means that a process is trying to page memory to
disk, and the page attempt has hung trying to access the
disk for more than 20 seconds. It might be caused by bad
blocks on the disk drive, disk wiring, cables, or any
other disk I/O-related hardware. If the drive itself is
actually bad, you will also see disk errors in
/var/log/messages and in the output
of dmesg. Otherwise, check your cables
and connections.Commercial ApplicationsThis section is still very sparse, though we are hoping, of
course, that companies will add to it! :) The FreeBSD group has
no financial interest in any of the companies listed here but
simply lists them as a public service (and feels that commercial
interest in FreeBSD can have very positive effects on FreeBSD's
long-term viability). We encourage commercial software vendors to
send their entries here for inclusion. See the
Vendors page for a longer list.Where can I get an Office Suite for FreeBSD?The FreeBSD Mall
offers a FreeBSD native version of VistaSource
ApplixWare 5.ApplixWare is a rich full-featured, commercial
Office Suite for FreeBSD containing a word processor,
spreadsheet, presentation program, vector drawing
package, and other applications.
ApplixWare is offered as part of the FreeBSD Mall's BSD
Desktop Edition.The Linux version of StarOffice
works flawlessly on FreeBSD. The easiest way to
install the Linux version of StarOffice is through the
FreeBSD
Ports collection. Future versions of the
open-source OpenOffice
suite should work as well.Where can I get Motif for FreeBSD?The Open Group has released the source code to Motif 2.1.30.
You can install the open-motif package, or
compile it from ports. Refer to
the ports section of the
Handbook for more information on how to do this.
The Open Motif distribution only allows redistribution
if it is running on an
open source operating system.In addition, there are commercial distributions of the Motif
software available. These, however, are not for free, but their
license allows them to be used in closed-source software.
Contact Apps2go for the
least expensive ELF Motif 2.1.20 distribution for FreeBSD
(either i386 or Alpha).There are two distributions, the developement
edition and the runtime edition (for
much less). These distributions includes:OSF/Motif manager, xmbind, panner, wsm.Development kit with uil, mrm, xm, xmcxx, include
and Imake files.Static and dynamic ELF libraries (for use with
FreeBSD 3.0 and above).Demonstration applets.Be sure to specify that you want the FreeBSD version of
Motif when ordering (do not forget to mention the architecture
you want too)! Versions for NetBSD and OpenBSD are also sold by
Apps2go. This is currently a FTP only
download.More info
Apps2go WWW pageorsales@apps2go.com or
support@apps2go.comorphone (817) 431 8775 or +1 817 431-8775Contact Metro Link
for an either ELF or a.out Motif 2.1 distribution for
FreeBSD.This distribution includes:OSF/Motif manager, xmbind, panner, wsm.Development kit with uil, mrm, xm, xmcxx, include
and Imake files.Static and dynamic libraries (specify ELF for use
with FreeBSD 3.0 and later; or a.out for use with FreeBSD
2.2.8 and earlier).Demonstration applets.Preformatted man pages.Be sure to specify that you want the FreeBSD version
of Motif when ordering! Versions for Linux are also sold by
Metro Link. This is available on either a
CDROM or for FTP download.Contact Xi Graphics for an
a.out Motif 2.0 distribution for FreeBSD.This distribution includes:OSF/Motif manager, xmbind, panner, wsm.Development kit with uil, mrm, xm, xmcxx, include
and Imake files.Static and dynamic libraries (for use with FreeBSD
2.2.8 and earlier).Demonstration applets.Preformatted man pages.Be sure to specify that you want the FreeBSD version
of Motif when ordering! Versions for BSDI and Linux are also
sold by Xi Graphics. This is currently a 4
diskette set... in the future this will change to a unified CD
distribution like their CDE.Where can I get CDE for FreeBSD?Xi Graphics used to sell CDE
for FreeBSD, but no longer do.KDE is an open
source X11 desktop which is similar to CDE in many respects.
You might also like the look and feel of xfce. KDE and xfce are both
in the ports
system.Are there any commercial high-performance X servers?Yes, Xi Graphics
and Metro Link
sell Accelerated-X product for FreeBSD and other Intel based
systems.The Metro Link offering is a high performance X Server
that offers easy configuration using the FreeBSD Package suite
of tools, support for multiple concurrent video boards and is
distributed in binary form only, in a convenient FTP download.
Not to mention the Metro Link offering is available at the very
reasonable price of $39. Metro Link also sells both ELF and a.out Motif for
FreeBSD (see above).More info
Metro Link WWW pageorsales@metrolink.com
or tech@metrolink.comorphone (954) 938-0283 or +1 954 938-0283The Xi Graphics offering is a high performance X Server
that offers easy configuration, support for multiple concurrent
video boards and is distributed in binary form only, in a
unified diskette distribution for FreeBSD and Linux. Xi
Graphics also offers a high performance X Server tailored for
laptop support.There is a free compatibility demo of
version 5.0 available.Xi Graphics also sells Motif and CDE for FreeBSD (see
above).More info
Xi Graphics WWW pageorsales@xig.com
or support@xig.comorphone (800) 946 7433 or +1 303 298-7478.Are there any Database systems for FreeBSD?Yes! See the
Commercial Vendors section of FreeBSD's Web site.Also see the
Databases section of the Ports collection.Can I run Oracle on FreeBSD?Yes. The following pages tell you exactly how to setup
Linux-Oracle on FreeBSD:
http://www.scc.nl/~marcel/howto-oracle.html
http://www.lf.net/lf/pi/oracle/install-linux-oracle-on-freebsdUser ApplicationsSo, where are all the user applications?Please take a look at
the ports
page for info on software packages ported to FreeBSD.
The list currently tops &os.numports; and is growing daily, so come back
to check often or subscribe to the
freebsd-announce mailing list for periodic updates on
new entries.Most ports should be available for the 2.2, 3.x and 4.x
branches, and many of them should work on 2.1.x systems as
well. Each time a FreeBSD release is made, a snapshot of the
ports tree at the time of release in also included in the
ports/ directory.We also support the concept of a package,
essentially no more than a gzipped binary distribution with a
little extra intelligence embedded in it for doing whatever
custom installation work is required. A package can be
installed and uninstalled again easily without having to know
the gory details of which files it includes.Use the package installation menu in
/stand/sysinstall (under the
post-configuration menu item) or invoke the
&man.pkg.add.1; command on the specific package
files you are interested in installing. Package files can
usually be identified by their .tgz suffix
and CDROM distribution people will have a
packages/All directory on their CD which
contains such files. They can also be downloaded over the net
for various versions of FreeBSD at the following
locations:for 2.2.8-RELEASE/2.2.8-STABLE
ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/i386/packages-2.2.8/for 3.X-RELEASE/3.X-STABLE
ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/i386/packages-3-stable/for 4.X-RELEASE/4-STABLE
ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/i386/packages-4-stable/for 5.X-CURRENT
ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/i386/packages-5-currentor your nearest local mirror site.Note that all ports may not be available as packages since
new ones are constantly being added. It is always a good idea
to check back periodically to see which packages are available
at the ftp.FreeBSD.org
master site.Where do I find libc.so.3.0?You are trying to run a package built on 2.2 and later on
a 2.1.x system. Please take a look at the previous section and
get the correct port/package for your system.Why do I get a message reading Error: can't find
libc.so.4.0?You accidently downloaded packages meant for 4.X and 5.X
systems and attempted to install them on your 2.X or 3.X
FreeBSD system. Please download the correct version of the
packages.Why does ghostscript give lots of errors with my
386/486SX?You do not have a math co-processor, right?
You will need to add the alternative math emulator to your
kernel; you do this by adding the following to your kernel
config file and it will be compiled in.options GPL_MATH_EMULATEYou will need to remove the
MATH_EMULATE option when you do
this.Why do SCO/iBCS2 applications bomb on
socksys? (FreeBSD 3.0 and older only).You first need to edit the
/etc/sysconfig (or
/etc/rc.conf, see &man.rc.conf.5;) file in the last section to change the
following variable to YES:# Set to YES if you want ibcs2 (SCO) emulation loaded at startup
ibcs2=NOIt will load the ibcs2 kernel module at startup.You will then need to set up /compat/ibcs2/dev to look
like:lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 9 Oct 15 22:20 X0R@ -> /dev/null
lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 7 Oct 15 22:20 nfsd@ -> socksys
-rw-rw-r-- 1 root wheel 0 Oct 28 12:02 null
lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 9 Oct 15 22:20 socksys@ -> /dev/null
crw-rw-rw- 1 root wheel 41, 1 Oct 15 22:14 spxYou just need socksys to go to
/dev/null (see &man.null.4;)
to fake the open & close. The code in -CURRENT will handle
the rest. This is much cleaner than the way it was done before.
If you want the spx driver for a local
socket X connection, define SPX_HACK when
you compile the system.How do I configure INN (Internet News) for my machine?After installing the news/inn package or port, an excellent
place to start is Dave Barr's
INN Page where you will find the INN FAQ.What version of Microsoft FrontPage should I get?Use the Port, Luke! A pre-patched version of Apache,
apache13-fp, is available in the ports
tree.Does FreeBSD support Java?Yes. Please see
http://www.FreeBSD.org/java/.Why can I not build this port on my 3.X-STABLE machine?If you are running a FreeBSD version that lags
significantly behind -CURRENT or -STABLE, you may need a ports
upgrade kit from
http://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/. If you are up to date,
then someone might have committed a change to the port which
works for -CURRENT but which broke the port for -STABLE. Please
submit a bug report on this with the
&man.send-pr.1; command, since the ports
collection is supposed to work for both the -CURRENT and
-STABLE branches.Where do I find ld.so?a.out applications like Netscape Navigator require
a.out libraries. A version of FreeBSD built with ELF
libraries does not install them by default. You will get
complaints about not having
/usr/libexec/ld.so if this is the
case on your system. These libraries are available as an
add-on in the compat22 distribution. Use
&man.sysinstall.8; to install them. You can
also install them from the FreeBSD source code:&prompt.root; cd /usr/src/lib/compat/compat22
&prompt.root; make install cleanIf you want to install the latest compat22 libraries
whenever you run make world, edit
/etc/make.conf to include
COMPAT22=YES. Old compatability
libraries change rarely, if ever, so this is not generally
needed.Also see the ERRATAs for 3.1-RELEASE and
3.2-RELEASE.I updated the sources, now how do I update my installed
ports?FreeBSD does not include a port upgrading tool, but it
does have some tools to make the upgrade process somewhat
easier. You can also install additional tools to simplify
port handling.The &man.pkg.version.1; command can generate a script
that will update installed ports to the latest version in
the ports tree.&prompt.root; pkg_version > /tmp/myscriptThe output script must be edited by
hand before you use it. Current versions of
&man.pkg.version.1; force this by inserting an
&man.exit.1; at the beginning of the script.You should save the output of the script, as it will note
packages that depend on the one that has been updated. These
may or may not need to be updated as well. The usual case where
they need to be updated is that a shared library has changed
version numbers, so the ports that used that library need to be
rebuilt to use the new version.If you have the disk space, you can use the
portupgrade tool to automate all of
this. portupgrade includes various
tools to simplify package handling. It is available under
sysutils/portupgrade.
Since it is written in Ruby,
portupgrade is an unlikely candidate for
integration with the main FreeBSD tree. That should not
stop anyone from using it, however.If your system is up full time, the &man.periodic.8 system
can be used to generate a weekly list of ports that might need
updating by setting
weekly_status_pkg_enable="YES" in
/etc/periodic.conf.Why is /bin/sh so minimal? Why does
FreeBSD not use bash or another shell?Because POSIX says that there shall be such a shell.The more complicated answer: many people need to write shell
scripts which will be portable across many systems. That is why
POSIX specifies the shell and utility commands in great detail.
Most scripts are written in Bourne shell, and because several
important programming interfaces (&man.make.1;, &man.system.3;,
&man.popen.3;, and analogues in higher-level scripting
languages like Perl and Tcl) are specified to use the Bourne
shell to interpret commands. Because the Bourne shell is so
often and widely used, it is important for it to be quick to
start, be deterministic in its behavior, and have a small
memory footprint.The existing implementation is our best effort at meeting as
many of these requirements simultaneously as we can. In order to
keep /bin/sh small, we have not provided many
of the convenience features that other shells have. That is why the
Ports Collection includes more featureful shells like bash, scsh,
tcsh, and zsh. (You can compare for yourself the memory
utilization of all these shells by looking at the
VSZ and RSS columns in a ps
-u listing.)Why do Netscape and Opera take so long to
start?The usual answer is that DNS on your system is
misconfigured. Both Netscape and Opera perform DNS checks
when starting up. The browser will not appear on your
desktop until the program either gets a response or
determines that the system has no network
connection.Kernel ConfigurationI would like to customize my kernel. Is it difficult?Not at all! Check out the
kernel config section of the Handbook.We recommend that you make a dated snapshot of
your new /kernel called
/kernel.YYMMDD after you get it
working properly. Also back up your new
/modules directory to
/modules.YYMMDD. That way, if
you make a mistake the next time you play with your
configuration you can boot the backup kernel instead
of having to fall back to
kernel.GENERIC. This is
particularly important if you are now booting from a
controller that GENERIC does not support.My kernel compiles fail because
_hw_float is missing. How do I solve
this problem?Let me guess. You removed
npx0 (see &man.npx.4;)
from your kernel configuration file because you do not have a
math co-processor, right? Wrong! :-) The
npx0 is
MANDATORY. Even if you do not have a
mathematic co-processor, you must
include the npx0 device.Why is my kernel so big (over 10MB)?Chances are, you compiled your kernel in
debug mode. Kernels built in debug
mode contain many symbols that are used for debugging, thus
greatly increasing the size of the kernel. Note that if you
running a FreeBSD 3.0 or later system, there will be little
or no performance decrease from running a debug kernel,
and it is useful to keep one around in case of a system
panic.However, if you are running low on disk space, or
you simply do not want to run a debug kernel, make sure
that both of the following are true:You do not have a line in your kernel
configuration file that reads:makeoptions DEBUG=-gYou are not running &man.config.8; with
the option.Both of the above situations will cause your kernel to
be built in debug mode. As long as you make sure you follow
the steps above, you can build your kernel normally, and you
should notice a fairly large size decrease; most kernels
tend to be around 1.5MB to 2MB.Why do I get interrupt conflicts with multi-port serial
code?When I compile a kernel
with multi-port serial code, it tells me that only the first
port is probed and the rest skipped due to interrupt conflicts.
How do I fix this?The problem here is that
FreeBSD has code built-in to keep the kernel from getting
trashed due to hardware or software conflicts. The way to fix
this is to leave out the IRQ settings on all but one port. Here
is a example:#
# Multiport high-speed serial line - 16550 UARTS
#
device sio2 at isa? port 0x2a0 tty irq 5 flags 0x501 vector siointr
device sio3 at isa? port 0x2a8 tty flags 0x501 vector siointr
device sio4 at isa? port 0x2b0 tty flags 0x501 vector siointr
device sio5 at isa? port 0x2b8 tty flags 0x501 vector siointrWhy does every kernel I try to build fail to compile, even
GENERIC?There are a number of possible causes for this problem.
They are, in no particular order:You are not using the new make
buildkernel and make
installkernel targets, and your source tree is
different from the one used to build the currently running
system (e.g., you are compiling 4.3-RELEASE on a 4.0-RELEASE
system). If you are attempting an upgrade, please read the
/usr/src/UPDATING file, paying
particular attention to the COMMON ITEMS
section at the end.You are using the new make
buildkernel and make
installkernel targets, but you failed to assert
the completion of the make buildworld
target. The make buildkernel target
relies on files generated by the make
buildworld target to complete its job
correctly.Even if you are trying to build FreeBSD-STABLE, it is possible that
you fetched the source tree at a time when it was either
being modified, or broken for other reasons; only releases
are absolutely guaranteed to be buildable, although FreeBSD-STABLE builds fine the
majority of the time. If you have not already done so, try
re-fetching the source tree and see if the problem goes
away. Try using a different server in case the one you are
using is having problems.Disks, Filesystems, and Boot LoadersHow can I add my new hard disk to my FreeBSD system?See the Disk Formatting Tutorial at
www.FreeBSD.org.How do I move my system over to my huge new disk?The best way is to reinstall the OS on the new
disk, then move the user data over. This is highly
recommended if you have been tracking -stable for more
than one release, or have updated a release instead of
installing a new one. You can install booteasy on both
disks with &man.boot0cfg.8;, and dual boot them until
you are happy with the new configuration. Skip the
next paragraph to find out how to move the data after
doing this.Should you decide not to do a fresh install, you
need to partition and label the new disk with either
/stand/sysinstall, or &man.fdisk.8;
and &man.disklabel.8;. You should also install booteasy
on both disks with &man.boot0cfg.8;, so that you can
dual boot to the old or new system after the copying
is done. See the
formatting-media article for details on this
process.Now you have the new disk set up, and are ready
to move the data. Unfortunately, you cannot just blindly
copy the data. Things like device files (in
/dev), flags, and links tend to
screw that up. You need to use tools that understand
these things, which means &man.dump.8;.
Although it is suggested that you move the data in single user
mode, it is not required.You should never use anything but &man.dump.8; and
&man.restore.8; to move the root file system. The
&man.tar.1; command may work - then again, it may not.
You should also use &man.dump.8; and &man.restore.8;
if you are moving a single partition to another empty
partition. The sequence of steps to use dump to move
a partitions data to a new partition is:newfs the new partition.mount it on a temporary mount point.cd to that directory.dump the old partition, piping output to the
new one.For example, if you are going to move root to
/dev/ad1s1a, with
/mnt as the temporary mount point,
it is:&prompt.root; newfs /dev/ad1s1a
&prompt.root; mount /dev/ad1s1a /mnt
&prompt.root; cd /mnt
&prompt.root; dump 0af - / | restore xf -Rearranging your partitions with dump takes a bit more
work. To merge a partition like /var
into its parent, create the new partition large enough
for both, move the parent partition as described above,
then move the child partition into the empty directory
that the first move created:&prompt.root; newfs /dev/ad1s1a
&prompt.root; mount /dev/ad1s1a /mnt
&prompt.root; cd /mnt
&prompt.root; dump 0af - / | restore xf -
&prompt.root; cd var
&prompt.root; dump 0af - /var | restore xf -To split a directory from its parent, say putting
/var on its own partition when it was not
before, create both partitions, then mount the child partition
on the appropriate directory in the temporary mount point, then
move the old single partition:&prompt.root; newfs /dev/ad1s1a
&prompt.root; newfs /dev/ad1s1d
&prompt.root; mount /dev/ad1s1a /mnt
&prompt.root; mkdir /mnt/var
&prompt.root; mount /dev/ad1s1d /mnt/var
&prompt.root; cd /mnt
&prompt.root; dump 0af - / | restore xf -You might prefer &man.cpio.1;, &man.pax.1;,
&man.tar.1; to &man.dump.8; for user data. At the time of
this writing, these are known to lose file flag information,
so use them with caution.Will a dangerously dedicated disk endanger
my health?The installation procedure allows
you to chose two different methods in partitioning your
harddisk(s). The default way makes it compatible with other
operating systems on the same machine, by using fdisk table
entries (called slices in FreeBSD), with a
FreeBSD slice that employs partitions of its own. Optionally,
one can chose to install a boot-selector to switch between the
possible operating systems on the disk(s). The alternative uses
the entire disk for FreeBSD, and makes no attempt to be
compatible with other operating systems.So why it is called dangerous? A disk in
this mode does not contain what normal PC utilities would
consider a valid fdisk table. Depending on how well they have
been designed, they might complain at you once they are getting
in contact with such a disk, or even worse, they might damage
the BSD bootstrap without even asking or notifying you. In
addition, the dangerously dedicated disk's
layout is known to confuse many BIOSsen, including those from
AWARD (eg. as found in HP Netserver and Micronics systems as
well as many others) and Symbios/NCR (for the popular 53C8xx
range of SCSI controllers). This is not a complete list, there
are more. Symptoms of this confusion include the read
error message printed by the FreeBSD bootstrap when it
cannot find itself, as well as system lockups when
booting.Why have this mode at all then? It only saves a few kbytes
of disk space, and it can cause real problems for a new
installation. Dangerously dedicated mode's
origins lie in a desire to avoid one of the most common
problems plaguing new FreeBSD installers - matching the BIOS
geometry numbers for a disk to the disk
itself.Geometry is an outdated concept, but one
still at the heart of the PC's BIOS and its interaction with
disks. When the FreeBSD installer creates slices, it has to
record the location of these slices on the disk in a fashion
that corresponds with the way the BIOS expects to find them. If
it gets it wrong, you will not be able to boot.Dangerously dedicated mode tries to work
around this by making the problem simpler. In some cases, it
gets it right. But it is meant to be used as a last-ditch
alternative - there are better ways to solve the problem 99
times out of 100.So, how do you avoid the need for DD mode
when you are installing? Start by making a note of the geometry
that your BIOS claims to be using for your disks. You can
arrange to have the kernel print this as it boots by specifying
at the boot: prompt, or
using boot -v in the loader. Just before the
installer starts, the kernel will print a list of BIOS
geometries. Do not panic - wait for the installer to start and
then use scrollback to read the numbers. Typically the BIOS
disk units will be in the same order that FreeBSD lists your
disks, first IDE, then SCSI.When you are slicing up your disk, check that the disk
geometry displayed in the FDISK screen is correct (ie. it
matches the BIOS numbers); if it is wrong, use the
g key to fix it. You may have to do this if
there is absolutely nothing on the disk, or if the disk has been
moved from another system. Note that this is only an issue with
the disk that you are going to boot from; FreeBSD will sort
itself out just fine with any other disks you may have.Once you have got the BIOS and FreeBSD agreeing about the
geometry of the disk, your problems are almost guaranteed to be
over, and with no need for DD mode at all. If,
however, you are still greeted with the dreaded read
error message when you try to boot, it is time to cross
your fingers and go for it - there is nothing left to
lose.To return a dangerously dedicated disk
for normal PC use, there are basically two options. The first
is, you write enough NULL bytes over the MBR to make any
subsequent installation believe this to be a blank disk. You
can do this for example with&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rda0 count=15Alternatively, the undocumented DOS
featureC:\>fdisk /mbrwill to install a new master boot record as well, thus
clobbering the BSD bootstrap.Which partitions can safely use softupdates? I have
heard that softupdates on / can cause
problems.Short answer: you can usually use softupdates safely
on all partitions.Long answer: There used to be some concern over using
softupdates on the root partition. Softupdates has two
characteristics that caused this. First, a softupdates
partition has a small chance of losing data during a
system crash. (The partition will not be corrupted; the
data will simply be lost.) Also, softupdates can cause
temporary space shortages.When using softupdates, the kernel can take up to
thirty seconds to actually write changes to the physical
disk. If you delete a large file, the file still resides
on disk until the kernel actually performs the deletion.
This can cause a very simple race condition. Suppose you
delete one large file and immediately create another large
file. The first large file is not yet actually removed
from the physical disk, so the disk might not have enough
room for the second large file. You get an error that the
partition does not have enough space, although you know
perfectly well that you just released a large chunk of
space! When you try again mere seconds later, the file
creation works as you expect. This has left more than one
user scratching his head and doubting his sanity, the
FreeBSD filesystem, or both.If a system should crash after the kernel accepts a
chunk of data for writing to disk, but before that data is
actually written out, data could be lost or corrupted.
This risk is extremely small, but generally manageable.
Use of IDE write caching greatly increases this risk; it
is strongly recommended that you disable IDE write caching
when using softupdates.These issues affect all partitions using softupdates.
So, what does this mean for the root partition?Vital information on the root partition changes very
rarely. Files such as /kernel and
the contents of /etc only change
during system maintenance, or when users change their
passwords. If the system crashed during the
thirty-second window after such a change is made, it is
possible that data could be lost. This risk is negligible
for most applications, but you should be aware that it
exists. If your system cannot tolerate this much risk,
do not use softupdates on the root filesystem!/ is traditionally one of the
smallest partitions. By default, FreeBSD puts the
/tmp directory on
/. If you have a busy
/tmp, you might see intermittent
space problems. Symlinking /tmp to
/var/tmp will solve this
problem.What is inappropriate about my ccd?The symptom of this is:&prompt.root; ccdconfig -C
ccdconfig: ioctl (CCDIOCSET): /dev/ccd0c: Inappropriate file type or formatThis usually happens when you are trying to concatenate
the c partitions, which default to type
unused. The ccd driver requires the
underlying partition type to be FS_BSDFFS. Edit the disklabel
of the disks you are trying to concatenate and change the types
of partitions to 4.2BSD.Why can I not edit the disklabel on my ccd?The symptom of this is:&prompt.root; disklabel ccd0
(it prints something sensible here, so let us try to edit it)
&prompt.root; disklabel -e ccd0
(edit, save, quit)
disklabel: ioctl DIOCWDINFO: No disk label on disk;
use "disklabel -r" to install initial labelThis is because the disklabel returned by ccd is actually
a fake one that is not really on the disk.
You can solve this problem by writing it back explicitly,
as in:&prompt.root; disklabel ccd0 > /tmp/disklabel.tmp
&prompt.root; disklabel -Rr ccd0 /tmp/disklabel.tmp
&prompt.root; disklabel -e ccd0
(this will work now)Can I mount other foreign filesystems under FreeBSD?Digital UNIXUFS CDROMs can be mounted directly on FreeBSD.
Mounting disk partitions from Digital UNIX and other
systems that support UFS may be more complex, depending
on the details of the disk partitioning for the operating
system in question.LinuxAs of 2.2, FreeBSD supports ext2fs
partitions. See &man.mount.ext2fs.8; for more
information.NTA read-only NTFS driver exists for FreeBSD. For more
information, see this tutorial by Mark Ovens at
http://ukug.uk.FreeBSD.org/~mark/ntfs_install.html.
Any other information on this subject would be
appreciated.How do I mount a secondary DOS partition?The secondary DOS partitions are found after ALL the primary
partitions. For example, if you have an E
partition as the second DOS partition on the second SCSI drive,
you need to create the special files for slice 5
in /dev, then mount /dev/da1s5:&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV da1s5
&prompt.root; mount -t msdos /dev/da1s5 /dos/eIs there a cryptographic filesystem for &os;?Yes; see the security/cfs port.How can I use the NT loader to boot FreeBSD?This procedure is slightly different for 2.2.x and 3.x
(with the 3-stage boot) systems.The general idea is that you copy the first sector of your
native root FreeBSD partition into a file in the DOS/NT
partition. Assuming you name that file something like
c:\bootsect.bsd (inspired by
c:\bootsect.dos), you can then edit the
c:\boot.ini file to come up with something
like this:[boot loader]
timeout=30
default=multi(0)disk(0)rdisk(0)partition(1)\WINDOWS
[operating systems]
multi(0)disk(0)rdisk(0)partition(1)\WINDOWS="Windows NT"
C:\BOOTSECT.BSD="FreeBSD"
C:\="DOS"For 2.2.x systems this procedure assumes that DOS, NT,
FreeBSD, or whatever have been installed into their respective
fdisk partitions on the same
disk. This example was tested on a system where DOS & NT
were on the first fdisk partition, and FreeBSD on the second.
FreeBSD was also set up to boot from its native partition, not
the disk's MBR.Mount a DOS-formatted floppy (if you have converted to NTFS)
or the FAT partition, under, say,
/mnt.&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/rda0a of=/mnt/bootsect.bsd bs=512 count=1Reboot into DOS or NT. NTFS users copy the
bootsect.bsd and/or the
bootsect.lnx file from the floppy to
C:\. Modify the attributes (permissions)
on boot.ini with:C:\>attrib -s -r c:\boot.iniEdit to add the appropriate entries from the example
boot.ini above, and restore the
attributes:C:\>attrib +s +r c:\boot.iniIf FreeBSD is booting from the MBR, restore it with the DOS
fdisk command after you reconfigure them to
boot from their native partitions.For FreeBSD 3.x systems the procedure is somewhat
simpler.If FreeBSD is installed on the same disk as the NT boot
partition simply copy /boot/boot1 to
C:\BOOTSECT.BSD However, if FreeBSD is
installed on a different disk /boot/boot1
will not work, /boot/boot0 is needed.
DO NOT SIMPLY COPY /boot/boot0
INSTEAD OF /boot/boot1, YOU WILL
OVERWRITE YOUR PARTITION TABLE AND RENDER YOUR COMPUTER
UN-BOOTABLE!/boot/boot0 needs to be installed using
sysinstall by selecting the FreeBSD boot manager on the
screen which asks if you wish to use a boot manager. This is
because /boot/boot0 has the partition
table area filled with NULL characters but sysinstall copies
the partition table before copying
/boot/boot0 to the MBR.When the FreeBSD boot manager runs it records the last
OS booted by setting the active flag on the partition table
entry for that OS and then writes the whole 512-bytes of itself
back to the MBR so if you just copy
/boot/boot0 to
C:\BOOTSECT.BSD then it writes an empty
partition table, with the active flag set on one entry, to the
MBR.How do I boot FreeBSD and Linux from LILO?If you have FreeBSD and Linux on the same disk, just follow
LILO's installation instructions for booting a non-Linux
operating system. Very briefly, these are:Boot Linux, and add the following lines to
/etc/lilo.conf:other=/dev/hda2
table=/dev/hda
label=FreeBSD(the above assumes that your FreeBSD slice is known to Linux
as /dev/hda2; tailor to suit your setup).
Then, run lilo as root and you should be
done.If FreeBSD resides on another disk, you need to add
loader=/boot/chain.b to the LILO entry.
For example:other=/dev/dab4
table=/dev/dab
loader=/boot/chain.b
label=FreeBSDIn some cases you may need to specify the BIOS drive number
to the FreeBSD boot loader to successfully boot off the second
disk. For example, if your FreeBSD SCSI disk is probed by BIOS
as BIOS disk 1, at the FreeBSD boot loader prompt you need to
specify:Boot: 1:da(0,a)/kernelOn FreeBSD 2.2.5 and later, you can configure
&man.boot.8;
to automatically do this for you at boot time.The
Linux+FreeBSD mini-HOWTO is a good reference for
FreeBSD and Linux interoperability issues.How do I boot FreeBSD and Linux using BootEasy?Install LILO at the start of your Linux boot partition
instead of in the Master Boot Record. You can then boot LILO
from BootEasy.If you are running Windows-95 and Linux this is recommended
anyway, to make it simpler to get Linux booting again if you
should need to reinstall Windows95 (which is a Jealous
Operating System, and will bear no other Operating Systems in
the Master Boot Record).How do I change the boot prompt from ??? to
something more meaningful?You can not do that with the standard boot manager without
rewriting it. There are a number of other boot managers
in the sysutils ports category that
provide this functionality.I have a new removable drive, how do I use it?Whether it is a removable drive like a ZIP or an EZ drive
(or even a floppy, if you want to use it that way), or a new
hard disk, once it is installed and recognized by the system,
and you have your cartridge/floppy/whatever slotted in, things
are pretty much the same for all devices.(this section is based on
Mark Mayo's ZIP FAQ)
- If it is a ZIP drive or a floppy , you have already got a DOS
+ If it is a ZIP drive or a floppy, you have already got a DOS
filesystem on it, you can use a command like this:&prompt.root; mount -t msdos /dev/fd0c /floppyif it is a floppy, or this:&prompt.root; mount -t msdos /dev/da2s4 /zipfor a ZIP disk with the factory configuration.For other disks, see how they are laid out using
&man.fdisk.8; or
&man.sysinstall.8;.The rest of the examples will be for a ZIP drive on da2,
the third SCSI disk.Unless it is a floppy, or a removable you plan on sharing
with other people, it is probably a better idea to stick a BSD
file system on it. You will get long filename support, at least a
2X improvement in performance, and a lot more stability. First,
you need to redo the DOS-level partitions/filesystems. You can
either use &man.fdisk.8; or
/stand/sysinstall, or for a small drive
that you do not want to bother with multiple operating system
support on, just blow away the whole FAT partition table
(slices) and just use the BSD partitioning:&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rda2 count=2
&prompt.root; disklabel -Brw da2 autoYou can use disklabel or
/stand/sysinstall to create multiple BSD
partitions. You will certainly want to do this if you are adding
swap space on a fixed disk, but it is probably irrelevant on a
removable drive like a ZIP.Finally, create a new file system, this one is on our ZIP
drive using the whole disk:&prompt.root; newfs /dev/rda2cand mount it:&prompt.root; mount /dev/da2c /zipand it is probably a good idea to add a line like this to
/etc/fstab (see &man.fstab.5;) so you can just type
mount /zip in the future:/dev/da2c /zip ffs rw,noauto 0 0Why do I get Incorrect super block when
mounting a CDROM?You have to tell &man.mount.8; the type of the device
that you want to mount. This is described in the Handbook section on
optical media, specifically the section Using Data
CDs.Why do I get Device not configured when
mounting a CDROM?This generally means that there is no CDROM in the
CDROM drive, or the drive is not visible on the
bus. Please see the Using Data
CDs section of the Handbook for a detailed
discussion of this issue.Why do all non-English characters in filenames show up as
? on my CDs when mounted in FreeBSD?Your CDROM probably uses the Joliet
extension for storing information about files and
directories. This is discussed in the Handbook chapter on
creating and
using CDROMs, specifically the section on Using Data
CDROMs.I burned a CD under FreeBSD and now I can not read it
under any other operating system. Why?You most likely burned a raw file to your CD, rather
than creating an ISO 9660 filesystem. Take a look at the
Handbook
chapter on creating CDROMs, particularly the
section on burning raw
data CDs.How can I create an image of a data CD?This is discussed in the Handbook section on duplicating
data CDs. For more on working with CDROMs, see the
Creating CDs
Section in the Storage chapter in the
Handbook.Why can I not mount an audio
CD?If you try to mount an audio CD, you will get an error
like cd9660: /dev/acd0c: Invalid
argument. This is because
mount only works on filesystems. Audio
CDs do not have filesystems; they just have data. You
need a program that reads audio CDs, such as the
audio/xmcd port.How do I let ordinary users mount floppies, CDROMs and
other removable media?Ordinary users can be permitted to mount devices. Here is
how:As root set the sysctl variable
vfs.usermount to
1.&prompt.root; sysctl -w vfs.usermount=1As root assign the appropriate
permissions to the block device associated with the
removable media.For example, to allow users to mount the first floppy
drive, use:&prompt.root; chmod 666 /dev/fd0To allow users in the group
operator to mount the CDROM drive,
use:&prompt.root; chgrp operator /dev/cd0c
&prompt.root; chmod 640 /dev/cd0cFinally, add the line
vfs.usermount=1 to the file
/etc/sysctl.conf so that it is reset
at system boot time.All users can now mount the floppy
/dev/fd0 onto a directory that they
own:&prompt.user; mkdir ~/my-mount-point
&prompt.user; mount -t msdos /dev/fd0 ~/my-mount-pointUsers in group operator can now
mount the CDROM /dev/cd0c onto a
directory that they own:&prompt.user; mkdir ~/my-mount-point
&prompt.user; mount -t msdos /dev/cd0c ~/my-mount-pointUnmounting the device is simple:&prompt.user; umount ~/my-mount-pointEnabling vfs.usermount, however, has
negative security implications. A better way to access MSDOS
formatted media is to use the mtools package in the ports collection.The du and df
commands show different amounts of disk space available.
What is going on?You need to understand what du and
df really do. du
goes through the directory tree, measures how large each
file is, and presents the totals. df
just asks the filesystem how much space it has left. They
seem to be the same thing, but a file without a directory
entry will affect df but not
du.When a program is using a file, and you delete the
file, the file is not really removed from the filesystem
until the program stops using it. The file is immediately
deleted from the directory listing, however. You can see
this easily enough with a program such as
more. Assume you have a file large
enough that its presence affects the output of
du and df. (Since
disks can be so large today, this might be a
very large file!) If you delete this
file while using more on it,
more does not immediately choke and
complain that it cannot view the file. The entry is
simply removed from the directory so no other program or
user can access it. du shows that it
is gone — it has walked the directory tree and the file
is not listed. df shows that it is
still there, as the filesystem knows that
more is still using that space. Once
you end the more session,
du and df will
agree.Note that softupdates can delay the freeing of disk
space; you might need to wait up to 30 seconds for the
change to be visible!This situation is common on web servers. Many people
set up a FreeBSD web server and forget to rotate the log
files. The access log fills up /var.
The new administrator deletes the file, but the system
still complains that the partition is full. Stopping and
restarting the web server program would free the file,
allowing the system to release the disk space. To prevent
this from happening, set up &man.newsyslog.8;.How can I add more swap space?In the Configuration and
Tuning section of the Handbook, you will find a
section
describing how to do this.System AdministrationWhere are the system start-up configuration files?From 2.0.5R to 2.2.1R, the primary configuration file is
/etc/sysconfig. All the options are to be
specified in this file and other files such as
/etc/rc (see &man.rc.8;)
and /etc/netstart just include it.Look in the /etc/sysconfig file and
change the value to match your system. This file is filled with
comments to show what to put in there.In post-2.2.1 and 3.0, /etc/sysconfig
was renamed to a more self-describing &man.rc.conf.5;
file and the syntax cleaned up a bit in the process.
/etc/netstart was also renamed to
/etc/rc.network so that all files could be
copied with a
cp
/usr/src/etc/rc* /etc command.And, in 3.1 and later, /etc/rc.conf
has been moved to /etc/defaults/rc.conf.
Do not edit this file! Instead, if there
is any entry in /etc/defaults/rc.conf that
you want to change, you should copy the line into
/etc/rc.conf and change it there.For example, if you wish to start named, the DNS server
included with FreeBSD in FreeBSD 3.1 or later, all you need to
do is:&prompt.root; echo named_enable="YES" >> /etc/rc.confTo start up local services in FreeBSD 3.1 or later, place
shell scripts in the /usr/local/etc/rc.d
directory. These shell scripts should be set executable, and
end with a .sh. In FreeBSD 3.0 and earlier releases, you should
edit the /etc/rc.local file.The /etc/rc.serial is for serial port
initialization (e.g. locking the port characteristics, and so
on.).The /etc/rc.i386 is for Intel-specifics
settings, such as iBCS2 emulation or the PC system console
configuration.How do I add a user easily?Use the &man.adduser.8;
command. For more complicated usage, the &man.pw.8;
command.To remove the user again, use the &man.rmuser.8;
command. Once again, &man.pw.8; will work as
well.Why do I keep getting messages like root: not
found after editing my crontab file?This is normally caused by editing the system crontab
(/etc/crontab) and then using
&man.crontab.1; to install it:&prompt.root; crontab /etc/crontabThis is not the correct way to do things. The system
crontab has a different format to the per-user crontabs
which &man.crontab.1; updates (the &man.crontab.5; manual
page explains the differences in more detail).If this is what you did, the extra crontab is simply a
copy of /etc/crontab in the wrong
format it. Delete it with the command:&prompt.root; crontab -rNext time, when you edit
/etc/crontab, you should not do
anything to inform &man.cron.8; of the changes, since it
will notice them automatically.If you want something to be run once per day, week, or
month, it is probably better to add shell scripts
/usr/local/etc/periodic, and let the
&man.periodic.8; command run from the system cron schedule
it with the other periodic system tasks.The actual reason for the error is that the system
crontab has an extra field, specifying which user to run the
command as. In the default system crontab provided with
FreeBSD, this is root for all entries.
When this crontab is used as the root
user's crontab (which is not the
same as the system crontab), &man.cron.8; assumes the string
root is the first word of the command to
execute, but no such command exists.Why do I get the error, you are not in the correct
group to su root when I try to su to root?This is a security feature. In order to su to
root (or any other account with superuser
privileges), you must be in the wheel
group. If this feature were not there, anybody with an account
on a system who also found out root's
password would be able to gain superuser level access to the
system. With this feature, this is not strictly true;
&man.su.1; will prevent them from even trying to enter the
password if they are not in wheel.To allow someone to su to root, simply
put them in the wheel group.I made a mistake in rc.conf,
or another startup file, and
now I cannot edit it because the filesystem is read-only.
What should I do?When you get the prompt to enter the shell
pathname, simply press ENTER, and run
mount / to re-mount the root filesystem in
read/write mode. You may also need to run mount -a -t
ufs to mount the filesystem where your favourite
editor is defined. If your favourite editor is on a network
filesystem, you will need to either configure the network
manually before you can mount network filesystems, or use an
editor which resides on a local filesystem, such as
&man.ed.1;.If you intend to use a full screen editor such
as &man.vi.1; or &man.emacs.1;, you may also need to
run export TERM=cons25 so that these
editors can load the correct data from the &man.termcap.5;
database.Once you have performed these steps, you can edit
/etc/rc.conf as you usually would
to fix the syntax error. The error message displayed
immediately after the kernel boot messages should tell you
the number of the line in the file which is at fault.Why am I having trouble setting up my printer?Please have a look at the Handbook entry on printing. It
should cover most of your problem. See the
Handbook entry on printing.Some printers require a host-based driver to do any kind of
printing. These so-called WinPrinters are not
natively supported by FreeBSD. If your printer does not work
in DOS or Windows NT 4.0, it is probably a WinPrinter. Your
only hope of getting one of these to work is to check if the
print/pnm2ppa port supports it.How can I correct the keyboard mappings for my system?Please see the Handbook section on using
localization, specifically the section on console
setup.Why do I get messages like: unknown: <PNP0303>
can't assign resources on boot?The following is an excerpt from a post to the
freebsd-current mailing list.
&a.wollman;, 24 April 2001The can't assign resources messages
indicate that the devices are legacy ISA devices for which a
non-PnP-aware driver is compiled into the kernel. These
include devices such as keyboard controllers, the
programmable interrupt controller chip, and several other
bits of standard infrastructure. The resources cannot be
assigned because there is already a driver using those
addresses.
Why can I not get user quotas to work properly?Do not turn on quotas on /,Put the quota file on the file system that the quotas
are to be enforced on. ie:FilesystemQuota file/usr/usr/admin/quotas/home/home/admin/quotas……Does FreeBSD support System V IPC primitives?Yes, FreeBSD supports System V-style IPC. This includes
shared memory, messages and semaphores. You need to add the
following lines to your kernel config to enable them.options SYSVSHM # enable shared memory
options SYSVSEM # enable for semaphores
options SYSVMSG # enable for messagingIn FreeBSD 3.2 and later, these options are already
part of the GENERIC kernel, which
means they should already be compiled into your
system.Recompile and install your kernel.How do I use sendmail for mail delivery with UUCP?The sendmail configuration that ships with FreeBSD is
suited for sites that connect directly to the Internet.
Sites that wish to exchange their mail via UUCP must install
another sendmail configuration file.Tweaking /etc/sendmail.cf manually is
considered something for purists. Sendmail version 8 comes with
a new approach of generating config files via some
&man.m4.1;
preprocessing, where the actual hand-crafted configuration is
on a higher abstraction level. You should use the configuration
files under
/usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail/cf.If you did not install your system with full sources,
the sendmail config stuff has been broken out into a separate
source distribution tarball just for you. Assuming you have got
your CDROM mounted, do:&prompt.root; cd /cdrom/src
&prompt.root; cat scontrib.?? | tar xzf - -C /usr/src contrib/sendmailDo not panic, this is only a few hundred kilobytes in size.
The file README in the
cf directory can serve as a basic
introduction to m4 configuration.For UUCP delivery, you are best advised to use the
mailertable feature. This constitutes a
database that sendmail can use to base its routing decision
upon.First, you have to create your .mc
file. The directory
/usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail/cf/cf is the
home of these files. Look around, there are already a few
examples. Assuming you have named your file
foo.mc, all you need to do in order to
convert it into a valid sendmail.cf
is:&prompt.root; cd /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail/cf/cf
&prompt.root; make foo.cf
&prompt.root; cp foo.cf /etc/mail/sendmail.cfA typical .mc file might look
like:VERSIONID(`Your version number')
OSTYPE(bsd4.4)
FEATURE(accept_unresolvable_domains)
FEATURE(nocanonify)
FEATURE(mailertable, `hash -o /etc/mail/mailertable')
define(`UUCP_RELAY', your.uucp.relay)
define(`UUCP_MAX_SIZE', 200000)
define(`confDONT_PROBE_INTERFACES')
MAILER(local)
MAILER(smtp)
MAILER(uucp)
Cw your.alias.host.name
Cw youruucpnodename.UUCPThe lines containing accept_unresolvable_domains,
nocanonify, and confDONT_PROBE_INTERFACES features will prevent any usage
of the DNS during mail delivery. The
UUCP_RELAY clause is needed for bizarre
reasons, do not ask. Simply put an Internet hostname there that
is able to handle .UUCP pseudo-domain addresses; most likely,
you will enter the mail relay of your ISP there.Once you have got this, you need this file called
/etc/mail/mailertable. If have only
one link to the outside that is used for all your mails,
the following file will be enough:#
# makemap hash /etc/mail/mailertable.db < /etc/mail/mailertable
. uucp-dom:your.uucp.relayA more complex example might look like this:#
# makemap hash /etc/mail/mailertable.db < /etc/mail/mailertable
#
horus.interface-business.de uucp-dom:horus
.interface-business.de uucp-dom:if-bus
interface-business.de uucp-dom:if-bus
.heep.sax.de smtp8:%1
horus.UUCP uucp-dom:horus
if-bus.UUCP uucp-dom:if-bus
. uucp-dom:As you can see, this is part of a real-life file. The
first three lines handle special cases where domain-addressed
mail should not be sent out to the default route, but instead
to some UUCP neighbor in order to shortcut the
delivery path. The next line handles mail to the local Ethernet
domain that can be delivered using SMTP. Finally, the UUCP
neighbors are mentioned in the .UUCP pseudo-domain notation, to
allow for a uucp-neighbor
!recipient
override of the default rules. The last line is always a single
dot, matching everything else, with UUCP delivery to a UUCP
neighbor that serves as your universal mail gateway to the
world. All of the node names behind the
uucp-dom: keyword must be valid UUCP
neighbors, as you can verify using the command
uuname.As a reminder that this file needs to be converted into a
DBM database file before being usable, the command line to
accomplish this is best placed as a comment at the top of
the mailertable. You always have to execute this command
each time you change your mailertable.Final hint: if you are uncertain whether some particular
mail routing would work, remember the
option to sendmail. It starts sendmail in address
test mode; simply enter 3,0,
followed by the address you wish to test for the mail routing.
The last line tells you the used internal mail agent, the
destination host this agent will be called with, and the
(possibly translated) address. Leave this mode by typing
Control-D.&prompt.user; sendmail -bt
ADDRESS TEST MODE (ruleset 3 NOT automatically invoked)
Enter <ruleset> <address>
>3,0 foo@example.com
canonify input: foo @ example . com
...
parse returns: $# uucp-dom $@ your.uucp.relay $: foo < @ example . com . >
>^DHow do I set up mail with a dialup connection to the
'net?If you have got a statically assigned IP number, you
should not need to adjust anything from the default. Set
your host name up as your assigned Internet name and
sendmail will do the rest.If you have got a dynamically assigned IP number and
use a dialup PPP connection to the Internet, you will
probably be given a mailbox on your ISPs mail server. Lets
assume your ISPs domain is myISP.com, and that your user
name is user. Lets also assume you
have called your machine bsd.home and that your ISP has told
you that you may use relay.myISP.com as a mail
relay.In order to retrieve mail from your mailbox, you will
need to install a retrieval
agent. Fetchmail is a good
choice as it supports many different protocols. Usually,
POP3 will be provided by your ISP. If you have chosen to
use user-PPP, you can automatically fetch your mail when a
connection to the 'net is established with the following
entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup:MYADDR:
!bg su user -c fetchmailIf you are using sendmail
(as shown below) to deliver mail to non-local accounts,
put the command !bg su user -c "sendmail -q"after the above shown entry. This forces
sendmail to process your
mailqueue as soon as the connection to the 'net is
established.I am assuming that you have an account for
user on bsd.home. In the home directory of
user on bsd.home, create a
.fetchmailrc file:poll myISP.com protocol pop3 fetchall pass MySecretThis file should not be readable by anyone except
user as it contains the password
MySecret.In order to send mail with the correct
from: header, you must tell
sendmail to use
user@myISP.com rather than
user@bsd.home. You may also wish to
tell sendmail to send all mail
via relay.myISP.com, allowing
quicker mail transmission.The following .mc file should
suffice:VERSIONID(`bsd.home.mc version 1.0')
OSTYPE(bsd4.4)dnl
FEATURE(nouucp)dnl
MAILER(local)dnl
MAILER(smtp)dnl
Cwlocalhost
Cwbsd.home
MASQUERADE_AS(`myISP.com')dnl
FEATURE(allmasquerade)dnl
FEATURE(masquerade_envelope)dnl
FEATURE(nocanonify)dnl
FEATURE(nodns)dnl
define(`SMART_HOST', `relay.myISP.com')
Dmbsd.home
define(`confDOMAIN_NAME',`bsd.home')dnl
define(`confDELIVERY_MODE',`deferred')dnlRefer to the previous section for details of how to
turn this .mc file into a
sendmail.cf file. Also, do not
forget to restart sendmail
after updating sendmail.cf.What other mail-server software can I use, instead of
Sendmail?Sendmail is
the default mail-server software for FreeBSD, but you can
easily replace it with one of the other MTA (for instance,
an MTA installed from the ports).There are various alternative MTA's in the ports tree
already, with mail/exim,
mail/postfix, mail/qmail,
mail/zmailer, being some of the most popular
choises.Diversity is nice, and the fact that you have many
different mail-servers to chose from is considered a
good thing; therefore try to avoid
asking questions like Is Sendmail better than
Qmail? in the mailing lists. If you do feel like
asking, first check the mailing list archives. The
advantages and disadvantages of each and every one of the
available MTA's have already been discussed a few
times.I have forgotten the root password! What do I do?Do not Panic! Simply restart the system, type
boot -s at the Boot: prompt (just
-s for FreeBSD releases before 3.2) to
enter Single User mode. At the question about the shell to use,
hit ENTER. You will be dropped to a &prompt.root; prompt. Enter
mount -u / to remount your root filesystem
read/write, then run mount -a to remount all
the filesystems. Run passwd root to change
the root password then run &man.exit.1; to continue
booting.How do I keep Control-Alt-Delete from rebooting the
system?If you are using syscons (the default console driver)
in FreeBSD 2.2.7-RELEASE or later,
build and install a new kernel with the lineoptions SC_DISABLE_REBOOTin the configuration file. If you use the PCVT console
driver in FreeBSD 2.2.5-RELEASE or later, use the following
kernel configuration line instead:options PCVT_CTRL_ALT_DELFor older versions of FreeBSD, edit the keymap you are
using for the console and replace the boot
keywords with nop. The default keymap is
/usr/share/syscons/keymaps/us.iso.kbd. You
may have to instruct /etc/rc.conf to load
this keymap explicitly for the change to take effect. Of course
if you are using an alternate keymap for your country, you
should edit that one instead.How do I reformat DOS text files to Unix ones?Simply use this perl command:&prompt.user; perl -i.bak -npe 's/\r\n/\n/g' file ...file is the file(s) to process. The modification is done
in-place, with the original file stored with a .bak
extension.Alternatively you can use the
&man.tr.1;
command:&prompt.user; tr -d '\r' < dos-text-file > unix-filedos-text-file is the file
containing DOS text while unix-file
will contain the converted output. This can be quite a bit
faster than using perl.How do I kill processes by name?Use &man.killall.1;.Why is su bugging me about not being in
root's ACL?The error comes from the Kerberos distributed
authentication system. The problem is not fatal but annoying.
You can either run su with the -K option, or uninstall
Kerberos as described in the next question.How do I uninstall Kerberos?To remove Kerberos from the system, reinstall the bin
distribution for the release you are running. If you have
the CDROM, you can mount the cd (we will assume on /cdrom)
and run&prompt.root; cd /cdrom/bin
&prompt.root; ./install.shAlternately, you can remove all "MAKE_KERBEROS"
options from /etc/make.conf and rebuild
world.How do I add pseudoterminals to the system?If you have lots of telnet, ssh, X, or screen users,
you will probably run out of pseudoterminals. Here is how to
add more:Build and install a new kernel with the linepseudo-device pty 256in the configuration file.Run the commands&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV pty{1,2,3,4,5,6,7}to make 256 device nodes for the new terminals.Edit /etc/ttys and add lines
for each of the 256 terminals. They should match the form
of the existing entries, i.e. they look likettyqc none networkThe order of the letter designations is
tty[pqrsPQRS][0-9a-v], using a
regular expression. Reboot the system with the new kernel and you are
ready to go.Why can I not create the snd0 device?There is no snd device. The name
is used as a shorthand for the various devices that make up the
FreeBSD sound driver, such as mixer,
sequencer, and
dsp.To create these devices you should&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV snd0How do I re-read /etc/rc.conf and re-start /etc/rc without
a reboot?Go into single user mode and then back to multi user
mode.On the console do:&prompt.root; shutdown now
(Note: without -r or -h)
&prompt.root; return
&prompt.root; exitWhat is a sandbox?Sandbox is a security term. It can mean
two things:A process which is placed inside a set of virtual
walls that are designed to prevent someone who breaks
into the process from being able to break into the wider
system.The process is said to be able to
play inside the walls. That is,
nothing the process does in regards to executing code is
supposed to be able to breech the walls so you do not
have to do a detailed audit of its code to be able to
say certain things about its security.The walls might be a userid, for example. This is
the definition used in the security and named man
pages.Take the ntalk service, for
example (see /etc/inetd.conf). This service used to run
as userid root. Now it runs as userid tty. The tty user
is a sandbox designed to make it more difficult for
someone who has successfully hacked into the system via
ntalk from being able to hack beyond that user id.A process which is placed inside a simulation of the
machine. This is more hard-core. Basically it means that
someone who is able to break into the process may believe
that he can break into the wider machine but is, in fact,
only breaking into a simulation of that machine and not
modifying any real data.The most common way to accomplish this is to build a
simulated environment in a subdirectory and then run the
processes in that directory chroot'd (i.e.
/ for that process is this
directory, not the real / of the
system).Another common use is to mount an underlying
filesystem read-only and then create a filesystem layer
on top of it that gives a process a seemingly writeable
view into that filesystem. The process may believe it is
able to write to those files, but only the process sees
the effects - other processes in the system do not,
necessarily.An attempt is made to make this sort of sandbox so
transparent that the user (or hacker) does not realize
that he is sitting in it.Unix implements two core sandboxes. One is at the
process level, and one is at the userid level.Every Unix process is completely firewalled off from every
other Unix process. One process cannot modify the address
space of another. This is unlike Windows where a process
can easily overwrite the address space of any other, leading
to a crash.A Unix process is owned by a particular userid. If the
userid is not the root user, it serves to firewall the process
off from processes owned by other users. The userid is also
used to firewall off on-disk data.What is securelevel?The securelevel is a security mechanism implemented in the
kernel. Basically, when the securelevel is positive, the
kernel restricts certain tasks; not even the superuser (i.e.,
root) is allowed to do them. At the time
of this writing, the securelevel mechanism is capable of, among
other things, limiting the ability to,unset certain file flags, such as
schg (the system immutable flag),write to kernel memory via
/dev/mem and
/dev/kmem,load kernel modules, andalter &man.ipfirewall.4; rules.To check the status of the securelevel on a running system,
simply execute the following command:&prompt.root; sysctl kern.securelevelThe output will contain the name of the &man.sysctl.8;
variable (in this case, kern.securelevel)
and a number. The latter is the current value of the
securelevel. If it is positive (i.e., greater than 0), at
least some of the securelevel's protections are enabled.You cannot lower the securelevel of a running system; being
able to do that would defeat its purpose. If you need to do a
task that requires that the securelevel be non-positive (e.g.,
an installworld or changing the date),
you will have to change the securelevel setting in
/etc/rc.conf (you want to look for the
kern_securelevel and
kern_securelevel_enable variables) and
reboot.For more information on securelevel and the specific things
all the levels do, please consult the &man.init.8; manual
page.Securelevel is not a silver bullet; it has many known
deficiencies. More often than not, it provides a false
sense of security.One of its biggest problems is that in order for it to
be at all effective, all files used in the boot process up
until the securelevel is set must be protected. If an
attacker can get the system to execute their code prior to
the securelevel being set (which happens quite late in the
boot process since some things the system must do at
start-up cannot be done at an elevated securelevel), its
protections are invalidated. While this task of protecting
all files used in the boot process is not technically
impossible, if it is achieved, system maintenance will
become a nightmare since one would have to take the system
down, at least to single-user mode, to modify a
configuration file.This point and others are often discussed on the
mailing lists, particularly freebsd-security. Please search
the archives here for an
extensive discussion. Some people are hopeful that
securelevel will soon go away in favor of a more
fine-grained mechanism, but things are still hazy in this
respect.Consider yourself warned.I tried to update my system to the latest -STABLE, but
got -RC or -BETA! What is going on?Short answer: it is just a name. RC stands for
Release Candidate. It signifies that a
release is imminent. In FreeBSD, -BETA is typically synonymous
with the code freeze before a release.Long answer: FreeBSD derives its releases from one of
two places. Major, dot-zero, releases, such as
3.0-RELEASE and 4.0-RELEASE, are branched from the head of
the development stream, commonly referred to as -CURRENT. Minor releases, such
as 3.1-RELEASE or 4.2-RELEASE, have been snapshots of the active
-STABLE branch. Starting with
4.3-RELEASE, each release also now has its own branch which can be
tracked by people requiring an extremely conservative rate
of development (typically only security advisories).When a release is about to be made, the branch from
which it will be derived from has to undergo a certain
process. Part of this process is a code freeze. When a
code freeze is initiated, the name of the branch is
changed to reflect that it is about to become a release.
For example, if the branch used to be called 4.0-STABLE,
its name will be changed to 4.1-BETA to signify the code
freeze and signify that extra pre-release testing should
be happening. Bug fixes can still be committed to be part
of the release. When the source code is in shape for the
release the name will be changed to 4.1-RC to signify that a
release is about to be made from it. Once in the RC stage,
only the most critical bugs found can be fixed.
Once the release, 4.1-RELEASE in this example, has been made,
the branch will be renamed to 4.1-STABLE.I tried to install a new kernel, and the chflags failed.
How do I get around this?Short answer: You are probably at security level
greater than 0. Reboot directly to single user mode to
install the kernel.Long answer: FreeBSD disallows changing system flags
at security levels greater than 0. You can check your
security level with the command:&prompt.root; sysctl kern.securelevelYou cannot lower the security level; you have to boot to
single mode to install the kernel, or change the security
level in /etc/rc.conf then reboot. See
the &man.init.8; man page for details on securelevel, and see
/etc/defaults/rc.conf and the
&man.rc.conf.5; man page for more information on
rc.conf.I cannot change the time on my system by more than one second!
How do I get around this?Short answer: You are probably at security level
greater than 1. Reboot directly to single user mode to
change the date.Long answer: FreeBSD disallows changing the time by
more that one second at security levels greater than 1. You
can check your security level with the command:&prompt.root; sysctl kern.securelevelYou cannot lower the security level; you have to boot
to single mode to change the date, or change the security
level in /etc/rc.conf then reboot. See
the &man.init.8; man page for details on securelevel, and
see /etc/defaults/rc.conf and the
&man.rc.conf.5; man page for more information on rc.conf.Why is rpc.statd using 256 megabytes of
memory?No, there is no memory leak, and it is not using 256 Mbytes
of memory. It simply likes to (i.e., always does) map an
obscene amount of memory into its address space for convenience.
There is nothing terribly wrong with this from a technical
standpoint; it just throws off things like &man.top.1; and
&man.ps.1;.&man.rpc.statd.8; maps its status file (resident on
/var) into its address space; to save
worrying about remapping it later when it needs to grow, it maps
it with a generous size. This is very evident from the source
code, where one can see that the length argument to &man.mmap.2;
is 0x10000000, or one sixteenth of the
address space on an IA32, or exactly 256MB.Why can I not unset the schg file
flag?You are running at an elevated (i.e., greater than 0)
securelevel. Lower the securelevel and try again. For more
information, see the FAQ entry on
securelevel and the &man.init.8; manual page.Why does SSH authentication through
.shosts not work by default in recent
versions of FreeBSD?The reason why .shosts
authentication does not work by default in more recent
versions of FreeBSD is because &man.ssh.1;
is not installed suid root by default. To
fix this, you can do one of the
following:As a permanent fix, set
ENABLE_SUID_SSH to true
in /etc/make.conf and rebuild ssh
(or run make world).As a temporary fix, change the mode on
/usr/bin/ssh to 4555
by running chmod 4755 /usr/bin/ssh as
root. Then add
ENABLE_SUID_SSH= true to
/etc/make.conf so the change takes
effect the next time make world is
run.What is vnlru?vnlru flushes and frees vnodes when
the system hits the kern.maxvnodes
limit. This kernel thread sits mostly idle, and only
activates if you have a huge amount of RAM and are
accessing tens of thousands of tiny files.The X Window System and Virtual ConsolesI want to run X, how do I go about it?The easiest way is to simply specify that you want to
run X during the installation process.Then read and follow the documentation on the
xf86config tool, which assists you in configuring
XFree86(tm) for your particular graphics card/mouse/etc.You may also wish to investigate the Xaccel server.
See the section on Xi Graphics or
Metro Link for more details.I tried to run X, but I get an
KDENABIO failed (Operation not permitted)
error when I type startx. What do I do
now?Your system is running at a raised securelevel, is not
it? It is, indeed, impossible to start X at a raised
securelevel. To see why, look at the &man.init.8; man
page.So the question is what else you should do instead,
and you basically have two choices: set your securelevel
back down to zero (usually from /etc/rc.conf),
or run &man.xdm.1; at boot time (before the securelevel is
raised).See for more information about
running &man.xdm.1; at boot time.Why does my mouse not work with X?If you are using syscons (the default console driver),
you can configure FreeBSD to support a mouse pointer on each
virtual screen. In order to avoid conflicting with X, syscons
supports a virtual device called
/dev/sysmouse. All mouse events received
from the real mouse device are written to the sysmouse device
via moused. If you wish to use your mouse on one or more
virtual consoles, and use X, see
and set up
moused.Then edit /etc/XF86Config and make
sure you have the following lines.Section Pointer
Protocol "SysMouse"
Device "/dev/sysmouse"
.....The above example is for XFree86 3.3.2 or later. For
earlier versions, the Protocol should be
MouseSystems.Some people prefer to use /dev/mouse
under X. To make this work, /dev/mouse
should be linked to
/dev/sysmouse (see &man.sysmouse.4;):&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; rm -f mouse
&prompt.root; ln -s sysmouse mouseMy mouse has a fancy wheel. Can I use it in X?Yes. But you need to customize X client programs. See
Colas Nahaboo's web page
(http://www.inria.fr/koala/colas/mouse-wheel-scroll/)
.If you want to use the imwheel
program, just follow these simple steps.Translate the Wheel EventsThe imwheel program
works by translating mouse button 4 and mouse button 5
events into key events. Thus, you have to get the
mouse driver to translate mouse wheel events to button
4 and 5 events. There are two ways of doing this, the
first way is to have &man.moused.8; do the
translation. The second way is for the X server
itself to do the event translation.Using &man.moused.8; to Translate Wheel
EventsTo have &man.moused.8; perform the event
translations, simply add to
the command line used to start &man.moused.8;.
For example, if you normally start &man.moused.8;
via moused -p /dev/psm0 you
would start it by entering moused -p
/dev/psm0 -z 4 instead. If you start
&man.moused.8; automatically during bootup via
/etc/rc.conf, you can simply
add to the
moused_flags variable in
/etc/rc.conf.You now need to tell X that you have a 5
button mouse. To do this, simply add the line
Buttons 5 to the
Pointer section of
/etc/XF86Config. For
example, you might have the following
Pointer section in
/etc/XF86Config.<quote>Pointer</quote> Section for Wheeled
Mouse in XFree86 3.3.x series XF86Config with moused
TranslationSection "Pointer"
Protocol "SysMouse"
Device "/dev/sysmouse"
Buttons 5
EndSection<quote>InputDevice</quote> Section for Wheeled
Mouse in XFree86 4.x series XF86Config with X Server
TranslationSection "InputDevice"
Identifier "Mouse1"
Driver "mouse"
Option "Protocol" "auto"
Option "Device" "/dev/sysmouse"
Option "Buttons" "5"
EndSection<quote>.emacs</quote> example for naive
page scrolling with Wheeled Mouse;; wheel mouse
(global-set-key [mouse-4] 'scroll-down)
(global-set-key [mouse-5] 'scroll-up)Using Your X Server to Translate the Wheel
EventsIf you are not running &man.moused.8;, or if
you do not want &man.moused.8; to translate your
wheel events, you can have the X server do the
event translation instead. This requires a couple
of modifications to your
/etc/XF86Config file. First,
you need to choose the proper protocol for your
mouse. Most wheeled mice use the
IntelliMouse protocol. However,
XFree86 does support other protocols, such as
MouseManPlusPS/2 for the Logitech
MouseMan+ mice. Once you have chosen the protocol
you will use, you need to add a
Protocol line to the
Pointer section.Secondly, you need to tell the X server to
remap wheel scroll events to mouse buttons 4 and
5. This is done with the
ZAxisMapping option.For example, if you are not using
&man.moused.8;, and you have an IntelliMouse
attached to the PS/2 mouse port you would use
the following in
/etc/XF86Config.<quote>Pointer</quote> Section for Wheeled
Mouse in <filename>XF86Config</filename> with X
Server TranslationSection "Pointer"
Protocol "IntelliMouse"
Device "/dev/psm0"
ZAxisMapping 4 5
EndSection<quote>InputDevice</quote> Section for Wheeled
Mouse in XFree86 4.x series XF86Config with X Server
TranslationSection "InputDevice"
Identifier "Mouse1"
Driver "mouse"
Option "Protocol" "auto"
Option "Device" "/dev/psm0"
Option "ZAxisMapping" "4 5"
EndSection<quote>.emacs</quote> example for naive
page scrolling with Wheeled Mouse;; wheel mouse
(global-set-key [mouse-4] 'scroll-down)
(global-set-key [mouse-5] 'scroll-up)Install imwheelNext, install imwheel
from the Ports collection. It can be found in the
x11 category. This program will
map the wheel events from your mouse into keyboard
events. For example, it might send Page
Up to a program when you scroll the wheel
forwards. Imwheel uses a
configuration file to map the wheel events to
key presses so that it can send different keys to
different applications. The default
imwheel configuration file
is installed in
/usr/X11R6/etc/imwheelrc. You
can copy it to ~/.imwheelrc and
then edit it if you wish to customize
imwheel's configuration.
The format of the configuration file is documented in
&man.imwheel.1;.Configure Emacs to Work
with Imwheel
(optional)If you use emacs or
Xemacs, then you need to
add a small section to your
~/.emacs file. For
emacs, add the
following:<application>Emacs</application> Configuration
for <application>Imwheel</application>;;; For imwheel
(setq imwheel-scroll-interval 3)
(defun imwheel-scroll-down-some-lines ()
(interactive)
(scroll-down imwheel-scroll-interval))
(defun imwheel-scroll-up-some-lines ()
(interactive)
(scroll-up imwheel-scroll-interval))
(global-set-key [?\M-\C-\)] 'imwheel-scroll-up-some-lines)
(global-set-key [?\M-\C-\(] 'imwheel-scroll-down-some-lines)
;;; end imwheel sectionFor Xemacs, add the
following to your ~/.emacs file
instead:<application>Xemacs</application> Configuration
for <application>Imwheel</application>;;; For imwheel
(setq imwheel-scroll-interval 3)
(defun imwheel-scroll-down-some-lines ()
(interactive)
(scroll-down imwheel-scroll-interval))
(defun imwheel-scroll-up-some-lines ()
(interactive)
(scroll-up imwheel-scroll-interval))
(define-key global-map [(control meta \))] 'imwheel-scroll-up-some-lines)
(define-key global-map [(control meta \()] 'imwheel-scroll-down-some-lines)
;;; end imwheel sectionRun ImwheelYou can just type imwheel
in an xterm to start it up once it is installed. It
will background itself and take effect immediately.
If you want to always use
imwheel, simply add it to
your .xinitrc or
.xsession file. You can safely
ignore any warnings imwheel
displays about PID files. Those warnings only apply
to the Linux version of
imwheel.Why do X Window menus and dialog boxes not work right?Try turning off the Num Lock key.If your Num Lock key is on by default at boot-time, you
may add the following line in the Keyboard
section of the XF86Config file.# Let the server do the NumLock processing. This should only be
# required when using pre-R6 clients
ServerNumLockWhat is a virtual console and how do I make more?Virtual consoles, put simply, enable you to have several
simultaneous sessions on the same machine without doing anything
complicated like setting up a network or running X.When the system starts, it will display a login prompt on
the monitor after displaying all the boot messages. You can
then type in your login name and password and start working (or
playing!) on the first virtual console.At some point, you will probably wish to start another
session, perhaps to look at documentation for a program
you are running or to read your mail while waiting for an
FTP transfer to finish. Just do Alt-F2 (hold down the Alt
key and press the F2 key), and you will find a login prompt
waiting for you on the second virtual console!
When you want to go back to the original session, do
Alt-F1.The default FreeBSD installation has three virtual consoles
enabled (8 starting with 3.3-RELEASE), and Alt-F1, Alt-F2, and
Alt-F3 will switch between these virtual consoles.To enable more of them, edit
/etc/ttys (see &man.ttys.5;)
and add entries for ttyv4
to ttyvc after the comment on
Virtual terminals:# Edit the existing entry for ttyv3 in /etc/ttys and change
# "off" to "on".
ttyv3 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv4 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv5 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv6 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv7 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv8 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv9 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyva "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyvb "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secureUse as many or as few as you want. The more virtual
terminals you have, the more resources that are used; this
can be important if you have 8MB RAM or less. You may also
want to change the secure
to insecure.If you want to run an X server you
must leave at least one virtual
terminal unused (or turned off) for it to use. That is to
say that if you want to have a login prompt pop up for all
twelve of your Alt-function keys, you are out of luck - you
can only do this for eleven of them if you also want to run
an X server on the same machine.The easiest way to disable a console is by turning it off.
For example, if you had the full 12 terminal allocation
mentioned above and you wanted to run X, you would change
settings for virtual terminal 12 from:ttyvb "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secureto:ttyvb "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 off secureIf your keyboard has only ten function keys, you would
end up with:ttyv9 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 off secure
ttyva "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 off secure
ttyvb "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 off secure(You could also just delete these lines.)Once you have edited
/etc/ttys, the next step is to make sure that you
have enough virtual terminal devices. The easiest way to do
this is:&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV vty12Next, the easiest (and cleanest) way to activate the
virtual consoles is to reboot. However, if you really do not
want to reboot, you can just shut down the X Window system
and execute (as root):&prompt.root; kill -HUP 1It is imperative that you completely shut down X Window if
it is running, before running this command. If you do not,
your system will probably appear to hang/lock up after
executing the kill command.How do I access the virtual consoles from X?Use CtrlAltFn to switch back to a virtual console.
CtrlAltF1 would return you to the first virtual console.Once you are back to a text console, you can then use
AltFn as normal to move between them.To return to the X session, you must switch to the virtual
console running X. If you invoked X from the command line, (e.g.,
using startx) then the X session will attach to
the next unused virtual console, not the text console from which
it was invoked. If you have eight active virtual terminals then X
will be running on the ninth, and you would use
AltF9 to return.How do I start XDM on boot?There are two schools of thought on how to start
xdm. One school starts xdm from
/etc/ttys (see &man.ttys.5;)
using the supplied example, while the other simply runs xdm
from
rc.local (see &man.rc.8;)
or from a X.sh script in
/usr/local/etc/rc.d. Both are equally
valid, and one may work in situations where the other does not.
In both cases the result is the same: X will popup a graphical
login: prompt.The ttys method has the advantage of documenting which
vty X will start on and passing the responsibility of
restarting the X server on logout to init. The rc.local
method makes it easy to kill xdm if there is a problem
starting the X server.If loaded from rc.local, xdm should
be started without any arguments (i.e., as a daemon). xdm must
start AFTER getty runs, or else getty and xdm will conflict,
locking out the console. The best way around this is to have
the script sleep 10 seconds or so then launch xdm.If you are to start xdm from
/etc/ttys, there still is a chance of
conflict between xdm and
&man.getty.8;. One way to avoid this is to add the
vt number in the
/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/xdm/Xservers
file.:0 local /usr/X11R6/bin/X vt4The above example will direct the X server to run in
/dev/ttyv3. Note the number is offset by
one. The X server counts the vty from one, whereas the FreeBSD
kernel numbers the vty from zero.Why do I get Couldn't open console
when I run xconsole?If you start X
with
startx, the permissions on
/dev/console will
not get changed, resulting in
things like
xterm -C and
xconsole not working.This is because of the way console permissions are set
by default. On a multi-user system, one does not necessarily
want just any user to be able to write on the system console.
For users who are logging directly onto a machine with a VTY,
the &man.fbtab.5;
file exists to solve such problems.In a nutshell, make sure an uncommented line of the
form/dev/ttyv0 0600 /dev/consoleis in
/etc/fbtab (see &man.fbtab.5;) and it will ensure that whomever logs in on
/dev/ttyv0 will own the console.Before, I was able to run XFree86 as a regular user. Why does
it now say that I must be root?All X servers need to be run as root in order to get direct
access to your video hardware. Older versions of XFree86
(<= 3.3.6) installed all bundled servers to be automatically
run as root (setuid to root). This is obviously a security
hazard because X servers are large, complicated programs.
Newer versions of XFree86 do not install the servers setuid to
root for just this reason.Obviously, running an X server as the root user is not
acceptable, nor a good idea security-wise. There are two ways
to be able to use X as a regular user. The first is to use
xdm or another display manager
(e.g., kdm); the second is to use the
Xwrapper.xdm is a daemon that handles graphical
logins. It is usually started at boot time, and is responsible
for authenticating users and starting their sessions; it is
essentially the graphical counterpart of
&man.getty.8; and &man.login.1;. For
more information on xdm see
the XFree86
documentation, and the the FAQ
entry on it.Xwrapper is the X server wrapper; it is
a small utility to enable one to manually run an X server while
maintaining reasonable safety. It performs some sanity checks
on the command line arguments given, and if they pass, runs the
appropriate X server. If you do not want to run a display
manger for whatever reason, this is for you. If you have
installed the complete ports collection, you can find the port in
/usr/ports/x11/wrapper.Why does my PS/2 mouse misbehave under X?Your mouse and the mouse driver may have somewhat become
out of synchronization.In versions 2.2.5 and earlier, switching away from X to a
virtual terminal and getting back to X again may make them
re-synchronized. If the problem occurs often, you may add the
following option in your kernel configuration file and
recompile it.options PSM_CHECKSYNCSee the section on building
a kernel if you have no experience with building
kernels.With this option, there should be less chance of
synchronization problem between the mouse and the driver.
If, however, you still see the problem, click any mouse
button while holding the mouse still to re-synchronize the
mouse and the driver.Note that unfortunately this option may not work with all
the systems and voids the tap feature of the
ALPS GlidePoint device attached to the PS/2 mouse port.In versions 2.2.6 and later, synchronization check is done
in a slightly better way and is standard in the PS/2 mouse
driver. It should even work with GlidePoint. (As the check code
has become a standard feature, PSM_CHECKSYNC option is not
available in these versions.) However, in rare case the driver
may erroneously report synchronization problem and you may see
the kernel message:psmintr: out of sync (xxxx != yyyy)and find your mouse does not seem to work properly.If this happens, disable the synchronization check code
by setting the driver flags for the PS/2 mouse driver to 0x100.
Enter UserConfig by giving the
option at the boot prompt:boot: -cThen, in the UserConfig command
line, type:UserConfig> flags psm0 0x100
UserConfig> quitWhy does my PS/2 mouse from MouseSystems not
work?There have been some reports that certain model of PS/2
mouse from MouseSystems works only if it is put into the
high resolution mode. Otherwise, the mouse
cursor may jump to the upper-left corner of the screen every
so often.Unfortunately there is no workaround for versions 2.0.X
and 2.1.X. In versions 2.2 through 2.2.5, apply the following
patch to /sys/i386/isa/psm.c and rebuild
the kernel. See the section on building a kernel if you have no
experience with building kernels.@@ -766,6 +766,8 @@
if (verbose >= 2)
log(LOG_DEBUG, "psm%d: SET_DEFAULTS return code:%04x\n",
unit, i);
+ set_mouse_resolution(sc->kbdc, PSMD_RES_HIGH);
+
#if 0
set_mouse_scaling(sc->kbdc); /* 1:1 scaling */
set_mouse_mode(sc->kbdc); /* stream mode */In versions 2.2.6 or later, specify the flags 0x04 to
the PS/2 mouse driver to put the mouse into the high
resolution mode. Enter UserConfig by
giving the option at the boot prompt:boot: -cThen, in the UserConfig command line,
type:UserConfig> flags psm0 0x04
UserConfig> quitSee the previous section for another possible cause of mouse
problems.When building an X app, imake cannot
find Imake.tmpl. Where is it?Imake.tmpl is part of the Imake package, a standard X
application building tool. Imake.tmpl, as well as several
header files that are required to build X apps, is contained
in the X prog distribution. You can install this from sysinstall
or manually from the X distribution files.How do I reverse the mouse buttons?Run the command
xmodmap -e "pointer = 3 2 1" from your
.xinitrc or .xsession.How do I install a splash screen and where do I find
them?Just prior to the release of FreeBSD 3.1, a new feature
was added to allow the display of splash screens
during the boot messages. The splash screens currently must be
a 256 color bitmap (*.BMP) or ZSoft PCX
(*.PCX) file. In addition, they must have
a resolution of 320x200 or less to work on standard VGA
adapters. If you compile VESA support into your kernel, then
you can use larger bitmaps up to 1024x768. Note that VESA
support requires the VM86 kernel option to
be compiled into the kernel. The actual VESA support can either
be compiled directly into the kernel with the
VESA kernel config option or by loading the
VESA kld module during bootup.To use a splash screen, you need to modify the startup
files that control the boot process for FreeBSD. The files for
this changed prior to the release of FreeBSD 3.2, so there are
now two ways of loading a splash screen:FreeBSD 3.1The first step is to find a bitmap version of your
splash screen. Release 3.1 only supports Windows bitmap
splash screens. Once you have found your splash screen of
choice copy it to /boot/splash.bmp.
Next, you need to have a
/boot/loader.rc file that contains
the following lines:load kernel
load -t splash_image_data /boot/splash.bmp
load splash_bmp
autobootFreeBSD 3.2+In addition to adding support for PCX splash screens,
FreeBSD 3.2 includes a nicer way of configuring the boot
process. If you wish, you can use the method listed above
for FreeBSD 3.1. If you do and you want to use PCX,
replace splash_bmp with
splash_pcx. If, on the other hand, you
want to use the newer boot configuration, you need to
create a /boot/loader.rc file that
contains the following lines:include /boot/loader.4th
startand a /boot/loader.conf that
contains the following:splash_bmp_load="YES"
bitmap_load="YES"This assumes you are using
/boot/splash.bmp for your splash
screen. If you would rather use a PCX file, copy it to
/boot/splash.pcx, create a
/boot/loader.rc as instructed
above, and create a
/boot/loader.conf that
contains:splash_pcx_load="YES"
bitmap_load="YES"
bitmap_name="/boot/splash.pcx"Now all you need is a splash screen. For that you can
surf on over to the gallery at http://www.baldwin.cx/splash/.Can I use the Windows(tm) keys on my keyboard in X?Yes. All you need to do is use &man.xmodmap.1; to define
what function you wish them to perform.Assuming all Windows(tm) keyboards are
standard then the keycodes for the 3 keys are115 - Windows(tm) key, between the left-hand Ctrl and
Alt keys116 - Windows(tm) key, to the right of the Alt-Gr
key117 - Menu key, to the left of the right-hand Ctrl
keyTo have the left Windows(tm) key print a comma, try
this.&prompt.root; xmodmap -e "keycode 115 = comma"You will probably have to re-start your window manager
to see the result.To have the Windows(tm) key-mappings enabled automatically
every time you start X either put the xmodmap
commands in your ~/.xinitrc file or,
preferably, create a file ~/.xmodmaprc and
include the xmodmap options, one per line,
then add the linexmodmap $HOME/.xmodmaprcto your ~/.xinitrc.For example, you could map the 3 keys top be F13, F14, and
F15, respectively. This would make it easy to map them to
useful functions within applications or your window
manager, as demonstrated further down.To do this put the following in
~/.xmodmaprc.keycode 115 = F13
keycode 116 = F14
keycode 117 = F15If you use fvwm2, for example, you
could map the keys
so that F13 iconifies (or de-iconifies) the window the cursor
is in, F14 brings the window the cursor is in to the front or,
if it is already at the front, pushes it to the back, and F15
pops up the main Workplace (application) menu even if the
cursor is not on the desktop, which is useful if you do not have
any part of the desktop visible (and the logo on the key
matches its functionality).The following entries in
~/.fvwmrc implement the
aforementioned setup:Key F13 FTIWS A Iconify
Key F14 FTIWS A RaiseLower
Key F15 A A Menu Workplace NopHow can I get 3D hardware acceleration for
OpenGL?The availability of 3D acceleration depends on the
version of XFree86 you are using and the type of video chip
you have. If you have an NVIDIA chip, check out the
FreeBSD NVIDIA
Driver Initiative page, which discusses 3D
acceleration for NVIDIA chips using XFree86-4. For other
cards with XFree86-4, including the Matrox G200/G400, ATI
Rage 128/Radeon, and 3dfx Voodoo 3, 4, 5, and Banshee,
information on hardware acceleration is available on the
XFree86-4
Direct Rendering on FreeBSD page. Users of
XFree86 version 3.3 can use the Utah-GLX port found in
graphics/utah-glx to get limited accelerated
OpenGL on the Matrox Gx00, ATI Rage Pro, SiS 6326, i810,
Savage, and older NVIDIA chips.NetworkingWhere can I get information on
diskless booting?Diskless booting means that the FreeBSD
box is booted over a network, and reads the necessary files
from a server instead of its hard disk. For full details,
please read the
Handbook entry on diskless bootingCan a FreeBSD box be used as a dedicated network
router?Yes. Please see the Handbook entry on advanced
networking, specifically the section on routing
and gateways.Can I connect my Win95 box to the Internet via
FreeBSD?Typically, people who ask this question have two PC's
at home, one with FreeBSD and one with Win95; the idea is to
use the FreeBSD box to connect to the Internet and then be able
to access the Internet from the Windows95 box through the
FreeBSD box. This is really just a special case of the previous
question.... and the answer is yes! In FreeBSD
3.x, user-mode &man.ppp.8; contains a option. If
you run &man.ppp.8; with the ,
set gateway_enable to
YES in /etc/rc.conf,
and configure your Windows machine correctly, this should work
fine.More detailed information about setting this up can be
found in the
Pedantic PPP Primer by Steve Sims.If you are using kernel-mode PPP, or have an Ethernet
connection to the Internet, you will have to use
&man.natd.8;. Please look at the
natd section of this FAQ.Does FreeBSD support SLIP and PPP?Yes. See the manual pages for &man.slattach.8;,
&man.sliplogin.8;, &man.ppp.8;, and &man.pppd.8;. &man.ppp.8;
and &man.pppd.8; provide support for both incoming and outgoing
connections, while &man.sliplogin.8; deals exclusively with
incoming connections, and &man.slattach.8; deals exclusively
with outgoing connections.For more information on how to use these, please see the
Handbook chapter on
PPP and SLIP.If you only have access to the Internet through a
shell account, you may want to have a look
at the net/slirp package. It can provide you
with (limited) access to services such as ftp and http
direct from your local machine.Does FreeBSD support NAT or Masquerading?If you have a local subnet (one or more local machines),
but have been allocated only a single IP number from your
Internet provider (or even if you receive a dynamic IP number),
you may want to look at the &man.natd.8;
program. &man.natd.8; allows you to connect an
entire subnet to the Internet using only a single IP
number.The &man.ppp.8;
program has similar functionality built in via
the switch. The
alias library (&man.libalias.3;) is used in both cases.How do I connect two FreeBSD systems over a parallel line
using PLIP?Please see the PLIP
section of the Handbook.Why can I not create a /dev/ed0
device?Because they aren't necessary. In the Berkeley
networking framework, network interfaces are only directly
accessible by kernel code. Please see the
/etc/rc.network file and the manual
pages for the various network programs mentioned there for
more information. If this leaves you totally confused,
then you should pick up a book describing network
administration on another BSD-related operating system;
with few significant exceptions, administering networking
on FreeBSD is basically the same as on SunOS 4.0 or
Ultrix.How can I setup Ethernet aliases?Add netmask 0xffffffff to your
&man.ifconfig.8; command-line like the following:&prompt.root; ifconfig ed0 alias 204.141.95.2 netmask 0xffffffffHow do I get my 3C503 to use the other network
port?If you want to use the other ports, you will have to specify
an additional parameter on the
&man.ifconfig.8; command line. The default port is
link0. To use the AUI port instead of the
BNC one, use link2. These flags should be
specified using the ifconfig_* variables in
/etc/rc.conf (see &man.rc.conf.5;).Why am I having trouble with NFS and FreeBSD?Certain PC network cards are better than others (to put
it mildly) and can sometimes cause problems with network
intensive applications like NFS.See
the Handbook entry on NFS for more information on
this topic.Why can I not NFS-mount from a Linux box?Some versions of the Linux NFS code only accept mount
requests from a privileged port; try&prompt.root; mount -o -P linuxbox:/blah /mntWhy can I not NFS-mount from a Sun box?Sun workstations running SunOS 4.X only accept mount
requests from a privileged port; try&prompt.root; mount -o -P sunbox:/blah /mntWhy does mountd keep telling me it
can't change attributes and that I have a
bad exports list on my FreeBSD NFS
server?The most frequent problem is not understanding the
correct format of /etc/exports.
Please review &man.exports.5; and the NFS entry in the
Handbook, especially the section on configuring
NFS.Why am I having problems talking PPP to NeXTStep
machines?Try disabling the TCP extensions in
/etc/rc.conf (see &man.rc.conf.5;) by changing the following variable to
NO:tcp_extensions=NOXylogic's Annex boxes are also broken in this regard and
you must use the above change to connect thru them.How do I enable IP multicast support?Multicast host operations are fully supported in FreeBSD
2.0 and later by default. If you want your box to run as a
multicast router, you will need to recompile your kernel with
the MROUTING option and run
&man.mrouted.8;. FreeBSD 2.2 and later will start
&man.mrouted.8; at boot time if the flag
mrouted_enable is set to
"YES" in
/etc/rc.conf.MBONE tools are available in their own ports category,
mbone. If you are looking for the conference tools
vic and vat,
look there!Which network cards are based on the DEC PCI
chipset?Here is a list compiled by Glen Foster
gfoster@driver.nsta.org,
with some more modern additions:
Network cards based on the DEC PCI chipsetVendorModelASUSPCI-L101-TBAcctonENI1203CogentEM960PCICompexENET32-PCID-LinkDE-530DaynaDP1203, DP2100DECDE435, DE450DanpexEN-9400P3JCISCondor JC1260LinksysEtherPCIMylexLNP101SMCEtherPower 10/100 (Model 9332)SMCEtherPower (Model 8432)TopWareTE-3500PZnyx (2.2.x)ZX312, ZX314, ZX342, ZX345, ZX346, ZX348Znyx (3.x)ZX345Q, ZX346Q, ZX348Q, ZX412Q, ZX414, ZX442, ZX444,
ZX474, ZX478, ZX212, ZX214 (10mbps/hd)
Why do I have to use the FQDN for hosts on my
site?You will probably find that the host is actually in a
different domain; for example, if you are in foo.example.org and
you wish to reach a host called mumble in the
example.org domain, you will
have to refer to it by the fully-qualified domain name, mumble.example.org, instead of just
mumble.Traditionally, this was allowed by BSD BIND resolvers.
However the current version of
bind (see &man.named.8;)
that ships with FreeBSD no longer provides default
abbreviations for non-fully qualified domain names other than
the domain you are in. So an unqualified host
mumble must either be found as mumble.foo.example.org, or it will be searched
for in the root domain.This is different from the previous behavior, where the
search continued across
mumble.example.org, and
mumble.edu. Have a look at
RFC 1535 for why this was considered bad practice, or even a
security hole.As a good workaround, you can place the linesearch foo.example.org example.orginstead of the previousdomain foo.example.orginto your
/etc/resolv.conf file (see &man.resolv.conf.5;). However, make sure that the
search order does not go beyond the boundary between
local and public administration, as RFC 1535 calls
it.Why do I get an error, Permission denied,
for all networking operations?If you have compiled your kernel with the
IPFIREWALL option, you need to be aware
that the default policy as of 2.1.7R (this actually changed
during 2.1-STABLE development) is to deny all packets that are
not explicitly allowed.If you had unintentionally misconfigured your system for
firewalling, you can restore network operability by typing
the following while logged in as root:&prompt.root; ipfw add 65534 allow all from any to anyYou can also set firewall_type="open"
in /etc/rc.conf.For further information on configuring a FreeBSD firewall,
see the
Handbook section.How much overhead does IPFW incur?Please see the Handbook's Firewalls
section, specifically the section on IPFW
Overhead & Optimization.Why is my ipfwfwd rule
to redirect a service to another machine not working?Possibly because you want to do network address translation
(NAT) and not just forward packets. A fwd rule
does exactly what it says; it forwards packets. It does not
actually change the data inside the packet. Say we have a rule
like:01000 fwd 10.0.0.1 from any to foo 21When a packet with a destination address of
foo arrives at the machine with this
rule, the packet is forwarded to
10.0.0.1, but it still has the
destination address of foo! The
destination address of the packet is not
changed to 10.0.0.1. Most machines
would probably drop a packet that they receive with a
destination address that is not their own. Therefore, using a
fwd rule does not often work the way the user
expects. This behavior is a feature and not a bug.See the FAQ about
redirecting services, the &man.natd.8; manual, or one of
the several port redirecting utilities in the ports collection for a correct way to do
this.How can I redirect service requests from one machine to
another?You can redirect FTP (and other service) request with
the socket package, available in the ports
tree in category sysutils. Simply replace the
service's command line to call socket instead, like so:ftp stream tcp nowait nobody /usr/local/bin/socket socket ftp.example.comftpwhere ftp.example.com and
ftp are the host and port to
redirect to, respectively.Where can I get a bandwidth management tool?There are three bandwidth management tools available for
FreeBSD. &man.dummynet.4; is integrated into FreeBSD (or more
specifically, &man.ipfw.4;); ALTQ
is available for free; Bandwidth Manager from Emerging Technologies is a
commercial product.Why do I get /dev/bpf0: device not
configured?You are running a program that requires the Berkeley
Packet Filter (&man.bpf.4;), but it's not in your kernel.
Add this to your kernel config file and build a new
kernel:pseudo-device bpf # Berkeley Packet FilterAfter rebooting, create the device node. This can be
accomplished by going to the /dev
directory and running:&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV bpf0Please see the Handbook entry
on device nodes for more information on creating
devices.How do I mount a disk from a Windows machine that is on my
network, like smbmount in Linux?Use the SMBFS toolset. It
includes a set of kernel modifications and a set of
userland programs. The programs and information are
available as net/smbfs in the ports
collection, or in the base system as of 4.5-RELEASE and
later.What are these messages about icmp-response
bandwidth limit 300/200 pps in my log
files?This is the kernel telling you that some activity is
provoking it to send more ICMP or TCP reset (RST)
responses than it thinks it should. ICMP responses are
often generated as a result of attempted connections to
unused UDP ports. TCP resets are generated as a result of
attempted connections to unopened TCP ports. Among
others, these are the kinds of activities which may cause
these messages:Brute-force denial of service (DoS) attacks (as
opposed to single-packet attacks which exploit a
specific vulnerability).Port scans which attempt to connect to a large
number of ports (as opposed to only trying a few
well-known ports).The first number in the message tells you how many
packets the kernel would have sent if the limit was not in
place, and the second number tells you the limit. You can
control the limit using the
net.inet.icmp.icmplim sysctl variable
like this, where 300 is the limit in
packets per second:&prompt.root; sysctl -w net.inet.icmp.icmplim=300If you do not want to see messages about this in your
log files, but you still want the kernel to do response
limiting, you can use the
net.inet.icmp.icmplim_output sysctl
variable to disable the output like this:&prompt.root; sysctl -w net.inet.icmp.icmplim_output=0Finally, if you want to disable response limiting, you
can set the net.inet.icmp.icmplim
sysctl variable (see above for an example) to
0. Disabling response limiting is
discouraged for the reasons listed above.What are these arp: unknown hardware
address format error messages?This means that some device on your local Ethernet is
using a MAC address in a format that FreeBSD does not
recognize. This is probably caused by someone
experimenting with an Ethernet card somewhere else on the
network. You will see this most commonly on cable modem
networks. It is harmless, and should not affect the
performance of your FreeBSD machine.SecurityBIND (named) is listening on port 53 and
some other high-numbered port. What is going on?FreeBSD 3.0 and later use a version of BIND
that uses a random high-numbered port for outgoing queries. If
you want to use port 53 for outgoing queries, either to get
past a firewall or to make yourself feel better, you can try
the following in
/etc/namedb/named.conf:options {
query-source address * port 53;
};You can replace the * with a single IP
address if you want to tighten things further.Congratulations, by the way. It is good practice to read
your &man.sockstat.1; output and notice odd
things!Sendmail is listening on port 587 as well as the
standard port 25! What is going on?Recent versions of Sendmail support a
mail submission feature that runs over port 587. This is
not yet widely supported, but is growing in
popularity.What is this UID 0 toor account? Have I
been compromised?Do not worry. toor is an
alternative superuser account (toor is root
spelt backwards). Previously it was created when the
&man.bash.1; shell was installed but now it is created by
default. It is intended to be used with a non-standard shell so
you do not have to change root's default
shell. This is important as shells which are not part of the
base distribution (for example a shell installed from ports or
packages) are likely be to be installed in
/usr/local/bin which, by default, resides
on a different filesystem. If root's shell
is located in /usr/local/bin and
/usr (or whatever filesystem contains
/usr/local/bin) is not mounted for some
reason, root will not be able to log in to
fix a problem (although if you reboot into single user mode
you will be prompted for the path to a shell).Some people use toor for
day-to-day root tasks with a non-standard shell, leaving
root, with a standard shell, for
single user mode or emergencies. By default you cannot log
in using toor as it does not have a
password, so log in as root and set a password for
toor if you want to use it.Why is suidperl not working
properly?For security reasons, suidperl is
installed without the suid bit by default. The system
administrator can enable suid behavior with the following
command.&prompt.root; chmod u+s /usr/bin/suidperlIf you want suidperl to be built
suid during upgrades from source, edit
/etc/make.conf and add
ENABLE_SUIDPERL=true before you run
make buildworld.PPPI cannot make &man.ppp.8; work. What am I doing wrong?You should first read the
&man.ppp.8;
man page and the
PPP section of the handbook. Enable logging with
the commandset log Phase Chat Connect Carrier lcp ipcp ccp commandThis command may be typed at the
&man.ppp.8; command prompt or it may be
entered in the /etc/ppp/ppp.conf
configuration file (the start of the
default section is the best
place to put it). Make sure that
/etc/syslog.conf (see &man.syslog.conf.5;) contains the lines!ppp
*.* /var/log/ppp.logand that the file /var/log/ppp.log
exists. You can now find out a lot about what is going on
from the log file. Do not worry if it does not all make sense.
If you need to get help from someone, it may make sense to
them.If your version of &man.ppp.8; does not understand the
set log command, you should download the
latest version. It will build on FreeBSD version
2.1.5 and higher.Why does &man.ppp.8; hang when I run it?This is usually because your hostname will not resolve.
The best way to fix this is to make sure that
/etc/hosts is consulted by your
resolver first by editing /etc/host.conf
and putting the hosts line first. Then,
simply put an entry in /etc/hosts for
your local machine. If you have no local network, change your
localhost line:127.0.0.1 foo.bar.com foo localhostOtherwise, simply add another entry for your host.
Consult the relevant man pages for more details.You should be able to successfully
ping -c1 `hostname` when you are done.Why will &man.ppp.8; not dial in -auto
mode?First, check that you have got a default route. By running
netstat -rn (see &man.netstat.1;), you should see two entries like this:Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use Netif Expire
default 10.0.0.2 UGSc 0 0 tun0
10.0.0.2 10.0.0.1 UH 0 0 tun0This is assuming that you have used the addresses from the
handbook, the man page or from the ppp.conf.sample file.
If you do not have a default route, it may be because you are
running an old version of &man.ppp.8;
that does not understand the word HISADDR
in the ppp.conf file. If your version of
&man.ppp.8; is from before FreeBSD
2.2.5, change theadd 0 0 HISADDRline to one sayingadd 0 0 10.0.0.2Another reason for the default route line being missing
is that you have mistakenly set up a default router in your
/etc/rc.conf (see &man.rc.conf.5;) file (this file was called
/etc/sysconfig prior to release 2.2.2),
and you have omitted the line sayingdelete ALLfrom ppp.conf. If this is the case,
go back to the
Final system configuration section of the
handbook.What does No route to host mean?This error is usually due to a missingMYADDR:
delete ALL
add 0 0 HISADDRsection in your /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup
file. This is only necessary if you have a dynamic IP address
or do not know the address of your gateway. If you are using
interactive mode, you can type the following after entering
packet mode (packet mode is
indicated by the capitalized PPP in the
prompt):delete ALL
add 0 0 HISADDRRefer to the
PPP and Dynamic IP addresses section of the handbook
for further details.Why does my connection drop after about 3 minutes?The default PPP timeout is 3 minutes. This can be
adjusted with the lineset timeout NNNwhere NNN is the number of
seconds of inactivity before the connection is closed. If
NNN is zero, the connection is never
closed due to a timeout. It is possible to put this command in
the ppp.conf file, or to type it at the
prompt in interactive mode. It is also possible to adjust it on
the fly while the line is active by connecting to
ppps server socket using
&man.telnet.1; or &man.pppctl.8;.
Refer to the
&man.ppp.8; man
page for further details.Why does my connection drop under heavy load?If you have Link Quality Reporting (LQR) configured,
it is possible that too many LQR packets are lost between
your machine and the peer. Ppp deduces that the line must
therefore be bad, and disconnects. Prior to FreeBSD version
2.2.5, LQR was enabled by default. It is now disabled by
default. LQR can be disabled with the linedisable lqrWhy does my connection drop after a random amount of
time?Sometimes, on a noisy phone line or even on a line with
call waiting enabled, your modem may hang up because it
thinks (incorrectly) that it lost carrier.There is a setting on most modems for determining how
tolerant it should be to temporary losses of carrier. On a
USR Sportster for example, this is measured by the S10
register in tenths of a second. To make your modem more
forgiving, you could add the following send-expect sequence
to your dial string:set dial "...... ATS10=10 OK ......"Refer to your modem manual for details.Why does my connection hang after a random amount of
time?Many people experience hung connections with no apparent
explanation. The first thing to establish is which side of
the link is hung.If you are using an external modem, you can simply try
using &man.ping.8; to see if the
TD light is flashing when you transmit data.
If it flashes (and the RD light does not),
the problem is with the remote end. If TD
does not flash, the problem is local. With an internal modem,
you will need to use the set server command in
your ppp.conf file. When the hang occurs,
connect to &man.ppp.8; using &man.pppctl.8;. If your network connection
suddenly revives (PPP was revived due to the activity on the
diagnostic socket) or if you cannot connect (assuming the
set socket command succeeded at startup
time), the problem is local. If you can connect and things are
still hung, enable local async logging with set log
local async and use &man.ping.8; from
another window or terminal to make use of the link. The async
logging will show you the data being transmitted and received
on the link. If data is going out and not coming back, the
problem is remote.Having established whether the problem is local or remote,
you now have two possibilities:The remote end is not responding. What can I do?There is very little you can do about this. Most ISPs
will refuse to help if you are not running a Microsoft OS.
You can enable lqr in your
ppp.conf file, allowing &man.ppp.8; to detect
the remote failure and hang up, but this detection is
relatively slow and therefore not that useful. You may want to
avoid telling your ISP that you are running user-PPP...First, try disabling all local compression by adding the
following to your configuration:disable pred1 deflate deflate24 protocomp acfcomp shortseq vj
deny pred1 deflate deflate24 protocomp acfcomp shortseq vjThen reconnect to ensure that this makes no difference.
If things improve or if the problem is solved completely,
determine which setting makes the difference through trial
and error. This will provide good ammunition when you contact
your ISP (although it may make it apparent that you are not
running a Microsoft product).Before contacting your ISP, enable async logging locally
and wait until the connection hangs again. This may use up
quite a bit of disk space. The last data read from the port
may be of interest. It is usually ascii data, and may even
describe the problem
(Memory fault, core dumped?).If your ISP is helpful, they should be able to enable
logging on their end, then when the next link drop occurs,
they may be able to tell you why their side is having a
problem. Feel free to send the details to &a.brian;, or
even to ask your ISP to contact me directly.&man.ppp.8; has hung. What can I do?Your best bet here is to rebuild &man.ppp.8; by adding
CFLAGS+=-g and STRIP=
to the end of the Makefile, then doing a
make clean && make && make
install. When &man.ppp.8; hangs, find the &man.ppp.8; process id
with ps ajxww | fgrep ppp and run
gdb ppp PID.
From the gdb prompt, you can then use bt
to get a stack trace.Send the results to brian@Awfulhak.org.Why does nothing happen after the Login OK!
message?Prior to FreeBSD version 2.2.5, once the link was
established, &man.ppp.8;
would wait for the peer to initiate the Line Control Protocol
(LCP). Many ISPs will not initiate negotiations and expect
the client to do so. To force
&man.ppp.8; to initiate the LCP, use the
following line:set openmode activeIt usually does no
harm if both sides initiate negotiation, so openmode is now
active by default. However, the next section explains when
it does do some harm.I keep seeing errors about magic being the same. What does
it mean?Occasionally, just after connecting, you may see messages
in the log that say magic is the same.
Sometimes, these messages are harmless, and sometimes one side
or the other exits. Most PPP implementations cannot survive
this problem, and even if the link seems to come up, you will see
repeated configure requests and configure acknowledgments in
the log file until &man.ppp.8; eventually gives up and closes the
connection.This normally happens on server machines with slow disks
that are spawning a getty on the port, and executing &man.ppp.8; from
a login script or program after login. I have also heard reports
of it happening consistently when using slirp. The reason is
that in the time taken between &man.getty.8; exiting and &man.ppp.8; starting,
the client-side &man.ppp.8; starts sending Line Control Protocol (LCP)
packets. Because ECHO is still switched on for the port on
the server, the client &man.ppp.8; sees these packets
reflect back.One part of the LCP negotiation is to establish a magic
number for each side of the link so that
reflections can be detected. The protocol says
that when the peer tries to negotiate the same magic number, a
NAK should be sent and a new magic number should be chosen.
During the period that the server port has ECHO turned on, the
client &man.ppp.8; sends LCP packets, sees the same magic in the
reflected packet and NAKs it. It also sees the NAK reflect
(which also means &man.ppp.8; must change its magic). This produces a
potentially enormous number of magic number changes, all of
which are happily piling into the server's tty buffer. As soon
as &man.ppp.8; starts on the server, it is flooded with magic number
changes and almost immediately decides it has tried enough to
negotiate LCP and gives up. Meanwhile, the client, who no
longer sees the reflections, becomes happy just in time to see
a hangup from the server.This can be avoided by allowing the peer to start
negotiating with the following line in your ppp.conf
file:set openmode passiveThis tells &man.ppp.8; to wait for the server to initiate LCP
negotiations. Some servers however may never initiate
negotiations. If this is the case, you can do something
like:set openmode active 3This tells &man.ppp.8; to be passive for 3 seconds, and then to
start sending LCP requests. If the peer starts sending
requests during this period, &man.ppp.8; will immediately respond
rather than waiting for the full 3 second period.LCP negotiations continue until the connection is
closed. What is wrong?There is currently an implementation mis-feature in
&man.ppp.8; where it does not associate
LCP, CCP & IPCP responses with their original requests. As
a result, if one PPP
implementation is more than 6 seconds slower than the other
side, the other side will send two additional LCP configuration
requests. This is fatal.Consider two implementations,
A and
B. A starts
sending LCP requests immediately after connecting and
B takes 7 seconds to start. When
B starts, A
has sent 3 LCP REQs. We are assuming the line has ECHO switched
off, otherwise we would see magic number problems as described in
the previous section. B sends a
REQ, then an ACK to the first of
A's REQs. This results in
A entering the OPENED
state and sending and ACK (the first) back to
B. In the meantime,
B sends back two more ACKs in response to
the two additional REQs sent by A
before B started up.
B then receives the first ACK from
A and enters the
OPENED state.
A receives the second ACK from
B and goes back to the
REQ-SENT state, sending another (forth) REQ
as per the RFC. It then receives the third ACK and enters the
OPENED state. In the meantime,
B receives the forth REQ from
A, resulting in it reverting to the
ACK-SENT state and sending
another (second) REQ and (forth) ACK as per the RFC.
A gets the REQ, goes into
REQ-SENT and sends another REQ. It
immediately receives the following ACK and enters
OPENED.This goes on until one side figures out that they are
getting nowhere and gives up.The best way to avoid this is to configure one side to be
passive - that is, make one side
wait for the other to start negotiating. This can be done
with theset openmode passivecommand. Care should be taken with this option. You
should also use theset stopped Ncommand to limit the amount of time that
&man.ppp.8; waits for the peer to begin
negotiations. Alternatively, theset openmode active Ncommand (where N is the
number of seconds to wait before starting negotiations) can be
used. Check the manual page for details.Why does &man.ppp.8; lock up shortly after connection?Prior to version 2.2.5 of FreeBSD, it was possible that
your link was disabled shortly after connection due to
&man.ppp.8; mis-handling Predictor1
compression negotiation. This would only happen if both sides
tried to negotiate different Compression Control Protocols
(CCP). This problem is now corrected, but if you are still
running an old version of &man.ppp.8;
the problem can be circumvented with the linedisable pred1Why does &man.ppp.8; lock up when I shell out to test it?When you execute the shell or
! command, &man.ppp.8; executes a
shell (or if you have passed any arguments,
&man.ppp.8; will execute those arguments). Ppp will
wait for the command to complete before continuing. If you
attempt to use the PPP link while running the command, the link
will appear to have frozen. This is because
&man.ppp.8; is waiting for the command to
complete.If you wish to execute commands like this, use the
!bg command instead. This will execute
the given command in the background, and &man.ppp.8; can continue to
service the link.Why does &man.ppp.8; over a null-modem cable never exit?There is no way for &man.ppp.8; to
automatically determine that a direct connection has been
dropped. This is due to the lines that are used in a
null-modem serial cable. When using this sort of connection,
LQR should always be enabled with the lineenable lqrLQR is accepted by default if negotiated by the peer.Why does &man.ppp.8; dial for no reason in -auto mode?If &man.ppp.8; is dialing
unexpectedly, you must determine the cause, and set up Dial
filters (dfilters) to prevent such dialing.To determine the cause, use the following line:set log +tcp/ipThis will log all traffic through the connection. The
next time the line comes up unexpectedly, you will see the
reason logged with a convenient timestamp next to it.You can now disable dialing under these circumstances.
Usually, this sort of problem arises due to DNS lookups. To
prevent DNS lookups from establishing a connection (this will
not prevent
&man.ppp.8; from passing the packets
through an established connection), use the following:set dfilter 1 deny udp src eq 53
set dfilter 2 deny udp dst eq 53
set dfilter 3 permit 0/0 0/0This is not always suitable, as it will effectively break
your demand-dial capabilities - most programs will need a DNS
lookup before doing any other network related things.In the DNS case, you should try to determine what is
actually trying to resolve a host name. A lot of the time,
&man.sendmail.8; is the culprit. You should make sure that
you tell sendmail not to do any DNS lookups in its
configuration file. See the section on
Mail Configuration for details
on how to create your own configuration file and what should
go into it. You may also want to add the following line to
your .mc file:define(`confDELIVERY_MODE', `d')dnlThis will make sendmail queue everything until the queue
is run (usually, sendmail is invoked with
, telling it to run the queue every
30 minutes) or until a sendmail -q is done
(perhaps from your ppp.linkup file).What do these CCP errors mean?I keep seeing the following errors in my log file:CCP: CcpSendConfigReq
CCP: Received Terminate Ack (1) state = Req-Sent (6)This is because &man.ppp.8; is trying to negotiate Predictor1
compression, and the peer does not want to negotiate any
compression at all. The messages are harmless, but if you
wish to remove them, you can disable Predictor1 compression
locally too:disable pred1Why does &man.ppp.8; lock up during file transfers with IO
errors?Under FreeBSD 2.2.2 and before, there was a bug in the
tun driver that prevents incoming packets of a size larger
than the tun interface's MTU size. Receipt of a packet
greater than the MTU size results in an IO error being logged
via syslogd.The PPP specification says that an MRU of 1500 should
always be accepted as a minimum,
despite any LCP negotiations, therefore it is possible that
should you decrease the MTU to less than 1500, your ISP will
transmit packets of 1500 regardless, and you will tickle this
non-feature - locking up your link.The problem can be circumvented by never setting an MTU of
less than 1500 under FreeBSD 2.2.2 or before.Why does &man.ppp.8; not log my connection speed?In order to log all lines of your modem
conversation, you must enable the
following:set log +connectThis will make &man.ppp.8; log
everything up until the last requested expect
string.If you wish to see your connect speed and are using PAP
or CHAP (and therefore do not have anything to
chat after the CONNECT in the dial script - no
set login script), you must make sure that
you instruct &man.ppp.8; to expect the whole CONNECT
line, something like this:set dial "ABORT BUSY ABORT NO\\sCARRIER TIMEOUT 4 \
\"\" ATZ OK-ATZ-OK ATDT\\T TIMEOUT 60 CONNECT \\c \\n"Here, we get our CONNECT, send nothing, then expect a
line-feed, forcing &man.ppp.8; to read
the whole CONNECT response.Why does &man.ppp.8; ignore the \ character
in my chat script?Ppp parses each line in your config files so that it can
interpret strings such as
set phone "123 456 789" correctly (and
realize that the number is actually only
one argument. In order to specify a
" character, you must escape it
using a backslash (\).When the chat interpreter parses each argument, it
re-interprets the argument in order to find any special
escape sequences such as \P or
\T (see the man page). As a result of this
double-parsing, you must remember to use the correct number of
escapes.If you wish to actually send a \
character to (say) your modem, you would need something
like:set dial "\"\" ATZ OK-ATZ-OK AT\\\\X OK"resulting in the following sequence:ATZ
OK
AT\X
OKorset phone 1234567
set dial "\"\" ATZ OK ATDT\\T"resulting in the following sequence:ATZ
OK
ATDT1234567Why does &man.ppp.8; get a seg-fault, but I see no
ppp.core file?Ppp (or any other program for that matter) should never
dump core. Because &man.ppp.8; runs with an effective user id of 0,
the operating system will not write &man.ppp.8;'s core image to disk
before terminating it. If, however &man.ppp.8;
is actually terminating due to a
segmentation violation or some other signal that normally
causes core to be dumped, and
you are sure you are using the latest version (see the start of
this section), then you should do the following:&prompt.user; tar xfz ppp-*.src.tar.gz
&prompt.user; cd ppp*/ppp
&prompt.user; echo STRIP= >>Makefile
&prompt.user; echo CFLAGS+=-g >>Makefile
&prompt.user; make clean all
&prompt.user; su
&prompt.root; make install
&prompt.root; chmod 555 /usr/sbin/pppYou will now have a debuggable version of &man.ppp.8; installed.
You will have to be root to run &man.ppp.8; as all of its privileges
have been revoked. When you start &man.ppp.8;, take a careful note
of what your current directory was at the time.Now, if and when &man.ppp.8; receives the segmentation violation,
it will dump a core file called ppp.core. You should then do
the following:&prompt.user; su
&prompt.root; gdb /usr/sbin/ppp ppp.core(gdb)bt
.....
(gdb)f 0
....
(gdb)i args
....
(gdb)l
.....All of this information should be given alongside your
question, making it possible to diagnose the problem.If you are familiar with gdb, you may wish to find out some
other bits and pieces such as what actually caused the dump and
the addresses & values of the relevant variables.Why does the process that forces a dial in auto mode never
connect?This was a known problem with
&man.ppp.8; set up to negotiate a
dynamic local IP number with the peer in auto mode. It is
fixed in the latest version - search the man page for
iface.The problem was that when that initial program calls
&man.connect.2;, the IP number of the tun interface is assigned
to the socket endpoint. The kernel creates the first outgoing
packet and writes it to the tun device.
&man.ppp.8; then reads the packet and
establishes a connection. If, as a result of
&man.ppp.8;'s dynamic IP assignment, the
interface address is changed, the original socket endpoint will
be invalid. Any subsequent packets sent to the peer will
usually be dropped. Even if they are not, any responses will
not route back to the originating machine as the IP number is
no longer owned by that machine.There are several theoretical ways to approach this
problem. It would be nicest if the peer would re-assign the
same IP number if possible :-)
The current version of &man.ppp.8; does
this, but most other implementations do not.The easiest method from our side would be to never change
the tun interface IP number, but instead to change all outgoing
packets so that the source IP number is changed from the
interface IP to the negotiated IP on the fly. This is
essentially what the iface-alias option in
the latest version of &man.ppp.8; is
doing (with the help of
&man.libalias.3; and &man.ppp.8;'s switch) -
it is maintaining all previous interface addresses and NATing
them to the last negotiated address.Another alternative (and probably the most reliable) would
be to implement a system call that changes all bound sockets
from one IP to another. &man.ppp.8; would
use this call to modify the sockets of all existing programs
when a new IP number is negotiated. The same system call could
be used by dhcp clients when they are forced to re-bind() their
sockets.Yet another possibility is to allow an interface to be
brought up without an IP number. Outgoing packets would be
given an IP number of 255.255.255.255 up until the first
SIOCAIFADDR ioctl is done. This would result in fully binding
the socket. It would be up to &man.ppp.8;
to change the source IP number, but only if it is set to
255.255.255.255, and only the IP number and IP checksum would
need to change. This, however is a bit of a hack as the kernel
would be sending bad packets to an improperly configured
interface, on the assumption that some other mechanism is
capable of fixing things retrospectively.Why do most games not work with the -nat switch?The reason games and the like do not work when libalias
is in use is that the machine on the outside will try to open a
connection or send (unsolicited) UDP packets to the machine on
the inside. The NAT software does not know that it should send
these packets to the interior machine.To make things work, make sure that the only thing
running is the software that you are having problems with, then
either run tcpdump on the tun interface of the gateway or
enable &man.ppp.8; tcp/ip logging (set log +tcp/ip)
on the gateway.When you start the offending software, you should see
packets passing through the gateway machine. When something
comes back from the outside, it will be dropped (that is the
problem). Note the port number of these packets then shut down
the offending software. Do this a few times to see if the port
numbers are consistent. If they are, then the following line in
the relevant section of /etc/ppp/ppp.conf will make the
software functional:nat port protointernalmachine:portportwhere proto is either
tcp or udp,
internalmachine is the machine that
you want the packets to be sent to and
port is the destination port number
of the packets.You will not be able to use the software on other machines
without changing the above command, and running the software
on two internal machines at the same time is out of the question
- after all, the outside world is seeing your entire internal
network as being just a single machine.If the port numbers are not consistent, there are three
more options:Submit support in
libalias. Examples of special cases can be found
in /usr/src/lib/libalias/alias_*.c
(alias_ftp.c is a good prototype). This
usually involves reading certain recognised outgoing packets,
identifying the instruction that tells the outside machine to
initiate a connection back to the internal machine on a
specific (random) port and setting up a route in
the alias table so that the subsequent packets know where to
go.This is the most difficult solution, but it is the best
and will make the software work with multiple machines.Use a proxy. The
application may support socks5 for example, or (as in the
cvsup case) may have a passive
option that avoids ever requesting that the peer open
connections back to the local machine.Redirect everything to
the internal machine using nat addr. This
is the sledge-hammer approach.Has anybody made a list of useful port numbers?Not yet, but this is intended to grow into such a list
(if any interest is shown). In each example,
internal should be replaced with
the IP number of the machine playing the game.Asheron's Callnat port udp
internal
:65000 65000Manually change the port number within the game to
65000. If you have got a number of machines that you wish
to play on assign a unique port number for each (i.e.
65001, 65002, etc) and add a nat port
line for each one.Half Lifenat port udp
internal:27005
27015PCAnywhere 8.0nat port udp
internal:5632
5632nat port tcp
internal:5631
5631Quakenat port udp
internal:6112
6112Alternatively, you may want to take a look at
www.battle.net for Quake proxy support.Quake 2nat port udp
internal:27901
27910nat port udp
internal:60021
60021nat port udp
internal:60040
60040Red Alertnat port udp
internal:8675
8675nat port udp
internal:5009
5009What are FCS errors?FCS stands for Frame
Check
Sequence. Each PPP packet
has a checksum attached to ensure that the data being
received is the data being sent. If the FCS of an incoming
packet is incorrect, the packet is dropped and the HDLC FCS
count is increased. The HDLC error values can be displayed
using the show hdlc command.If your link is bad (or if your serial driver is dropping
packets), you will see the occasional FCS error. This is not
usually worth worrying about although it does slow down the
compression protocols substantially. If you have an external
modem, make sure your cable is properly shielded from
interference - this may eradicate the problem.If your link freezes as soon as you have connected and you
see a large number of FCS errors, this may be because your link
is not 8 bit clean. Make sure your modem is not using software
flow control (XON/XOFF). If your datalink
must use software flow control, use the
command set accmap 0x000a0000 to tell
&man.ppp.8; to escape the ^Q and
^S characters.Another reason for seeing too many FCS errors may be that
the remote end has stopped talking PPP. You
may want to enable async logging at this
point to determine if the incoming data is actually a login or
shell prompt. If you have a shell prompt at the remote end,
it is possible to terminate &man.ppp.8; without dropping the line by
using the close lcp command (a following
term command will reconnect you to the shell
on the remote machine.If nothing in your log file indicates why the link might
have been terminated, you should ask the remote administrator
(your ISP?) why the session was terminated.Why do MacOS and Windows 98 connections freeze when
running PPPoE on the gateway?Thanks to Michael Wozniak
mwozniak@netcom.ca for figuring this out and
Dan Flemming danflemming@mac.com for the Mac
solution:This is due to what is called a Black Hole
router. MacOS and Windows 98 (and maybe other Microsoft OSs)
send TCP packets with a requested segment size too big to fit
into a PPPoE frame (MTU is 1500 by default for Ethernet)
and have the do not
fragment bit set (default of TCP) and the Telco router
is not sending ICMP must fragment back to the
www site you are trying to load. (Alternatively, the router is
sending the ICMP packet correctly, but the firewall at the www
site is dropping it.) When the www server is sending
you frames that do not fit into the PPPoE pipe the Telco router
drops them on the floor and your page does not load (some
pages/graphics do as they are smaller than a MSS.) This seems
to be the default of most Telco PPPoE configurations (if only
they knew how to program a router... sigh...)One fix is to use regedit on your 95/98 boxes to add the
following registry entry...HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\System\CurrentControlSet\Services\Class\NetTrans\0000\MaxMTUIt should be a string with a value 1436, as
some ADSL routers are reported to be unable to deal with packets
larger than this. This registry key has been changed to
Tcpip\Parameters\Interfaces\ID for adapter\MTU
in Windows 2000 and becomes a DWORD.Refer to the Microsoft Knowledge Base documents Q158474
- Windows TCPIP Registry Entries and Q120642
- TCPIP & NBT Configuration Parameters for Windows
NT for more information on changing Windows MTU to
work with a NAT router.Another regedit possibility under Windows 2000 is to
set the
Tcpip\Parameters\Interfaces\ID for
adapter\EnablePMTUBHDetect DWORD
to 1 as mentioned in the Microsoft document 120642
mentioned above.Unfortunately, MacOS does not provide an interface for
changing TCP/IP settings. However, there is commercial software
available, such as OTAdvancedTuner (OT for OpenTransport, the
MacOS TCP/IP stack) by Sustainable Softworks,
that will allow users to customize TCP/IP settings. MacOS NAT
users should select ip_interface_MTU from
the drop-down menu, enter 1450 instead of
1500 in the box, click the box next to
Save as Auto Configure, and click
Make Active.The latest version of &man.ppp.8;
(2.3 or greater) has an enable tcpmssfixup
command that will automatically adjust the MSS to an appropriate
value. This facility is enabled by default. If you are stuck
with an older version of &man.ppp.8;, you
may want to look at the tcpmssd
port.None of this helps - I am desperate! What can I do?If all else fails, send as much information as you can,
including your config files, how you are starting
&man.ppp.8;, the relevant parts of your
log file and the output of the netstat -rn
command (before and after connecting) to the &a.questions; or
the
comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.misc news group, and someone
should point you in the right direction.Serial CommunicationsThis section answers common questions about serial
communications with FreeBSD. PPP and SLIP are covered in the
section.How do I tell if FreeBSD found my serial ports?As the FreeBSD kernel boots, it will probe for the serial
ports in your system for which the kernel was configured.
You can either watch your system closely for the messages it
prints or run the command&prompt.user; dmesg | grep sioafter your system is up and running.Here is some example output from the above command:sio0 at 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 on isa
sio0: type 16550A
sio1 at 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa
sio1: type 16550AThis shows two serial ports. The first is on irq 4, is
using port address 0x3f8, and has a
16550A-type UART chip. The second uses the same kind of chip
but is on irq 3 and is at port address 0x2f8.
Internal modem cards are treated just like serial ports---except
that they always have a modem attached to the
port.The GENERIC kernel includes support
for two serial ports using the same irq and port address
settings in the above example. If these settings are not
right for your system, or if you have added modem cards or have
more serial ports than your kernel is configured for, just
reconfigure your kernel. See section
about building a kernel for
more details.How do I tell if FreeBSD found my modem cards?Refer to the answer to the previous question.I just upgraded to 2.0.5 and my
tty0X
are missing! How do I solve this problem?Do not worry, they have been merged with the
ttydX devices. You will have to change
any old configuration files you have, though.How do I access the serial ports on FreeBSD?The third serial port,
sio2
(see &man.sio.4;, known as COM3 in DOS), is on /dev/cuaa2
for dial-out devices, and on /dev/ttyd2
for dial-in devices. What is the difference between these two
classes of devices?You use ttydX for dial-ins. When
opening /dev/ttydX in blocking mode, a
process will wait for the corresponding
cuaaX device to become inactive, and then
wait for the carrier detect line to go active. When you open
the cuaaX device, it makes sure the serial
port is not already in use by the ttydX
device. If the port is available, it steals it
from the ttydX device. Also, the
cuaaX device does not care about carrier
detect. With this scheme and an auto-answer modem, you can have
remote users log in and you can still dialout with the same
modem and the system will take care of all the
conflicts.How do I enable support for a multiport serial
card?Again, the section on kernel configuration provides
information about configuring your kernel. For a multiport
serial card, place an &man.sio.4; line
for each serial port on the card in the kernel configuration
file. But place the irq and vector specifiers on only one of
the entries. All of the ports on the card should share one irq.
For consistency, use the last serial port to specify the irq.
Also, specify the COM_MULTIPORT
option.The following example is for an AST 4-port serial card on
irq 7:options "COM_MULTIPORT"
device sio4 at isa? port 0x2a0 tty flags 0x781
device sio5 at isa? port 0x2a8 tty flags 0x781
device sio6 at isa? port 0x2b0 tty flags 0x781
device sio7 at isa? port 0x2b8 tty flags 0x781 irq 7 vector siointrThe flags indicate that the master port has minor number 7
(0x700), diagnostics enabled during probe
(0x080), and all the ports share an irq
(0x001).Can FreeBSD handle multiport serial cards sharing
irqs?Not yet. You will have to use a different irq for each
card.Can I set the default serial parameters for a
port?The ttydX (or
cuaaX) device is the regular device
you will want to open for your applications. When a process
opens the device, it will have a default set of terminal I/O
settings. You can see these settings with the command&prompt.root; stty -a -f /dev/ttyd1When you change the settings to this device, the settings
are in effect until the device is closed. When it is reopened,
it goes back to the default set. To make changes to the
default set, you can open and adjust the settings of the
initial state device. For example, to turn on
CLOCAL mode, 8 bits, and
XON/XOFF flow control by default for
ttyd5, do:&prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyid5 clocal cs8 ixon ixoffA good place to do this is in
/etc/rc.serial. Now, an application will
have these settings by default when it opens
ttyd5. It can still change these settings
to its liking, though.You can also prevent certain settings from being changed
by an application by making adjustments to the
lock state device. For example, to lock the
speed of ttyd5 to 57600 bps, do&prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyld5 57600Now, an application that opens ttyd5
and tries to change the speed of the port will be stuck with
57600 bps.Naturally, you should make the initial state and lock state
devices writable only by root. The
&man.MAKEDEV.8;
script does NOT do this when it creates the
device entries.How can I enable dialup logins on my modem?So you want to become an Internet service provider, eh?
First, you will need one or more modems that can auto-answer.
Your modem will need to assert carrier-detect when it detects a
carrier and not assert it all the time. It will need to hang up
the phone and reset itself when the data terminal ready
(DTR) line goes from on to off. It should
probably use RTS/CTS flow control or no
local flow control at all. Finally, it must use a constant
speed between the computer and itself, but (to be nice to your
callers) it should negotiate a speed between itself and the
remote modem.For many Hayes command-set--compatible modems, this
command will make these settings and store them in
nonvolatile memory:AT &C1 &D3 &K3 &Q6 S0=1 &WSee the section on sending AT
commands below for information on how to make these
settings without resorting to an MS-DOS terminal program.Next, make an entry in
/etc/ttys (see &man.ttys.5;) for the modem. This file lists all the ports
on which the operating system will await logins. Add a line
that looks something like this:ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.57600" dialup on insecureThis line indicates that the second serial port
(/dev/ttyd1) has a modem connected
running at 57600 bps and no parity
(std.57600, which comes from the file
/etc/gettytab, see &man.gettytab.5;).
The terminal type for this port is dialup.
The port is on and is
insecure---meaning root logins on the port
are not allowed. For dialin ports like this one, use the
ttydX entry.It is common practice to use dialup as
the terminal type. Many users set up in their .profile or
.login files a prompt for the actual terminal type if the
starting type is dialup. The example shows the port as
insecure. To become root on this port, you have to login as a
regular user, then &man.su.1; to become
root. If you use secure
then root can login in directly.After making modifications to
/etc/ttys, you need to send a hangup or
HUP signal to the
&man.init.8; process:&prompt.root; kill -HUP 1This forces the &man.init.8; process to reread
/etc/ttys. The init process will then start getty
processes on all on ports. You can find
out if logins are available for your port by typing&prompt.user; ps -ax | grep '[t]tyd1'You should see something like:747 ?? I 0:00.04 /usr/libexec/getty std.57600 ttyd1How can I connect a dumb terminal to my FreeBSD
box?If you are using another computer as a terminal into your
FreeBSD system, get a null modem cable to go between the two
serial ports. If you are using an actual terminal, see its
accompanying instructions.Then, modify
/etc/ttys (see &man.ttys.5;), like above. For example, if you are
hooking up a WYSE-50 terminal to the fifth serial port,
use an entry like this:ttyd4 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wyse50 on secureThis example shows that the port on
/dev/ttyd4 has a wyse50 terminal
connected at 38400 bps with no parity
(std.38400 from
/etc/gettytab, see &man.gettytab.5;) and root logins are
allowed (secure).Why can I not run tip or
cu?On your system, the programs &man.tip.1;
and &man.cu.1;
are probably executable only by
uucp
and group dialer. You can use the group
dialer to control who has access to your
modem or remote systems. Just add yourself to group
dialer.Alternatively, you can let everyone on your system
run &man.tip.1; and &man.cu.1; by
typing:&prompt.root; chmod 4511 /usr/bin/cu
&prompt.root; chmod 4511 /usr/bin/tipMy stock Hayes modem is not supported---what
can I do?Actually, the man page for &man.tip.1; is
out of date. There is a generic Hayes dialer already built in.
Just use at=hayes in your
/etc/remote (see &man.remote.5;) file.The Hayes driver is not smart enough to recognize some of
the advanced features of newer modems---messages like
BUSY, NO DIALTONE, or
CONNECT 115200 will just confuse it. You
should turn those messages off when you use &man.tip.1;
(using ATX0&W).Also, the dial timeout for &man.tip.1; is 60
seconds. Your modem should use something less, or else tip
will think there is a communication problem. Try
ATS7=45&W.Actually, as shipped &man.tip.1; does not yet
support it fully. The solution is to edit the file
tipconf.h in the directory
/usr/src/usr.bin/tip/tip. Obviously you
need the source distribution to do this.Edit the line #define HAYES 0
to #define HAYES 1. Then
make and make install.
Everything works nicely after that.How am I expected to enter these AT commands?Make what is called a direct entry in your
/etc/remote file (see &man.remote.5;). For example, if your modem is hooked
up to the first serial port, /dev/cuaa0,
then put in the following line:cuaa0:dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#19200:pa=noneUse the highest bps rate your modem supports in the br
capability. Then, type
tip cuaa0 (see &man.tip.1;)
and you will be connected to your modem.If there is no /dev/cuaa0 on your
system, do this:&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV cuaa0Or use cu as root with the following command:&prompt.root; cu -lline -sspeedwith line being the serial port (e.g.
/dev/cuaa0) and speed being the speed
(e.g.57600). When you are done entering
the AT commands hit ~. to exit.Why does the <@> sign for the pn
capability not work?The <@> sign in the phone number
capability tells tip to look in
/etc/phones for a phone number. But the
<@> sign is also a special character
in capability files like /etc/remote.
Escape it with a backslash:pn=\@How can I dial a phone number on the command
line?Put what is called a generic entry in your
/etc/remote file (see &man.remote.5;). For example:tip115200|Dial any phone number at 115200 bps:\
:dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#115200:at=hayes:pa=none:du:
tip57600|Dial any phone number at 57600 bps:\
:dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du:Then you can do something like tip -115200
5551234. If you prefer &man.cu.1;
over
&man.tip.1;, use a generic cu entry:cu115200|Use cu to dial any number at 115200bps:\
:dv=/dev/cuaa1:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du:and type cu 5551234 -s 115200.Do I have to type in the bps rate every time I do
that?Put in an entry for tip1200 or
cu1200, but go ahead and use whatever bps
rate is appropriate with the br capability.
&man.tip.1;
thinks a good default is 1200 bps which is why it looks for
a tip1200 entry. You do not have to use 1200
bps, though.How can I more easily access a number of hosts through a
terminal server?Rather than waiting until you are connected and typing
CONNECT host
each time, use tip's cm capability. For
example, these entries in
/etc/remote (see &man.remote.5;):pain|pain.deep13.com|Forrester's machine:\
:cm=CONNECT pain\n:tc=deep13:
muffin|muffin.deep13.com|Frank's machine:\
:cm=CONNECT muffin\n:tc=deep13:
deep13:Gizmonics Institute terminal server:\
:dv=/dev/cuaa2:br#38400:at=hayes:du:pa=none:pn=5551234:will let you type tip pain or
tip muffin to connect to the hosts
pain or muffin; and
tip deep13 to get to the terminal
server.Can tip try more than one line for each site?This is often a problem where a university has several
modem lines and several thousand students trying to use
them...Make an entry for your university in
/etc/remote (see &man.remote.5;) and use <\@> for
the pn capability:big-university:\
:pn=\@:tc=dialout
dialout:\
:dv=/dev/cuaa3:br#9600:at=courier:du:pa=none:Then, list the phone numbers for the university in
/etc/phones (see &man.phones.5;):big-university 5551111
big-university 5551112
big-university 5551113
big-university 5551114&man.tip.1;
will try each one in the listed order, then give
up. If you want to keep retrying, run &man.tip.1;
in a while loop.Why do I have to hit CTRL+P twice to send CTRL+P
once?CTRL+P is the default force character,
used to tell &man.tip.1;
that the next character is literal data. You can set the
force character to any other character with the
~s escape, which means set a
variable.Type ~sforce=single-char
followed by a newline.
single-char is any single character.
If you leave out single-char,
then the force character is the nul character, which you can
get by typing CTRL+2 or CTRL+SPACE. A pretty good value for
single-char is SHIFT+CTRL+6, which
I have seen only used on some terminal servers.You can have the force character be whatever you want by
specifying the following in your
$HOME/.tiprc file:force=single-charWhy is everything I type suddenly in UPPER CASE?You must have pressed CTRL+A, &man.tip.1;
raise character, specially
designed for people with broken caps-lock keys. Use
~s as above and set the variable
raisechar to something reasonable. In fact,
you can set it to the same as the force character, if you
never expect to use either of these features.Here is a sample .tiprc file perfect for Emacs users who
need to type CTRL+2 and CTRL+A a lot:force=^^
raisechar=^^The ^^ is SHIFT+CTRL+6.How can I do file transfers with
tip?If you are talking to another Unix system, you can send
and receive files with ~p (put) and
~t (take). These commands run
&man.cat.1; and
&man.echo.1; on the remote system to accept and send files.
The syntax is:~p <local-file> [<remote-file>]
~t <remote-file> [<local-file>]There is no error checking, so you probably should use
another protocol, like zmodem.How can I run zmodem with
tip?First, install one of the zmodem programs from the
ports collection (such as one of the two from the comms
category, lrzsz or
rzsz.To receive files, start the sending program on the
remote end. Then, press enter and type
~C rz (or ~C lrz if you
installed lrzsz) to begin
receiving them locally.To send files, start the receiving program on the remote
end. Then, press enter and type
~C sz files
(or ~C lsz files)
to send them to the remote system.Why does FreeBSD not find my serial ports, even
when the settings are correct?Motherboards and cards with Acer UARTs do not probe
properly under the FreeBSD sio probe. Obtain a patch from
www.lemis.com to fix your problem.Miscellaneous QuestionsFreeBSD uses far more swap space than Linux. Why?FreeBSD only appears to use more swap than Linux. In
actual fact, it does not. The main difference between FreeBSD
and Linux in this regard is that FreeBSD will proactively move
entirely idle, unused pages of main memory into swap in order
to make more main memory available for active use. Linux tends
to only move pages to swap as a last resort. The perceived
heavier use of swap is balanced by the more efficient use of
main memory.Note that while FreeBSD is proactive in this regard, it
does not arbitrarily decide to swap pages when the system is
truly idle. Thus you will not find your system all paged
out when you get up in the morning after leaving it idle
overnight.Why does top show very little free memory even
when I have very few programs running?The simple answer is that free memory is wasted
memory. Any memory that your programs do not actively
allocate is used within the FreeBSD kernel as disk
cache. The values shown by &man.top.1; labeled as
Inact, Cache, and
Buf are all cached data at different
aging levels. This cached data means the system does
not have to access a slow disk again for data it has
accessed recently, thus increasing overall performance.
In general, a low value shown for Free
memory in &man.top.1; is good, provided it is not
very low.Why use (what are) a.out and ELF executable
formats?To understand why FreeBSD uses the
ELF format, you must first know a little
about the 3 currently dominant executable
formats for Unix:Prior to FreeBSD 3.x, FreeBSD used the a.out
format.&man.a.out.5;The oldest and classic Unix object
format. It uses a short and compact header with a magic
number at the beginning that is often used to
characterize the format (see
&man.a.out.5; for more details). It contains three
loaded segments: .text, .data, and .bss plus a symbol
table and a string table.COFFThe SVR3 object format. The header now comprises
a section table, so you can have more than just .text,
.data, and .bss sections.ELFThe successor to COFF, featuring
Multiple sections and 32-bit or 64-bit possible values.
One major drawback: ELF was also
designed with the assumption that there would be only
one ABI per system architecture. That assumption is
actually quite incorrect, and not even in the
commercial SYSV world (which has at least three ABIs:
SVR4, Solaris, SCO) does it hold true.FreeBSD tries to work around this problem somewhat
by providing a utility for branding
a known ELF executable with
information about the ABI it is compliant with. See the
man page for &man.brandelf.1;
for more information.FreeBSD comes from the classic camp and has
traditionally used the &man.a.out.5;
format, a technology tried and proven through
many generations of BSD releases. Though it has also been
possible for some time to build and run native
ELF binaries (and kernels) on a FreeBSD
system, FreeBSD initially resisted the push to
switch to ELF as the default format. Why?
Well, when the Linux camp made their painful transition to
ELF, it was not so much to flee the
a.out executable format as it was their
inflexible jump-table based shared library mechanism, which
made the construction of shared libraries very difficult for
vendors and developers alike. Since the ELF
tools available offered a solution to the shared library
problem and were generally seen as the way
forward anyway, the migration cost was accepted as
necessary and the transition made.In FreeBSD's case, our shared library mechanism is based
more closely on Sun's SunOS-style
shared library mechanism and, as such, is very easy to use.
However, starting with 3.0, FreeBSD officially supports
ELF binaries as the default format. Even
though the a.out executable format has
served us well, the GNU people, who author the compiler tools
we use, have dropped support for the a.out
format. This has forced us to maintain a divergent version of
the compiler and linker, and has kept us from reaping the
benefits of the latest GNU development efforts. Also the
demands of ISO-C++, notably constructors and destructors, has
also led to native ELF support in future
FreeBSD releases.Yes, but why are there so many different formats?Back in the dim, dark past, there was simple hardware.
This simple hardware supported a simple, small system. a.out
was completely adequate for the job of representing binaries on
this simple system (a PDP-11). As people ported Unix from this
simple system, they retained the a.out format because it was
sufficient for the early ports of Unix to architectures like
the Motorola 68k, VAXen, etc.Then some bright hardware engineer decided that if he
could force software to do some sleazy tricks, then he would be
able to shave a few gates off the design and allow his CPU core
to run faster. While it was made to work with this new kind of
hardware (known these days as RISC), a.out
was ill-suited for this hardware, so many formats were
developed to get to a better performance from this hardware
than the limited, simple a.out format
could offer. Things like COFF,
ECOFF, and a few obscure others were
invented and their limitations explored before things seemed to
settle on ELF.In addition, program sizes were getting huge and disks
(and physical memory) were still relatively small so the
concept of a shared library was born. The VM system also became
more sophisticated. While each one of these advancements was
done using the a.out format, its
usefulness was stretched more and more with each new feature.
In addition, people wanted to dynamically load things at run
time, or to junk parts of their program after the init code had
run to save in core memory and/or swap space. Languages became
more sophisticated and people wanted code called before main
automatically. Lots of hacks were done to the
a.out format to allow all of these things
to happen, and they basically worked for a time. In time,
a.out was not up to handling all these
problems without an ever increasing overhead in code and
complexity. While ELF solved many of these
problems, it would be painful to switch from the system that
basically worked. So ELF had to wait until
it was more painful to remain with a.out
than it was to migrate to ELF.However, as time passed, the build tools that FreeBSD
derived their build tools from (the assembler and loader
especially) evolved in two parallel trees. The FreeBSD tree
added shared libraries and fixed some bugs. The GNU folks that
originally write these programs rewrote them and added simpler
support for building cross compilers, plugging in different
formats at will, etc. Since many people wanted to build cross
compilers targeting FreeBSD, they were out of luck since the
older sources that FreeBSD had for as and ld were not up to the
task. The new gnu tools chain (binutils) does support cross
compiling, ELF, shared libraries, C++
extensions, etc. In addition, many vendors are releasing
ELF binaries, and it is a good thing for
FreeBSD to run them. And if it is running
ELF binaries, why bother having
a.out any more? It is a tired old horse
that has proven useful for a long time, but it is time to turn
him out to pasture for his long, faithful years of
service.ELF is more expressive than a.out and
will allow more extensibility in the base system. The
ELF tools are better maintained, and offer
cross compilation support, which is important to many people.
ELF may be a little slower than a.out, but
trying to measure it can be difficult. There are also numerous
details that are different between the two in how they map
pages, handle init code, etc. None of these are very important,
but they are differences. In time support for
a.out will be moved out of the GENERIC
kernel, and eventually removed from the kernel once the need to
run legacy a.out programs is past.Why will chmod not change the permissions on symlinks?Symlinks do not have permissions, and by default,
&man.chmod.1; will not follow symlinks to change the
permissions on the target file. So if you have a file,
foo, and a symlink to that file,
bar, then this command will always
succeed.&prompt.user; chmod g-w barHowever, the permissions on foo will
not have changed.You have to use either or
together with the
option to make this work. See the
&man.chmod.1; and &man.symlink.7;
man pages for more info.The option does a
RECURSIVE
&man.chmod.1;. Be careful about
specifying directories or symlinks to directories to
&man.chmod.1;. If you want to
change the permissions of a directory referenced by a
symlink, use &man.chmod.1;
without any options and follow the symlink
with a trailing slash (/). For
example, if foo is a symlink to
directory bar, and you want to change
the permissions of foo (actually
bar), you would do something
like:&prompt.user; chmod 555 foo/With the trailing slash, &man.chmod.1;
will follow the symlink,
foo, to change the permissions of the
directory, bar.Why are login names restricted to 8 characters or less
in FreeBSD 2.2.X and earlier?You would think it would be easy enough to change
UT_NAMESIZE and rebuild the whole world,
and everything would just work. Unfortunately there are often
scads of applications and utilities (including system tools)
that have hard-coded small numbers (not always
8 or 9, but oddball ones
like 15 and 20) in
structures and buffers. Not only will this get you log files
which are trashed (due to variable-length records getting
written when fixed records were expected), but it can break
Suns NIS clients and potentially cause other problems in
interacting with other Unix systems.In FreeBSD 3.0 and later, the maximum name length has
been increased to 16 characters and those various utilities
with hard-coded name sizes have been found and fixed. The fact
that this touched so many areas of the system is why, in fact,
the change was not made until 3.0.If you are absolutely confident in your ability to find
and fix these sorts of problems for yourself when and if they
pop up, you can increase the login name length in earlier
releases by editing /usr/include/utmp.h and changing
UT_NAMESIZE accordingly. You must also update MAXLOGNAME in
/usr/include/sys/param.h to match the UT_NAMESIZE change.
Finally, if you build from sources, do not forget that
/usr/include is updated each time! Change the appropriate files
in /usr/src/.. instead.Can I run DOS binaries under FreeBSD?Yes, starting with version 3.0 you can using BSDI's
doscmd DOS emulation which has
been integrated and enhanced. Send mail to the &a.emulation;
if you are interested in joining this ongoing effort!For pre-3.0 systems, there is a neat utility called
pcemu in the ports collection which emulates an 8088
and enough BIOS services to run DOS text mode applications.
It requires the X Window System (provided as XFree86).What do I need to do to translate a FreeBSD document into
my native language?See the
Translation FAQ in the FreeBSD Documentation Project
Primer.Where can I find a free FreeBSD account?While FreeBSD does not provide open access to any of their
servers, others do provide open access Unix systems. The
charge varies and limited services may be available.Arbornet,
Inc, also known as M-Net, has been providing open
access to Unix systems since 1983. Starting on an Altos
running System III, the site switched to BSD/OS in 1991. In
June of 2000, the site switched again to FreeBSD. M-Net can be
accessed via telnet and SSH and provides basic access to the
entire FreeBSD software suite. However, network access is
limited to members and patrons who donate to the system, which
is run as a non-profit organization. M-Net also provides an
bulletin board system and interactive chat.Grex provides a
site very similar to M-Net including the same bulletin board
and interactive chat software. However, the machine is a Sun
4M and is running SunOSWhat is sup, and how do I use
it?
SUP stands for Software Update Protocol, and was
developed by CMU for keeping their development trees in sync.
We used it to keep remote sites in sync with our central
development sources.SUP is not bandwidth friendly, and has been retired.
The current recommended method to keep your sources up to
date is
CVSupWhat is the cute little red guy's name?He does not have one, and is just called the BSD
daemon. If you insist upon using a name, call him
beastie. Note that beastie
is pronounced BSD.You can learn more about the BSD daemon on his home
page.Can I use the BSD daemon image?Perhaps. The BSD daemon is copyrighted by Marshall
Kirk McKusick. You will want to check his Statement
on the Use of the BSD Daemon Figure for detailed
usage terms.In summary, you are free to use the image in a tasteful
manner, for personal use, so long as appropriate credit is
given. If you want to use him commercially, you must
contact Kirk McKusick. More details are available on the
BSD
Daemon's home page.Do you have any BSD daemon images I could use?You will find eps and Xfig drawings under
/usr/share/examples/BSD_daemon/.What does MFC mean?MFC is an acronym for Merged From -CURRENT.
It is used in the CVS logs to denote when a change was
migrated from the CURRENT to the STABLE branches.What does BSD mean?It stands for something in a secret language that only
members can know. It does not translate literally but its ok
to tell you that BSD's translation is something between,
Formula-1 Racing Team, Penguins are
tasty snacks, and We have a better sense of
humor than Linux. :-)Seriously, BSD is an acronym for Berkeley
Software Distribution, which is the name the
Berkeley CSRG (Computer Systems Research
Group) chose for their Unix distribution way back when.What is a repo-copy?A repo-copy (which is a short form of repository
copy) refers to the direct copying of files within
the CVS repository.Without a repo-copy, if a file needed to be copied or
moved to another place in the repository, the committer would
run cvs add to put the file in its new
location, and then cvs rm on the old file
if the old copy was being removed.The disadvantage of this method is that the history
(i.e. the entries in the CVS logs) of the file would not be
copied to the new location. As the FreeBSD Project considers
this history very useful, a repository copy is often used
instead. This is a process where one of the repository meisters
will copy the files directly within the repository, rather than
using the &man.cvs.1; program.Why should I care what color the bikeshed is?The really, really short answer is that you should not.
The somewhat longer answer is that just because you are
capable of building a bikeshed does not mean you should stop
others from building one just because you do not like the
color they plan to paint it. This is a metaphor indicating
that you need not argue about every little feature just
because you know enough to do so. Some people have
commented that the amount of noise generated by a change is
inversely proportional to the complexity of the
change.The longer and more complete answer is that after a very
long argument about whether &man.sleep.1; should take
fractional second arguments, &a.phk; posted a long
message entitled A bike
shed (any colour will do) on greener grass....
The appropriate portions of that message are quoted
below.
&a.phk; on freebsd-hackers, October
2, 1999What is it about this bike shed? Some
of you have asked me.It is a long story, or rather it is an old story, but
it is quite short actually. C. Northcote Parkinson wrote
a book in the early 1960'ies, called Parkinson's
Law, which contains a lot of insight into the
dynamics of management.[snip a bit of commentary on the book]In the specific example involving the bike shed, the
other vital component is an atomic power-plant, I guess
that illustrates the age of the book.Parkinson shows how you can go in to the board of
directors and get approval for building a multi-million or
even billion dollar atomic power plant, but if you want to
build a bike shed you will be tangled up in endless
discussions.Parkinson explains that this is because an atomic
plant is so vast, so expensive and so complicated that
people cannot grasp it, and rather than try, they fall
back on the assumption that somebody else checked all the
details before it got this far. Richard P. Feynmann
gives a couple of interesting, and very much to the point,
examples relating to Los Alamos in his books.A bike shed on the other hand. Anyone can build one
of those over a weekend, and still have time to watch the
game on TV. So no matter how well prepared, no matter how
reasonable you are with your proposal, somebody will seize
the chance to show that he is doing his job, that he is
paying attention, that he is
here.In Denmark we call it setting your
fingerprint. It is about personal pride and
prestige, it is about being able to point somewhere and
say There! I did that.
It is a strong trait in politicians, but present in most
people given the chance. Just think about footsteps in
wet cement.
The FreeBSD FunniesHow cool is FreeBSD?Q. Has anyone done any temperature testing while
running FreeBSD? I know Linux runs cooler than DOS, but have
never seen a mention of FreeBSD. It seems to run really
hot.A. No, but we have done numerous taste tests on
blindfolded volunteers who have also had 250 micrograms of
LSD-25 administered beforehand. 35% of the volunteers said that
FreeBSD tasted sort of orange, whereas Linux tasted like purple
haze. Neither group mentioned any significant variances in
temperature. We eventually had to throw the
results of this survey out entirely anyway when we found that
too many volunteers were wandering out of the room during the
tests, thus skewing the results. We think most of the volunteers
are at Apple now, working on their new scratch and
sniff GUI. It is a funny old business we are in!Seriously, both FreeBSD and Linux use the
HLT (halt) instruction when the system is
idle thus lowering its energy consumption and therefore the
heat it generates. Also if you have APM (advanced power
management) configured, then FreeBSD can also put the CPU into
a low power mode.Who is scratching in my memory banks??Q. Is there anything odd that FreeBSD
does when compiling the kernel which would cause the memory to
make a scratchy sound? When compiling (and for a brief moment
after recognizing the floppy drive upon startup, as well), a
strange scratchy sound emanates from what appears to be the
memory banks.A. Yes! You will see frequent references to
daemons in the BSD documentation, and what most
people do not know is that this refers to genuine, non-corporeal
entities that now possess your computer. The scratchy sound
coming from your memory is actually high-pitched whispering
exchanged among the daemons as they best decide how to deal
with various system administration tasks.If the noise gets to you, a good
fdisk /mbr from DOS will get rid of them,
but do not be surprised if they react adversely and try to stop
you. In fact, if at any point during the exercise you hear the
satanic voice of Bill Gates coming from the built-in speaker,
take off running and do not ever look back! Freed from the
counterbalancing influence of the BSD daemons, the twin demons
of DOS and Windows are often able to re-assert total control
over your machine to the eternal damnation of your soul.
Now that you know, given a choice you would probably prefer to get
used to the scratchy noises, no?How many FreeBSD hackers does it take to change a
lightbulb?One thousand, one hundred and seventy-two:Twenty-three to complain to -CURRENT about the lights
being out;Four to claim that it is a configuration problem, and
that such matters really belong on -questions;Three to submit PRs about it, one of which is misfiled
under doc and consists only of "it's dark";One to commit an untested lightbulb which breaks
buildworld, then back it out five minutes later;Eight to flame the PR originators for not including
patches in their PRs;Five to complain about buildworld being broken;Thirty-one to answer that it works for them, and they
must have cvsupped at a bad time;One to post a patch for a new lightbulb to -hackers;One to complain that he had patches for this three years
ago, but when he sent them to -CURRENT they were just ignored,
and he has had bad experiences with the PR system; besides,
the proposed new lightbulb is non-reflexive;Thirty-seven to scream that lightbulbs do not belong in
the base system, that committers have no right to do things
like this without consulting the Community, and WHAT IS
-CORE DOING ABOUT IT!?Two hundred to complain about the color of the bicycle
shed;Three to point out that the patch breaks &man.style.9;;Seventeen to complain that the proposed new lightbulb is
under GPL;Five hundred and eighty-six to engage in a flame war
about the comparative advantages of the GPL, the BSD
license, the MIT license, the NPL, and the personal hygiene
of unnamed FSF founders;Seven to move various portions of the thread to -chat
and -advocacy;One to commit the suggested lightbulb, even though it
shines dimmer than the old one;Two to back it out with a furious flame of a commit
message, arguing that FreeBSD is better off in the dark than
with a dim lightbulb;Forty-six to argue vociferously about the backing out
of the dim lightbulb and demanding a statement from
-core;Eleven to request a smaller lightbulb so it will fit
their Tamagotchi if we ever decide to port FreeBSD to that
platform;Seventy-three to complain about the SNR on -hackers and
-chat and unsubscribe in protest;Thirteen to post "unsubscribe", "How do I unsubscribe?",
or "Please remove me from the list", followed by the usual
footer;One to commit a working lightbulb while everybody is too
busy flaming everybody else to notice;Thirty-one to point out that the new lightbulb would shine
0.364% brighter if compiled with TenDRA (although it will have
to be reshaped into a cube), and that FreeBSD should therefore
switch to TenDRA instead of EGCS;One to complain that the new lightbulb lacks
fairings;Nine (including the PR originators) to ask
"what is MFC?";Fifty-seven to complain about the lights being out two
weeks after the bulb has been changed.&a.nik; adds:I was laughing quite hard at
this.And then I thought,
"Hang on, shouldn't there be '1 to document it.' in that list somewhere?"And then I was enlightened :-)Where does data written to /dev/null
go?It goes into a special data sink in the CPU where it
is converted to heat which is vented through the heatsink
/ fan assembly. This is why CPU cooling is increasingly
important; as people get used to faster processors, they
become careless with their data and more and more of it
ends up in /dev/null, overheating
their CPUs. If you delete /dev/null
(which effectively disables the CPU data sink) your CPU
may run cooler but your system will quickly become
constipated with all that excess data and start to behave
erratically. If you have a fast network connection you
can cool down your CPU by reading data out of
/dev/random and sending it off
somewhere; however you run the risk of overheating your
network connection and / or angering
your ISP, as most of the data will end up getting
converted to heat by their equipment, but they generally
have good cooling, so if you do not overdo it you should be
OK.Paul Robinson adds:
There are other methods. As every good sysadmin knows,
it is part of standard practise to send data to the screen
of interesting variety to keep all the pixies that make up
your picture happy. Screen pixies (commonly mis-typed or
re-named as 'pixels') are categorised by the type of hat
they wear (red, green or blue) and will hide or appear
(thereby showing the colour of their hat) whenever they
receive a little piece of food. Video cards turn data into
pixie-food, and then send them to the pixies - the more
expensive the card, the better the food, so the better
behaved the pixies are. They also need constant simulation
- this is why screen savers exist.To take your suggestions further, you could just throw
the random data to console, thereby letting the pixies
consume it. This causes no heat to be produced at all,
keeps the pixies happy and gets rid of your data quite
quickly, even if it does make things look a bit messy on
your screen.Incidentally, as an ex-admin of a large ISP who
experienced many problems attempting to maintain a stable
temperature in a server room, I would strongly discourage
people sending the data they do not want out to the
network. The fairies who do the packet switching and
routing get annoyed by it as well.Advanced TopicsHow can I learn more about FreeBSD's internals?At this time, there is no book on FreeBSD-specific OS
internals. Much general UNIX knowledge is directly
applicable to FreeBSD, however. Additionally, there are
BSD-specific books that are still relevant.For a list, please check the Handbook's Operating
System Internals Bibliography.What are SNAPs and RELEASEs?There are currently three active/semi-active branches
in the FreeBSD
CVS Repository (the RELENG_2 branch is probably
only changed twice a year, which is why there are only three
active branches of development):RELENG_2_2 AKA
2.2-STABLERELENG_3 AKA
3.X-STABLERELENG_4 AKA
4-STABLEHEAD AKA
-CURRENT AKA
5.0-CURRENTHEAD is not an actual branch tag,
like the other two; it is simply a symbolic constant for
the current, non-branched development
stream which we simply refer to as
-CURRENT.Right now, -CURRENT is the 5.0 development
stream and the 4-STABLE branch,
RELENG_4, forked off from
-CURRENT in Mar 2000.The 2.2-STABLE branch,
RELENG_2_2, departed -CURRENT in November
1996, and has pretty much been retired.How do I make my own custom release?Please see the
Release Engineering article.Why does make world clobber my existing
installed binaries?Yes, this is the general idea; as its name might suggest,
make world rebuilds every system binary from
scratch, so you can be certain of having a clean and consistent
environment at the end (which is why it takes so long).If the environment variable DESTDIR
is defined while running make world or
make install, the newly-created binaries
will be deposited in a directory tree identical to the
installed one, rooted at ${DESTDIR}.
Some random combination of shared libraries modifications and
program rebuilds can cause this to fail in make
world however.Why does my system say (bus speed
defaulted) when it boots?The Adaptec 1542 SCSI host adapters allow the user to
configure their bus access speed in software. Previous versions
of the 1542 driver tried to determine the fastest usable speed
and set the adapter to that. We found that this breaks some
users' systems, so you now have to define the
TUNE_1542 kernel configuration option in order
to have this take place. Using it on those systems where it
works may make your disks run faster, but on those systems
where it does not, your data could be corrupted.Can I follow current with limited Internet access?Yes, you can do this without
downloading the whole source tree by using the CTM facility.How did you split the distribution into 240k files?Newer BSD based systems have a
option to split that allows them to split files on arbitrary
byte boundaries.Here is an example from
/usr/src/Makefile.bin-tarball:
(cd ${DISTDIR}; \
tar cf - . \
gzip --no-name -9 -c | \
split -b 240640 - \
${RELEASEDIR}/tarballs/bindist/bin_tgz.)I have written a kernel extension, who do I send it
to?Please take a look at The contributing to FreeBSD article on how to
submit code.And thanks for the thought!How are Plug N Play ISA cards detected and
initialized?By: Frank Durda IV
uhclem@nemesis.lonestar.orgIn a nutshell, there a few I/O ports that all of the
PnP boards respond to when the host asks if anyone is out
there. So when the PnP probe routine starts, he asks if there
are any PnP boards present, and all the PnP boards respond with
their model # to a I/O read of the same port, so the probe
routine gets a wired-OR yes to that question. At
least one bit will be on in that reply. Then the probe code is
able to cause boards with board model IDs (assigned by
Microsoft/Intel) lower than X to go off-line. It
then looks to see if any boards are still responding to the
query. If the answer was 0, then there are
no boards with IDs above X. Now probe asks if there are any
boards below X. If so, probe knows there are
boards with a model numbers below X. Probe then asks for boards
greater than X-(limit/4) to go off-line. If repeats the query.
By repeating this semi-binary search of IDs-in-range enough
times, the probing code will eventually identify all PnP boards
present in a given machine with a number of iterations that is
much lower than what 2^64 would take.The IDs are two 32-bit fields (hence 2ˆ64) + 8 bit
checksum. The first 32 bits are a vendor identifier. They never
come out and say it, but it appears to be assumed that
different types of boards from the same vendor could have
different 32-bit vendor ids. The idea of needing 32 bits just
for unique manufacturers is a bit excessive.The lower 32 bits are a serial #, Ethernet address,
something that makes this one board unique. The vendor must
never produce a second board that has the same lower 32 bits
unless the upper 32 bits are also different. So you can have
multiple boards of the same type in the machine and the full 64
bits will still be unique.The 32 bit groups can never be all zero. This allows the
wired-OR to show non-zero bits during the initial binary
search.Once the system has identified all the board IDs present,
it will reactivate each board, one at a time (via the same I/O
ports), and find out what resources the given board needs, what
interrupt choices are available, etc. A scan is made over all
the boards to collect this information.This info is then combined with info from any ECU files
on the hard disk or wired into the MLB BIOS. The ECU and BIOS
PnP support for hardware on the MLB is usually synthetic, and
the peripherals do not really do genuine PnP. However by
examining the BIOS info plus the ECU info, the probe routines
can cause the devices that are PnP to avoid those devices the
probe code cannot relocate.Then the PnP devices are visited once more and given
their I/O, DMA, IRQ and Memory-map address assignments. The
devices will then appear at those locations and remain there
until the next reboot, although there is nothing that says you
cannot move them around whenever you want.There is a lot of oversimplification above, but you
should get the general idea.Microsoft took over some of the primary printer status
ports to do PnP, on the logic that no boards decoded those
addresses for the opposing I/O cycles. I found a genuine IBM
printer board that did decode writes of the status port during
the early PnP proposal review period, but MS said
tough. So they do a write to the printer status
port for setting addresses, plus that use that address +
0x800, and a third I/O port for reading that
can be located anywhere between 0x200 and
0x3ff.Can you assign a major number for a device driver I have
written?This depends on whether or not you plan on making the
driver publicly available. If you do, then please send us a
copy of the driver source code, plus the appropriate
modifications to files.i386, a
sample configuration file entry, and the appropriate
&man.MAKEDEV.8;
code to create any special files your device uses. If you do
not, or are unable to because of licensing restrictions, then
character major number 32 and block major number 8 have been
reserved specifically for this purpose; please use them. In any
case, we would appreciate hearing about your driver on
&a.hackers;.What about alternative layout policies for
directories?In answer to the question of alternative layout policies
for directories, the scheme that is currently in use is
unchanged from what I wrote in 1983. I wrote that policy for
the original fast filesystem, and never revisited it. It works
well at keeping cylinder groups from filling up. As several of
you have noted, it works poorly for find. Most filesystems are
created from archives that were created by a depth first search
(aka ftw). These directories end up being striped across the
cylinder groups thus creating a worst possible scenario for
future depth first searches. If one knew the total number of
directories to be created, the solution would be to create
(total / fs_ncg) per cylinder group before moving on.
Obviously, one would have to create some heuristic to guess at
this number. Even using a small fixed number like say 10 would
make an order of magnitude improvement. To differentiate
restores from normal operation (when the current algorithm is
probably more sensible), you could use the clustering of up to
10 if they were all done within a ten second window. Anyway, my
conclusion is that this is an area ripe for
experimentation.Kirk McKusick, September 1998How can I make the most of the data I see when my kernel
panics?[This section was extracted from a mail
written by &a.wpaul; on the freebsd-current
mailing list by &a.des;, who
fixed a few typos and added the bracketed comments]
From: Bill Paul <wpaul@skynet.ctr.columbia.edu>
Subject: Re: the fs fun never stops
To: Ben Rosengart
Date: Sun, 20 Sep 1998 15:22:50 -0400 (EDT)
Cc: current@FreeBSD.orgBen Rosengart posted the following
panic message]> Fatal trap 12: page fault while in kernel mode
> fault virtual address = 0x40
> fault code = supervisor read, page not present
> instruction pointer = 0x8:0xf014a7e5
^^^^^^^^^^
> stack pointer = 0x10:0xf4ed6f24
> frame pointer = 0x10:0xf4ed6f28
> code segment = base 0x0, limit 0xfffff, type 0x1b
> = DPL 0, pres 1, def32 1, gran 1
> processor eflags = interrupt enabled, resume, IOPL = 0
> current process = 80 (mount)
> interrupt mask =
> trap number = 12
> panic: page fault[When] you see a message like this, it is not enough to just
reproduce it and send it in. The instruction pointer value that
I highlighted up there is important; unfortunately, it is also
configuration dependent. In other words, the value varies
depending on the exact kernel image that you are using. If
you are using a GENERIC kernel image from one of the snapshots,
then it is possible for somebody else to track down the
offending function, but if you are running a custom kernel then
only you can tell us where the fault
occurred.What you should do is this:Write down the instruction pointer value. Note that
the 0x8: part at the beginning is not
significant in this case: it is the
0xf0xxxxxx part that we want.When the system reboots, do the following:
&prompt.user; nm -n /kernel.that.caused.the.panic | grep f0xxxxxx
where f0xxxxxx is the instruction
pointer value. The odds are you will not get an exact
match since the symbols in the kernel symbol table are
for the entry points of functions and the instruction
pointer address will be somewhere inside a function, not
at the start. If you do not get an exact match, omit the
last digit from the instruction pointer value and try
again, i.e.:
&prompt.user; nm -n /kernel.that.caused.the.panic | grep f0xxxxx
If that does not yield any results, chop off another
digit. Repeat until you get some sort of output. The
result will be a possible list of functions which caused
the panic. This is a less than exact mechanism for
tracking down the point of failure, but it is better than
nothing.I see people constantly show panic messages like this
but rarely do I see someone take the time to match up the
instruction pointer with a function in the kernel symbol
table.The best way to track down the cause of a panic is by
capturing a crash dump, then using
&man.gdb.1; to generate a stack trace on the
crash dump.In any case, the method I normally use is this:Set up a kernel config file, optionally adding
options DDB if you think you need
the kernel debugger for something. (I use this mainly
for setting breakpoints if I suspect an infinite loop
condition of some kind.)Use config -g
KERNELCONFIG to set
up the build directory.cd /sys/compile/
KERNELCONFIG; make
Wait for kernel to finish compiling.make installrebootThe &man.make.1; process will have built two kernels.
kernel and
kernel.debug. kernel
was installed as /kernel, while
kernel.debug can be used as the source of
debugging symbols for &man.gdb.1;.To make sure you capture a crash dump, you need edit
/etc/rc.conf and set
dumpdev to point to your swap
partition. This will cause the &man.rc.8; scripts
to use the &man.dumpon.8; command to enable crash
dumps. You can also run &man.dumpon.8; manually.
After a panic, the crash dump can be recovered using
&man.savecore.8;; if
dumpdev is set in
/etc/rc.conf, the &man.rc.8;
scripts will run &man.savecore.8; automatically
and put the crash dump in
/var/crash.FreeBSD crash dumps are usually the same size as the
physical RAM size of your machine. That is, if you have
64MB of RAM, you will get a 64MB crash dump. Therefore you
must make sure there is enough space in
/var/crash to hold the dump.
Alternatively, you run &man.savecore.8;
manually and have it recover the crash dump to another
directory where you have more room. It is possible to limit
the size of the crash dump by using options
MAXMEM=(foo) to set the amount of memory the
kernel will use to something a little more sensible. For
example, if you have 128MB of RAM, you can limit the
kernel's memory usage to 16MB so that your crash dump size
will be 16MB instead of 128MB.Once you have recovered the crash dump, you can get a
stack trace with &man.gdb.1; as follows:&prompt.user; gdb -k /sys/compile/KERNELCONFIG/kernel.debug /var/crash/vmcore.0(gdb)whereNote that there may be several screens worth of
information; ideally you should use
&man.script.1; to capture all of them. Using the
unstripped kernel image with all the debug symbols should show
the exact line of kernel source code where the panic occurred.
Usually you have to read the stack trace from the bottom up in
order to trace the exact sequence of events that lead to the
crash. You can also use &man.gdb.1; to print out
the contents of various variables or structures in order to
examine the system state at the time of the crash.Now, if you are really insane and have a second computer,
you can also configure &man.gdb.1; to do remote
debugging such that you can use &man.gdb.1; on
one system to debug the kernel on another system, including
setting breakpoints, single-stepping through the kernel code,
just like you can do with a normal user-mode program. I have not
played with this yet as I do not often have the chance to set up
two machines side by side for debugging purposes.[Bill adds: "I forgot to mention one thing: if
you have DDB enabled and the kernel drops into the debugger,
you can force a panic (and a crash dump) just by typing 'panic'
at the ddb prompt. It may stop in the debugger again during the
panic phase. If it does, type 'continue' and it will finish the
crash dump." -ed]Why has dlsym() stopped working for ELF executables?The ELF toolchain does not, by default, make the symbols
defined in an executable visible to the dynamic linker.
Consequently dlsym() searches on handles
obtained from calls to dlopen(NULL,
flags) will fail to find such symbols.If you want to search, using dlsym(),
for symbols present in the main executable of a process, you
need to link the executable using the
option to the
ELF
linker (&man.ld.1;).How can I increase or reduce the kernel address space?By default, the kernel address space is 256 MB on
FreeBSD 3.x and 1 GB on FreeBSD 4.x. If you run a
network-intensive server (e.g. a large FTP or HTTP server),
you might find that 256 MB is not enough.So how do you increase the address space? There are two
aspects to this. First, you need to tell the kernel to reserve
a larger portion of the address space for itself. Second, since
the kernel is loaded at the top of the address space, you need
to lower the load address so it does not bump its head against
the ceiling.The first goal is achieved by increasing the value of
NKPDE in
src/sys/i386/include/pmap.h. Here is what
it looks like for a 1 GB address space:#ifndef NKPDE
#ifdef SMP
#define NKPDE 254 /* addressable number of page tables/pde's */
#else
#define NKPDE 255 /* addressable number of page tables/pde's */
#endif /* SMP */
#endifTo find the correct value of NKPDE,
divide the desired address space size (in megabytes) by four,
then subtract one for UP and two for SMP.To achieve the second goal, you need to compute the
correct load address: simply subtract the address space size
(in bytes) from 0x100100000; the result is 0xc0100000 for a 1
GB address space. Set LOAD_ADDRESS in
src/sys/i386/conf/Makefile.i386 to that
value; then set the location counter in the beginning of the
section listing in
src/sys/i386/conf/kernel.script to the
same value, as follows:OUTPUT_FORMAT("elf32-i386", "elf32-i386", "elf32-i386")
OUTPUT_ARCH(i386)
ENTRY(btext)
SEARCH_DIR(/usr/lib); SEARCH_DIR(/usr/obj/elf/home/src/tmp/usr/i386-unknown-freebsdelf/lib);
SECTIONS
{
/* Read-only sections, merged into text segment: */
. = 0xc0100000 + SIZEOF_HEADERS;
.interp : { *(.interp) }Then reconfig and rebuild your kernel. You will probably
have problems with &man.ps.1;
&man.top.1; and the like; make
world should take care of it (or a manual rebuild of
libkvm,
&man.ps.1; and &man.top.1;
after copying the patched pmap.h to
/usr/include/vm/.NOTE: the size of the kernel address space must be a
multiple of four megabytes.[&a.dg; adds: I think the kernel address space
needs to be a power of two, but I am not certain about that. The
old(er) boot code used to monkey with the high order address bits
and I think expected at least 256MB
granularity.]Acknowledgments
FreeBSD Core TeamIf you see a problem with this FAQ, or wish to submit an
entry, please mail the &a.faq;. We appreciate your feedback,
and cannot make this a better FAQ without your help!
&a.jkh;Occasional fits of FAQ-reshuffling and updating.&a.dwhite;Services above and beyond the call of duty on
freebsd-questions&a.joerg;Services above and beyond the call of duty on
Usenet&a.wollman;Networking and formattingJim LoweMulticast information&a.pds;FreeBSD FAQ typing machine slaveyThe FreeBSD TeamKvetching, moaning, submitting dataAnd to any others we have forgotten, apologies and heartfelt
thanks!
&bibliography;
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/config/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/config/chapter.sgml
index 883cd37ec9..d783e14195 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/config/chapter.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/config/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,1217 +1,1217 @@
ChernLeeWritten by MikeSmithBased on a tutorial written by MattDillonAlso based on tuning(7) written by Configuration and TuningSynopsissystem configuration/optimizationConfiguring a system correctly can substantially reduce the
amount of work involved in maintaining and upgrading it in the
future. This chapter describes some of the aspects of
administrative configuration of FreeBSD systems.This chapter will also describe some of the parameters that
can be set to tune a FreeBSD system for optimum
performance.After reading this chapter, you will know:Why and how to efficiently size, layout, and place
filesystems and swap partitions on your hard drive.The basics of the rc.conf configuration and
/usr/local/etc/rc.d startup systems.How to configure virtual hosts on your network devices.How to use the various configuration files in
/etc.How to tune FreeBSD using sysctl
variables.How to tune disk performance and modify kernel
limitations.Before reading this chapter, you should:Understand the basics of Unix and FreeBSD ().Be familiar with keeping FreeBSD sources up to date
(), and
the basics of kernel configuration/compilation
().Initial ConfigurationPartition LayoutPartition layout/etc/var/usrBase PartitionsWhen laying out your filesystem with &man.disklabel.8;
or &man.sysinstall.8;, it is important to remember that hard
drives can transfer data at a faster rate from the outer
tracks than the inner. Knowing this, you should place your
smaller, heavily-accessed filesystems, such as root and
swap, closer to the outside of the drive, while placing
larger partitions, such as /usr,
towards the inner. To do so, it is a good idea to create
partitions in a similar order: root, swap,
/var, /usr.The size of your /var partition
reflects the intended use of your machine.
/var is primarily used to hold
mailboxes, log files, and printer spools. Mailboxes and log
files, in particular, can grow to unexpected sizes based
upon how many users are on your system and how long your log
files are kept. If you intend to run a mail server, a
/var partition of over a gigabyte can
be suitable. Additionally, /var/tmp
must be large enough to contain any packages you may wish to
add.The /usr partition holds the bulk
of the files required to support the system and a
subdirectory within it called
/usr/local holds the bulk of the files
installed from the &man.ports.7; hierarchy. If you do not
use ports all that much and do not intend to keep system
source (/usr/src) on the machine, you
can get away with a 1 gigabyte /usr
partition. However, if you install a lot of ports
(especially window managers and Linux binaries), we
recommend at least a two gigabyte /usr
and if you also intend to keep system source on the machine,
we recommend a three gigabyte /usr. Do
not underestimate the amount of space you will need in this
partition, it can creep up and surprise you!When sizing your partitions, keep in mind the space
requirements for your system to grow. Running out of space in
one partition while having plenty in another can lead to much
frustration.Some users who have used &man.sysinstall.8;'s
Auto-defaults partition sizer have found
either their root or /var partitions too
small later on. Partition wisely and
generously.Swap Partitionswap sizingswap partitionAs a rule of thumb, your swap space should typically be
double the amount of main memory. For example, if the machine
has 128 megabytes of memory, the swap file should be 256
megabytes. Systems with lesser memory may perform better with
a lot more swap. It is not recommended that you configure any
less than 256 megabytes of swap on a system and you should
keep in mind future memory expansion when sizing the swap
partition. The kernel's VM paging algorithms are tuned to
perform best when the swap partition is at least two times the
size of main memory. Configuring too little swap can lead to
inefficiencies in the VM page scanning code as well as create
issues later on if you add more memory to your machine.Finally, on larger systems with multiple SCSI disks (or
multiple IDE disks operating on different controllers), it is
strongly recommend that you configure swap on each drive (up
to four drives). The swap partitions on the drives should be
approximately the same size. The kernel can handle arbitrary
sizes but internal data structures scale to 4 times the
largest swap partition. Keeping the swap partitions near the
same size will allow the kernel to optimally stripe swap space
across the disks. Do not worry about overdoing it a little,
swap space is the saving grace of Unix. Even if you do not
normally use much swap, it can give you more time to recover
from a runaway program before being forced to reboot.Why Partition? Why partition at all? Why not create one big root
partition and be done with it? Then I do not have to worry
about undersizing things!There are several reasons this is not a good idea.
First, each partition has different operational
characteristics and separating them allows the filesystem to
tune itself to those characteristics. For example, the root
and /usr partitions are read-mostly, with
very little writing, while a lot of reading and writing could
occur in /var and
/var/tmp.By properly partitioning your system, fragmentation
introduced in the smaller more heavily write-loaded partitions
will not bleed over into the mostly-read partitions.
Additionally, keeping the write-loaded partitions closer to
the edge of the disk, for example before the really big
partition instead of after in the partition table, will
increase I/O performance in the partitions where you need it
the most. Now it is true that you might also need I/O
performance in the larger partitions, but they are so large
that shifting them more towards the edge of the disk will not
lead to a significant performance improvement whereas moving
/var to the edge can have a huge impact.
Finally, there are safety concerns. Having a small, neat root
partition that is essentially read-only gives it a greater
chance of surviving a bad crash intact.Core Configurationrc filesrc.confThe principal location for system configuration information
is within /etc/rc.conf. This file
contains a wide range of configuration information, principally
used at system startup to configure the system. Its name
directly implies this; it is configuration information for the
rc* files.An administrator should make entries in the
rc.conf file to
override the default settings from
/etc/defaults/rc.conf. The defaults file
should not be copied verbatim to /etc - it
contains default values, not examples. All system-specific
changes should be made in the rc.conf
file itself.A number of strategies may be applied in clustered
applications to separate site-wide configuration from
system-specific configuration in order to keep administration
overhead down. The recommended approach is to place site-wide
configuration into another file,
such as /etc/rc.conf.site, and then include
this file into /etc/rc.conf, which will
contain only system-specific information.As rc.conf is read by &man.sh.1; it is
trivial to achieve this. For example:rc.conf: . rc.conf.site
hostname="node15.example.com"
network_interfaces="fxp0 lo0"
ifconfig_fxp0="inet 10.1.1.1"rc.conf.site: defaultrouter="10.1.1.254"
saver="daemon"
blanktime="100"The rc.conf.site file can then be
distributed to every system using rsync or a
similar program, while the rc.conf file
remains unique.Upgrading the system using &man.sysinstall.8;
or make world will not overwrite the
rc.conf
file, so system configuration information will not be lost.Application ConfigurationTypically, installed applications have their own
configuration files, with their own syntax, etc. It is
important that these files be kept separate from the base
system, so that they may be easily located and managed by the
package management tools./usr/local/etcTypically, these files are installed in
/usr/local/etc. In the case where an
application has a large number of configuration files, a
subdirectory will be created to hold them.Normally, when a port or package is installed, sample
configuration files are also installed. These are usually
identified with a .default suffix. If there
are no existing
configuration files for the application, they will be created by
copying the .default files.For example, consider the contents of the directory
/usr/local/etc/apache:-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 2184 May 20 1998 access.conf
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 2184 May 20 1998 access.conf.default
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 9555 May 20 1998 httpd.conf
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 9555 May 20 1998 httpd.conf.default
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 12205 May 20 1998 magic
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 12205 May 20 1998 magic.default
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 2700 May 20 1998 mime.types
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 2700 May 20 1998 mime.types.default
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 7980 May 20 1998 srm.conf
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 7933 May 20 1998 srm.conf.defaultThe filesize difference shows that only the srm.conf
file has been changed. A later update of the apache port would not
overwrite this changed file.Starting ServicesservicesIt is common for a system to host a number of services.
These may be started in several different fashions, each having
different advantages./usr/local/etc/rc.dSoftware installed from a port or the packages collection
will often place a script in
/usr/local/etc/rc.d which is invoked at
system startup with a argument, and at
system shutdown with a argument.
This is the recommended way for
starting system-wide services that are to be run as
root, or that
expect to be started as root.
These scripts are registered as
part of the installation of the package, and will be removed
when the package is removed.A generic startup script in
/usr/local/etc/rc.d looks like:#!/bin/sh
echo -n ' FooBar'
case "$1" in
start)
/usr/local/bin/foobar
;;
stop)
kill -9 `cat /var/run/foobar.pid`
;;
*)
echo "Usage: `basename $0` {start|stop}" >&2
exit 64
;;
esac
exit 0
This script is called with
at startup, and the at shutdown to allow
it to carry out its purpose.Some services expect to be invoked by &man.inetd.8; when a
connection is received on a suitable port. This is common for
mail reader servers (POP and IMAP, etc.). These services are
enabled by editing the file /etc/inetd.conf.
See &man.inetd.8; for details on editing this file.Some additional system services may not be covered by the
toggles in /etc/rc.conf. These are
traditionally enabled by placing the command(s) to invoke them
in /etc/rc.local. As of FreeBSD 3.1 there
is no default /etc/rc.local; if it is
created by the administrator it will however be honored in the
normal fashion. Note that rc.local is
generally regarded as the location of last resort; if there is a
better place to start a service, do it there.Do not place any commands in
/etc/rc.conf. To start daemons, or
run any commands at boot time, place a script in
/usr/local/etc/rc.d instead.It is also possible to use the &man.cron.8; daemon to start
system services. This approach has a number of advantages, not
least being that because &man.cron.8; runs these processes as the
owner of the crontab, services may be started
and maintained by non-root users.This takes advantage of a feature of &man.cron.8;: the
time specification may be replaced by @reboot,
which will
cause the job to be run when &man.cron.8; is started shortly after
system boot.Virtual Hostsvirtual hostsip aliasesA very common use of FreeBSD is virtual site hosting, where
one server appears to the network as many servers. This is
achieved by assigning multiple network addresses to a single
interface.A given network interface has one real address,
and may have any number of alias addresses.
These aliases are
normally added by placing alias entries in
/etc/rc.conf.An alias entry for the interface fxp0
looks like:ifconfig_fxp0_alias0="inet xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx netmask xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx"Note that alias entries must start with alias0 and proceed
upwards in order, (for example, _alias1, _alias2, and so on).
The configuration process will stop at the first missing number.
The calculation of alias netmasks is important, but
fortunately quite simple. For a given interface, there must be
one address which correctly represents the network's netmask.
Any other addresses which fall within this network must have a
netmask of all 1's.For example, consider the case where the
fxp0 interface is
connected to two networks, the 10.1.1.0 network with a netmask
of 255.255.255.0 and the 202.0.75.16 network with a netmask of
255.255.255.240. We want the system to appear at 10.1.1.1
through 10.1.1.5 and at 202.0.75.17 through 202.0.75.20.The following entries configure the adapter correctly for
this arrangement: ifconfig_fxp0="inet 10.1.1.1 netmask 255.255.255.0"
ifconfig_fxp0_alias0="inet 10.1.1.2 netmask 255.255.255.255"
ifconfig_fxp0_alias1="inet 10.1.1.3 netmask 255.255.255.255"
ifconfig_fxp0_alias2="inet 10.1.1.4 netmask 255.255.255.255"
ifconfig_fxp0_alias3="inet 10.1.1.5 netmask 255.255.255.255"
ifconfig_fxp0_alias4="inet 202.0.75.17 netmask 255.255.255.240"
ifconfig_fxp0_alias5="inet 202.0.75.18 netmask 255.255.255.255"
ifconfig_fxp0_alias6="inet 202.0.75.19 netmask 255.255.255.255"
ifconfig_fxp0_alias7="inet 202.0.75.20 netmask 255.255.255.255"Configuration Files<filename>/etc</filename> LayoutThere are a number of directories in which configuration
information is kept. These include:/etcGeneric system configuration information; data here is
system-specific./etc/defaultsDefault versions of system configuration files./etc/mailExtra &man.sendmail.8; configuration, other
MTA configuration files.
/etc/pppConfiguration for both user- and kernel-ppp programs.
/etc/namedbDefault location for &man.named.8; data. Normally the
boot file is located here, and contains a directive to
refer to other data in /var/db./usr/local/etcConfiguration files for installed applications.
May contain per-application subdirectories./usr/local/etc/rc.dStart/stop scripts for installed applications./var/dbPersistent system-specific data files, such as
&man.named.8; zone files, database files, and so on.HostnameshostnameDNS<filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename>resolv.conf/etc/resolv.conf dictates how FreeBSD's
resolver accesses the Internet Domain Name System (DNS).The most common entries to resolv.conf are:
nameserverThe IP address of a name server the resolver
should query. The servers are queried in the order
listed with a maximum of three.searchSearch list for hostname lookup. This is normally
determined by the domain of the local hostname.domainThe local domain name.A typical resolv.conf:search example.com
nameserver 147.11.1.11
nameserver 147.11.100.30Only one of the search and
domain options should be used.If you are using DHCP, &man.dhclient.8; usually rewrites
resolv.conf with information received from the
DHCP server.<filename>/etc/hosts</filename>hosts/etc/hosts is a simple text
database reminiscent of the old Internet. It works in
conjunction with DNS and NIS providing name to IP address
mappings. Local computers connected via a LAN can be placed
in here for simplistic naming purposes instead of setting up
a &man.named.8; server. Additionally,
/etc/hosts can be used to provide a
local record of Internet names, reducing the need to query
externally for commonly accessed names.# $FreeBSD$
#
# Host Database
# This file should contain the addresses and aliases
# for local hosts that share this file.
# In the presence of the domain name service or NIS, this file may
# not be consulted at all; see /etc/nsswitch.conf for the resolution order.
#
#
::1 localhost localhost.my.domain myname.my.domain
127.0.0.1 localhost localhost.my.domain myname.my.domain
#
# Imaginary network.
#10.0.0.2 myname.my.domain myname
#10.0.0.3 myfriend.my.domain myfriend
#
# According to RFC 1918, you can use the following IP networks for
# private nets which will never be connected to the Internet:
#
# 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255
# 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255
# 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255
#
# In case you want to be able to connect to the Internet, you need
# real official assigned numbers. PLEASE PLEASE PLEASE do not try
# to invent your own network numbers but instead get one from your
# network provider (if any) or from the Internet Registry (ftp to
# rs.internic.net, directory `/templates').
#/etc/hosts takes on the simple format
of:[Internet address] [official hostname] [alias1] [alias2] ...For example:10.0.0.1 myRealHostname.example.com myRealHostname foobar1 foobar2Consult &man.hosts.5; for more information.Log File Configurationlog files<filename>syslog.conf</filename>syslog.confsyslog.conf is the configuration file
for the &man.syslogd.8; program. It indicates which types
of syslog messages are logged to particular
log files.# $FreeBSD$
#
# Spaces ARE valid field separators in this file. However,
# other *nix-like systems still insist on using tabs as field
# separators. If you are sharing this file between systems, you
# may want to use only tabs as field separators here.
# Consult the syslog.conf(5) manual page.
*.err;kern.debug;auth.notice;mail.crit /dev/console
*.notice;kern.debug;lpr.info;mail.crit;news.err /var/log/messages
security.* /var/log/security
mail.info /var/log/maillog
lpr.info /var/log/lpd-errs
cron.* /var/log/cron
*.err root
*.notice;news.err root
*.alert root
*.emerg *
# uncomment this to log all writes to /dev/console to /var/log/console.log
#console.info /var/log/console.log
# uncomment this to enable logging of all log messages to /var/log/all.log
#*.* /var/log/all.log
# uncomment this to enable logging to a remote log host named loghost
#*.* @loghost
# uncomment these if you're running inn
# news.crit /var/log/news/news.crit
# news.err /var/log/news/news.err
# news.notice /var/log/news/news.notice
!startslip
*.* /var/log/slip.log
!ppp
*.* /var/log/ppp.logConsult the &man.syslog.conf.5; manual page for more
information.<filename>newsyslog.conf</filename>newsyslog.confnewsyslog.conf is the configuration
file for &man.newsyslog.8;, a program that is normally scheduled
to run by &man.cron.8;. &man.newsyslog.8; determines when log
files require archiving or rearranging.
logfile is moved to
logfile.0, logfile.0
is moved to logfile.1, and so on.
Alternatively, the log files may be archived in &man.gzip.1; format
causing them to be named: logfile.0.gz,
logfile.1.gz, and so on.newsyslog.conf indicates which log
files are to be managed, how many are to be kept, and when
they are to be touched. Log files can be rearranged and/or
archived when they have either reached a certain size, or at a
certain periodic time/date.# configuration file for newsyslog
# $FreeBSD$
#
# filename [owner:group] mode count size when [ZB] [/pid_file] [sig_num]
/var/log/cron 600 3 100 * Z
/var/log/amd.log 644 7 100 * Z
/var/log/kerberos.log 644 7 100 * Z
/var/log/lpd-errs 644 7 100 * Z
/var/log/maillog 644 7 * @T00 Z
/var/log/sendmail.st 644 10 * 168 B
/var/log/messages 644 5 100 * Z
/var/log/all.log 600 7 * @T00 Z
/var/log/slip.log 600 3 100 * Z
/var/log/ppp.log 600 3 100 * Z
/var/log/security 600 10 100 * Z
/var/log/wtmp 644 3 * @01T05 B
/var/log/daily.log 640 7 * @T00 Z
/var/log/weekly.log 640 5 1 $W6D0 Z
/var/log/monthly.log 640 12 * $M1D0 Z
/var/log/console.log 640 5 100 * ZConsult the &man.newsyslog.8; manual page for more
information.<filename>sysctl.conf</filename>sysctl.confsysctlsysctl.conf looks much like
rc.conf. Values are set in a
variable=value
form. The specified values are set after the system goes into
multi-user mode. Not all variables are settable in this mode.A sample sysctl.conf turning off logging
of fatal signal exits and letting Linux programs know they are really
running under FreeBSD.kern.logsigexit=0 # Do not log fatal signal exits (e.g. sig 11)
compat.linux.osname=FreeBSD
compat.linux.osrelease=4.3-STABLETuning with sysctlsysctlTuning with sysctl&man.sysctl.8; is an interface that allows you to make changes
to a running FreeBSD system. This includes many advanced
options of the TCP/IP stack and virtual memory system that can
dramatically improve performance for an experienced system
administrator. Over five hundred system variables can be read
and set using &man.sysctl.8;.At its core, &man.sysctl.8; serves two functions: to read and
to modify system settings.To view all readable variables:&prompt.user; sysctl -aTo read a particular variable, for example,
kern.maxproc:&prompt.user; sysctl kern.maxproc
kern.maxproc: 1044To set a particular variable, use the intuitive
variable=value
syntax:&prompt.root; sysctl kern.maxfiles=5000
kern.maxfiles: 2088 -> 5000Settings of sysctl variables are usually either strings,
numbers, or booleans (a boolean being 1 for yes
or a 0 for no).Tuning DisksSysctl Variables<varname>vfs.vmiodirenable</varname>vfs.vmiodirenableThe vfs.vmiodirenable sysctl variable
defaults to 1 (on) and may
be set to 0 (off) or 1 (on). This parameter controls how
directories are cached by the system. Most directories are
small and use but a single fragment (typically 1K) in the
filesystem and even less (typically 512 bytes) in the buffer
cache. However, when operating in the default mode the buffer
cache will only cache a fixed number of directories even if
you have a huge amount of memory. Turning on this sysctl
allows the buffer cache to use the VM Page Cache to cache the
directories. The advantage is that all of memory is now
available for caching directories. The disadvantage is that
the minimum in-core memory used to cache a directory is the
physical page size (typically 4K) rather than 512 bytes. We
recommend turning this option on if you are running any
services which manipulate large numbers of files. Such
services can include web caches, large mail systems, and news
systems. Turning on this option will generally not reduce
performance even with the wasted memory but you should
experiment to find out.<varname>hw.ata.wc</varname>hw.ata.wcFreeBSD 4.3 flirted with turning off IDE write caching.
This reduced write bandwidth to IDE disks but was considered
necessary due to serious data consistency issues introduced
by hard drive vendors. Basically the problem is that IDE
drives lie about when a write completes. With IDE write
caching turned on, IDE hard drives will not only write data
to disk out of order, they will sometimes delay some of the
blocks indefinitely when under heavy disk loads. A crash or
power failure can result in serious filesystem corruption.
So our default was changed to be safe. Unfortunately, the
result was such a huge loss in performance that we caved in
and changed the default back to on after the release. You
should check the default on your system by observing the
hw.ata.wc sysctl variable. If IDE write
caching is turned off, you can turn it back on by setting
the kernel variable back to 1. This must be done from the
boot loader at boot time. Attempting to do it after the
kernel boots will have no effect.For more information, please see &man.ata.4;.Soft UpdatesSoft UpdatestunefsThe &man.tunefs.8; program can be used to fine-tune a
filesystem. This program has many different options, but for
now we are only concerned with toggling Soft Updates on and
- off, which is done by :
+ off, which is done by:
&prompt.root; tunefs -n enable /filesystem
&prompt.root; tunefs -n disable /filesystemA filesystem cannot be modified with &man.tunefs.8; while
it is mounted. A good time to enable Soft Updates is before any
partitions have been mounted, in single-user mode.As of FreeBSD 4.5, it is possible to enable Soft Updates
at filesystem creation time, through use of the -U
option to &man.newfs.8;.Soft Updates drastically improves meta-data performance, mainly
file creation and deletion, through the use of a memory cache. We
recommend turning Soft Updates on on all of your filesystems. There
are two downsides to Soft Updates that you should be aware of: First,
Soft Updates guarantees filesystem consistency in the case of a crash
but could very easily be several seconds (even a minute!) behind
updating the physical disk. If your system crashes you may lose more
work than otherwise. Secondly, Soft Updates delays the freeing of
filesystem blocks. If you have a filesystem (such as the root
filesystem) which is close to full, doing a major update of it, e.g.
make installworld, can run it out of space and
cause the update to fail.More details about Soft UpdatesSoft Updates (Details)There are two classical approaches how to write metadata of
a filesystem back to disk. (Metadata updates are updates to
non-content data like i-nodes or directories.)Historically, the default behaviour was to write out
metadata updates synchronously. If a directory had been
changed, the system waited until the change was actually
written to disk. The file data buffers (file contents) have
been passed through the buffer cache however, and backed up
to disk later on asynchronously. The advantage of this
implementation is that it is operating very safely. If there is
a failure during an update the metadata are always in a
consistent state. A file has either been completely created
or not at all. If the data blocks of a file did not find
their way out of the buffer cache onto the disk by the time
of the crash, &man.fsck.8; is able to recognize this and to
repair the filesystem (e. g. the file length will be set to
0). Additionally, the implementation is clear and simple.
The disadvantage is that metadata changes are very slow. A
rm -r for instance touches all files of a
directory sequentially, but every single of these directory
changes (deletion of a file) will be written synchronously
to the disk. This includes updates to the directory itself,
to the i-node table, and possibly to indirect blocks
allocated by the file. Similar considerations apply for
unrolling large hierachies (tar -x).The second case are asynchronous metadata updates. This
is e. g. the default for Linux/ext2fs or achieved by
mount -o async for *BSD ufs. All
metadata updates are simply being passed through the buffer
cache too, that is, they will be intermixed with the updates
of the file content data. The advantage of this
implementation is there is no need to wait until each
metadata update has been written to disk, so all operations
which cause huge amounts of metadata updates work much
faster than in the synchronous case. Also, the
implementation is still clear and simple, so there is a low
risk for bugs creeping into the code. The disadvantage is
that there is no guarantee at all for a consistent state of
the filesystem. If there is a failure during an operation
that updated large amounts of metadata (like a power
failure, or someone pressing the reset button),
the file system
will be left in an unpredictable state. There is no chance
to examine the state of the file system when the system
comes up again; the data blocks of a file could already have
been written to the disk while the updates of the i-node
table or the associated directory were not. It is actually
impossible to implement a fsck which is
able to clean up the resulting chaos (because the necessary
information is just not available on the disk). If the
filesystem has been damaged beyond repair, the only choice
is to newfs it and restore it from backup.
The usual solution for this problem was to implement a
dirty region logging (sometimes also
referred to as journalling, albeit that
term has not been used consistently and occasionally applied
to other forms of transaction logging as well). Metadata
updates are still written out synchronously, but only into a
small region of the disk. Later on they will be distributed
from there to their proper location. Because the logging
area is only a small, contiguous region on the disk, there
are no long distances for the disk heads to move, even
during heavy operations, so these operations are accelerated
quite a bit compared to the classical synchronous updates.
Additionally the complexity of the implementation is fairly
limited and thus the risk for bugs still low. A disadvatage
is that all metadata are written twice (once into the
logging region and once to the proper location) so for
normal work, a performance pessimization
might result. On the other hand, in case of a crash, all
pending metadata operations can be quickly either rolled-back
or completed from the logging area after the system comes
up again, resulting in a fast filesystem startup.Now, Kirk McKusick's (the developer of Berkeley FFS)
solution to the problem are Soft Updates: all pending
metadata updates are kept in memory and written out to disk
in a sorted sequence (ordered metadata
updates). This has the effect that, in case of
heavy metadata operations, later updates of a certain item
catch the earlier ones if those are still in
memory and have not already been written to disk. So all
operations on, say, a directory are generally done still in
memory before the update is written to disk (the data
blocks are sorted to their according position as well so
that they will not be on the disk ahead of their metadata).
In case of a crash this causes an implicit log
rewind: all operations which did not find their way
to the disk appear as if they had never happened. A
consistent filesystem state is maintained that appears to
be the one of 30--60 seconds earlier. The
algorithm used guarantees that all actually used resources
are marked as such in their appropriate bitmaps: blocks and i-nodes.
After a crash, the only resource allocation error
that occur are that resources are
marked as used which actually are free.
&man.fsck.8; then recognizes this situation,
and free up those no longer used resources. It is safe to
ignore the dirty state of the filesystem after a crash, by
forcibly mounting it with mount -f. In
order to free up possibly unused resources, &man.fsck.8;
needs to be run at a later time. This is the idea behind
the background fsck: at system startup
time, only a snapshot from the
filesystem is recorded, that fsck can be
run against later on. All filesystems can then be mounted
dirty, and system startup proceeds to
multiuser mode. Then, background fscks
will be scheduled for all filesystems that need it, to free
up possibly unused resources. (Filesystems that do not use
soft updates still need the usual foreground
fsck though.)The advantage is that metadata operations are nearly as
fast as asynchronous updates (i. e. faster than with
logging, which has to write the
metadata twice). The disadvantages are the complexity of
the code (implying a higher risk for bugs in an area that
is highly sensitive regarding loss of user data), and a
higher memory consumption. Additionally there are some
idiosyncrasies one has to get used to.
After a crash, the state of the filesystem appears to be
somewhat older; e. g. in situations where
the standard synchronous approach would have caused some
zero-length files to remain after the
fsck, these files do not exist at all
with a soft updates filesystem because neither the metadata
nor the file contents have ever been written to disk.
After a rm, the released disk space is
not instantly available but only after the updates have
written to disk. This can in particular cause problems
when installing large amounts of data into a filesystem
that does not have enough free space to hold all the files
twice.Tuning Kernel LimitsTuning kernel limitsFile/Process Limits<varname>kern.maxfiles</varname>kern.maxfileskern.maxfiles can be raised or
lowered based upon your system requirements. This variable
indicates the maximum number of file descriptors on your
system. When the file descriptor table is full,
file: table is full will show up repeatedly
in the system message buffer, which can be viewed with the
dmesg command.Each open file, socket, or fifo uses one file
descriptor. A large-scale production server may easily
require many thousands of file descriptors, depending on the
kind and number of services running concurrently.kern.maxfile's default value is
dictated by the option in your
kernel configuration file. kern.maxfiles grows
proportionally to the value of . When
compiling a custom kernel, it is a good idea to set this kernel
configuration option according to the uses of your system. From
this number, the kernel is given most of its pre-defined limits.
Even though a production machine may not actually have 256 users
connected as once, the resources needed may be similar to a
high-scale webserver.As of FreeBSD 4.5, setting to
0 in your kernel configuration file will choose
a reasonable default value based on the amount of RAM present in
your system.Network LimitsThe kernel configuration
option dictates the amount of network mbufs available to the
system. A heavily-trafficked server with a low number of MBUFs
will hinder FreeBSD's ability. Each cluster represents
approximately 2K of memory, so a value of 1024 represents 2
megabytes of kernel memory reserved for network buffers. A
simple calculation can be done to figure out how many are
needed. If you have a web server which maxes out at 1000
simultaneous connections, and each connection eats a 16K receive
and 16K send buffer, you need approximately 32MB worth of
network buffers to cover the webserver. A good rule of thumb is
to multiply by 2, so 32MBx2 = 64MB/2K = 32768.Adding Swap SpaceNo matter how well you plan, sometimes a system doesn't run
as you expect. If you find you need more swap space, it's
simple enough to add. You have three ways to increase swap
space: adding a new hard drive, enabling swap over NFS, and
creating a swap file on an existing partition.Swap on a New Hard DriveThe best way to add swap, of course, is to use this as an
excuse to add another hard drive. You can always use another
hard drive, after all. If you can do this, go reread the
discussion of swap space
from the Initial Configuration
section of the Handbook for some suggestions on how to best
arrange your swap.Swapping over NFSSwapping over NFS is only recommended if you do not have a
local hard disk to swap to. Swapping over NFS is slow and
inefficient in versions of FreeBSD prior to 4.x. It is
reasonably fast and efficient in 4.0-RELEASE and newer. Even
with newer versions of FreeBSD, NFS swapping will be limited
by the available network bandwidth and puts an additional
burden on the NFS server.SwapfilesYou can create a file of a specified size to use as a swap
file. In our example here we will use a 64Mb file called
/usr/swap0. You can use any name you
want, of course.Creating a SwapfileBe certain that your kernel configuration includes
the vnode driver. It is not in recent versions of
GENERIC.pseudo-device vn 1 #Vnode driver (turns a file into a device)create a vn-device:&prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV vn0create a swapfile (/usr/swap0):&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/usr/swap0 bs=1024k count=64set proper permissions on (/usr/swap0):&prompt.root; chmod 0600 /usr/swap0enable the swap file in /etc/rc.conf:swapfile="/usr/swap0" # Set to name of swapfile if aux swapfile desired.Reboot the machine or to enable the swap file immediately,
type:&prompt.root; vnconfig -e /dev/vn0b /usr/swap0 swap
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/cutting-edge/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/cutting-edge/chapter.sgml
index 62068dd93b..1bd2ea722b 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/cutting-edge/chapter.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/cutting-edge/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,1650 +1,1650 @@
JimMockRestructured, reorganized, and parts updated by JordanHubbardOriginal work by Poul-HenningKampJohnPolstraNikClaytonThe Cutting EdgeSynopsis&os; is under constant development between releases. For
people who want to be on the cutting edge, there are several easy
mechanisms for keeping your system in sync with the latest
developments. Be warned—the cutting edge is not for everyone!
This chapter will help you decide if you want to track the
development system, or stick with one of the released
versions.After reading this chapter, you will know:The difference between the two development
branches; &os.stable; and &os.current;.How to keep your system up to date with
CVSup,
CVS, or
CTM.How to rebuild and reinstall the entire base
system with make world.Before reading this chapter, you should:Properly setup your network connection ().Know how to install additional third-party
software ().&os.current; vs. &os.stable;-CURRENT-STABLEThere are two development branches to FreeBSD; &os.current; and
&os.stable;. This section will explain a bit about each and describe
how to keep your system up-to-date with each respective tree.
&os.current; will be discussed first, then &os.stable;.Staying Current with &os;As you are reading this, keep in mind that &os.current; is the
bleeding edge of &os; development and that if you
are new to &os;, you are most likely going to want to think
twice about running it.What Is &os.current;?snapshot&os.current; is, quite literally, nothing more than a
daily snapshot of the working sources for &os;. These
include work in progress, experimental changes and transitional
mechanisms that may or may not be present in the next official
release of the software. While many of us compile almost daily
from &os.current; sources, there are periods of time when the
sources are literally un-compilable. These problems are
generally resolved as expeditiously as possible, but whether or
not &os.current; sources bring disaster or greatly desired
functionality can literally be a matter of which part of any
given 24 hour period you grabbed them in!Who Needs &os.current;?&os.current; is made generally available for 3 primary
interest groups:Members of the &os; group who are actively working on
some part of the source tree and for whom keeping
current is an absolute requirement.Members of the &os; group who are active testers,
willing to spend time working through problems in order to
ensure that &os.current; remains as sane as possible.
These are also people who wish to make topical suggestions
on changes and the general direction of &os;.Peripheral members of the &os; (or some other) group
who merely wish to keep an eye on things and use the current
sources for reference purposes (e.g. for
reading, not running). These people
also make the occasional comment or contribute code.What Is &os.current; <emphasis>Not</emphasis>?A fast-track to getting pre-release bits because you
heard there is some cool new feature in there and you want
to be the first on your block to have it.A quick way of getting bug fixes.In any way officially supported by us.
We do our best to help people genuinely in one of the 3
legitimate &os.current; categories, but we
simply do not have the time to provide
tech support for it. This is not because we are mean and
nasty people who do not like helping people out (we would
not even be doing &os; if we were), it is literally
because we cannot answer 400 messages a day
and actually work on FreeBSD! Given the
choice between improving &os; and answering lots of
questions, most developers, and users, would probably opt for
the former.Using &os.current;
- Join the &a.current; and the &a.cvsall; . This is not
+ Join the &a.current; and the &a.cvsall;. This is not
just a good idea, it is essential. If
you are not on the &a.current;,
you will not see the comments that people are
making about the current state of the system and thus will
probably end up stumbling over a lot of problems that others
have already found and solved. Even more importantly, you
will miss out on important bulletins which may be critical
to your system's continued health.The &a.cvsall; mailing list will allow you to see the
commit log entry for each change as it is made along with
any pertinent information on possible side-effects.To join these lists, send mail to &a.majordomo; and
specify the following in the body of your message:subscribe freebsd-current
subscribe cvs-allmajordomoOptionally, you can also say help
and Majordomo will send you full help on how to subscribe
and unsubscribe to the various other mailing lists we
support.Grab the sources from ftp.FreeBSD.org. You can do this in
one of three ways:cvsupcron-CURRENTSyncing with CVSupUse the cvsup program
with this
supfile. This is the most recommended
method, since it allows you to grab the entire
collection once and then only what has changed from then
on. Many people run cvsup from
cron and keep their
sources up-to-date automatically. You have to
customize the sample supfile above, and configure
cvsup for your environment.
If you want help doing this configuration,
- simply type :
+ simply type:
&prompt.root; pkg_add -f ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/packages/All/cvsupit-3.0.tgz-CURRENTDownloading with ftpUse ftp. The source tree for
&os.current; is always exported on:
ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-current/.
Some of our FTP mirrors may also allow
compressed/tarred grabbing of whole trees. e.g. you
see:usr.bin/lexYou can do the following to get the whole directory
as a tar file:ftp>cd usr.binftp>get lex.tar-CURRENTSyncing with CTMUse the CTM facility. If you
have very bad connectivity (high price connections or
only email access) CTM is an option.
However, it is a lot of hassle and can give you broken files.
This leads to it being rarely used, which again increases
the chance of it not working for fairly long periods of
time. We recommend using
CVSup
for anybody with a 9600bps modem or faster connection.
If you are grabbing the sources to run, and not just
look at, then grab all of &os.current;, not
just selected portions. The reason for this is that various
parts of the source depend on updates elsewhere, and trying
to compile just a subset is almost guaranteed to get you
into trouble.Before compiling &os.current;, read the
Makefile in /usr/src
carefully. You should at least run a make world the first time through
as part of the upgrading process. Reading the &a.current;
will keep you up-to-date on other bootstrapping procedures
that sometimes become necessary as we move towards the next
release.Be active! If you are running &os.current;, we want
to know what you have to say about it, especially if you
have suggestions for enhancements or bug fixes. Suggestions
with accompanying code are received most
enthusiastically!Staying Stable with &os;What Is &os.stable;?-STABLE&os.stable; is our development branch from which major releases
are made. Changes go into this branch at a different pace, and
with the general assumption that they have first gone into
&os.current; first for testing. This is still
a development branch, however, and this means that at any given time,
the sources for &os.stable; may or may not be suitable for any
particular purpose. It is simply another engineering development
track, not a resource for end-users.Who Needs &os.stable;?If you are interested in tracking or contributing to the
FreeBSD development process, especially as it relates to the
next point release of FreeBSD, then you should
consider following &os.stable;.While it is true that security fixes also go into the
&os.stable; branch, you do not need to
track &os.stable; to do this. Every security advisory for
FreeBSD explains how to fix the problem for the releases it
affects
That is not quite true. We can not continue to
support old releases of FreeBSD forever, although we do
support them for many years. For a complete description
of the current security policy for old releases of
FreeBSD, please see http://www.FreeBSD.org/security/
, and tracking an entire development branch just
for security reasons is likely to bring in a lot of unwanted
changes as well.Although we endeavor to ensure that the &os.stable; branch
compiles and runs at all times, this cannot be guaranteed. In
addition, while code is developed in &os.current; before including
it in &os.stable;, more people run &os.stable; than &os.current;, so
it is inevitable that bugs and corner cases will sometimes be found
in &os.stable; that were not apparent in &os.current;.For these reasons, we do not recommend that
you blindly track &os.stable;, and it is particularly important that
you do not update any production servers to &os.stable; without
first thoroughly testing the code in your development
environment.If you do not have the resources to do this then we recommend
that you run the most recent release of FreeBSD, and use the binary
update mechanism to move from release to release.Using &os.stable;-STABLEusingJoin the &a.stable;. This will keep you informed of
build-dependencies that may appear in &os.stable;
or any other issues requiring
special attention. Developers will also make announcements
in this mailing list when they are contemplating some
controversial fix or update, giving the users a chance to
respond if they have any issues to raise concerning the
proposed change.The &a.cvsall; mailing list will allow you to see the
commit log entry for each change as it is made along with
any pertinent information on possible side-effects.To join these lists, send mail to &a.majordomo; and
specify the following in the body of your message:subscribe freebsd-stable
subscribe cvs-allmajordomoOptionally, you can also say help
and Majordomo will send you full help on how to subscribe
and unsubscribe to the various other mailing lists we
support.If you are installing a new system and want it to be as
stable as possible, you can simply grab the latest dated
branch snapshot from ftp://releng4.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/
and install it like any other release.If you are already running a previous release of &os;
and wish to upgrade via sources then you can easily do so
from ftp.FreeBSD.org. This can
be done in one of three ways:-STABLEsyncing with CVSupUse the cvsup program
with this
supfile. This is the most recommended
method, since it allows you to grab the entire
collection once and then only what has changed from then
on. Many people run cvsup from
cron to keep their
sources up-to-date automatically. For a fairly easy
interface to this, simply type:
-STABLEdownloading with FTPUse ftp. The source tree for
&os.stable; is always exported on:
ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-stable/Some of our FTP mirrors may also allow
compressed/tarred grabbing of whole trees. e.g. you
see:usr.bin/lexYou can do the following to get the whole directory
for you as a tar file:ftp>cd usr.binftp>get lex.tar-STABLEsyncing with CTMUse the CTM facility. If
you do not have a fast and inexpensive connection to
the Internet, this is the method you should consider
using.
Essentially, if you need rapid on-demand access to the
source and communications bandwidth is not a consideration,
use cvsup or ftp.
Otherwise, use CTM.-STABLEcompilingBefore compiling &os.stable;, read the
Makefile in /usr/src
carefully. You should at least run a make world the first time through
as part of the upgrading process. Reading the &a.stable; will
keep you up-to-date on other bootstrapping procedures that
sometimes become necessary as we move towards the next
release.Synchronizing Your SourceThere are various ways of using an Internet (or email)
connection to stay up-to-date with any given area of the &os;
project sources, or all areas, depending on what interests you. The
primary services we offer are Anonymous
CVS, CVSup, and CTM.While it is possible to update only parts of your source tree,
the only supported update procedure is to update the entire tree
and recompile both userland (i.e., all the programs that run in
user space, such as those in /bin and
/sbin) and kernel sources. Updating only part
of your source tree, only the kernel, or only userland will often
result in problems. These problems may range from compile errors
to kernel panics or data corruption.anonymous CVSAnonymous CVS and
CVSup use the pull
model of updating sources. In the case of
CVSup the user (or a
cron script) invokes
the cvsup program, and it interacts with a
cvsupd server somewhere to bring your files
up-to-date. The updates you receive are up-to-the-minute and you
get them when, and only when, you want them. You can easily
restrict your updates to the specific files or directories that are
of interest to you. Updates are generated on the fly by the server,
according to what you have and what you want to have.
Anonymous CVS is quite a bit more
simplistic than CVSup in that it is just an extension to
CVS which allows it to pull changes
directly from a remote CVS repository.
CVSup can do this far more efficiently,
but Anonymous CVS is easier to
use.CTMCTM, on the other hand, does not
interactively compare the sources you have with those on the master
archive or otherwise pull them across.. Instead, a script which
identifies changes in files since its previous run is executed
several times a day on the master CTM machine, any detected changes
being compressed, stamped with a sequence-number and encoded for
transmission over email (in printable ASCII only). Once received,
these CTM deltas can then be handed to the
&man.ctm.rmail.1; utility which will automatically decode, verify
and apply the changes to the user's copy of the sources. This
process is far more efficient than CVSup,
and places less strain on our server resources since it is a
push rather than a pull
model.There are other trade-offs, of course. If you inadvertently
wipe out portions of your archive, CVSup
will detect and rebuild the damaged portions for you.
CTM will not do this, and if you wipe some
portion of your source tree out (and do not have it backed up) then
you will have to start from scratch (from the most recent CVS
base delta) and rebuild it all with CTM or, with
anoncvs, simply delete the bad bits and resync.Using <command>make world</command>make worldOnce you have synchronized your local source tree against a
particular version of &os; (&os.stable;, &os.current;, and so on)
you can then use the source
tree to rebuild the system.Take a BackupIt cannot be stressed enough how important it is to take a
backup of your system before you do this.
While rebuilding the world is (as long as you follow these
instructions) an easy task to do, there will inevitably be times
when you make mistakes, or when mistakes made by others in the
source tree render your system unbootable.Make sure you have taken a backup. And have a fix-it floppy to
hand. You will probably never have to use it, but it is better to be
safe than sorry!Subscribe to the Right Mailing Listmailing listThe &os.stable; and &os.current; branches are, by their
nature, in development. People that
contribute to &os; are human, and mistakes occasionally
happen.Sometimes these mistakes can be quite harmless, just causing
your system to print a new diagnostic warning. Or the change may
be catastrophic, and render your system unbootable or destroy your
filesystems (or worse).If problems like these occur, a heads up is
posted to the appropriate mailing list, explaining the nature of
the problem and which systems it affects. And an all
clear announcement is posted when the problem has been
solved.If you try to track &os.stable; or &os.current; and do
not read the &a.stable; or the
&a.current; respectively, then you are
asking for trouble.Read <filename>/usr/src/UPDATING</filename>Before you do anything else, read
/usr/src/UPDATING (or the equivalent file
wherever you have a copy of the source code). This file should
contain important information about problems you might encounter, or
specify the order in which you might have to run certain commands.
If UPDATING contradicts something you read here,
UPDATING takes precedence.Reading UPDATING is not an acceptable
substitute for subscribing to the correct mailing list, as described
previously. The two requirements are complementary, not
exclusive.Check <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename>make.confExamine the files
/etc/defaults/make.conf and
/etc/make.conf. The first contains some
default defines – most of which are commented out. To
make use of them when you rebuild your system from source, add
them to /etc/make.conf. Keep in mind that
anything you add to /etc/make.conf is also
used every time you run make, so it is a good
idea to set them to something sensible for your system.A typical user will probably want to copy the
CFLAGS and
NOPROFILE lines found in
/etc/defaults/make.conf to
/etc/make.conf and uncomment them.Examine the other definitions (COPTFLAGS,
NOPORTDOCS and so
on) and decide if they are relevant to you.Update <filename>/etc/group</filename>The /etc directory contains a large part
of your system's configuration information, as well as scripts
that are run at system startup. Some of these scripts change from
version to version of FreeBSD.Some of the configuration files are also used in the day to
day running of the system. In particular,
/etc/group.There have been occasions when the installation part of
make world has expected certain usernames or groups
to exist. When performing an upgrade it is likely that these
groups did not exist. This caused problems when upgrading.The most recent example of this is when the ppp subsystem were installed using a
non-existent (for them) group name.The solution is to examine
/usr/src/etc/group and compare its list of
groups with your own. If there are any groups in the new file that
are not in your file then copy them over. Similarly, you should
rename any groups in /etc/group which have
the same GID but a different name to those in
/usr/src/etc/group.If you are feeling particularly paranoid, you can check your
system to see which files are owned by the group you are
renaming or deleting.&prompt.root; find / -group GID -printwill show all files owned by group
GID (which can be either a group name
or a numeric group ID).Drop to Single User Modesingle-user modeYou may want to compile the system in single user mode. Apart
from the obvious benefit of making things go slightly faster,
reinstalling the system will touch a lot of important system
files, all the standard system binaries, libraries, include files
and so on. Changing these on a running system (particularly if
you have active users on the system at the time) is asking for
trouble.multi-user modeAnother method is to compile the system in multi-user mode, and
then drop into single user mode for the installation. If you would
like to do it this way, simply hold off on the following steps until
the build has completed.As the superuser, you can execute&prompt.root; from a running system, which will drop it to single user
mode.Alternatively, reboot the system, and at the boot prompt,
enter the flag. The system will then boot
single user. At the shell prompt you should then run:&prompt.root; fsck -p
&prompt.root; mount -u /
&prompt.root; mount -a -t ufs
&prompt.root; swapon -aThis checks the filesystems, remounts /
read/write, mounts all the other UFS filesystems referenced in
/etc/fstab and then turns swapping on.If your CMOS clock is set to local time and not to GMT,
you may also need to run the following command:&prompt.root; adjkerntz -iThis will make sure that your local timezone settings
get set up correctly - without this, you may later run into some
problems.
Remove <filename>/usr/obj</filename>As parts of the system are rebuilt they are placed in
directories which (by default) go under
/usr/obj. The directories shadow those under
/usr/src.You can speed up the make world process, and
possibly save yourself some dependency headaches by removing this
directory as well.Some files below /usr/obj may have the
immutable flag set (see &man.chflags.1; for more information)
which must be removed first.&prompt.root; cd /usr/obj
&prompt.root; chflags -R noschg *
&prompt.root; rm -rf *Recompile the SourceSaving the OutputIt is a good idea to save the output you get from running
&man.make.1; to another file. If something goes wrong you will
have a copy of the error message. While this might not help you
in diagnosing what has gone wrong, it can help others if you post
your problem to one of the &os; mailing lists.The easiest way to do this is to use the &man.script.1;
command, with a parameter that specifies the name of the file to
save all output to. You would do this immediately before
rebuilding the world, and then type exit
when the process has finished.&prompt.root; script /var/tmp/mw.out
Script started, output file is /var/tmp/mw.out
&prompt.root; make TARGET… compile, compile, compile …
&prompt.root; exit
Script done, …If you do this, do not save the output
in /tmp. This directory may be cleared
next time you reboot. A better place to store it is in
/var/tmp (as in the previous example) or
in root's home directory.Compile and Install the Base SystemYou must be in the /usr/src
directory...&prompt.root; cd /usr/src(unless, of course, your source code is elsewhere, in which
case change to that directory instead).makeTo rebuild the world you use the &man.make.1; command. This
command reads instructions from the Makefile,
which describes how the programs that comprise &os; should be
rebuilt, the order in which they should be built, and so on.The general format of the command line you will type is as
follows:&prompt.root; make In this example,
is an option that you would pass to &man.make.1;. See the
&man.make.1; manual page for an example of the options you can
pass.
passes a variable to the Makefile. The
behavior of the Makefile is controlled by
these variables. These are the same variables as are set in
/etc/make.conf, and this provides another
way of setting them.&prompt.root; make -DNOPROFILE=true targetis another way of specifying that profiled libraries should
not be built, and corresponds with theNOPROFILE= true
# Avoid compiling profiled librarieslines in /etc/make.conf.target tells &man.make.1; what
you want to do. Each Makefile defines a
number of different targets, and your choice of
target determines what happens.Some targets are listed in the
Makefile, but are not meant for you to run.
Instead, they are used by the build process to break out the
steps necessary to rebuild the system into a number of
sub-steps.Most of the time you will not need to pass any parameters to
&man.make.1;, and so your command like will look like
this:&prompt.root; make targetBeginning with version 2.2.5 of &os; (actually, it was
first created on the &os.current; branch, and then retrofitted to
&os.stable; midway between 2.2.2 and 2.2.5) the
world target has been split in
two. buildworld and
installworld.As the names imply, buildworld
builds a complete new tree under /usr/obj,
and installworld installs this tree on
the current machine.This is very useful for 2 reasons. First, it allows you
to do the build safe in the knowledge that no components of
your running system will be affected. The build is
self hosted. Because of this, you can safely
run buildworld on a machine running
in multi-user mode with no fear of ill-effects. It is still
recommended that you run the
installworld part in single user
mode, though.Secondly, it allows you to use NFS mounts to upgrade
multiple machines on your network. If you have three machines,
A, B and C that you want to upgrade, run make
buildworld and make installworld on
A. B and C should then NFS mount /usr/src
and /usr/obj from A, and you can then run
make installworld to install the results of
the build on B and C.Although the world target still exists,
you are strongly encouraged not to use it.Run&prompt.root; make buildworldIt is now possible to specify a -j option to
make which will cause it to spawn several
simultaneous processes. This is most useful on multi-CPU machines.
However, since much of the compiling process is IO bound rather
than CPU bound it is also useful on single CPU machines.On a typical single-CPU machine you would run:&prompt.root; make -j4 buildworld&man.make.1; will then have up to 4 processes running at any one
time. Empirical evidence posted to the mailing lists shows this
generally gives the best performance benefit.If you have a multi-CPU machine and you are using an SMP
configured kernel try values between 6 and 10 and see how they speed
things up.Be aware that this is still somewhat experimental, and commits
to the source tree may occasionally break this feature. If the
world fails to compile using this parameter try again without it
before you report any problems.Timingsmake worldtimingsMany factors influence the build time, but currently a 500 MHz
Pentium 3 with 128 MB of RAM takes about 2 hours to build
the &os.stable; tree, with no tricks or shortcuts used during the
process. A &os.current; tree will take somewhat longer.Compile and Install a New KernelkernelcompilingTo take full advantage of your new system you should recompile the
kernel. This is practically a necessity, as certain memory structures
may have changed, and programs like &man.ps.1; and &man.top.1; will
fail to work until the kernel and source code versions are the
same.The simplest, safest way to do this is to build and install a
kernel based on GENERIC. While
GENERIC may not have all the necessary devices
for your system, it should contain everything necessary to boot your
system back to single user mode. This is a good test that the new
system works properly. After booting from
GENERIC and verifying that your system works you
can then build a new kernel based on your normal kernel configuration
file.If you are upgrading to &os; 4.0 or above then the standard
kernel build procedure (as described in )
is deprecated. Instead, you should run these commands
after you have built the world with
buildworld.&prompt.root; cd /usr/src
&prompt.root; make buildkernel
&prompt.root; make installkernelIf you are upgrading to a version of &os; below 4.0 you should
use the standard kernel build procedure. However, it is recommended
that you use the new version of &man.config.8;, using a command line
like this.&prompt.root; /usr/obj/usr/src/usr.sbin/config/config KERNELNAMEReboot into Single User Modesingle-user modeYou should reboot in to single user mode to test the new kernel
works. Do this by following the instructions in
.Install the New System BinariesIf you were building a version of &os; recent enough to have
used make buildworld then you should now use
installworld to install the new system
binaries.Run&prompt.root; cd /usr/src
&prompt.root; make installworldIf you specified variables on the make
buildworld command line, you must specify the same
variables in the make installworld command
line. This does not necessarily hold true for other options;
for example, must never be used with
installworld.For example, if you ran:&prompt.root; make -DNOPROFILE=true buildworldyou must install the results with:&prompt.root; make -DNOPROFILE=true installworldotherwise it would try and install profiled libraries that
had not been built during the make buildworld
phase.Update Files Not Updated by <command>make world</command>Remaking the world will not update certain directories (in
particular, /etc, /var and
/usr) with new or changed configuration files.mergemasterThe simplest way to update these files is to use
&man.mergemaster.8;, though it is possible to do it manually
if you would prefer to do that. We strongly recommend you
use &man.mergemaster.8;, however, and if you do then you
can skip forward to the next
section, since &man.mergemaster.8; is very simple to use.
You should read the manual page first, and make a backup of
/etc in case anything goes wrong.If you wish to do the update manually,
you cannot just copy over the files from
/usr/src/etc to /etc and
have it work. Some of these files must be installed
first. This is because the /usr/src/etc
directory is not a copy of what your
/etc directory should look like. In addition,
there are files that should be in /etc that are
not in /usr/src/etc.The simplest way to do this by hand is to install the
files into a new directory, and then work through them looking
for differences.Backup Your Existing <filename>/etc</filename>Although, in theory, nothing is going to touch this directory
automatically, it is always better to be sure. So copy your
existing /etc directory somewhere safe.
Something like:&prompt.root; cp -Rp /etc /etc.old does a recursive copy,
preserves times, ownerships on files and suchlike.You need to build a dummy set of directories to install the new
/etc and other files into.
/var/tmp/root is a reasonable choice, and
there are a number of subdirectories required under this as
well.&prompt.root; mkdir /var/tmp/root
&prompt.root; cd /usr/src/etc
&prompt.root; make DESTDIR=/var/tmp/root distrib-dirs distributionThis will build the necessary directory structure and install the
files. A lot of the subdirectories that have been created under
/var/tmp/root are empty and should be deleted.
The simplest way to do this is to:&prompt.root; cd /var/tmp/root
&prompt.root; find -d . -type d | xargs rmdir 2>/dev/nullThis will remove all empty directories. (Standard error is
redirected to /dev/null to prevent the warnings
about the directories that are not empty.)/var/tmp/root now contains all the files that
should be placed in appropriate locations below
/. You now have to go through each of these
files, determining how they differ with your existing files.Note that some of the files that will have been installed in
/var/tmp/root have a leading /var/tmp/root/ and
/var/tmp/root/root/, although there may be others
(depending on when you are reading this. Make sure you use
The simplest way to do this is to use &man.diff.1; to compare the
two files.&prompt.root; diff /etc/shells /var/tmp/root/etc/shellsThis will show you the differences between your
/etc/shells file and the new
/etc/shells file. Use these to decide whether to
merge in changes that you have made or whether to copy over your old
file.Name the New Root Directory
(<filename>/var/tmp/root</filename>) with a Time Stamp, So You Can
Easily Compare Differences Between VersionsFrequently rebuilding the world means that you have to update
/etc frequently as well, which can be a bit of
a chore.You can speed this process up by keeping a copy of the last set
of changed files that you merged into /etc.
The following procedure gives one idea of how to do this.Make the world as normal. When you want to update
/etc and the other directories, give the
target directory a name based on the current date. If you were
doing this on the 14th of February 1998 you could do the
following.&prompt.root; mkdir /var/tmp/root-19980214
&prompt.root; cd /usr/src/etc
&prompt.root; make DESTDIR=/var/tmp/root-19980214 \
distrib-dirs distributionMerge in the changes from this directory as outlined
above.Do not remove the
/var/tmp/root-19980214 directory when you
have finished.When you have downloaded the latest version of the source
and remade it, follow step 1. This will give you a new
directory, which might be called
/var/tmp/root-19980221 (if you wait a week
between doing updates).You can now see the differences that have been made in the
intervening week using &man.diff.1; to create a recursive diff
between the two directories.&prompt.root; cd /var/tmp
&prompt.root; diff -r root-19980214 root-19980221Typically, this will be a much smaller set of differences
than those between
/var/tmp/root-19980221/etc and
/etc. Because the set of differences is
smaller, it is easier to migrate those changes across into your
/etc directory.You can now remove the older of the two
/var/tmp/root-* directories.&prompt.root; rm -rf /var/tmp/root-19980214Repeat this process every time you need to merge in changes
to /etc.You can use &man.date.1; to automate the generation of the
directory names.&prompt.root; mkdir /var/tmp/root-`date "+%Y%m%d"`Update <filename>/dev</filename>DEVFSDEVFSIf you are using DEVFS this is unnecessary.In most cases, the &man.mergemaster.8 tool will realize when
it is necessary to update the devices, and offer to complete it
automatically. These instructions tell how to update the devices
manually.For safety's sake, this is a multi-step process.Copy /var/tmp/root/dev/MAKEDEV to
/dev.&prompt.root; cp /var/tmp/root/dev/MAKEDEV /devMAKEDEVIf you used &man.mergemaster.8; to
update /etc, then your
MAKEDEV script should have been updated
already, though it cannot hurt to check (with &man.diff.1;)
and copy it manually if necessary.Now, take a snapshot of your current
/dev. This snapshot needs to contain the
permissions, ownerships, major and minor numbers of each filename,
but it should not contain the time stamps. The easiest way to do
this is to use &man.awk.1; to strip out some of the
information.&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; ls -l | awk '{print $1, $2, $3, $4, $5, $6, $NF}' > /var/tmp/dev.outRemake all the devices.&prompt.root; Write another snapshot of the directory, this time to
/var/tmp/dev2.out. Now look through these
two files for any devices that you missed creating. There should
not be any, but it is better to be safe than sorry.&prompt.root; diff /var/tmp/dev.out /var/tmp/dev2.outYou are most likely to notice disk slice discrepancies which
will involve commands such as
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV sd0s1
to recreate the slice entries. Your precise circumstances may
vary.Update <filename>/stand</filename>This step is included only for completeness. It can safely be
omitted.For the sake of completeness, you may want to update the files in
/stand as well. These files consist of hard
links to the /stand/sysinstall binary. This
binary should be statically linked, so that it can work when no other
filesystems (and in particular /usr) have been
mounted.&prompt.root; cd /usr/src/release/sysinstall
&prompt.root; make all installRebootingYou are now done. After you have verified that everything appears
to be in the right place you can reboot the system. A simple
&man.fastboot.8; should do it.&prompt.root; fastbootFinishedYou should now have successfully upgraded your &os; system.
Congratulations.If things went slightly wrong, it is easy to rebuild a particular
piece of the system. For example, if you accidently deleted
/etc/magic as part of the upgrade or merge of
/etc, the &man.file.1; command will stop working.
In this case, the fix would be to run:&prompt.root; cd /usr/src/usr.bin/file
&prompt.root; QuestionsDo I need to re-make the world for every change?There is no easy answer to this one, as it depends on the
nature of the change. For example, if you just ran CVSup, and
it has shown the following files as being updated,src/games/cribbage/instr.csrc/games/sail/pl_main.csrc/release/sysinstall/config.csrc/release/sysinstall/media.csrc/share/mk/bsd.port.mkit probably is not worth rebuilding the entire world.
You could just go to the appropriate sub-directories and
make all install, and that's about it. But
if something major changed, for example
src/lib/libc/stdlib then you should either
re-make the world, or at least those parts of it that are
statically linked (as well as anything else you might have added
that is statically linked).At the end of the day, it is your call. You might be happy
re-making the world every fortnight say, and let changes
accumulate over that fortnight. Or you might want to re-make
just those things that have changed, and are confident you can
spot all the dependencies.And, of course, this all depends on how often you want to
upgrade, and whether you are tracking &os.stable; or
&os.current;.My compile failed with lots of signal 11 (or other signal
number) errors. What has happened?signal 11This is normally indicative of hardware problems.
(Re)making the world is an effective way to stress test your
hardware, and will frequently throw up memory problems. These
normally manifest themselves as the compiler mysteriously dying
on receipt of strange signals.A sure indicator of this is if you can restart the make and
it dies at a different point in the process.In this instance there is little you can do except start
swapping around the components in your machine to determine
which one is failing.Can I remove /usr/obj when I have
finished?The short answer is yes./usr/obj contains all the object files
that were produced during the compilation phase. Normally, one
of the first steps in the /usr/obj around after you have finished
makes little sense, and will free up a large chunk of disk space
(currently about 340MB).However, if you know what you are doing you can have
If you want to live dangerously then make the world, passing
the NOCLEAN definition to make, like
this:&prompt.root; make -DNOCLEAN worldCan interrupted builds be resumed?This depends on how far through the process you got before
you found a problem.In general (and this is not a hard and
fast rule) the make world process builds new
copies of essential tools (such as &man.gcc.1;, and
&man.make.1;) and the system libraries. These tools and
libraries are then installed. The new tools and libraries are
then used to rebuild themselves, and are installed again. The
entire system (now including regular user programs, such as
&man.ls.1; or &man.grep.1;) is then rebuilt with the new
system files.If you are at the last stage, and you know it (because you
have looked through the output that you were storing) then you
can (fairly safely) do… fix the problem …
&prompt.root; cd /usr/src
&prompt.root; make -DNOCLEAN allThis will not undo the work of the previous
make world.If you see the message
--------------------------------------------------------------
Building everything..
--------------------------------------------------------------
in the make world output then it is
probably fairly safe to do so.If you do not see that message, or you are not sure, then it
is always better to be safe than sorry, and restart the build
from scratch.NFSCan I use one machine as a This is a fairly easy task, and can save hours of compile
time for many machines. Simply run the
buildworld on a central
machine, and then NFS mount /usr/src and
/usr/obj on the remote machine and
installworld there.How can I speed up making the world?Run in single user mode.Put the /usr/src and
/usr/obj directories on separate
filesystems held on separate disks. If possible, put these
disks on separate disk controllers.Better still, put these filesystems across multiple
disks using the &man.ccd.4 (concatenated disk
driver) device.Turn off profiling (set NOPROFILE=true in
/etc/make.conf). You almost certainly
do not need it.Also in /etc/make.conf, set
CFLAGS to something like -O
-pipe. The optimization -O2 is much
slower, and the optimization difference between
-O and -O2 is normally
negligible. -pipe lets the compiler use
pipes rather than temporary files for communication, which
saves disk access (at the expense of memory).Pass the option to make to
run multiple processes in parallel. This usually helps
regardless of whether you have a single or a multi processor
machine.The filesystem holding
/usr/src can be mounted (or remounted)
with the option. This prevents the
filesystem from recording the file access time. You probably
do not need this information anyway.
&prompt.root; mount -u -o noatime /usr/srcThe example assumes /usr/src is
on its own filesystem. If it is not (if it is a part of
/usr for example) then you will
need to use that filesystem mount point, and not
/usr/src.The filesystem holding /usr/obj can
be mounted (or remounted) with the async
option. This causes disk writes to happen asynchronously.
In other words, the write completes immediately, and the
data is written to the disk a few seconds later. This
allows writes to be clustered together, and can be a
dramatic performance boost.Keep in mind that this option makes your filesystem
more fragile. With this option there is an increased
chance that, should power fail, the filesystem will be in
an unrecoverable state when the machine restarts.If /usr/obj is the only thing on
this filesystem then it is not a problem. If you have
other, valuable data on the same filesystem then ensure
your backups are fresh before you enable this
option.&prompt.root; mount -u -o async /usr/objAs above, if /usr/obj is not on
its own filesystem, replace it in the example with the
name of the appropriate mount point.What do I do if something goes wrong?Make absolutely sure your environment has no
extraneous cruft from earlier builds. This is simple
enough.&prompt.root; chflags -R noschg /usr/obj/usr
&prompt.root; rm -rf /usr/obj/usr
&prompt.root; cd /usr/src
&prompt.root; make cleandir
&prompt.root; make cleandirYes, make cleandir really should
be run twice.Then restart the whole process, starting
with make buildworld.If you still have problems, send the error and the
output of uname -a to &a.questions;.
Be prepared to answer other questions about your
setup!Building your Own ReleaseFor information about building a custom release of FreeBSD,
please see the FreeBSD
Release Engineering article.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml
index 3366c405c7..e25fd87e87 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,2256 +1,2256 @@
StorageSynopsisThis chapter covers the use of disks in FreeBSD. This
includes memory-backed disks, network-attached disks, and
standard SCSI/IDE storage devices.After reading this chapter, you will know:The terminology FreeBSD uses to describe the
organization of data on a physical disk (partitions and slices).How to mount and unmount filesystems.How to add additional hard disks to your system.How to setup virtual filesystems, such as memory
disks.How to use quotas to limit disk space usage.How to create and burn CDs and DVDs on FreeBSD.The various storage media options for backups.How to use backup programs available under FreeBSD.How to backup to floppy disks.Device NamesThe following is a list of physical storage devices
supported in FreeBSD, and the device names associated with
them.
Physical Disk Naming ConventionsDrive typeDrive device nameIDE hard drivesadIDE CDROM drivesacdSCSI hard drives and USB Mass storage devicesdaSCSI CDROM drivescdAssorted non-standard CDROM drivesmcd for Mitsumi CD-ROM,
scd for Sony CD-ROM,
matcd for Matsushita/Panasonic CD-ROM
Floppy drivesfdSCSI tape drivessaIDE tape drivesastFlash drivesfla for DiskOnChip Flash device
RAID drivesmyxd for Mylex, and
amrd for AMI MegaRAID,
idad for Compaq Smart RAID.
DavidO'BrienOriginally contributed by Adding DisksdisksaddingLets say we want to add a new SCSI disk to a machine that
currently only has a single drive. First turn off the computer
and install the drive in the computer following the instructions
of the computer, controller, and drive manufacturer. Due to the
wide variations of procedures to do this, the details are beyond
the scope of this document.Login as user root. After you have installed the
drive, inspect /var/run/dmesg.boot to ensure the new
disk was found. Continuing with our example, the newly added drive will
be da1 and we want to mount it on
/1 (if you are adding an IDE drive, the device name
will be wd1 in pre-4.0 systems, or
ad1 in most 4.X systems).partitionsslicesfdiskBecause FreeBSD runs on IBM-PC compatible computers, it must
take into account the PC BIOS partitions. These are different
from the traditional BSD partitions. A PC disk has up to four
BIOS partition entries. If the disk is going to be truly
dedicated to FreeBSD, you can use the
dedicated mode. Otherwise, FreeBSD will
have to live within one of the PC BIOS partitions. FreeBSD
calls the PC BIOS partitions slices so as
not to confuse them with traditional BSD partitions. You may
also use slices on a disk that is dedicated to FreeBSD, but used
in a computer that also has another operating system installed.
This is to not confuse the fdisk utility of
the other operating system.In the slice case the drive will be added as
/dev/da1s1e. This is read as: SCSI disk,
unit number 1 (second SCSI disk), slice 1 (PC BIOS partition 1),
and e BSD partition. In the dedicated
case, the drive will be added simply as
/dev/da1e.Using &man.sysinstall.8;sysinstalladding diskssuNavigating <application>Sysinstall</application>You may use /stand/sysinstall to
partition and label a new disk using its easy to use menus.
Either login as user root or use the
su command. Run
/stand/sysinstall and enter the
Configure menu. Within the
FreeBSD Configuration Menu, scroll down and
select the Partition item. Next you should
be presented with a list of hard drives installed in your
system. If you do not see da1 listed, you
need to recheck your physical installation and
dmesg output in the file
/var/run/dmesg.boot.FDISK Partition EditorSelect da1 to enter the FDISK
Partition Editor. Type A to
use the entire disk for FreeBSD. When asked if you want to
remain cooperative with any future possible operating
systems, answer YES. Write the
changes to the disk using W. Now exit the
FDISK editor by typing q. Next you will be
asked about the Master Boot Record. Since you are adding a
disk to an already running system, choose
None.Disk Label EditorBSD partitionsNext, Sysinstall will
enter the Disk Label Editor. This
is where you will create the traditional BSD partitions. A
disk can have up to eight partitions, labeled
a-h.
A few of
the partition labels have special uses. The
a partition is used for the root partition
(/). Thus only your system disk (e.g,
the disk you boot from) should have an a
partition. The b partition is used for
swap partitions, and you may have many disks with swap
partitions. The c partition addresses the
entire disk in dedicated mode, or the entire FreeBSD slice in
slice mode. The other partitions are for general use.Sysinstall's Label editor
favors the e
partition for non-root, non-swap partitions. Within the
Label editor, create a single file system by typing
C. When prompted if this will be a FS
(file system) or swap, choose FS and type in a
mount point (e.g, /mnt). When adding a
disk in post-install mode, Sysinstall
will not create entries
in /etc/fstab for you, so the mount point
you specify is not important.You are now ready to write the new label to the disk and
create a file system on it. Do this by typing
W. Ignore any errors from
Sysinstall that
it could not mount the new partition. Exit the Label Editor
and Sysinstall completely.FinishThe last step is to edit /etc/fstab
to add an entry for your new disk.Using Command Line UtilitiesUsing SlicesThis setup will allow your disk to work correctly with
other operating systems that might be installed on your
computer and will not confuse other operating systems'
fdisk utilities. It is recommended
to use this method for new disk installs. Only use
dedicated mode if you have a good reason
to do so!&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rda1 bs=1k count=1
&prompt.root; fdisk -BI da1 #Initialize your new disk
&prompt.root; disklabel -B -w -r da1s1 auto #Label it.
&prompt.root; disklabel -e da1s1 # Edit the disklabel just created and add any partitions.
&prompt.root; mkdir -p /1
&prompt.root; newfs /dev/da1s1e # Repeat this for every partition you created.
&prompt.root; mount -t ufs /dev/da1s1e /1 # Mount the partition(s)
&prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # Add the appropriate entry/entries to your /etc/fstab.If you have an IDE disk, substitute ad
for da. On pre-4.X systems use
wd.DedicatedOS/2If you will not be sharing the new drive with another operating
system, you may use the dedicated mode. Remember
this mode can confuse Microsoft operating systems; however, no damage
will be done by them. IBM's OS/2 however, will
appropriate any partition it finds which it does not
understand.&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rda1 bs=1k count=1
&prompt.root; disklabel -Brw da1 auto
&prompt.root; disklabel -e da1 # create the `e' partition
&prompt.root; newfs -d0 /dev/rda1e
&prompt.root; mkdir -p /1
&prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # add an entry for /dev/da1e
&prompt.root; mount /1An alternate method is:&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rda1 count=2
&prompt.root; disklabel /dev/rda1 | disklabel -BrR da1 /dev/stdin
&prompt.root; newfs /dev/rda1e
&prompt.root; mkdir -p /1
&prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # add an entry for /dev/da1e
&prompt.root; mount /1Network, Memory, and File-Based Filesystemsvirtual disksdisksvirtualAside from the disks you physically insert into your computer:
floppies, CDs, hard drives, and so forth; other forms of disks
are understood by FreeBSD - the virtual
disks.NFSCodadisksmemoryThese include network filesystems such as the Network Filesystem and Coda, memory-based
filesystems such as md and
file-backed filesystems created by vnconfig or
mdconfig.vnconfig: File-Backed Filesystemdisksfile-backed&man.vnconfig.8; configures and enables vnode pseudo-disk
devices. A vnode is a representation
of a file, and is the focus of file activity. This means that
&man.vnconfig.8; uses files to create and operate a
filesystem. One possible use is the mounting of floppy or CD
images kept in files.To mount an existing filesystem image:Using vnconfig to mount an Existing Filesystem
Image&prompt.root; vnconfig vn0diskimage
&prompt.root; mount /dev/vn0c /mntTo create a new filesystem image with vnconfig:Creating a New File-Backed Disk with vnconfig&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=newimage bs=1k count=5k
5120+0 records in
5120+0 records out
&prompt.root; vnconfig -s labels -c vn0newimage
&prompt.root; disklabel -r -w vn0 auto
&prompt.root; newfs vn0c
Warning: 2048 sector(s) in last cylinder unallocated
/dev/rvn0c: 10240 sectors in 3 cylinders of 1 tracks, 4096 sectors
5.0MB in 1 cyl groups (16 c/g, 32.00MB/g, 1280 i/g)
super-block backups (for fsck -b #) at:
32
&prompt.root; mount /dev/vn0c /mnt
&prompt.root; df /mnt
Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on
/dev/vn0c 4927 1 4532 0% /mntmd: Memory Filesystemdisksmemory filesystemmd is a simple, efficient means to create memory
filesystems.Simply take a filesystem you have prepared with, for
example, &man.vnconfig.8;, and:md Memory Disk&prompt.root; dd if=newimage of=/dev/md0
5120+0 records in
5120+0 records out
&prompt.root; mount /dev/md0c/mnt
&prompt.root; df /mnt
Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on
/dev/md0c 4927 1 4532 0% /mntFile System Quotasaccountingdisk spacedisk quotasQuotas are an optional feature of the operating system that
allow you to limit the amount of disk space and/or the number of
files a user or members of a group may allocate on a per-file
system basis. This is used most often on timesharing systems where
it is desirable to limit the amount of resources any one user or
group of users may allocate. This will prevent one user or group
of users from consuming all of the available disk space.Configuring Your System to Enable Disk QuotasBefore attempting to use disk quotas, it is necessary to make
sure that quotas are configured in your kernel. This is done by
adding the following line to your kernel configuration
file:options QUOTAThe stock GENERIC kernel does not have
this enabled by default, so you will have to configure, build and
install a custom kernel in order to use disk quotas. Please refer
to for more information on kernel
configuration.Next you will need to enable disk quotas in
/etc/rc.conf. This is done by adding the
line:enable_quotas=YESdisk quotascheckingFor finer control over your quota startup, there is an
additional configuration variable available. Normally on bootup,
the quota integrity of each file system is checked by the
quotacheck program. The
quotacheck facility insures that the data in
the quota database properly reflects the data on the file system.
This is a very time consuming process that will significantly
affect the time your system takes to boot. If you would like to
skip this step, a variable in /etc/rc.conf
is made available for the purpose:check_quotas=NOIf you are running FreeBSD prior to 3.2-RELEASE, the
configuration is simpler, and consists of only one variable. Set
the following in your /etc/rc.conf:check_quotas=YESFinally you will need to edit /etc/fstab
to enable disk quotas on a per-file system basis. This is where
you can either enable user or group quotas or both for all of your
file systems.To enable per-user quotas on a file system, add the
userquota option to the options field in the
/etc/fstab entry for the file system you want
to enable quotas on. For example:/dev/da1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota 1 2Similarly, to enable group quotas, use the
groupquota option instead of
userquota. To enable both user and
group quotas, change the entry as follows:/dev/da1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota,groupquota 1 2By default, the quota files are stored in the root directory of
the file system with the names quota.user and
quota.group for user and group quotas
respectively. See &man.fstab.5; for more
information. Even though the &man.fstab.5; manual page says that
you can specify
an alternate location for the quota files, this is not recommended
because the various quota utilities do not seem to handle this
properly.At this point you should reboot your system with your new
kernel. /etc/rc will automatically run the
appropriate commands to create the initial quota files for all of
the quotas you enabled in /etc/fstab, so
there is no need to manually create any zero length quota
files.In the normal course of operations you should not be required
to run the quotacheck,
quotaon, or quotaoff
commands manually. However, you may want to read their manual pages
just to be familiar with their operation.Setting Quota Limitsdisk quotaslimitsOnce you have configured your system to enable quotas, verify
that they really are enabled. An easy way to do this is to
run:&prompt.root; quota -vYou should see a one line summary of disk usage and current
quota limits for each file system that quotas are enabled
on.You are now ready to start assigning quota limits with the
edquota command.You have several options on how to enforce limits on the
amount of disk space a user or group may allocate, and how many
files they may create. You may limit allocations based on disk
space (block quotas) or number of files (inode quotas) or a
combination of both. Each of these limits are further broken down
into two categories: hard and soft limits.hard limitA hard limit may not be exceeded. Once a user reaches his
hard limit he may not make any further allocations on the file
system in question. For example, if the user has a hard limit of
500 blocks on a file system and is currently using 490 blocks, the
user can only allocate an additional 10 blocks. Attempting to
allocate an additional 11 blocks will fail.soft limitSoft limits, on the other hand, can be exceeded for a limited
amount of time. This period of time is known as the grace period,
which is one week by default. If a user stays over his or her
soft limit longer than the grace period, the soft limit will
turn into a hard limit and no further allocations will be allowed.
When the user drops back below the soft limit, the grace period
will be reset.The following is an example of what you might see when you run
the edquota command. When the
edquota command is invoked, you are placed into
the editor specified by the EDITOR environment
variable, or in the vi editor if the
EDITOR variable is not set, to allow you to edit
the quota limits.&prompt.root; edquota -u testQuotas for user test:
/usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75)
inodes in use: 7, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60)
/usr/var: blocks in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75)
inodes in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60)You will normally see two lines for each file system that has
quotas enabled. One line for the block limits, and one line for
inode limits. Simply change the value you want updated to modify
the quota limit. For example, to raise this user's block limit
from a soft limit of 50 and a hard limit of 75 to a soft limit of
500 and a hard limit of 600, change:/usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75)to: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 500, hard = 600)The new quota limits will be in place when you exit the
editor.Sometimes it is desirable to set quota limits on a range of
uids. This can be done by use of the option
on the edquota command. First, assign the
desired quota limit to a user, and then run
edquota -p protouser startuid-enduid. For
example, if user test has the desired quota
limits, the following command can be used to duplicate those quota
limits for uids 10,000 through 19,999:&prompt.root; edquota -p test 10000-19999For more information see &man.edquota.8;.Checking Quota Limits and Disk Usagedisk quotascheckingYou can use either the quota or the
repquota commands to check quota limits and
disk usage. The quota command can be used to
check individual user or group quotas and disk usage. A user
may only examine his own quota, and the quota of a group he
is a member of. Only the super-user may view all user and group
quotas. The
repquota command can be used to get a summary
of all quotas and disk usage for file systems with quotas
enabled.The following is some sample output from the
quota -v command for a user that has quota
limits on two file systems.Disk quotas for user test (uid 1002):
Filesystem blocks quota limit grace files quota limit grace
/usr 65* 50 75 5days 7 50 60
/usr/var 0 50 75 0 50 60grace periodOn the /usr file system in the above
example, this user is currently 15 blocks over the soft limit of
50 blocks and has 5 days of the grace period left. Note the
asterisk * which indicates that the user is
currently over his quota limit.Normally file systems that the user is not using any disk
space on will not show up in the output from the
quota command, even if he has a quota limit
assigned for that file system. The option
will display those file systems, such as the
/usr/var file system in the above
example.Quotas over NFSNFSQuotas are enforced by the quota subsystem on the NFS server.
The &man.rpc.rquotad.8; daemon makes quota information available
to the &man.quota.1; command on NFS clients, allowing users on
those machines to see their quota statistics.Enable rpc.rquotad in
/etc/inetd.conf like so:rquotad/1 dgram rpc/udp wait root /usr/libexec/rpc.rquotad rpc.rquotadNow restart inetd:&prompt.root; kill -HUP `cat /var/run/inetd.pid`MikeMeyerContributed by Creating and Using Optical Media (CDs & DVDs)CDROMscreatingIntroductionCDs have a number of features that differentiate them from
conventional disks. Initially, they were not writable by the
user. They are designed so that they can be read continuously without
delays to move the head between tracks. They are also much easier
to transport between systems than similarly sized media were at the
time.CDs do have tracks, but this refers to a section of data to
be read continuously and not a physical property of the disk. To
produce a CD on FreeBSD, you prepare the data files that are going
to make up the tracks on the CD, then write the tracks to the
CD.ISO 9660filesystemsISO-9660The ISO 9660 file system was designed to deal with these
differences. It unfortunately codifies file system limits that were
common then. Fortunately, it provides an extension mechanism that
allows properly written CDs to exceed those limits while still
working with systems that do not support those extensions.mkisofsThe mkisofs
program is used to produce a data file containing an ISO 9660 file
system. It has options that support various extensions, and is
described below. You can install it with the
sysutils/mkisofs port.CD burnerATAPIWhich tool to use to burn the CD depends on whether your CD burner
is ATAPI or something else. ATAPI CD burners use the burncd program that is part of
the base system. SCSI and USB CD burners should use
cdrecord from
the sysutils/cdrtools port.burncd has a limited number of
supported drives. To find out if a drive is supported, see
CD-R/RW supported
drives.mkisofsmkisofs produces an ISO 9660 file system
that is an image of a directory tree in the Unix file system name
space. The simplest usage is:&prompt.root; mkisofs imagefile.iso/path/to/treefilesystemsISO-9660This command will create an imagefile
containing an ISO 9660 file system that is a copy of the tree at
/path/to/tree. In the process, it will
map the file names to names that fit the limitations of the
standard ISO 9660 file system, and will exclude files that have
names uncharacteristic of ISO file systems.filesystemsHFSfilesystemsJolietA number of options are available to overcome those
restrictions. In particular, enables the
Rock Ridge extensions common to Unix systems,
enables Joliet extensions used by Microsoft systems, and
can be used to create HFS file systems used
by MacOS.For CDs that are going to be used only on FreeBSD systems,
can be used to disable all filename
restrictions. When used with , it produces a
file system image that is identical to the FreeBSD tree you started
from, though it may violate the ISO 9660 standard in a number of
ways.CDROMscreating bootableThe last option of general use is . This is
used to specify the location of the boot image for use in producing an
El Torito bootable CD. This option takes an
argument which is the path to a boot image from the top of the
tree being written to the CD. So, given that
/tmp/myboot holds a bootable FreeBSD system
with the boot image in
/tmp/myboot/boot/cdboot, you could produce the
image of an ISO 9660 file system in
/tmp/bootable.iso like so:&prompt.root; mkisofs boot/cdboot/tmp/bootable.iso/tmp/mybootHaving done that, if you have vn
configured in your kernel, you can mount the file system with:&prompt.root; vnconfig vn0c/tmp/bootable.iso
&prompt.root; mount cd9660 /dev/vn0c/mntAt which point you can verify that /mnt
and /tmp/myboot are identical.There are many other options you can use with
mkisofs to fine-tune its behavior. In particular:
modifications to an ISO 9660 layout and the creation of Joilet
and HFS discs. See the &man.mkisofs.8; manual page for details.burncdCDROMsburningIf you have an ATAPI CD burner, you can use the
burncd command to burn an ISO image onto a
CD. burncd is part of the base system, installed
as /usr/sbin/burncd. Usage is very simple, as
it has few options:&prompt.root; burncd cddevice data imagefile.iso fixateWill burn a copy of imagefile.iso on
cddevice. The default device is
/dev/acd0c. See &man.burncd.8; for options to
set the write speed, eject the CD after burning, and write audio
data.cdrecordIf you do not have an ATAPI CD burner, you will have to use
cdrecord to burn your
CDs. cdrecord is not part of the base system;
you must install it from either the port at sysutils/cdrtools
or the appropriate
package. Changes to the base system can cause binary versions of
this program to fail, possibly resulting in a
coaster. You should therefore either upgrade the
port when you upgrade your system, or if you are tracking -STABLE, upgrade the port when a
new version becomes available.While cdrecord has many options, basic usage
is even simpler than burncd. Burning an ISO 9660
image is done with:&prompt.root; cdrecord deviceimagefile.isoThe tricky part of using cdrecord is finding
the to use. To find the proper setting, use
the flag of cdrecord,
which might produce results like this:CDROMsburning&prompt.root; cdrecord
Cdrecord 1.9 (i386-unknown-freebsd4.2) Copyright (C) 1995-2000 Jörg Schilling
Using libscg version 'schily-0.1'
scsibus0:
0,0,0 0) 'SEAGATE ' 'ST39236LW ' '0004' Disk
0,1,0 1) 'SEAGATE ' 'ST39173W ' '5958' Disk
0,2,0 2) *
0,3,0 3) 'iomega ' 'jaz 1GB ' 'J.86' Removable Disk
0,4,0 4) 'NEC ' 'CD-ROM DRIVE:466' '1.26' Removable CD-ROM
0,5,0 5) *
0,6,0 6) *
0,7,0 7) *
scsibus1:
1,0,0 100) *
1,1,0 101) *
1,2,0 102) *
1,3,0 103) *
1,4,0 104) *
1,5,0 105) 'YAMAHA ' 'CRW4260 ' '1.0q' Removable CD-ROM
1,6,0 106) 'ARTEC ' 'AM12S ' '1.06' Scanner
1,7,0 107) *This lists the appropriate value for the
devices on the list. Locate your CD burner, and use the three
numbers separated by commas as the value for
. In this case, the CRW device is 1,5,0, so the
appropriate input would be
=1,5,0. There are easier
ways to specify this value; see &man.cdrecord.1; for
details. That is also the place to look for information on writing
audio tracks, controlling the speed, and other things.Duplicating Data CDsYou can copy a data CD to a image file that is
functionally equivalent to the image file created with
mkisofs, and you can use it to duplicate
any data CD. The example given here assumes that your CDROM
device is acd0. Substitute your
correct CDROM device. A c must be appended
to the end of the device name to indicate the entire partition
or, in the case of CDROMs, the entire disc.&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/acd0c of=file.iso bs=2048Now that you have an image, you can burn it to CD as
described above.This does not work with audio CDs.Using Data CDsNow that you have created a standard data CDROM, you
probably want to mount it and read the data on it. By
default, &man.mount.8; assumes that a filesystem is of type
ufs. If you try something like:&prompt.root; mount /dev/cd0c/mntyou will get a complaint about Incorrect super
block, and no mount. The CDROM is not a
UFS filesystem, so attempts to mount it
as such will fail. You just need to tell &man.mount.8; that
the filesystem is of type ISO9660, and
everything will work. You do this by specifying the
option &man.mount.8;. For
example, if you want to mount the CDROM device,
/dev/cd0c, under
/mnt, you would execute:&prompt.root; mount -t cd9660 /dev/cd0c /mntNote that your device name
(/dev/cd0c in this example) could be
different, depending on the interface your CDROM uses. Also,
the option just executes
&man.mount.cd9660.8;. The above example could be shortened
to:&prompt.root; mount_cd9660 /dev/cd0c /mntYou can generally use data CDROMs from any vendor in this
way. Disks with certain ISO 9660 extensions might behave
oddly, however. For example, Joliet disks store all filenames
in two-byte Unicode characters. The FreeBSD kernel does not
speak Unicode (yet!), so non-English characters show up as
question marks. (If you are running FreeBSD 4.3 or later, the
CD9660 driver includes hooks to load an appropriate Unicode
conversion table on the fly. Modules for some of the common
encodings are available via the
sysutils/cd9660_unicode port.)Occasionally, you might get Device not
configured when trying to mount a CDROM. This
usually means that the CDROM drive thinks that there is no
disk in the tray, or that the drive is not visible on the bus.
It can take a couple of seconds for a CDROM drive to realize
that it has been fed, so be patient.Sometimes, a SCSI CDROM may be missed because it didn't
have enough time to answer the bus reset. If you have a SCSI
CDROM please add the following option to your kernel
configuration and rebuild your kernel.options SCSI_DELAY=15000This tells your SCSI bus to pause 15 seconds during boot,
to give your CDROM drive every possible chance to answer the
bus reset.Burning Raw Data CDsYou can choose to burn a file directly to CD, without
creating an ISO 9660 filesystem. Some people do this for
backup purposes. This runs more quickly than burning a
standard CD:&prompt.root; burncd -f /dev/acd1c -s 12 data archive.tar.gz fixateIn order to retrieve the data burned to such a CD, you
- must read data from the raw device node :
+ must read data from the raw device node:
&prompt.root; tar xzvf /dev/acd1cYou cannot mount this disk as you would a normal CDROM.
Such a CDROM cannot be read under any operating system
except FreeBSD. If you want to be able to mount the CD, or
share data with another operating system, you must use
sysutils/mkisofs as described above.RAIDSoftware RAIDChristopherShumwayWritten by ValentinoVaschettoMarked up by ccd (Concatenated Disk Configuration)It seems like today everyone has a collection of
multimedia files. Everything from mp3's to video clips. I have
converted most of my audio CDROM collection to mp3's so I can
have all of my music in one centralized location, and not have
to hunt down the audio CD with that one song I got stuck in my
head. The problem I was faced with is where to store all
these files?When choosing a mass storage solution, the most important
factors to consider are speed, reliability, and cost. It is very
rare to have all three in favor, normally a fast, reliable mass
storage device is expensive, and to cut back on cost either speed
or reliability must be sacrificed. In designing my system, I
ranked the requirements by most favorable to least favorable. In
this situation, cost was the biggest factor. I needed a lot of
storage for a reasonable price. The next factor, speed, is not
quite as important, since most of the usage would be over a one
hundred megabit switched Ethernet, and that would most likely be
the bottleneck. The ability to spread the file input/output
operations out over several disks would be more than enough speed
for this network. Finally, the consideration of reliability was
an easy one to answer. All of the data being put on this mass
storage device was already backed up on CD-R's. This drive was
primarily here for online live storage for easy access, so if a
drive went bad, I could just replace it, rebuild the filesystem,
and copy back the data from CD-R's.To sum it up, I need something that will give me the most
amount of storage space for my money. The cost of large IDE disks
are cheap these days. I found a place that was selling Western
Digital 30.7gb 5400 RPM IDE disks for about one-hundred and thirty
US dollars. I bought three of them, giving me approximately
ninety gigabytes of online storage.Installing the HardwareI installed the hard drives in a system that already
had one IDE disk in as the system disk. The ideal solution
would be for each IDE disk to have its own IDE controller
and cable, but without fronting more costs to acquire a dual
IDE controller this would not be a possibility. So, I
jumpered two disks as slaves, and one as master. One went
on the first IDE controller as a slave to the system disk,
and the other two where slave/master on the secondary IDE
controller.Upon reboot, the system BIOS was configured to
automatically detect the disks attached. More importantly,
FreeBSD detected them on reboot:ad0: 19574MB <WDC WD205BA> [39770/16/63] at ata0-master UDMA33
ad1: 29333MB <WDC WD307AA> [59598/16/63] at ata0-slave UDMA33
ad2: 29333MB <WDC WD307AA> [59598/16/63] at ata1-master UDMA33
ad3: 29333MB <WDC WD307AA> [59598/16/63] at ata1-slave UDMA33At this point, if FreeBSD does not detect the disks, be
sure that you have jumpered them correctly. I have heard
numerous reports with problems using cable select instead of
true slave/master configuration.The next consideration was how to attach them as part of
the filesystem. I did a little research on &man.vinum.8; and FreeBSD's
&man.ccd.4;. In this particular configuration, &man.ccd.4;
appeared to be a better choice mainly because it has fewer
parts. Less parts tends to indicate less chance of breakage.
Vinum appears to be a bit of an overkill for my needs.Setting up the CCDCCD allows me to take
several identical disks and concatenate them into one
logical filesystem. In order to use
ccd, I need a kernel with
ccd support built into it. I
added this line to my kernel configuration file and rebuilt
the kernel:pseudo-device ccd 4ccd support can also be
loaded as a kernel loadable module in FreeBSD 4.0 or
later.To set up ccd, first I need
to disklabel the disks. Here is how I disklabeled
them:disklabel -r -w ad1 auto
disklabel -r -w ad2 auto
disklabel -r -w ad3 autoThis created a disklabel ad1c, ad2c and ad3c that
spans the entire disk.The next step is to change the disklabel type. To do
that I had to edit the disklabel:disklabel -e ad1
disklabel -e ad2
disklabel -e ad3This opened up the current disklabel on each disk
respectively in whatever editor the EDITOR
environment variable was set to, in my case, &man.vi.1;.
Inside the editor I had a section like this:8 partitions:
# size offset fstype [fsize bsize bps/cpg]
c: 60074784 0 unused 0 0 0 # (Cyl. 0 - 59597)I needed to add a new "e" partition for &man.ccd.4; to
use. This usually can be copied of the "c" partition, but
the must be 4.2BSD.
Once I was done,
my disklabel should look like this:8 partitions:
# size offset fstype [fsize bsize bps/cpg]
c: 60074784 0 unused 0 0 0 # (Cyl. 0 - 59597)
e: 60074784 0 4.2BSD 0 0 0 # (Cyl. 0 - 59597)Building the FilesystemNow that I have all of the disks labeled, I needed to
build the ccd. To do that, I
used a utility called &man.ccdconfig.8;.
ccdconfig takes several arguments, the
first argument being the device to configure, in this case,
/dev/ccd0c. The device node for
ccd0c may not exist yet, so to
create it, perform the following commands:cd /dev
sh MAKEDEV ccd0The next argument ccdconfig expects
is the interleave for the filesystem. The interleave
defines the size of a stripe in disk blocks, normally five
hundred and twelve bytes. So, an interleave of thirty-two
would be sixteen thousand three hundred and eighty-four
bytes.After the interleave comes the flags for
ccdconfig. If you want to enable drive
mirroring, you can specify a flag here. In this
configuration, I am not mirroring the
ccd, so I left it as zero.The final arguments to ccdconfig
are the devices to place into the array. Putting it all
together I get this command:ccdconfig ccd0 32 0 /dev/ad1e /dev/ad2e /dev/ad3eThis configures the ccd.
I can now &man.newfs.8; the filesystem.newfs /dev/ccd0cMaking it all AutomaticFinally, if I want to be able to mount the
ccd, I need to
configure it first. I write out my current configuration to
/etc/ccd.conf using the following command:ccdconfig -g > /etc/ccd.confWhen I reboot, the script /etc/rc
runs ccdconfig -C if /etc/ccd.conf
exists. This automatically configures the
ccd so it can be mounted.If you are booting into single user mode, before you can
mount the ccd, you
need to issue the following command to configure the
array:ccdconfig -CThen, we need an entry for the
ccd in
/etc/fstab so it will be mounted at
boot time./dev/ccd0c /media ufs rw 2 2vinum (Logical Volume Manager)XXXHardware RAIDRAIDHardwareFreeBSD supports a wide variety of hardware RAID
controllers from many popular manufacturers such as Adaptec,
3Ware, Mylex, DPT, AMI, Dell, HP, IBM, and more. The list of
supported adapters is growing all the time, so make sure to
check the release notes for complete information.
Tape Backup Mediatape mediaThe major tape media are the 4mm, 8mm, QIC, mini-cartridge and
DLT.4mm (DDS: Digital Data Storage)tape mediaDDS (4mm) tapestape mediaQIC tapes4mm tapes are replacing QIC as the workstation backup media of
choice. This trend accelerated greatly when Conner purchased Archive,
a leading manufacturer of QIC drives, and then stopped production of
QIC drives. 4mm drives are small and quiet but do not have the
reputation for reliability that is enjoyed by 8mm drives. The
cartridges are less expensive and smaller (3 x 2 x 0.5 inches, 76 x 51
x 12 mm) than 8mm cartridges. 4mm, like 8mm, has comparatively short
head life for the same reason, both use helical scan.Data throughput on these drives starts ~150kB/s, peaking at ~500kB/s.
Data capacity starts at 1.3 GB and ends at 2.0 GB. Hardware
compression, available with most of these drives, approximately
doubles the capacity. Multi-drive tape library units can have 6
drives in a single cabinet with automatic tape changing. Library
capacities reach 240 GB.The DDS-3 standard now supports tape capacities up to 12 GB (or
24 GB compressed).4mm drives, like 8mm drives, use helical-scan. All the benefits
and drawbacks of helical-scan apply to both 4mm and 8mm drives.Tapes should be retired from use after 2,000 passes or 100 full
backups.8mm (Exabyte)tape mediaExabyte (8mm) tapes8mm tapes are the most common SCSI tape drives; they are the best
choice of exchanging tapes. Nearly every site has an Exabyte 2 GB 8mm
tape drive. 8mm drives are reliable, convenient and quiet. Cartridges
are inexpensive and small (4.8 x 3.3 x 0.6 inches; 122 x 84 x 15 mm).
One downside of 8mm tape is relatively short head and tape life due to
the high rate of relative motion of the tape across the heads.Data throughput ranges from ~250kB/s to ~500kB/s. Data sizes start
at 300 MB and go up to 7 GB. Hardware compression, available with
most of these drives, approximately doubles the capacity. These
drives are available as single units or multi-drive tape libraries
with 6 drives and 120 tapes in a single cabinet. Tapes are changed
automatically by the unit. Library capacities reach 840+ GB.The Exabyte Mammoth model supports 12 GB on one tape
(24 GB with compression) and costs approximately twice as much as
conventional tape drives.Data is recorded onto the tape using helical-scan, the heads are
positioned at an angle to the media (approximately 6 degrees). The
tape wraps around 270 degrees of the spool that holds the heads. The
spool spins while the tape slides over the spool. The result is a
high density of data and closely packed tracks that angle across the
tape from one edge to the other.QICtape mediaQIC-150QIC-150 tapes and drives are, perhaps, the most common tape drive
and media around. QIC tape drives are the least expensive "serious"
backup drives. The downside is the cost of media. QIC tapes are
expensive compared to 8mm or 4mm tapes, up to 5 times the price per GB
data storage. But, if your needs can be satisfied with a half-dozen
tapes, QIC may be the correct choice. QIC is the
most common tape drive. Every site has a QIC
drive of some density or another. Therein lies the rub, QIC has a
large number of densities on physically similar (sometimes identical)
tapes. QIC drives are not quiet. These drives audibly seek before
they begin to record data and are clearly audible whenever reading,
writing or seeking. QIC tapes measure (6 x 4 x 0.7 inches; 15.2 x
10.2 x 1.7 mm). Mini-cartridges, which
also use 1/4" wide tape are discussed separately. Tape libraries and
changers are not available.Data throughput ranges from ~150kB/s to ~500kB/s. Data capacity
ranges from 40 MB to 15 GB. Hardware compression is available on many
of the newer QIC drives. QIC drives are less frequently installed;
they are being supplanted by DAT drives.Data is recorded onto the tape in tracks. The tracks run along
the long axis of the tape media from one end to the other. The number
of tracks, and therefore the width of a track, varies with the tape's
capacity. Most if not all newer drives provide backward-compatibility
at least for reading (but often also for writing). QIC has a good
reputation regarding the safety of the data (the mechanics are simpler
and more robust than for helical scan drives).Tapes should be retired from use after 5,000 backups.XXX* Mini-CartridgeDLTtape mediaDLTDLT has the fastest data transfer rate of all the drive types
listed here. The 1/2" (12.5mm) tape is contained in a single spool
cartridge (4 x 4 x 1 inches; 100 x 100 x 25 mm). The cartridge has a
swinging gate along one entire side of the cartridge. The drive
mechanism opens this gate to extract the tape leader. The tape leader
has an oval hole in it which the drive uses to "hook" the tape. The
take-up spool is located inside the tape drive. All the other tape
cartridges listed here (9 track tapes are the only exception) have
both the supply and take-up spools located inside the tape cartridge
itself.Data throughput is approximately 1.5MB/s, three times the throughput of
4mm, 8mm, or QIC tape drives. Data capacities range from 10 GB to 20 GB
for a single drive. Drives are available in both multi-tape changers
and multi-tape, multi-drive tape libraries containing from 5 to 900
tapes over 1 to 20 drives, providing from 50 GB to 9 TB of
storage.With compression, DLT Type IV format supports up to 70 GB
capacity.Data is recorded onto the tape in tracks parallel to the direction
of travel (just like QIC tapes). Two tracks are written at once.
Read/write head lifetimes are relatively long; once the tape stops
moving, there is no relative motion between the heads and the
tape.AITtape mediaAITAIT is a new format from Sony, and can hold up to 50 GB (with
compression) per tape. The tapes contain memory chips which retain an
index of the tape's contents. This index can be rapidly read by the
tape drive to determine the position of files on the tape, instead of
the several minutes that would be required for other tapes. Software
such as SAMS:Alexandria can operate forty or more AIT tape libraries,
communicating directly with the tape's memory chip to display the
contents on screen, determine what files were backed up to which
tape, locate the correct tape, load it, and restore the data from the
tape.Libraries like this cost in the region of $20,000, pricing them a
little out of the hobbyist market.Using a New Tape for the First TimeThe first time that you try to read or write a new, completely
blank tape, the operation will fail. The console messages should be
similar to:sa0(ncr1:4:0): NOT READY asc:4,1
sa0(ncr1:4:0): Logical unit is in process of becoming readyThe tape does not contain an Identifier Block (block number 0).
All QIC tape drives since the adoption of QIC-525 standard write an
Identifier Block to the tape. There are two solutions:mt fsf 1 causes the tape drive to write an
Identifier Block to the tape.Use the front panel button to eject the tape.Re-insert the tape and dump data to the tape.dump will report DUMP: End of tape
detected and the console will show: HARDWARE
FAILURE info:280 asc:80,96.rewind the tape using: mt rewind.Subsequent tape operations are successful.Backup Programsbackup softwareThe three major programs are
&man.dump.8;,
&man.tar.1;,
and
&man.cpio.1;.Dump and Restorebackup softwaredump / restoredumprestoreThe traditional Unix backup programs are
dump and restore. They
operate on the drive as a collection of disk blocks, below the
abstractions of files, links and directories that are created by
the filesystems. dump backs up an entire
filesystem on a device. It is unable to backup only part of a
filesystem or a directory tree that spans more than one
filesystem. dump does not write files and
directories to tape, but rather writes the raw data blocks that
comprise files and directories.If you use dump on your root directory, you
would not back up /home,
/usr or many other directories since
these are typically mount points for other filesystems or
symbolic links into those filesystems.dumphas quirks that remain from its early days in
Version 6 of AT&T Unix (circa 1975). The default
parameters are suitable for 9-track tapes (6250 bpi), not the
high-density media available today (up to 62,182 ftpi). These
defaults must be overridden on the command line to utilize the
capacity of current tape drives.rhostsIt is also possible to backup data across the network to a
tape drive attached to another computer with rdump and
rrestore. Both programs rely upon rcmd and
ruserok to access the remote tape drive. Therefore,
the user performing the backup must have
rhosts access to the remote computer. The
arguments to rdump and rrestore must be suitable
to use on the remote computer. (e.g. When
rdumping from a FreeBSD computer to an
Exabyte tape drive connected to a Sun called
komodo, use: /sbin/rdump 0dsbfu
54000 13000 126 komodo:/dev/nrsa8 /dev/rda0a
2>&1) Beware: there are security implications to
allowing rhosts commands. Evaluate your
situation carefully.It is also possible to use rdump and
rrestore in a more secure fashion over
ssh.Using <command>rdump</command> over <application>ssh</application>&prompt.root; /sbin/dump -0uan -f - /usr | gzip -2 | ssh1 -c blowfish \
targetuser@targetmachine.example.com dd of=/mybigfiles/dump-usr-l0.gz<command>tar</command>backup softwaretar&man.tar.1; also dates back to Version 6 of AT&T Unix
(circa 1975). tar operates in cooperation
with the filesystem; tar writes files and
directories to tape. tar does not support the
full range of options that are available from &man.cpio.1;, but
tar does not require the unusual command
pipeline that cpio uses.tarMost versions of tar do not support
backups across the network. The GNU version of
tar, which FreeBSD utilizes, supports remote
devices using the same syntax as rdump. To
tar to an Exabyte tape drive connected to a
Sun called komodo, use: /usr/bin/tar
cf komodo:/dev/nrsa8 . 2>&1. For versions without
remote device support, you can use a pipeline and
rsh to send the data to a remote tape
drive.&prompt.root; tar cf - . | rsh hostname dd of=tape-device obs=20bIf you are worried about the security of backing up over a
network you should use the ssh command
instead of rsh.<command>cpio</command>backup softwarecpio&man.cpio.1; is the original Unix file interchange tape
program for magnetic media. cpio has options
(among many others) to perform byte-swapping, write a number of
different archive formats, and pipe the data to other programs.
This last feature makes cpio and excellent
choice for installation media. cpio does not
know how to walk the directory tree and a list of files must be
provided through stdin.cpiocpio does not support backups across
the network. You can use a pipeline and rsh
to send the data to a remote tape drive.&prompt.root; for f in directory_list; dofind $f >> backup.listdone
&prompt.root; cpio -v -o --format=newc < backup.list | ssh user@host "cat > backup_device"Where directory_list is the list of
directories you want to back up,
user@host is the
user/hostname combination that will be performing the backups, and
backup_device is where the backups should
be written to (e.g., /dev/nrsa0).<command>pax</command>backup softwarepaxpaxPOSIXIEEE&man.pax.1; is IEEE/POSIX's answer to
tar and cpio. Over the
years the various versions of tar and
cpio have gotten slightly incompatible. So
rather than fight it out to fully standardize them, POSIX
created a new archive utility. pax attempts
to read and write many of the various cpio
and tar formats, plus new formats of its own.
Its command set more resembles cpio than
tar.<application>Amanda</application>backup softwareAmandaAmandaAmanda (Advanced Maryland
Network Disk Archiver) is a client/server backup system,
rather than a single program. An Amanda server will backup to
a single tape drive any number of computers that have Amanda
clients and a network connection to the Amanda server. A
common problem at sites with a number of large disks is
that the length of time required to backup to data directly to tape
exceeds the amount of time available for the task. Amanda
solves this problem. Amanda can use a "holding disk" to
backup several filesystems at the same time. Amanda creates
"archive sets": a group of tapes used over a period of time to
create full backups of all the filesystems listed in Amanda's
configuration file. The "archive set" also contains nightly
incremental (or differential) backups of all the filesystems.
Restoring a damaged filesystem requires the most recent full
backup and the incremental backups.The configuration file provides fine control of backups and the
network traffic that Amanda generates. Amanda will use any of the
above backup programs to write the data to tape. Amanda is available
as either a port or a package, it is not installed by default.Do NothingDo nothing is not a computer program, but it is the
most widely used backup strategy. There are no initial costs. There
is no backup schedule to follow. Just say no. If something happens
to your data, grin and bear it!If your time and your data is worth little to nothing, then
Do nothing is the most suitable backup program for your
computer. But beware, Unix is a useful tool, you may find that within
six months you have a collection of files that are valuable to
you.Do nothing is the correct backup method for
/usr/obj and other directory trees that can be
exactly recreated by your computer. An example is the files that
comprise the HTML or Postscript version of this Handbook.
These document formats have been created from SGML input
files. Creating backups of the HTML or PostScript files is
not necessary. The SGML files are backed up regularly.Which Backup Program Is Best?LISA&man.dump.8; Period. Elizabeth D. Zwicky
torture tested all the backup programs discussed here. The clear
choice for preserving all your data and all the peculiarities of Unix
filesystems is dump. Elizabeth created filesystems containing
a large variety of unusual conditions (and some not so unusual ones)
and tested each program by doing a backup and restore of those
filesystems. The peculiarities included: files with holes, files with
holes and a block of nulls, files with funny characters in their
names, unreadable and unwritable files, devices, files that change
size during the backup, files that are created/deleted during the
backup and more. She presented the results at LISA V in Oct. 1991.
See torture-testing
Backup and Archive Programs.Emergency Restore ProcedureBefore the DisasterThere are only four steps that you need to perform in
preparation for any disaster that may occur.disklabelFirst, print the disklabel from each of your disks
(e.g. disklabel da0 | lpr), your filesystem table
(/etc/fstab) and all boot messages,
two copies of
each.fix-it floppiesSecond, determine that the boot and fix-it floppies
(boot.flp and fixit.flp)
have all your devices. The easiest way to check is to reboot your
machine with the boot floppy in the floppy drive and check the boot
messages. If all your devices are listed and functional, skip on to
step three.Otherwise, you have to create two custom bootable
floppies which have a kernel that can mount all of your disks
and access your tape drive. These floppies must contain:
fdisk, disklabel,
newfs, mount, and
whichever backup program you use. These programs must be
statically linked. If you use dump, the
floppy must contain restore.Third, create backup tapes regularly. Any changes that you make
after your last backup may be irretrievably lost. Write-protect the
backup tapes.Fourth, test the floppies (either boot.flp
and fixit.flp or the two custom bootable
floppies you made in step two.) and backup tapes. Make notes of the
procedure. Store these notes with the bootable floppy, the
printouts and the backup tapes. You will be so distraught when
restoring that the notes may prevent you from destroying your backup
tapes (How? In place of tar xvf /dev/rsa0, you
might accidently type tar cvf /dev/rsa0 and
over-write your backup tape).For an added measure of security, make bootable floppies and two
backup tapes each time. Store one of each at a remote location. A
remote location is NOT the basement of the same office building. A
number of firms in the World Trade Center learned this lesson the
hard way. A remote location should be physically separated from
your computers and disk drives by a significant distance.A Script for Creating a Bootable Floppy /mnt/sbin/init
gzip -c -best /sbin/fsck > /mnt/sbin/fsck
gzip -c -best /sbin/mount > /mnt/sbin/mount
gzip -c -best /sbin/halt > /mnt/sbin/halt
gzip -c -best /sbin/restore > /mnt/sbin/restore
gzip -c -best /bin/sh > /mnt/bin/sh
gzip -c -best /bin/sync > /mnt/bin/sync
cp /root/.profile /mnt/root
cp -f /dev/MAKEDEV /mnt/dev
chmod 755 /mnt/dev/MAKEDEV
chmod 500 /mnt/sbin/init
chmod 555 /mnt/sbin/fsck /mnt/sbin/mount /mnt/sbin/halt
chmod 555 /mnt/bin/sh /mnt/bin/sync
chmod 6555 /mnt/sbin/restore
#
# create the devices nodes
#
cd /mnt/dev
./MAKEDEV std
./MAKEDEV da0
./MAKEDEV da1
./MAKEDEV da2
./MAKEDEV sa0
./MAKEDEV pty0
cd /
#
# create minimum filesystem table
#
cat > /mnt/etc/fstab < /mnt/etc/passwd < /mnt/etc/master.passwd <After the DisasterThe key question is: did your hardware survive? You have been
doing regular backups so there is no need to worry about the
software.If the hardware has been damaged. First, replace those parts
that have been damaged.If your hardware is okay, check your floppies. If you are using
a custom boot floppy, boot single-user (type -s
at the boot: prompt). Skip the following
paragraph.If you are using the boot.flp and
fixit.flp floppies, keep reading. Insert the
boot.flp floppy in the first floppy drive and
boot the computer. The original install menu will be displayed on
the screen. Select the Fixit--Repair mode with CDROM or
floppy. option. Insert the
fixit.flp when prompted.
restore and the other programs that you need are
located in /mnt2/stand.Recover each filesystem separately.mountroot partitiondisklabelnewfsTry to mount (e.g. mount /dev/da0a
/mnt) the root partition of your first disk. If the
disklabel was damaged, use disklabel to re-partition and
label the disk to match the label that you printed and saved. Use
newfs to re-create the filesystems. Re-mount the root
partition of the floppy read-write (mount -u -o rw
/mnt). Use your backup program and backup tapes to
recover the data for this filesystem (e.g. restore vrf
/dev/sa0). Unmount the filesystem (e.g. umount
/mnt) Repeat for each filesystem that was
damaged.Once your system is running, backup your data onto new tapes.
Whatever caused the crash or data loss may strike again. Another
hour spent now may save you from further distress later.* I did not prepare for the Disaster, What Now?
]]>
JulioMerinoContributed by Floppy disksFloppy disks are, nowadays, an old-fashioned medium to
store/share data. Although, there are still some times when you
need to use them, because you do not have any other removable
storage media or you need to use what you have saved in them on
any other computer.This section will explain how to use floppy disks in
FreeBSD, that is, formating and copying/restoring data from
them. But... I really have written this to help you about how to
create forced-size floppies.The deviceFloppy disks are accessed through entries in
/dev (like any other device). To access the
raw floppy disk you can use /dev/rfdX,
where X stands for the drive number, usually 0. When the disk is
formatted you can use /dev/fdX, or
whichever of the other devices named
/dev/fdXY, where Y stands for a
letter. These are all the same.Other important devices are
/dev/fdX.size, where size is a floppy disk
size in kilobytes. These entries are used at low-level format
time to determine the disk size.Sometimes you will have to (re)create these entries under
/dev. To do it, you can issue:&prompt.root; cd /dev && ./MAKEDEV "fd*"FormattingA floppy disk needs to be low-level formated before it can
be used. This is usually done by the vendor but you may want to
do it to check media integrity or to force the disk capacity to
be bigger.To format the floppy at a low-level fashion you need to
use fdformat. This utility expects
the device name as an argument. We will use those
/dev/fdX.size devices, which will allow us
to format the floppy to its real size, or force them. So you
insert a new 3.5inch floppy disk in your drive and issue:&prompt.root; /usr/sbin/fdformat /dev/rfd0.1440This will take a while... You should notice any disk error
here (this can help you determining which disks are good or
bad).To force the floppy disk size, we will use other entries
in /dev. Get the same floppy and issue:
&prompt.root; /usr/sbin/fdformat /dev/rfd0.1720It will take some more time than before (forced disks are
slower). When it finishes, you will have a 1720kb floppy disk,
but for the moment you will not notice any difference. You may
use other disk sizes that you can find in /dev, but the most
stable/compatible is the 1720kb for 3.5inch disks.The disklabelAfter low-level formatting the disk, you will need to
place a disklabel on it. This disklabel will be destroyed
later, but it is needed by the system to determine the size of
the disk and its geometry later.The new disklabel will take over the whole disk, and will
contain all the proper information about the geometry of the
normal or forced floppy. Take a look to
/etc/disktab now; you will see geometry
values of all kinds of floppy disks.
You can run now disklabel
like:&prompt.root; /sbin/disklabel -B -r -w /dev/rfd0 fdsizeReplace fdsize with fd1440, fd1720 or whichever size you
want. The last field instructs disklabel which entry to take
from /etc/disktab to use.The filesystemNow your floppy is ready to be high-level formated. This
will place a new filesystem on it, which will let FreeBSD read
and write to the disk. After creating the new filesystem, the
disklabel is destroyed, so if you want to reformat the disk, you
will have to recreate the disklabel another time.You can choose now which filesystem to use on your floppy.
You can use UFS or FAT, though UFS is not a good idea for
floppies. Choose FAT which is nice for floppies.To put a new filesystem on the floppy do this:&prompt.root; /sbin/newfs_msdos /dev/fd0As we created a disklabel before, newfs
will be able to fetch disk data and construct the new
filesystem. And now, your disk is ready for use...Using the floppyYou have two choices to use the floppy. You can either
mount the disk with mount_msdos, or you can
use mtools.
Mtools are great, but you will need
to install them from the ports system.Try it; issue a mdir. If you forced the
disk, you will notice its extra size!A last note about forced disks: they are compatible with
practically all other operating systems without any external
utility to read/write them. Microsoft systems will recognize
them without problems. But note that there may be times when the
floppy drive itself is not able to read them (this may happen
with very old drives).Backups to FloppiesCan I Use floppies for Backing Up My Data?backup floppiesfloppy disksFloppy disks are not really a suitable media for
making backups as:The media is unreliable, especially over long periods of
timeBacking up and restoring is very slowThey have a very limited capacity (the days of backing up
an entire hard disk onto a dozen or so floppies has long since
passed).However, if you have no other method of backing up your data then
floppy disks are better than no backup at all.If you do have to use floppy disks then ensure that you use good
quality ones. Floppies that have been lying around the office for a
couple of years are a bad choice. Ideally use new ones from a
reputable manufacturer.So How Do I Backup My Data to Floppies?The best way to backup to floppy disk is to use
tar with the (multi
volume) option, which allows backups to span multiple
floppies.To backup all the files in the current directory and sub-directory
use this (as root):&prompt.root; tar Mcvf /dev/fd0 *When the first floppy is full tar will prompt you to
insert the next volume (because tar is media independent it
refers to volumes. In this context it means floppy disk)Prepare volume #2 for /dev/fd0 and hit return:This is repeated (with the volume number incrementing) until all
the specified files have been archived.Can I Compress My Backups?targzipcompressionUnfortunately, tar will not allow the
option to be used for multi-volume archives.
You could, of course, gzip all the files,
tar them to the floppies, then
gunzip the files again!How Do I Restore My Backups?To restore the entire archive use:&prompt.root; tar Mxvf /dev/fd0There are two ways that you can use to restore only
specific files. First, you can start with the first floppy
and use:&prompt.root; tar Mxvf /dev/fd0 filenametar will prompt you to insert subsequent floppies until it
finds the required file.Alternatively, if you know which floppy the file is on then you
can simply insert that floppy and use the same command as above. Note
that if the first file on the floppy is a continuation from the
previous one then tar will warn you that it cannot
restore it, even if you have not asked it to!
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml
index 034ae87143..b294aa24d1 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,5340 +1,5340 @@
JimMockRestructured, reorganized, and parts
rewritten by RandyPrattThe sysinstall walkthrough, screenshots, and general
copy by Installing FreeBSDSynopsisinstallationFreeBSD is provided with a text-based, easy to use installation
program called Sysinstall. This is the
default installation program for FreeBSD, although vendors are free to
provide their own installation suite if they wish. This chapter
describes how to use Sysinstall to install
FreeBSD.After reading this chapter, you will know:How to create the FreeBSD installation disks.How FreeBSD refers to, and subdivides, your hard disks.How to start Sysinstall.The questions Sysinstall will ask
you, what they mean, and how to answer them.Before reading this chapter, you should:Read the supported hardware list that shipped with the version
of FreeBSD you are installing, and verify that your hardware is
supported.In general, these installation instructions are written
for i386 (PC compatible) architecture
computers. Where applicable, instructions specific to other
platforms (for example, Alpha) will be listed.Pre-installation TasksInventory Your ComputerBefore installing FreeBSD you should attempt to inventory the
components in your computer. The FreeBSD installation routines will
show you the components (hard disks, network cards, CDROM drives, and
so forth) with their model number and manufacturer. FreeBSD will also
attempt to determine the correct configuration for these devices,
which includes information about IRQ and IO port usage. Due to the
vagaries of PC hardware this process is not always completely
successful, and you may need to correct FreeBSD's determination of
your configuration.If you already have another operating system installed, such as
Windows or Linux, it is a good idea to use the facilities provided
by those operating systems to see how your hardware is already
configured. If you are really not sure what settings an expansion
card is using, you may find it printed on the card itself. Popular IRQ
numbers are 3, 5, and 7, and IO port addresses are normally written as
hexadecimal numbers, such as 0x330.We recommend you print or write down this information before
installing FreeBSD. It may help to use a table, like this:
Sample Device InventoryDevice NameIRQIO port(s)NotesFirst hard diskN/AN/A4GB, made by Seagate, first IDE masterCDROMN/AN/AFirst IDE slaveSecond hard diskN/AN/A2GB, made by IBM, second IDE masterFirst IDE controller140x1f0Network cardN/AN/AIntel 10/100ModemN/AN/A3Com 56K faxmodem, on COM1:…
Backup Your DataIf the computer you will be installing FreeBSD on contains
valuable data then ensure you have it backed up, and that you have
tested the backups before installing FreeBSD. The FreeBSD
installation routine will prompt you several times before writing any
data to your disk, but once that process has started it cannot be
undone.Decide Where to Install FreeBSDIf you want FreeBSD to use all your disk, then there is nothing
more to concern yourself with at this point — you can skip to the
next section.However, if you need FreeBSD to co-exist with other operating
systems then you need to have a rough understanding of how data is
laid out on the disk, and how this affects you.Disk Layouts for the i386A PC disk can be divided in to discrete chunks. These chunks are
called partitions. By design, the PC only
supports four partitions per disk. These partitions are called
primary partitions. To work around this
limitation and allow more than four partitions, a new partition type
was created, the extended partition. A disk
may contain only one extended partition. Special partitions, called
logical partitions, can be created inside this
extended partition.Each partition has a partition ID, which is
a number used to identify the type of data on the partition. FreeBSD
partitions have the partition ID 165.In general, each operating system that you use will identify
partitions in a particular way. For example, DOS, and its
descendants, like Windows, assign each primary and logical partition a
drive letter, starting with
C:.FreeBSD must be installed into a primary partition. FreeBSD can
keep all its data, including any files that you create, on this one
partition. However, if you have multiple disks, then you can create a
FreeBSD partition on all, or some, of them. When you install FreeBSD,
you must have one partition available. This might be a blank
partition that you have prepared, or it might be an existing partition
that contains data that you no longer care about.If you are already using all the partitions on all your disks, then
you will have to free one of them for FreeBSD using the tools
provided by the other operating systems you use (e.g.,
fdisk on DOS or Windows).If you have a spare partition then you can use that. However, you
may need to shrink one or more of your existing partitions
first.A minimal installation of FreeBSD takes as little as 100MB of disk
space. However, that is a very minimal install,
leaving almost no space for your own files. A more realistic minimum
is 250MB without a graphical environment, and 350MB or more if you
want a graphical user interface. If you intend to install a lot of
third party software as well, then you will need more space.You can use a commercial tool such as Partition
Magic to resize your partitions to make space for
FreeBSD. The tools directory on the CDROM
contains two free software tools which can carry out this task,
FIPS and
PResizer. Documentation for both of these
is in the same directory.Incorrect use of these tools can delete the data on your disk.
Be sure that you have recent, working backups before using
them.Using an existing partition unchangedSuppose that you have a computer with a single 4GB disk that
already has a version of Windows installed, and you have split the
disk in to two drive letters, C: and
D:, each of which is 2GB in size. You have
1GB of data on C:, and 0.5GB of data on
D:.This means that your disk has two partitions on it, one per
drive letter. You can copy all your existing data from
D: to C:, which
will free up the second partition, ready for FreeBSD.Shrinking an existing partitionSuppose that you have a computer with a single 4GB disk, that
already has a version of Windows installed. When you installed
Windows you created one large partition, giving you a
C: drive that is 4GB in size. You are
currently using 1.5GB of space, and want FreeBSD to have 2GB of
space.In order to install FreeBSD you will need to either:Backup your Windows data, and then reinstall Windows,
asking for a 2GB partition at install time.Use one of the tools such as Partition
Magic, described above, to shrink your Windows
partition.Disk Layouts for the AlphaAlphaYou will need a dedicated disk for FreeBSD on the
Alpha. It is not possible to share a disk with another
operating system at this time. Depending on the specific
Alpha machine you have, this disk can either be a SCSI disk
or an IDE disk, as long as your machine is capable of
booting from it.Following the conventions of the Digital / Compaq
manuals all SRM input is shown in uppercase. SRM is case
insensitive.To find the names and types of disks in your machine, use
the SHOW DEVICE command from the SRM
console prompt:>>>show device
dka0.0.0.4.0 DKA0 TOSHIBA CD-ROM XM-57 3476
dkc0.0.0.1009.0 DKC0 RZ1BB-BS 0658
dkc100.1.0.1009.0 DKC100 SEAGATE ST34501W 0015
dva0.0.0.0.1 DVA0
ewa0.0.0.3.0 EWA0 00-00-F8-75-6D-01
pkc0.7.0.1009.0 PKC0 SCSI Bus ID 7 5.27
pqa0.0.0.4.0 PQA0 PCI EIDE
pqb0.0.1.4.0 PQB0 PCI EIDEThis example is from a Digital Personal Workstation
433au and shows three disks attached to the machine. The
first is a CDROM drive called DKA0 and
the other two are disks and are called
DKC0 and
DKC100 respectively.Disks with names of the form DKx
are SCSI disks. For example DKA100
refers to a SCSI with SCSI target ID 1 on the first SCSI bus (A),
whereas DKC300 refers to a SCSI disk
with SCSI ID 3 on the third SCSI bus (C). Devicename
PKx refers to the SCSI host bus adapter. As
seen in the SHOW DEVICE output SCSI
CDROM drives are treated as any other SCSI hard disk drive.IDE disks have names similar to DQx,
while PQx is the associated IDE
controller.Collect Your Network Configuration DetailsIf you intend to connect to a network as part of your FreeBSD
installation (for example, if you will be installing from an FTP
site, or an
NFS server), then you need to know your network configuration. You
will be prompted for this information during the installation so that
FreeBSD can connect to the network to complete the install.Connecting to an Ethernet Network, or Cable/DSL ModemIf you connect to an Ethernet network, or you have an Internet
connection via cable or DSL, then you will need the following
information:IP address.IP address of the default gateway.Hostname.DNS server IP addresses.If you do not know this information, then ask your system
administrator or service provider. They may say that this
information is assigned automatically, using
DHCP. If so, make a note of this.Connecting Using a ModemIf you dial up to an ISP using a regular modem then you can
still install FreeBSD over the Internet, it will just take a very
long time.You will need to know:The phone number to dial for your ISP.The COM: port your modem is connected to.The username and password for your ISP account.Check for FreeBSD ErrataAlthough the FreeBSD project strives to ensure that each release
of FreeBSD is as stable as possible, bugs do occasionally creep in to
the process. On very rare occasions those bugs affect the
installation process. As these problems are discovered and fixed they
are noted in the FreeBSD Errata, posted on the FreeBSD web site. You
should check the errata before installing to make sure that there are
no late-breaking problems which you should be aware of.Information about all the releases, including the errata for each
release, can be found on the
release
information section of the
FreeBSD web site.Prepare the Boot DiscsFreeBSD can be installed from a number of different media; CDROM,
DVD, FTP (both anonymous and non-anonymous), NFS, tape, or an existing
MS-DOS partition.If you have FreeBSD on CDROM or DVD, and your computer allows
you to boot from the CDROM or DVD (typically a BIOS option called
Boot Order or similar) then you can skip this
section. The FreeBSD CDROM and DVD images are bootable and can be
used to install FreeBSD without any other special
preparation.The FreeBSD installation process is started by booting your
computer into the FreeBSD installer—it is not a program you run
within another operating system. To do this, you must create some
floppy disks that can be booted from, and then boot from them.If you are not installing directly from
CDROM, DVD, or FTP then you are probably preparing your own
installation media (e.g., an MS-DOS partition), which must be prepared
before you install FreeBSD. This is a slightly more advanced,
infrequent activity, and is documented in . This includes the scenario where you
want to create your own FTP site on your own network so that other
computers can use your site as a FreeBSD FTP installation site.In general, to create boot floppy images, follow these
steps:Acquire the Boot Floppy ImagesThe boot discs are available on your installation media
in the floppies directory, and
can also be downloaded from the
floppies directory.The floppy images have a .flp extension.
The floppies/ directory contains a number of
different images, and the ones you will need to use depends on the
version of FreeBSD you are installing, and in some cases, the
hardware you are installing to. In most cases you will need two
files, kern.flp and
mfsroot.flp, but check
README.TXT in the same directory to be
sure.Your FTP program must use binary mode
to download these disk images. Some web browsers have been
known to use text (or
ASCII) mode, which will be apparent if you
cannot boot from the disks.Prepare the Floppy DisksYou must prepare one floppy disk per image file you had to
download. It is imperative that these disks are free from
defects. The easiest way to test this is to format the disks
for yourself. Do not trust pre-formatted floppies.If you try to install FreeBSD and the installation
program crashes, freezes, or otherwise misbehaves, one of
the first things to suspect is the floppies. Try writing
the floppy image files to some other disks and try
again.Write the Image Files to the Floppy Disks.The .flp files are
not regular files you copy to the disk.
Instead, they are images of the complete contents of the
disk. This means that you cannot use
commands like DOS' copy to write the
files. Instead, you must use specific tools to write the
images directly to the disk.DOSIf you are creating the floppies on a computer running
DOS/Windows, then we provide a tool to do
this called fdimage.If you are using the floppies from the CDROM, and your
CDROM is the E: drive, then you would
run this:E:\>tools\fdimage floppies\kern.flp A:Repeat this command for each .flp
file, replacing the floppy disk each time, being sure to label
the disks with the name of the file that you copied to them.
Adjust the command line as necessary, depending on where you have
placed the .flp files. If you do not have
the CDROM, then fdimage can be downloaded from
the tools directory on the FreeBSD FTP site.If you are writing the floppies on a Unix system (such as
another FreeBSD system) you can use the &man.dd.1; command to
write the image files directly to disk. On FreeBSD, you would
run:&prompt.root; dd if=kern.flp of=/dev/fd0On FreeBSD, /dev/fd0 refers to the
first floppy disk (the A: drive).
/dev/fd1 would be the
B: drive, and so on. Other Unix
variants might have different names for the floppy disk
devices, and you will need to check the documentation for the
system as necessary.You are now ready to start installing FreeBSD.Starting the InstallationBy default, the installation will not make any changes to your
disk(s) until you see the following message.Last Chance: Are you SURE your want continue the installation?
If you're running this on a disk with data you wish to save then WE
STRONGLY ENCOURAGE YOU TO MAKE PROPER BACKUPS before proceeding!
We can take no responsibility for lost disk contents!The install can be exited at any time prior to the final
warning without changing the contents of the hard drive. If you are
concerned that you have configured something incorrectly you can just
turn the computer off before this point, and no damage will be
done.BootingBooting for the i386Start with your computer turned off.Turn on the computer. As it starts it should display an
option to enter the system set up menu, or BIOS, commonly reached
by keys like F2, F10,
Del, or
AltS. Use whichever keystroke is indicated on screen. In
some cases your computer may display a graphic while it starts.
Typically, pressing Esc will dismiss the graphic
and allow you to see the necessary messages.Find the setting that controls which devices the system boots
from. This is commonly shown as a list of devices, such as
Floppy, CDROM,
First Hard Disk, and so on.If you needed to prepare boot floppies, then make sure that the
floppy disk is selected. If you are booting from the CDROM then
make sure that that is selected instead. In case of doubt, you
should consult the manual that came with your computer, and/or its
motherboard.Make the change, then save and exit. The computer should now
restart.If you needed to prepare boot floppies, as described in
then one of them will be the
first boot disc, probably the one containing
kern.flp. Put this disc in your floppy
drive.If you are booting from CDROM, then you will need to turn on
the computer, and insert the CDROM at the first
opportunity.If your computer starts up as normal, and loads your existing
operating system then either:The disks were not inserted early enough in the boot
process. Leave them in, and try restarting your
computer.The BIOS changes earlier did not work correctly. You
should redo that step until you get the right option.FreeBSD will start to boot. If you are booting from CDROM you
will see a display similar to this:Verifying DMI Pool Data ........
Boot from ATAPI CD-ROM :
1. FD 2.88MB System Type-(00)
Uncompressing ... done
BTX loader 1.00 BTX version is 1.01
Console: internal video/keyboard
BIOS drive A: is disk0
BIOS drive B: is disk1
BIOS drive C: is disk2
BIOS drive C: is disk3
BIOS 639kB/261120kB available memory
FreeBSD/i386 bootstrap loader, Revision 0.8
(murray@builder.freebsdmall.com, Thu Jan 17 19:28:57 PST 2002)
/kernel text=0x266691 data=0x407c+0x20d68 \
|
Hit [Enter] to boot immediately, or any other key for command prompt.
Booting [kernel] in 9 seconds... _If you are booting from floppy disc, you will see a display
similar to this:Verifying DMI Pool Data ........
BTX loader 1.00 BTX version is 1.01
Console: internal video/keyboard
BIOS drive A: is disk0
BIOS drive C: is disk1
BIOS 639kB/261120kB available memory
FreeBSD/i386 bootstrap loader, Revision 0.8
(murray@builder.freebsdmall.com, Thu Jan 17 19:28:57 PST 2002)
/kernel text=0x266691 data=0x407c+0x20d68 |
Please insert MFS root floppy and press enter:Follow these instructions by removing the
kern.flp disc, insert the
mfsroot.flp disc, and press
Enter.Irrespective of whether you booted from floppy or CDROM, the
boot process will then get to this point.Hit [Enter] to boot immediately, or any other key for command prompt.
Booting [kernel] in 9 seconds... _Either wait ten seconds, or press Enter. This
will then launch the kernel configuration menu.Booting for the AlphaAlphaStart with your computer turned off.Turn on the computer and wait for a boot monitor
prompt.If you needed to prepare boot floppies, as described in
then one of them will be the
first boot disc, probably the one containing
kern.flp. Put this disc in your floppy
drive and type the following command to boot the disk
(substituting the name of your floppy drive if
necessary):>>>BOOT DVA0 -FLAGS '' -FILE ''If you are booting from CDROM, insert the CDROM into
the drive and type the following command to start the
installation (substituting the name of the appropriate
CDROM drive if necessary):>>>BOOT DKA0 -FLAGS '' -FILE ''FreeBSD will start to boot. If you are booting from a
floppy disc, at some point you will see the message:Please insert MFS root floppy and press enter:Follow these instructions by removing the
kern.flp disc, insert the
mfsroot.flp disc, and press
Enter.Irrespective of whether you booted from floppy or CDROM, the
boot process will then get to this point.Hit [Enter] to boot immediately, or any other key for command prompt.
Booting [kernel] in 9 seconds... _Either wait ten seconds, or press Enter. This
will then launch the kernel configuration menu.Kernel ConfigurationThe kernel is the core of the operating
system. It is responsible for many things, including access to all
the devices you may have on your system, such as hard disks, network
cards, sound cards, and so on. Each piece of hardware supported by
the FreeBSD kernel has a driver associated with it. Each driver has a
two or three letter name, such as sa for the
SCSI sequential access driver, or sio for the
Serial I/O driver (which manages COM ports).When the kernel starts, each driver checks the system to see
whether or not the hardware it supports exists on your system. If it
does, then the driver configures the hardware and makes it available
to the rest of the kernel.This checking is commonly referred to as device
probing. Unfortunately, it is not always possible to do
this in a safe way. Some hardware drivers do not co-exist well
together, and probing for one piece of hardware can sometimes leave
another in an inconsistent state. This is a basic
limitation of the design of the PC.Many older devices are called ISA devices—as opposed
to PCI devices. The ISA specification requires each device to have
some information hard coded into it, typically the Interrupt Request
Line number (IRQ) and IO port address that the driver uses. This
information is commonly set by using physical
jumpers on the card, or by using a DOS based
utility.This was often a source of problems, because it was not possible
to have two devices that shared the same IRQ or port address.Newer devices follow the PCI specification, which does not require
this, as the devices are supposed to cooperate with the BIOS, and be
told which IRQ and IO port addresses to use.If you have any ISA devices in your computer then FreeBSD's
driver for that device will need to be configured with the IRQ and
port address that you have set the card to. This is why carrying out
an inventory of your hardware (see ) can be useful.Unfortunately, the default IRQs and memory ports used by some
drivers clash. This is because some ISA devices are shipped with IRQs
or memory ports that clash. The defaults in FreeBSD's drivers are
deliberately set to mirror the manufacturer's defaults, so that, out
of the box, as many devices as possible will work.This is almost never an issue when running FreeBSD day-to-day.
Your computer will not normally contain two pieces of hardware that
clash, because one of them would not work (irrespective of the
operating system you are using).It becomes an issue when you are installing FreeBSD for the first
time because the kernel used to carry out the install has to contain
as many drivers as possible, so that many different hardware
configurations can be supported. This means that some of
those drivers will have conflicting configurations. The devices are
probed in a strict order, and if you own a device that is probed late
in the process, but conflicted with an earlier probe, then your
hardware might not function or be probed correctly when you install
FreeBSD.Because of this, the first thing you have the opportunity to do
when installing FreeBSD is look at the list of drivers that are
configured in to the kernel, and either disable some of them, if you
do not own that device, or confirm (and alter) the driver's
configuration if you do own the device but the defaults are
wrong.This probably sounds much more complicated than it actually
is. shows the first kernel
configuration menu. We recommend that you choose the
Start kernel configuration in full-screen visual
mode option, as it presents the easiest interface for
the new user.Kernel Configuration MenuThe kernel configuration screen ()
is then divided into four sections.A collapsible list of all the drivers that are currently
marked as active, subdivided in to groups such as
Storage, and Network. Each
driver is shown as a description, its two three letter driver
name, and the IRQ and memory port used by that driver. In
addition, if an active driver conflicts with another active driver
then CONF is shown next to the driver name.
This section also shows the total number of conflicting drivers
that are currently active.Drivers that have been marked inactive. They remain in the
kernel, but they will not probe for their device when the kernel
starts. These are subdivided in to groups in the same way as the
active driver list.More detail about the currently selected driver, including its
IRQ and memory port address.Information about the keystrokes that are valid at this point
in time.The Kernel Device Configuration Visual InterfaceAt this point there will always be conflicts listed. Do not worry
about this, it is to be expected; all the drivers are enabled, and
as has already been explained, some of them will conflict with one
another.You now have to work through the list of drivers, resolving the
conflicts.Resolving Driver ConflictsPress X. This will completely expand the
list of drivers, so you can see all of them. You will need to use
the arrow keys to scroll back and forth through the active driver
list. shows the result of
pressing X. Expanded Driver ListDisable all the drivers for devices that you do not have. To
disable a driver, highlight it with the arrow keys and press
Del. The driver will be moved to the
Inactive Drivers list.If you inadvertently disable a device that you need then press
Tab to switch to the Inactive
Drivers list, select the driver that you disabled, and
press Enter to move it back to the active
list.Do not disable sc0. This controls
the screen, and you will need this unless you are installing
over a serial cable.Only disable atkbd0 if you are
using a USB keyboard. If you have a normal keyboard then you
must keep atkbd0.If there are no conflicts listed then you can skip this step.
Otherwise, the remaining conflicts need to be examined. If they
do not have the indication of an "allowed conflict" in the message
area, then either the IRQ/address for device probe will need to be
changed, or the IRQ/address on the hardware
will need to be changed.To change the driver's configuration for IRQ and IO port
address, select the device and press Enter. The
cursor will move to the third section of the screen, and you can
change the values. You should enter the values for IRQ and port
address that you discovered when you made your hardware inventory.
Press Q to finish editing the device's
configuration and return to the active driver list.If you are not sure what these figures should be then you can
try using -1. Some FreeBSD drivers can safely
probe the hardware to discover what the correct value should be,
and a value of -1 configures them to do
this.The procedure for changing the address on the hardware varies
from device to device. For some devices you may need to
physically remove the card from your computer and adjust jumper
settings or DIP switches. Other cards may have come with a DOS
floppy that contains the programs used to reconfigure the card.
In any case, you should refer to the documentation that came with
the device. This will obviously entail restarting your computer,
so you will need to boot back in to the FreeBSD installation
routine when you have reconfigured the card.When all the conflicts have been resolved the screen will look
similar to .Driver Configuration With No ConflictsAs you can see, the active driver list is now much smaller,
with only drivers for the hardware that actually exists being
listed.You can now save these changes, and move on to the next step
of the install. Press Q to quit the device
configuration interface. This message will appear.Save these parameters before exiting? ([Y]es/[N]o/[C]ancel)Answer Y to save the parameters and the
probing will start. After displaying the probe results in white
on black text Sysinstall will start
and display its main menu
().Sysinstall Main MenuReviewing the Device Probe ResultsThe last few hundred lines that have been displayed on screen are
stored and can be reviewed.To review the buffer, press Scroll Lock. This
turns on scrolling in the display. You can then use the arrow keys, or
PageUp and PageDown to view the
results. Press Scroll Lock again to stop
scrolling,Do this now, to review the text that scrolled off the screen when
the kernel was carrying out the device probes. You will see text
similar to , although the precise
text will differ depending on the devices that you have in your
computer.Typical Device Probe Resultsavail memory = 254611456 (248644K bytes)
Preloaded elf kernel "kernel" at 0xc069a000.
Preloaded mfs_root "/mfsroot" at 0xc069a084.
md1: Malloc disk
npx0: <math processor> on motherboard
npx0: INT 16 interface
pcib0: <Host to PCI bridge> on motherboard
pci0: <PCI bus> on pcib0
pcib1: <VIA 82C598MVP (Apollo MVP3) PCI-PCI (AGP bridge> at device 1.0 on pci0
pci1: <PCI bus> on pcib1
pci1: <Matrox MGA G200 AGP graphics accelerator> at 0.0 irq 11
isab0: <VIA 82C586 PCI-ISA bridge> at device 7.0 on pci0
isa0: <ISA bus> on isab0
atapci0: <VIA 82C586 ATA33 controller> port 0xe000-0xe00f at device 7.1 on pci0
ata0: at 0x1f0 irq 14 on atapci0
uhci0: <VIA 83C572 USB controller> port 0xe400-0xe41f irq 10 at device 7.2 on pci0
usb0: <VIA 83C572 USB controller> on uhci0
usb0: USB revision 1.0
uhub0: VIA UHCI root hub, class 9/0, rev 1.00/1.00, addr 1
uhub0: 2 ports with 2 removable, self powered
chip1: <VIA 82C586B ACPI interface> at device 7.3 on pci0
ed0: <NE2000 PCI Ethernet (RealTek 8029)> port 0xe800-0xe81f irq 9 at device 10.0 on pci0
ed0: address 52:54:05:de:73:1b, type NE2000 (16bit)
isa0: too many dependant configs (8)
isa0: unexpected small tag 14
orm0; <Option ROM> at iomem 0xc0000-0xc7fff on isa0
fdc0: <NEC 72065B or clone> at port 0x3f0-0x3f5,0x3f7 irq6 drq2 on isa0
fdc0: FIFO enabled, 8 bytes threshold
fd0: <1440-KB 3.5" drive> on fdc0 drive 0
atkbdc0: <keyboard controller (i8042)> at port 0x60-0x64 on isa0
atkbd0: <AT Keyboard> flags 0x1 irq 1 on atkbdc0
kbd0 at atkbd0
psm0: <PS/2 Mouse> irq 12 on atkbdc0
psm0: model Generic PS/2 mouse, device ID 0
vga0: <Generic ISA VGA> at port 0x3c0-0c3df iomem 0xa0000-0xbffff on isa0
sc0: <System console> at flags 0x100 on isa0
sc0: VGA <16 virtual consoles, flags-0x300>
sio0 at port 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 flags 0x10 on isa0
sio0: type 16550A
sio1: at port 0x2f8-0x2ff irq3 on isa0
sio1: type 16550A
ppc0: <Parallel port> at port 0x378-0x37f irq 7 on isa0
ppc0: SMC-like chipset (ECP/EPP/PS2/NIBBLE) in COMPATIBLE mode
ppc0: FIFO with 16/16/15 bytes threshold
ppbus0: IEEE1284 device found /NIBBLE
Probing for PnP devices on ppbus0:
ppi0: <Parallel I/O> on ppbus0
plip0: <PLIP network interface> on ppbus0
ad0: 8063MB <IBM-DHEA-38451> [16383/16/63] at ata0-master using UDMA33
acd0: CDROM <DELTA OTC-H101/ST3 F/W by OIPD> at ata0-slave using PIO4
Mounting root from ufs:/dev/md0c
/stand/sysinstall running as init on vty0Check the probe results carefully to make sure that FreeBSD found
all the devices you expected. If a device was not found, then it will
not be listed. If the device's driver required configuring
with the IRQ and port address then you should check that you entered
them correctly.If you need to make changes to the UserConfig device probing,
its easy to exit the sysinstall program
and start over again. Its also a good way to become more familiar
with the process.Select Sysinstall ExitUse the arrow keys to select
Exit Install from the Main
Install Screen menu. The following message will display: User Confirmation Requested
Are you sure you wish to exit? The system will reboot
(be sure to remove any floppies from the drives).
[ Yes ] NoThe install program will start again if the CDROM is left
in the drive and [Yes] is selected.If you are booting from floppies it will be necessary to remove
the mfs.root floppy and replace it with
kern.flp before rebooting.Introducing SysinstallSysinstall is the installation
application provided by the FreeBSD Project. It is console based and is
divided into a number of menus and screens that you can use to
configure and control the installation process.The Sysinstall menu system is controlled
by the arrow keys, Enter, Space. and
other keys. A detailed description of these keys, and what they do, is
contained in Sysinstall's usage
information.To review this information, ensure that the
Usage entry is highlighted and that the
[Select] button is selected, as shown in , then press Enter.The instructions for using the menu system will be displayed. After
reviewing them, press Enter to return to the Main
Menu.Selecting Usage From Sysinstall Main MenuSelecting The Documentation MenuFrom the Main Menu, select Doc with
the arrow keys and
press Enter.Selecting Documentation MenuThis will display the Documentation Menu.Sysinstall Documentation MenuIt is important to read the documents provided.To view a document, select it with the arrow keys and
press Enter. When finished reading a document,
pressing Enter will return to the Documentation
Menu.To return to the Main Installation Menu, select
Exit with the
arrow keys and press Enter.Selecting The Keymap MenuTo change the keyboard mapping, use the arrow keys to select
Keymap from the menu and press
EnterSysinstall Main MenuA different keyboard mapping may be chosen by selecting the
menu item using up/down arrow keys and pressing Space.
Pressing Space again will unselect the item. When
finished, choose the &gui.ok; using the
arrow keys and press
Enter.Only a partial list is shown in this screen representation.
Selecting &gui.cancel; will use the default
keymap and return to the Main Install Menu.Sysinstall Keymap MenuInstallation Options ScreenSelect Options and press
EnterSysinstall Main MenuSysinstall OptionsThe default values are usually fine for most users and do
not need to be changed.The description of the selected item will appear at the
bottom of the screen highlighted in blue. Notice that one of the
options is Use Defaults to reset all
values to startup defaults.Press F1 to read the help screen about the
various options.Pressing Q will return to the Main Install
menu.Begin A Standard InstallationThe Standard installation is the
option recommended for those new to Unix or FreeBSD. Use the arrow
keys to select Standard and
then press Enter to start the installation.Begin Standard InstallationAllocating Disk SpaceYour first task is to allocate disk space for FreeBSD, and label
that space so that Sysinstall can prepare
it. In order to do this you need to know how FreeBSD expects to find
information on the disk.BIOS Drive NumberingBefore you install and configure FreeBSD on your system, there is an
important subject that you should be aware of, especially if you have
multiple hard drives.DOSMicrosoft WindowsIn a PC running a BIOS-dependent operating system such as
MS-DOS or Microsoft Windows, the BIOS is able to abstract the
normal disk drive order, and
the operating system goes along with the change. This allows the user
to boot from a disk drive other than the so-called primary
master. This is especially convenient for some users who have
found that the simplest and cheapest way to keep a system backup is to
buy an identical second hard drive, and perform routine copies of the
first drive to the second drive using
Ghost or XCOPY
. Then, if the
first drive fails, or is attacked by a virus, or is scribbled upon by an
operating system defect, he can easily recover by instructing the BIOS
to logically swap the drives. It is like switching the cables on the
drives, but without having to open the case.SCSIBIOSMore expensive systems with SCSI controllers often include BIOS
extensions which allow the SCSI drives to be re-ordered in a similar
fashion for up to seven drives.A user who is accustomed to taking advantage of these features may
become surprised when the results with FreeBSD are not as expected.
FreeBSD does not use the BIOS, and does not know the logical BIOS
drive mapping. This can lead to very perplexing situations,
especially when drives are physically identical in geometry, and have
also been made as data clones of one another.When using FreeBSD, always restore the BIOS to natural drive
numbering before installing FreeBSD, and then leave it that way. If you
need to switch drives around, then do so, but do it the hard way, and
open the case and move the jumpers and cables.An Illustration from the Files of Bill and Fred's Exceptional
Adventures:Bill breaks-down an older Wintel box to make another FreeBSD box
for Fred. Bill installs a single SCSI drive as SCSI unit zero and
installs FreeBSD on it.Fred begins using the system, but after several days notices that
the older SCSI drive is reporting numerous soft errors and reports
this fact to Bill.After several more days, Bill decides it is time to address the
situation, so he grabs an identical SCSI drive from the disk drive
archive in the back room. An initial surface scan
indicates that
this drive is functioning well, so Bill installs this drive as SCSI
unit four and makes an image copy from drive zero to drive four. Now
that the new drive is installed and functioning nicely, Bill decides
that it is a good idea to start using it, so he uses features in the
SCSI BIOS to re-order the disk drives so that the system boots from
SCSI unit four. FreeBSD boots and runs just fine.Fred continues his work for several days, and soon Bill and Fred
decide that it is time for a new adventure -- time to upgrade to a
newer version of FreeBSD. Bill removes SCSI unit zero because it was
a bit flaky and replaces it with another identical disk drive from
the archive. Bill then installs the new version of FreeBSD onto the
new SCSI unit zero using Fred's magic Internet FTP floppies. The
installation goes well.Fred uses the new version of FreeBSD for a few days, and certifies
that it is good enough for use in the engineering department...it is
time to copy all of his work from the old version. So Fred mounts
SCSI unit four (the latest copy of the older FreeBSD version). Fred
is dismayed to find that none of his precious work is present on SCSI
unit four.Where did the data go?When Bill made an image copy of the original SCSI unit zero onto
SCSI unit four, unit four became the new clone,
When Bill
re-ordered the SCSI BIOS so that he could boot from SCSI unit four, he
was only fooling himself. FreeBSD was still running on SCSI unit zero.
Making this kind of BIOS change will cause some or all of the Boot and
Loader code to be fetched from the selected BIOS drive, but when the
FreeBSD kernel drivers take-over, the BIOS drive numbering will be
ignored, and FreeBSD will transition back to normal drive numbering.
In the illustration at hand, the system continued to operate on the
original SCSI unit zero, and all of Fred's data was there, not on SCSI
unit four. The fact that the system appeared to be running on SCSI
unit four was simply an artifact of human expectations.We are delighted to mention that no data bytes were killed or
harmed in any way by our discovery of this phenomenon. The older SCSI
unit zero was retrieved from the bone pile, and all of Fred's work was
returned to him, (and now Bill knows that he can count as high as
zero).Although SCSI drives were used in this illustration, the concepts
apply equally to IDE drives.Disk OrganizationThe smallest unit of organization that FreeBSD uses to find files
is the filename. Filenames are case-sensitive, which means that
readme.txt and README.TXT
are two separate files. FreeBSD does not use the extension
(.txt) of a file to determine whether the file is
program, or a document, or some other form of data.Files are stored in directories. A directory may contain no
files, or it may contain many hundreds of files. A directory can also
contain other directories, allowing you to build up a hierarchy of
directories within one another. This makes it much easier to organize
your data.Files and directories are referenced by giving the file or
directory name, followed by a forward slash, /,
followed by any other directory names that are necessary. If you have
directory foo, which contains directory
bar, which contains the file
readme.txt, then the full name, or
path to the file is
foo/bar/readme.txt.Directories and files are stored in a filesystem. Each filesystem
contains exactly one directory at the very top level, called the
root directory for that filesystem. This root
directory can then contain other directories.So far this is probably similar to any other operating system you
may have used. There are a few differences; for example, DOS uses
\ to separate file and directory names, while MacOS
uses :.FreeBSD does not use drive letters, or other drive names in the
path. You would not write c:/foo/bar/readme.txt
on FreeBSD.Instead, one filesystem is designated the root
filesystem. The root filesystem's root directory is
referred to as /. Every other filesystem is then
mounted under the root filesystem. No matter
how many disks you have on your FreeBSD system, every directory
appears to be part of the same disk.Suppose you have three filesystems, called A,
B, and C. Each filesystem has
one root directory, which contains two other directories, called
A1, A2 (and likewise
B1, B2 and
C1, C2).Call A the root filesystem. If you used the
ls command to view the contents of this directory
you would see two subdirectories, A1 and
A2. The directory tree looks like this. /
|
+--- A1
|
`--- A2A filesystem must be mounted on to a directory in another
filesystem. So now suppose that you mount filesystem
B on to the directory A1. The
root directory of B replaces A1,
and the directories in B appear accordingly. /
|
+--- A1
| |
| +--- B1
| |
| `--- B2
|
`--- A2Any files that are in the B1 or
B2 directories can be reached with the path
/A1/B1 or /A1/B2 as
necessary. Any files that were in /A1 have been
temporarily hidden. They will reappear if B is
unmounted from A.If B had been mounted on A2
then the diagram would look like this; /
|
+--- A1
|
`--- A2
|
+--- B1
|
`--- B2and the paths would be /A2/B1 and
/A2/B2 respectively.Filesystems can be mounted on top of one another. Continuing the
last example, the C filesystem could be mounted on
top of the B1 directory in the B
filesystem, leading to this arrangement. /
|
+--- A1
|
`--- A2
|
+--- B1
| |
| +--- C1
| |
| `--- C2
|
`--- B2Or C could be mounted directly on to the
A filesystem, under the A1
directory. /
|
+--- A1
| |
| +--- C1
| |
| `--- C2
|
`--- A2
|
+--- B1
|
`--- B2If you are familiar with DOS, this is similar, although not
identical, to the join command.This is not normally something you need to concern yourself with.
Typically you create filesystems when installing FreeBSD and decide
where to mount them, and then never change them unless you add a new
disk.It is entirely possible to have one large root filesystem, and not
need to create any others. There are some drawbacks to this approach,
and one advantage.Benefits of multiple filesystemsDifferent filesystems can have different mount
options. For example, with careful planning, the
root filesystem can be mounted read-only, making it impossible for
you to inadvertently delete or edit a critical file.FreeBSD automatically optimizes the layout of files on a
filesystem, depending on how the filesystem is being used. So a
filesystem that contains many small files that are written
frequently will have a different optimization to one that contains
fewer, larger files. By having one big filesystem this
optimization breaks down.FreeBSD's filesystems are very robust should you lose power.
However, a power loss at a critical point could still damage the
structure of the filesystem. By splitting your data over multiple
filesystems it is more likely that the system will still come up,
making it easier for you to restore from backup as
necessary.Benefit of a single filesystemFilesystems are a fixed size. If you create a filesystem when
you install FreeBSD and give it a specific size, you may later
discover that you need to make the partition bigger. This is not
easily accomplished without backing up, recreating the filesystems
with the size, and then restoring.FreeBSD 4.4 and up have a featured command, the
&man.growfs.8, which will makes it possible to
increase the size of a filesystem on the fly, removing this
limitation.Filesystems are contained in partitions. This does not have the
same meaning as the earlier usage of the term partition in this
chapter, because of FreeBSD's Unix heritage. Each partition is
identified by a letter, a through to
h. Each partition can only contain one filesystem,
which means that filesystems are often described by either their
typical mount point on the root filesystem, or the letter of the
partition they are contained in.FreeBSD also uses disk space for swap
space. Swap space provides FreeBSD with
virtual memory. This allows your computer to
behave as though it has much more memory than it actually does. When
FreeBSD runs out of memory it moves some of the data that is not
currently being used to the swap space, and moves it back in (moving
something else out) when it needs it.Some partitions have certain conventions associated with
them.PartitionConventionaNormally contains the root filesystembNormally contains swap spacecNormally the same size as the enclosing slice. This
allows utilities that need to work on the entire slice (for
example, a bad block scanner) to work on the
c partition. You would not normally create
a filesystem on this partition.dPartition d used to have a special
meaning associated with it, although that is now gone. To
this day, some tools may operate oddly if told to work on
partition d, so
Sysinstall will not normally create
partition d.Each partition-that-contains-a-filesystem is stored in what
FreeBSD calls a slice. Slice is FreeBSD's term
for what were earlier called partitions, and again, this is because of
FreeBSD's Unix background. Slices are numbered, starting at 1,
through to 4.slicespartitionsdangerously dedicatedSlice numbers follow
the device name, prefixed with an s,
starting at 1. So da0s1
is the first slice on the first SCSI drive. There can only be
four physical slices on a disk, but you can have logical
slices inside physical slices of the appropriate type. These
extended slices are numbered starting at 5, so
ad0s5 is the first
extended slice on a disk. These devices are used by file
systems that expect to occupy a slice.Slices, dangerously dedicated physical
drives, and other drives contain
partitions, which are represented as
letters from a to h.
This letter is appended to the device name, so
da0a is the a partition on
the first da drive, which is dangerously dedicated.
ad1s3e is the fifth partition
in the third slice of the second IDE disk drive.Finally, each disk on the system is identified. A disk name
starts with a code that indicates the type of disk, and then a number,
indicating which disk it is. Unlike slices, disk numbering starts at
0. Common codes that you will see are listed in
.When referring to a partition FreeBSD requires that you also name
the slice and disk that contains the partition, and when referring to
a slice you should also refer to the disk name. Do this by listing
the disk name, s, the slice number, and then the
partition letter. Examples are shown in
. shows a conceptual
model of the disk layout that should help make things clearer.In order to install FreeBSD you must first configure the disk
slices, then create partitions within the slice you will use for
FreeBSD, and then create a filesystem (or swap space) in each
partition, and decide where that filesystem will be mounted.
Disk Device CodesCodeMeaningadATAPI (IDE) diskdaSCSI direct access diskacdATAPI (IDE) CDROMcdSCSI CDROMfdFloppy disk
Sample Disk, Slice, and Partition NamesNameMeaningad0s1aThe first partition (a) on the first
slice (s1) on the first IDE disk
(ad0).da1s2eThe fifth partition (e) on the
second slice (s2) on the second SCSI disk
(da1).Conceptual Model of a DiskThis diagram shows FreeBSD's view of the first IDE disk attached
to the system. Assume that the disk is 4GB in size, and contains
two 2GB slices (DOS partitions). The first slice contains a DOS
disk, C:, and the second slice contains a
FreeBSD installation. This example FreeBSD installation has three
partitions, and a swap partition.The three partitions will each hold a filesystem. Partition
a will be used for the root filesystem,
e for the /var directory
hierarchy, and f for the
/usr directory hierarchy..-----------------. --.
| | |
| DOS / Windows | |
: : > First slice, ad0s1
: : |
| | |
:=================: ==: --.
| | | Partition a, mounted as / |
| | > referred to as ad0s2a |
| | | |
:-----------------: ==: |
| | | Partition b, used as swap |
| | > referred to as ad0s2b |
| | | |
:-----------------: ==: | Partition c, no
| | | Partition e, used as /var > filesystem, all
| | > referred to as ad0s2e | of FreeBSD slice,
| | | | ad0s2c
:-----------------: ==: |
| | | |
: : | Partition f, used as /usr |
: : > referred to as ad0s2f |
: : | |
| | | |
| | --' |
`-----------------' --'Creating Slices using FDiskNo changes you make at this point will be written to the disk.
If you think you have made a mistake and want to start again you can
use the menus to exit Sysinstall and try
again. If you get confused and can not see how to exit you can
always turn your computer off.After choosing to begin a standard installation in
Sysinstall you will be shown this
message. Message
In the next menu, you will need to set up a DOS-style ("fdisk")
partitioning scheme for your hard disk. If you simply wish to devote
all disk space to FreeBSD (overwriting anything else that might be on
the disk(s) selected) then use the (A)ll command to select the default
partitioning scheme followed by a (Q)uit. If you wish to allocate only
free space to FreeBSD, move to a partition marked "unused" and use the
(C)reate command.
[ OK ]
[ Press enter to continue ]Press Enter as instructed. You will then be
shown a list of all the hard drives that the kernel found when it
carried out the device probes.
shows an example from a
system with two IDE disks. They have been called
ad0 and ad2.Select Drive for FDiskYou might be wondering why ad1 is not
listed here. Why has it been missed?Consider what would happen if you had two IDE hard disks, one
as the master on the first IDE controller, and one as the master on
the second IDE controller. If FreeBSD numbered these as it found
them, as ad0 and
ad1 then everything would work.But if you then added a third disk, as the slave device on the
first IDE controller, it would now be ad1,
and the previous ad1 would become
ad2. Because device names (such as
ad1s1a) are used to find filesystems, you
may suddenly discover that some of your filesystems no longer
appear correctly, and you would need to change your FreeBSD
configuration.To work around this, the kernel can be configured to name IDE
disks based on where they are, and not the order in which they were
found. With this scheme the master disk on the second IDE
controller will always be
ad2, even if there are no
ad0 or ad1
devices.This configuration is the default for the FreeBSD kernel, which
is why this display shows ad0 and
ad2. The machine on which this screenshot
was taken had IDE disks on both master channels of the IDE
controllers, and no disks on the slave channels.You should select the disk on which you want to install FreeBSD,
and then press &gui.ok;.
FDisk will start, with a display similar to
that shown in .The FDisk display is broken in to three
sections.The first section, covering the first two lines of the display,
shows details about the currently selected disk, including its FreeBSD
name, the disk geometry, and the total size of the disk.The second section shows the slices that are currently on the
disk, where they start and end, how large they are, the name FreeBSD
gives them, and their description and sub-type. This example shows two
small unused slices, which are artifacts of disk layout schemes on the
PC. It also shows one large FAT slice, which almost certainly appears
as C: in DOS / Windows, and an extended
slice, which may contain other drive letters for DOS / Windows.The third section shows the commands that are available in
FDisk.Typical Fdisk Partitions Before EditingWhat you do now will depend on how you want to slice up your
disk.If you want to use FreeBSD for the entire disk (which will delete
all the other data on this disk when you confirm that you want
Sysinstall to continue later in the
installation process) then you can press A, which
corresponds to the Use Entire Disk option.
The existing slices will be removed, and replaced with a small area
flagged as unused (again, an artifact of PC disk
layout), and then one large slice for FreeBSD. If you do this then
you should then select the newly created FreeBSD slice using the arrow
keys, and press S to mark the slice as being
bootable. The screen will then look very similar to
. Note the
A in the Flags column, which
indicates that this slice is active, and will be
booted from.If you will be deleting an existing slice to make space for
FreeBSD then you should select the slice using the arrow keys, and
then press D. You can then press C,
and be prompted for size of slice you want to create. Enter the
appropriate figure and press Enter.If you have already made space for FreeBSD (perhaps by using a
tool such as Partition Magic) then you can
press C to create a new slice. Again, you will be
prompted for the size of slice you would like to create.Fdisk Partition Using Entire DiskWhen finished, press Q. Your changes will be
saved in Sysinstall, but will not yet be
written to disk.Install a Boot ManagerYou now have the option to install a boot manager. In general,
you should choose to install the FreeBSD boot manager if:You have more than one drive, and have installed FreeBSD onto
a drive other than the first one.You have installed FreeBSD alongside another operating system
on the same disk, and you want to choose whether to start FreeBSD
or the other operating system when you start the computer.Make your choice and press Enter.Sysinstall Boot Manager MenuThe help screen, reached by pressing F1,
discusses the problems that can be encountered when trying to share
the hard disk between operating systems.Creating Slices on Another DriveIf there is more than one drive, it will return to the
Select Drives screen after the boot manager selection. If you wish to
install FreeBSD on to more than one disk, then you can select another
disk here and repeat the slice process using
FDisk,Exit Select DriveThe Tab key toggles between the last drive
selected, &gui.ok;, and
&gui.cancel;.Press the Tab once to toggle to the
&gui.ok;, then
press Enter
to continue with the installation.Creating Partitions using
<application>Disklabel</application>You must now create some partitions inside each slice that you
have just created. Remember that each partition is lettered, from
a through to h, and that
partitions b, c, and
d have conventional meanings that you should adhere
to.Certain applications can benefit from particular partition
schemes, especially if you are laying out partitions across more than
one disk. However, for this, your first FreeBSD installation, you do
not need to give too much thought to how you partition the disk. It
is more important that you install FreeBSD and start learning how to
use it. You can always re-install FreeBSD to change your partition
scheme when you are more familiar with the operating system.This scheme features four partitions—one for swap space, and
three for filesystems.
Partition Layout for First DiskPartitionFilesystemSizeDescriptiona/100MBThis is the root file system. Every other filesystem
will be mounted somewhere under this one. 100MB is a
reasonable size for this filesystem. You will not be storing
too much data on it, as a regular FreeBSD install will put
about 40MB of data here. The remaining space is for temporary
data, and also leaves expansion space if future versions of
FreeBSD need more space in /bN/A2-3 x RAMThe system's swap space is kept on this partition.
Choosing the right amount of swap space can be a bit of an
art. A good rule of thumb is that you should have two or
three times the amount of RAM as swap space. So if you have
64MB of RAM then you should have between 128MB and 196MB of swap.
You should also have at least 64MB of swap, so if you have
less than 32MB of RAM in your computer then set the swap
amount to 64MB.If you have more than one disk then you can put swap
space on each disk. FreeBSD will then use each disk for
swap, which effectively speeds up the act of swapping. In
this case, calculate the total amount of swap you need
(e.g., 128MB), and then divide this by the number of disks
you have (e.g., two disks) to give the amount of swap you
should put on each disk, in this example, 64MB of swap per
disk.e/var50MBThe /var directory contains variable
length files; log files, and other administrative files. Many
of these files are read-from or written-to extensively during
FreeBSD's day-to-day running. Putting these files on another
filesystem allows FreeBSD to optimise the access of these
files without affecting other files in other directories that
do not have the same access pattern.f/usrRest of diskAll your other files will typically be stored in
/usr, and its subdirectories.
If you will be installing FreeBSD on to more than one disk then
you must also create partitions in the other slices that you
configured. The easiest way to do this is to create two partitions on
each disk, one for the swap space, and one for a filesystem.
Partition Layout for Subsequent DisksPartitionFilesystemSizeDescriptionbN/ASee descriptionAs already discussed, you can split swap space across
each disk. Even though the a partition is
free, convention dictates that swap space stays on the
b partition.e/disknRest of diskThe rest of the disk is taken up with one big partition.
This could easily be put on the a
partition, instead of the e partition.
However, convention says that the a
partition on a slice is reserved for the filesystem that will
be the root (/) filesystem. You do not
have to follow this convention, but
Sysinstall does, so following it
yourself makes the installation slightly cleaner. You can
choose to mount this filesystem anywhere; this example
suggests that you mount them as directories
/diskn, where
n is a number that changes for each
disk. But you can use another scheme if you prefer.
Having chosen your partition layout you can now create it using
Sysinstall. You will see this
message. Message
Now, you need to create BSD partitions inside of the fdisk
partition(s) just created. If you have a reasonable amount of disk
space (200MB or more) and don't have any special requirements, simply
use the (A)uto command to allocate space automatically. If you have
more specific needs or just don't care for the layout chosen by
(A)uto, press F1 for more information on manual layout.
[ OK ] Press Enter to start the FreeBSD partition
editor, called Disklabel. shows the display when you first
start Disklabel. The display is divided in
to three sections.The first few lines show the name of the disk you are currently
working on, and the slice that contains the partitions you are
creating (at this point Disklabel calls
this the Partition name rather than slice name).
This display also shows the amount of free space within the slice;
that is, space that was set aside in the slice, but that has not yet
been assigned to a partition.The middle of the display shows the partitions that have been
created, the name of the filesystem that each partition contains,
their size, and some options pertaining to the creation of the
filesystem.The bottom third of the screen shows the keystrokes that are valid
in Disklabel.Sysinstall Disklabel EditorDisklabel can automatically create
partitions for you and assign them default sizes. Try this now, by
Pressing A. You will see a display similar to that
shown in . Depending on the size of
the disk you are using the defaults may or may not be appropriate.
This does not matter, as you do not have to accept the
defaults.Beginning with FreeBSD 4.5, the default partitioning assigns
the /tmp directory its own partition instead
of being part of the / partition. This
helps avoid filling the / partition with
temporary files.Sysinstall Disklabel Editor With Auto DefaultsTo delete the suggested partitions, and replace them with your
own, use the arrow keys to select the first partition, and press
D to delete it. Repeat this to delete all the
suggested partitions.To create the first partition (a, mounted as
/), make sure the disk information at the top of
the screen is selected, and press C. A dialog box
will appear prompting you for the size of the new partition (as shown
in ). You can enter the size as
the number of disk blocks you want to use, or, more usefully, as a
number followed by either M for megabytes,
G for gigabytes, or C for
cylinders.Free Space For Root PartitionThe default size shown will create a partition that takes up the
rest of the slice. If you are using the partition sizes described
earlier, then delete the existing figure using
Backspace, and then type in
64M, as shown in
. Then press
&gui.ok;.Edit Root Partition SizeHaving chosen the partition's size you will then asked whether
this partition will contain a filesystem or swap space. The dialog
box is shown in . This first
partition will contain a filesystem, so check that
FS is selected and then press
Enter.Choose The Root Partition TypeFinally, because you are creating a filesystem, you must tell
Disklabel where the filesystem is to be
mounted. The dialog box is shown in
. The root filesystem's mount
point is /, so type /, and
then press Enter.Choose The Root Mount PointThe display will then update to show you the newly created
partition. You should repeat this procedure for the other
partitions. When you create the swap partition you will not be
prompted for the filesystem mount point, as swap partitions are never
mounted. When you create the final partition,
/usr, you can leave the suggested size as is, to
use the rest of the slice.Your final FreeBSD DiskLabel Editor screen will appear similar to
, although your values chosen may
be different. Press Q to finish.Sysinstall Disklabel EditorChoosing What To InstallSelect The Distribution SetDeciding which distribution set to install will depend largely
on the intended use of the system and the amount of disk space
available. The predefined options range from installing the
smallest possible configuration to everything. Those who are
new to Unix and/or FreeBSD should almost certainly select one
of these canned options. Customizing a distribution set is
typically for the more experienced user.Press F1 for more information on the
distribution set options and what they contain. When finished
reviewing the help, pressing Enter will return
to the Select Distributions Menu.If a graphical user interface is desired then a distribution
set that is preceded by an X should be
chosen. The configuration of XFree86 and selection of a default
desktop is part of the post-installation steps.The default XFree86 version installed is the 3.x branch. You
should check to see whether your video card is supported at the
XFree86 web site.
If it is only supported under the 4.x branch, then you will need
to install and configure XFree86 4.x after installation. Select a
distribution without X and refer to for
more information.If compiling a custom kernel is anticipated, select an option
which includes the source code. For more information on why a
custom kernel should be built or how to build a custom kernel see
.Obviously, the most versatile system is one that includes
everything. If there is adequate disk space, select
All as shown in
by using the arrow keys and
press Enter. If there is a concern about disk
space consider using an option that is more suitable for the
situation. Other distributions can be added after installation.Choose DistributionsInstalling The Ports CollectionAfter selecting the desired distribution, an opportunity to
install the FreeBSD Ports Collection is presented. The ports
collection is an easy and convenient way to install software.
The ports collection does not contain the source code necessary
to compile the software. It is a collection of files which
automates the downloading, compiling and installation.
discusses how to use the ports
collection.The installation program does not check to see if you have
adequate space. Select this option only if you have
adequate hard disk space. User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to install the FreeBSD ports collection?
This will give you ready access to over &os.numports; ported software packages,
at a cost of around 100MB of disk space when "clean" and possibly much
more than that if a lot of the distribution tarballs are loaded
(unless you have the extra CDs from a FreeBSD CD/DVD distribution
available and can mount it on /cdrom, in which case this is far less
of a problem).
The ports collection is a very valuable resource and well worth having
on your /usr partition, so it is advisable to say Yes to this option.
For more information on the ports collection & the latest ports,
visit:
http://www.FreeBSD.org/ports
[ Yes ] NoSelect [ Yes ] with the arrow keys to
install the ports collection or [ No ] to
skip this option. Press Enter to continue.
The Choose Distributions menu will redisplay.Confirm DistributionsIf satisfied with the options, select
Exit with the arrow keys, ensure that
&gui.ok; is highlighted, and press
Enter to continue.Choosing Your Installation MediaIf Installing from a CDROM, use the arrow keys to highlight
Install from a FreeBSD CD/DVD. Ensure
that &gui.ok; is highlighted, then press
Enter to proceed with the installation.For other methods of installation, select the appropriate
option and follow the instructions.Press F1 to display the Online Help for
installation media. Press Enter to return
to the media selection menu.Choose Installation MediaFTP Installation ModesinstallationnetworkFTPThere are three FTP installation modes you can choose from:
active FTP, passive FTP, or via a HTTP proxy.FTP Active, Install from an FTP
serverThis option will make all FTP transfers
use Active
mode. This will not work through firewalls, but will
often work with older FTP servers that do not support
passive mode. If your connection hangs with passive
mode (the default), try active!FTP Passive, Install from an FTP server through a
firewallFTPPassive modeThis option instructs FreeBSD to use
Passive mode for all FTP operations.
This allows the user to pass through firewalls
that do not allow incoming connections on random port
addresses.FTP via a HTTP proxy, Install from an FTP server
through a http proxyFTPvia a HTTP proxyThis option instructs FreeBSD to use the HTTP
protocol (like a web browser) to connect to a proxy
for all FTP operations. The proxy will translate
the requests and send them to the FTP server.
This allows the user to pass through firewalls
that do not allow FTP at all, but offer a HTTP
proxy.
In this case, you have to specify the proxy in
addition to the FTP server.For a proxy FTP server, you should usually give the name of the
server you really want as a part of the username, after an
@ sign. The proxy server then fakes
the real server. For example, assuming you want to install from
ftp.FreeBSD.org, using the proxy FTP
server foo.example.com, listening on port
1024.In this case, you go to the options menu, set the FTP username
to ftp@ftp.FreeBSD.org, and the password to your
email address. As your installation media, you specify FTP (or
passive FTP, if the proxy supports it), and the URL
ftp://foo.example.com:1234/pub/FreeBSD.Since /pub/FreeBSD from
ftp.FreeBSD.org is proxied under
foo.example.com, you are able to install
from that machine (which will fetch the files
from ftp.FreeBSD.org as your
installation requests them.Committing to the InstallationThe installation can now proceed if desired. This is also
the last chance for aborting the installation to prevent changes
to the hard drive. User Confirmation Requested
Last Chance! Are you SURE you want to continue the installation?
If you're running this on a disk with data you wish to save then WE
STRONGLY ENCOURAGE YOU TO MAKE PROPER BACKUPS before proceeding!
We can take no responsibility for lost disk contents!
[ Yes ] NoSelect [ Yes ] and press
Enter to proceed.The installation time will vary according to the distribution
chosen, installation media used, and the speed of the computer.
There will be a series of
messages displayed indicating the status.The installation is complete when the following message is
displayed: Message
Congratulations! You now have FreeBSD installed on your system.
We will now move on to the final configuration questions.
For any option you do not wish to configure, simply select No.
If you wish to re-enter this utility after the system is up, you may
do so by typing: /stand/sysinstall .
[ OK ]
[ Press enter to continue ]Press Enter to proceed with post-installation
configurations.Selecting [ No ] and pressing
Enter will abort
the installation so no changes will be made to your system. The
- following message will appear :
+ following message will appear:
Message
Installation complete with some errors. You may wish to scroll
through the debugging messages on VTY1 with the scroll-lock feature.
You can also choose "No" at the next prompt and go back into the
installation menus to try and retry whichever operations have failed.
[ OK ]This message is generated because nothing was installed.
Pressing Enter will return to the
Main Installation Menu to exit the installation.Post-installationConfiguration of various options follows the successful
installation. An option can be configured by re-entering the
configuration options before booting the new FreeBSD
system or after installation using
/stand/sysinstall and selecting
Configure.Network Device ConfigurationIf you previously configured PPP for an FTP install, this screen
will not display and can be configured later as described
above.For detailed information on Local Area Networks and
configuring FreeBSD as a gateway/router refer to the tutorial
PPP- Pendantic PPP Primer. User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to configure Ethernet or SLIP/PPP network devices?
[ Yes ] NoTo configure a network device, select
[ Yes ] and press Enter.
Otherwise, select [ No ] to continue.Selecting An Ethernet DeviceSelect the interface to be configured with the arrow keys and press
Enter. User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to try IPv6 configuration of the interface?
Yes [ No ]In this private local area network the current Internet
type protocol (IPv4) was sufficient and [ No ]
was selected with the arrow keys and Enter
pressed.If you want to try the new Internet protocol (IPv6), choose
[ Yes ] and press Enter.
It will take several seconds to scan for RA servers. User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to try DHCP configuration of the interface?
Yes [ No ]If DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is not required
select [ No ] with the arrow keys and press
Enter.Selecting [ Yes ] will execute
dhclient, and if successful, will fill
in the network configuration information automatically. Refer to
for more information.The following Network Configuration screen shows the
configuration of the Ethernet device for a system that will act
as the gateway for a Local Area Network.Set Network Configuration For ed0Use Tab to select the information fields and
fill in appropriate information:HostThe fully-qualified hostname, e.g. k6-2.example.com in
this case.DomainThe name of the domain that your machine is
in, e.g. example.com for this case.IPv4 GatewayIP address of host forwarding packets to non-local
destinations. Fill this in only if the machine is a node
on the network. Leave this field blank
if the machine is the gateway to the Internet for the
network.Name serverIP address of your local DNS server. There is no local
DNS server on this private local area network so the IP
address of the provider's DNS server (208.163.10.2) was
used.IPv4 addressThe IP address to be used for this interface was
(192.168.0.1).NetmaskThe address block being used for this local area
network is a Class C block (192.168.0.0 -
192.168.255.255). The default netmask is for a Class C
network (255.255.255.0).Extra options to ifconfigAny interface-specific options to ifconfig
you would like to add. There were none in this case.Use Tab to select &gui.ok;
when finished and press Enter. User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to Bring Up the ed0 interface right now?
[ Yes ] NoChoosing [ Yes ] and pressing
Enter will bring
the machine up on the network and be ready for use after leaving
leaving the installation.Configure Gateway User Confirmation Requested
Do you want this machine to function as a network gateway?
[ Yes ] NoIf the machine will be acting as the gateway for a local area
network and forwarding packets between other machines then select
[ Yes ] and press Enter.
If the machine is a node on a network then
select [ No ] and press
Enter to continue.Configure Internet Services User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to configure inetd and the network services that it provides?
Yes [ No ]If [ No ] is selected, various services
such telnetd will not be enabled. This
means that remote users will not be able to
telnet into this machine. Local users
will be still be able to access remote machines with
telnet.These services can be enabled after installation by editing
/etc/inetd.conf with your favorite text editor.
See for more information.Select [ Yes ] if you wish to
configure these services during install. An additional
confirmation will display. User Confirmation Requested
The Internet Super Server (inetd) allows a number of simple Internet
services to be enabled, including finger, ftp and telnetd. Enabling
these services may increase risk of security problems by increasing
the exposure of your system.
With this in mind, do you wish to enable inetd?
[ Yes ] NoSelect [ Yes ] to continue. User Confirmation Requested
inetd(8) relies on its configuration file, /etc/inetd.conf, to determine
which of its Internet services will be available. The default FreeBSD
inetd.conf(5) leaves all services disabled by default, so they must be
specifically enabled in the configuration file before they will
function, even once inetd(8) is enabled. Note that services for
IPv6 must be seperately enabled from IPv4 services.
Select [Yes] now to invoke an editor on /etc/inetd.conf, or [No] to
use the current settings.
[ Yes ] NoSelecting [ Yes ] will allow adding
services by deleting the # at the beginning
of a line.Editing <filename>inetd.conf</filename>After adding the desired services, pressing Esc
will display a menu which will allow exiting and saving
the changes.Anonymous FTP User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to have anonymous FTP access to this machine?
Yes [ No ]Deny Anonymous FTPSelecting the default [ No ] and pressing
Enter will still allow users who have accounts
with passwords to use FTP to access the machine.Allow Anonymous FTPAnyone can access your machine if you elect to allow
anonymous FTP connections. The security implications should be
considered before enabling this option. For more information
about security see .To allow anonymous FTP, use the arrow keys to select
[ Yes ] and press Enter.
- The following screens (or similar) will display :
+ The following screens (or similar) will display:
Default Anonymous FTP Configuration
- Pressing F1 will display the help :
+ Pressing F1 will display the help:This screen allows you to configure the anonymous FTP user.
The following configuration values are editable:
UID: The user ID you wish to assign to the anonymous FTP user.
All files uploaded will be owned by this ID.
Group: Which group you wish the anonymous FTP user to be in.
Comment: String describing this user in /etc/passwd
FTP Root Directory:
Where files available for anonymous FTP will be kept.
Upload subdirectory:
Where files uploaded by anonymous FTP users will go.The ftp root directory will be put in /var
by default. If you do not have enough room there for the
anticipated FTP needs, the /usr directory
could be used by setting the FTP Root Directory to
/usr/ftp.When you are satisfied with the values, press
Enter to continue. User Confirmation Requested
Create a welcome message file for anonymous FTP users?
[ Yes ] NoIf you select [ Yes ] and press
Enter, an editor will automatically start
allowing you to edit the message.Edit The FTP Welcome MessageThis is a text editor called ee. Use the
instructions to change the message or change the message later
using a text editor of your choice. Note the file name/location
at the bottom.Press Esc and a pop-up menu will default
to a) leave editor. Press
Enter to exit and continue.Configure Network File ServicesNetwork File Services (NFS) allows sharing of files across a
network. A machine can be configured as a server, a client, or
both. Refer to for a more information.NFS Server User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to configure this machine as an NFS server?
Yes [ No ]If there is no need for a Network File System server or
client, select [ No ] and press
Enter.If [ Yes ] is chosen, a message will
pop-up indicating that the exports file must be created. Message
Operating as an NFS server means that you must first configure an
/etc/exports file to indicate which hosts are allowed certain kinds of
access to your local file systems.
Press [Enter] now to invoke an editor on /etc/exports
[ OK ]Press Enter to continue. A text editor will
start allowing the exports file to be created and edited.Editing the Exports FileUse the instructions to add the actual exported filesystems
now or later using a text editor of your choice. Note the
filename/location at the bottom of the editor screen.Press Esc and a pop-up menu will default to
a) leave editor. Press
Enter to exit and continue.NFS Client User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to configure this machine as an NFS client?
Yes [ No ]With the arrow keys, select [ Yes ]
or [ No ] as appropriate and
press Enter.Security ProfileA security profile is a set of
configuration options that attempts to achieve the desired
ratio of security to convenience by enabling and disabling
certain programs and other settings. The more severe the
security profile, the fewer programs will be enabled by
default. This is one of the basic principles of security: do
not run anything except what you must.Please note that the security profile is just a default
setting. All programs can be enabled and disabled after you
have installed FreeBSD by editing or adding the appropriate
line(s) to /etc/rc.conf. For more
information, please see the &man.rc.conf.5; manual
page.The following table describes what each of the security
profiles does. The columns are the choices you have for a
security profile, and the rows are the program or feature that
the profile enables or disables.
Possible security profilesExtremeModerate&man.sendmail.8;NOYES&man.sshd.8;NOYES&man.portmap.8;NOMAYBE
The portmapper is enabled if the machine has
been configured as an NFS client or server earlier
in the installation.NFS serverNOYES&man.securelevel.8;YES (2)
If you choose a security profile that sets the
securelevel (Extreme or High), you must be aware
of the implications. Please read the &man.init.8;
manual page and pay particular attention to the
meanings of the security levels, or you may have
significant trouble later!NO
User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to select a default security profile for this host (select
No for "medium" security)?
[ Yes ] NoSelecting [ No ] and pressing
Enter will set the security profile to medium.Selecting [ Yes ] and pressing
Enter will allow selecting a different security
profile.Security Profile OptionsPress F1 to display the help. Press
Enter to return to selection menu.Use the arrow keys to choose Medium
unless your are sure that another level is required for your needs.
With &gui.ok; highlighted, press
Enter.An appropriate confirmation message will display depending on
which security setting was chosen. Message
Moderate security settings have been selected.
Sendmail and SSHd have been enabled, securelevels are
disabled, and NFS server setting have been left intact.
PLEASE NOTE that this still does not save you from having
to properly secure your system in other ways or exercise
due diligence in your administration, this simply picks
a standard set of out-of-box defaults to start with.
To change any of these settings later, edit /etc/rc.conf
[OK] Message
Extreme security settings have been selected.
Sendmail, SSHd, and NFS services have been disabled, and
securelevels have been enabled.
PLEASE NOTE that this still does not save you from having
to properly secure your system in other ways or exercise
due diligence in your administration, this simply picks
a more secure set of out-of-box defaults to start with.
To change any of these settings later, edit /etc/rc.conf
[OK]Press Enter to continue with the
post-installation configuration.The security profile is not a silver bullet! Even if
you use the extreme setting, you need to keep up with
security issues by reading an appropriate mailing
list, using good passwords and passphrases, and
generally adhering to good security practices. It simply
sets up the desired security to convenience ratio out of the
box.System Console SettingsThere are several options available to customize the system
console. User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to customize your system console settings?
[ Yes ] NoTo view and configure the options, select
[ Yes ] and press Enter.System Console Configuration OptionsA commonly used option is the screensaver. Use the arrow keys
to select Saver and then press
Enter.Screensaver OptionsSelect the desired screen saver using the arrow keys
and then press Enter. The System Console
Configuration menu will redisplay.The default time interval is 300 seconds. To change the time
interval, select Saver again. At the
Screensaver Options menu, select Timeout
using the arrow keys and press Enter. A pop-up
- menu will appear :
+ menu will appear:
Screensaver TimeoutThe value can be changed, then select &gui.ok;
and press Enter to return to the System Console
Configuration menu.System Console Configuration ExitSelecting Exit and pressing
Enter will continue with the post-installation
configurations.Setting The Time ZoneSetting the timezone for your machine will allow it to
automatically correct for any regional time changes and perform
other timezone related functions properly.The example shown is for a machine located in the Eastern
time zone of the United States. Your selections will vary according
to your geographical location. User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to set this machine's time zone now?
[ Yes ] NoSelect [ Yes ] and press
Enter to set the time zone. User Confirmation Requested
Is this machine's CMOS clock set to UTC? If it is set to local time
or you don't know, please choose NO here!
Yes [ No ]Select [ Yes ]
or [ No ] according to how the machine's
clock is configured and press Enter.Select Your RegionThe appropriate region is selected using the arrow keys
and then press Enter.Select Your CountrySelect the appropriate country using the arrow keys
and press Enter.Select Your TimezoneThe appropriate time zone is selected using the arrow
keys and pressing Enter. Confirmation
Does the abbreviation 'EDT' look reasonable?
[ Yes ] NoConfirm the abbreviation for the time zone is correct.
If it looks okay, press Enter to continue with
the post-installation configuration.Linux Compatibility User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to enable Linux binary compatibility?
[ Yes ] NoSelecting [ Yes ] and pressing
Enter will allow
running Linux software on FreeBSD. The install will proceed to add
the appropriate packages for Linux compatibility.If installing by FTP, the machine will need to be connected to
the Internet. Sometimes a remote ftp site will not have all the
distributions like the Linux binary compatibility. This can
be installed later if necessary.Mouse SettingsThis option will allow you to cut and paste text in the
console and user programs with a 3-button mouse. If using a 2-button
mouse, refer to manual page, &man.moused.8;, after installation for
details on emulating the 3-button style. This example depicts a
non-USB mouse. User Confirmation Requested
Does this system have a non-USB mouse attached to it?
[ Yes ] NoSelect [ Yes ] for a non-USB mouse or
[ No ] for a USB mouse and press
Enter.Select Mouse Protocol TypeUse the arrow keys to select Type and
press EnterSet Mouse ProtocolThe mouse used in this example is a PS/2 type, so the default
Auto was
appropriate. To change protocol, use the arrow keys to select
another option. Ensure that &gui.ok; is
highlighted and press Enter to exit this menu.Configure Mouse PortUse the arrow keys to select Port and
press Enter.Setting The Mouse PortThis system had a PS/2 mouse, so the default
PS/2 was
appropriate. To change the port, use the arrow keys and then
press Enter.Enable The Mouse DaemonLast, the mouse daemon is enabled and tested.Test The Mouse DaemonThe cursor moved around the screen so the mouse daemon is
running:Select [ Yes ] to return to the previous
menu then select Exit
with the arrow keys and press Enter to return to
continue with the post-installation configuration.Configure X-ServerIn order to use a graphical user interface such as
KDE, GNOME,
or others, the X server will need to be configured.To see whether your video card is supported, check the
XFree86 web site.
If your video card is only supported under XFree86 4.x, refer to
for installation and configuration. User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to configure your X server at this time?
[ Yes ] NoIt is necessary to know your monitor specifications and
video card information. Equipment damage can occur if settings
are incorrect. If you do not have this information, select
[ No ] and perform the configuration
after installation when you have the information using
/stand/sysinstall, selecting
Configure and then
XFree86.
If you have graphics card and monitor information, select
[ Yes ] and press Enter
to proceed with configuring the X server.Select Configuration Method MenuThere are several ways to configure the X
server. XF86Setup is fully graphical and
probably the easiest. Use the arrow keys to select the
XF86Setup and press
Enter. Message
You have configured and been running the mouse daemon.
Choose "/dev/sysmouse" as the mouse port and "SysMouse" or
"MouseSystems" as the mouse protocol in the X configuration utility.
[ OK ]
[ Press enter to continue ]This indicates that the mouse daemon previously configured has been
detected. Press Enter to continue. Press [Enter] to switch to graphics mode.
This may take a while...
[ OK ]Press Enter to switch to the graphics mode and
continue. It will not try to switch to the
graphics mode until Enter is pressed. The screen
will go black and then shortly a screen with a large X in the
center will appear. Be patient and wait.After a few more moments, the XF86Setup
introduction will display. Read all instructions
carefully. Press Enter to
continue.<application>XF86Setup</application> OverviewThere are several areas of configuration to be completed.
The configuration choices you make will depend on the hardware
in the system so only a general overview can be given here.Along the top of the configuration tool there are buttons
indicating the areas to be configured. You should be able to use
the mouse if it was previously configured and select each item by
clicking on it. Review each area and make appropriate selections
for your system.<guimenuitem>Mouse</guimenuitem>The mouse is the first item to be configured. If you
previously configured your mouse, the mouse daemon will already
be running and should indicate SysMouse
automatically for the mouse protocol. If you are use a two
button mouse, you should also select
Emulate3Buttons. There are other
settings that can be tweaked if necessary.After completing your selections, click on the
Apply and check the mouse actions are
working properly. If further adjustment is needed, make them
and recheck the operation by clicking on
Apply again. When finished, move
on to the next item.<guimenuitem>Keyboard</guimenuitem>Select the appropriate keyboard model. The default
keyboard is Generic 101-key PC.Select the language layout for your keyboard. The default
layout is U.S. English. If you are
not using a U.S. keyboard, you may need to additionally
select a variant.There are other options under Group Shift/Lock behavior and
Control Key Position that can be selected if desired. Generally
the default settings are fine.After completing the keyboard configuration, click on
Apply and move on to the next
item.<guimenuitem>Card</guimenuitem>Click on Read README file for
additional help in configuring your video card.Select the appropriate video card from the list using the
scrollbar. Clicking on your card will show as
Card selected: above the list box.Next, the Detailed Setup was
selected just to check details. Typically, if your video
card was in the list, no changes will be needed here.When finished, move on to the next item.<guimenuitem>Monitor</guimenuitem>There are two ways to proceed. One method requires that you
enter the horizontal and vertical sweep capabilities of your
monitor in the text boxes.Choosing one of the monitor options listed that the monitor
is the other method. After selecting a listed option, the
horizontal and vertical sweep rates that will be used will
display. Compare those to your monitor specifications. The
monitor must be capable of using those ranges.Do not exceed the ratings of your monitor. Damage could
occur. If you have doubts select ABORT
and get the information. The remainder of the installation process
will be unaffected and configuring the X-Server can be done
later using /stand/sysinstall.When finished, move on to the next item.<guimenuitem>Mode</guimenuitem>Select the video mode(s) that you want to use. You can select
more than one option. Typically, useful ranges are 640x480,
800x600, and 1024x768 but those are a function of video card
capability, monitor size, and eye comfort.Next, select the default color depth you want to use. Your
choices are 8bpp, 16bpp, 24bpp, and 32bpp. Select the highest
color depth that your video card will support.When finished, move on to the next item.<guimenuitem>Other</guimenuitem>The default settings are reasonable values, so you
probably will not need to change anything here.The default setting which allows the server to be killed
with the hotkey sequence CtrlAltBackspace should be left on. This
can be executed if something is wrong with the server settings and
prevent hardware damage.The default setting that allows video mode switching will
permit changing of the mode while running X with the hotkey
sequence
Alt+ or
Alt-.
Testing the ServerVerify all the settings once again and select
Done and the following message will
- display :
+ display:
If you've finished configuring everything press the
Okay button to start the X server using the configuration
you've selected. If you still wish to configure some things,
press one of the buttons at the top and then press "Done" again,
when you've finished.After selecting Okay, some messages
will briefly appear advising to wait and attempting to start
the X-server. This process takes a few moments, so be
patient.The screen will go blank for a short period of time and
then a screen will appear with the message
Congratulations, you've got a running server!If nothing appears or the display is distorted,
kill the X-server using
CtrlAltBackspace
and adjust the settings or revisit them after installation.Running <command>xvidtune</command>The display can be adjusted for height, width, or centering
by using xvidtune.There are warnings that improper settings can
damage your equipment. Heed them. If in doubt, do not do
it. Instead, use the monitor controls to adjust the display for
x-windows. There may be some display differences when switching
back to text mode, but it is better than damaging equipment.
xvidtune can be ran later using
/stand/sysinstall.Read the &man.xvidtune.1; man page before making
any adjustments.Saving ConfigurationWhen you are satisfied, the configuration can now be saved.
Select Save the configuration and Exit
The configuration file will be saved to
/etc/XF86Config.Once the configuration is done, the installation program will
- need to create a link to the server :
+ need to create a link to the server:
Do you want to create an 'X' link to the SVGA server?
(the link will be created in the directory:
/usr/X11R6/bin) Okay?
[ Yes ] NoSelect [ Yes ] and press
Enter to create the link. Link created successfully.
[ OK ]Press Enter to continue configuration.Select Default X DesktopThere are a variety of window managers available. They range
from very basic environments to full desktop environments with a
large suite of software. Some require only minimal disk space and
low memory while others with more features require much more. The
best way to determine which is most suitable for you is to try a few
different ones. Those are available from the ports collection or as
packages and can be added after installation.You can select one of the popular desktops to be installed
and configured as the default desktop. This will allow you
to start it right after installation.Select Default DesktopUse the arrow keys to select a desktop and press
Enter. Installation of the selected desktop will
proceed.Install PackagesThe packages are pre-compiled binaries and are a convenient
way to install software.Installation of one package is shown for purposes of
illustration. Additional packages can also be added at this
time if desired. After installation
/stand/sysinstall can be used to add additional
packages. User Confirmation Requested
The FreeBSD package collection is a collection of hundreds of
ready-to-run applications, from text editors to games to WEB servers
and more. Would you like to browse the collection now?
[ Yes ] NoSelecting [ Yes ] and pressing
Enter will be
followed by the Package Selection screens:Select Package CategoryAll packages available will be displayed if
All is selected or you can select a
particular category. Highlight your selection with the arrow
keys and press Enter.A menu will display showing all the packages available for
the selection made.Select PackagesThe bash shell is shown selected.
Select as many as desired by highlighting the package and pressing
the Space.
A short description of each package will appear in the lower left
corner of the screen.Pressing the Tab key will toggle between the last
selected package, &gui.ok;, and
&gui.cancel;.When you have finished marking the packages for installation,
press Tab once to toggle to the
&gui.ok; and press
Enter to return to the Package Selection menu.The left and right arrow keys will also toggle between
&gui.ok; and &gui.cancel;.
This method can also be used to select &gui.ok;
and press Enter to return to the Package
Selection menu.Install PackagesUse the arrow keys to select [ Install ]
and press Enter. You will then need to confirm
that you want to install the packages.Confirm Package InstallationSelecting &gui.ok; and pressing
Enter will start
the package installation. Installing messages will appear until
completed. Make note if there are any error messages.The final configuration continues after packages are
installed.Add User/GroupsYou should add at least one user during the installation so
that you can use the system without being logged in as root. The
root partition is generally small and running applications as
- root can quickly fill it. A bigger danger is noted below :
+ root can quickly fill it. A bigger danger is noted below:
User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to add any initial user accounts to the system? Adding
at least one account for yourself at this stage is suggested since
working as the "root" user is dangerous (it is easy to do things which
adversely affect the entire system).
[ Yes ] NoSelect [ Yes ] and press
Enter to continue with adding a user.Select Add UserSelect Add User with the arrow keys
and press Enter.Add User InformationThe following descriptions will appear in the lower part of
the screen as the items are selected with Tab
to assist with entering the required information.Login IDThe login name of the new user (mandatory)UIDThe numerical ID for this user (leave blank for
automatic choice)GroupThe login group name for this user (leave blank for
automatic choice)PasswordThe password for this user (enter this field with
care!)Full nameThe user's full name (comment)Member groupsThe groups this user belongs to (i.e. gets access
rights for)Home directoryThe user's home directory (leave blank for
default)Login shellThe user's login shell (leave blank for
default). (/bin/sh)The login shell was changed from
/bin/sh to
/usr/local/bin/bash to use the
bash shell
that was previously installed as a package. Do not try to
use a shell that does not exist or you will not be able to
login.The user was also added to the group "wheel" to be able to
become a superuser with root privileges.When you are satisfied, press &gui.ok; and
the User and Group Management menu will redisplay.Exit User and Group ManagementGroups could also be added at this time if specific needs
are known. Otherwise, this may be accessed through using
/stand/sysinstall after installation is
completed.When you are finished adding users, select
Exit with the arrow keys and press
Enter to continue the installation.Set <username>root</username> Password Message
Now you must set the system manager's password.
This is the password you'll use to log in as "root".
[ OK ]
[ Press enter to continue ]Press Enter to set the root password.The password will need to be typed in twice
correctly. Needless to say, make sure you have a way of finding
the password if you forget.Changing local password for root.
New password :
Retype new password :The installation will continue after the password is
successfully entered.Exiting InstallIf you need to configure additional network devices or to
do any other configurations, you can do it at this point or
after installation with /stand/sysinstall. User Confirmation Requested
Visit the general configuration menu for a chance to set any last
options?
Yes [ No ]Selecting [ No ] with the arrow keys
and pressing Enter returns to the Main
Installation MenuExit InstallSelect [X Exit Install] with the arrow
keys and press Enter. You will be asked to
- confirm exiting the installation :
+ confirm exiting the installation:
User Confirmation Requested
Are you sure you wish to exit? The system will reboot (be sure to
remove any floppies from the drives).
[ Yes ] NoSelect [ Yes ] and remove floppy if
booting from floppy. The CDROM drive is locked until the machine
starts to reboot. The CDROM drive is then unlocked and can
be removed from drive (quickly).The system will reboot so watch for any error messages that
may appear.FreeBSD BootupFreeBSD Bootup on the i386If everything went well, you will see messages scroll
off the screen and you will arrive at a login prompt. You can view
the content of the messages by pressing Scroll-Lock
and using PgUp and PgDn.
Pressing Scroll-Lock again will return
to the prompt.The entire message may not display (buffer limitation) but
it can be viewed from the command line after logging in by typing
dmesg at the prompt.Login using the username/password you set during installation
(rpratt, in this example). Avoid logging in as root except when
necessary.
- Typical boot messages :
+ Typical boot messages:Copyright (c) 1992-2002 The FreeBSD Project.
Copyright (c) 1979, 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994
The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved.
FreeBSD 4.5-RC2 #0: Thu Jan 17 21:24:52 GMT 2002
murray@builder.freebsdmall.com:/usr/src/sys/compile/GENERIC
Timecounter "i8254" frequency 1193182 Hz
CPU: AMD-K6(tm) 3D processor (300.68-MHz 586-class CPU)
Origin = "AuthenticAMD" Id = 0x580 Stepping = 0
Features=0x8001bf<FPU,VME,DE,PSE,TSC,MSR,MCE,CX8,MMX>
AMD Features=0x80000800<SYSCALL,3DNow!>
real memory = 268435456 (262144K bytes)
config> di sn0
config> di lnc0
config> di le0
config> di ie0
config> di fe0
config> di cs0
config> di bt0
config> di aic0
config> di aha0
config> di adv0
config> q
avail memory = 256311296 (250304K bytes)
Preloaded elf kernel "kernel" at 0xc0491000.
Preloaded userconfig_script "/boot/kernel.conf" at 0xc049109c.
md0: Malloc disk
Using $PIR table, 4 entries at 0xc00fde60
npx0: <math processor> on motherboard
npx0: INT 16 interface
pcib0: <Host to PCI bridge> on motherboard
pci0: <PCI bus> on pcib0
pcib1: <VIA 82C598MVP (Apollo MVP3) PCI-PCI (AGP) bridge> at device 1.0 on pci0
pci1: <PCI bus> on pcib1
pci1: <Matrox MGA G200 AGP graphics accelerator> at 0.0 irq 11
isab0: <VIA 82C586 PCI-ISA bridge> at device 7.0 on pci0
isa0: <ISA bus> on isab0
atapci0: <VIA 82C586 ATA33 controller> port 0xe000-0xe00f at device 7.1 on pci0
ata0: at 0x1f0 irq 14 on atapci0
ata1: at 0x170 irq 15 on atapci0
uhci0: <VIA 83C572 USB controller> port 0xe400-0xe41f irq 10 at device 7.2 on pci0
usb0: <VIA 83C572 USB controller> on uhci0
usb0: USB revision 1.0
uhub0: VIA UHCI root hub, class 9/0, rev 1.00/1.00, addr 1
uhub0: 2 ports with 2 removable, self powered
chip1: <VIA 82C586B ACPI interface> at device 7.3 on pci0
ed0: <NE2000 PCI Ethernet (RealTek 8029)> port 0xe800-0xe81f irq 9 at
device 10.0 on pci0
ed0: address 52:54:05:de:73:1b, type NE2000 (16 bit)
isa0: too many dependant configs (8)
isa0: unexpected small tag 14
fdc0: <NEC 72065B or clone> at port 0x3f0-0x3f5,0x3f7 irq 6 drq 2 on isa0
fdc0: FIFO enabled, 8 bytes threshold
fd0: <1440-KB 3.5" drive> on fdc0 drive 0
atkbdc0: <keyboard controller (i8042)> at port 0x60-0x64 on isa0
atkbd0: <AT Keyboard> flags 0x1 irq 1 on atkbdc0
kbd0 at atkbd0
psm0: <PS/2 Mouse> irq 12 on atkbdc0
psm0: model Generic PS/2 mouse, device ID 0
vga0: <Generic ISA VGA> at port 0x3c0-0x3df iomem 0xa0000-0xbffff on isa0
sc0: <System console> at flags 0x1 on isa0
sc0: VGA <16 virtual consoles, flags=0x300>
sio0 at port 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 flags 0x10 on isa0
sio0: type 16550A
sio1 at port 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa0
sio1: type 16550A
ppc0: <Parallel port> at port 0x378-0x37f irq 7 on isa0
ppc0: SMC-like chipset (ECP/EPP/PS2/NIBBLE) in COMPATIBLE mode
ppc0: FIFO with 16/16/15 bytes threshold
ppbus0: IEEE1284 device found /NIBBLE
Probing for PnP devices on ppbus0:
plip0: <PLIP network interface> on ppbus0
lpt0: <Printer> on ppbus0
lpt0: Interrupt-driven port
ppi0: <Parallel I/O> on ppbus0
ad0: 8063MB <IBM-DHEA-38451> [16383/16/63] at ata0-master using UDMA33
ad2: 8063MB <IBM-DHEA-38451> [16383/16/63] at ata1-master using UDMA33
acd0: CDROM <DELTA OTC-H101/ST3 F/W by OIPD> at ata0-slave using PIO4
Mounting root from ufs:/dev/ad0s1a
swapon: adding /dev/ad0s1b as swap device
Automatic boot in progress...
/dev/ad0s1a: FILESYSTEM CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS
/dev/ad0s1a: clean, 48752 free (552 frags, 6025 blocks, 0.9% fragmentation)
/dev/ad0s1f: FILESYSTEM CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS
/dev/ad0s1f: clean, 128997 free (21 frags, 16122 blocks, 0.0% fragmentation)
/dev/ad0s1g: FILESYSTEM CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS
/dev/ad0s1g: clean, 3036299 free (43175 frags, 374073 blocks, 1.3% fragmentation)
/dev/ad0s1e: filesystem CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS
/dev/ad0s1e: clean, 128193 free (17 frags, 16022 blocks, 0.0% fragmentation)
Doing initial network setup: hostname.
ed0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500
inet 192.168.0.1 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
inet6 fe80::5054::5ff::fede:731b%ed0 prefixlen 64 tentative scopeid 0x1
ether 52:54:05:de:73:1b
lo0: flags=8049<UP,LOOPBACK,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 16384
inet6 fe80::1%lo0 prefixlen 64 scopeid 0x8
inet6 ::1 prefixlen 128
inet 127.0.0.1 netmask 0xff000000
Additional routing options: IP gateway=YES TCP keepalive=YES
routing daemons:.
additional daemons: syslogd.
Doing additional network setup:.
Starting final network daemons: creating ssh RSA host key
Generating public/private rsa1 key pair.
Your identification has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key.
Your public key has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key.pub.
The key fingerprint is:
cd:76:89:16:69:0e:d0:6e:f8:66:d0:07:26:3c:7e:2d root@k6-2.example.com
creating ssh DSA host key
Generating public/private dsa key pair.
Your identification has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key.
Your public key has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key.pub.
The key fingerprint is:
f9:a1:a9:47:c4:ad:f9:8d:52:b8:b8:ff:8c:ad:2d:e6 root@k6-2.example.com.
setting ELF ldconfig path: /usr/lib /usr/lib/compat /usr/X11R6/lib
/usr/local/lib
a.out ldconfig path: /usr/lib/aout /usr/lib/compat/aout /usr/X11R6/lib/aout
starting standard daemons: inetd cron sshd usbd sendmail.
Initial rc.i386 initialization:.
rc.i386 configuring syscons: blank_time screensaver moused.
Additional ABI support: linux.
Local package initilization:.
Additional TCP options:.
FreeBSD/i386 (k6-2.example.com) (ttyv0)
login: rpratt
Password:Generating the RSA and DSA keys may take some time on slower
machines. This happens only on the initial boot-up of a new
installation. Subsequent boots will be faster.If the X server has been configured and a Default Desktop
chosen, it can be started by typing startx at
the command line.Bootup of FreeBSD on the AlphaAlphaOnce the install procedure has finished, you will be
able to start FreeBSD by typing something like this to the
SRM prompt:>>>BOOT DKC0This instructs the firmware to boot the specified
disk. To make FreeBSD boot automatically in the future, use
these commands:>>>SET BOOT_OSFLAGS A>>>SET BOOT_FILE ''>>>SET BOOTDEF_DEV DKC0>>>SET AUTO_ACTION BOOTThe boot messages will be similar (but not identical) to
those produced by FreeBSD booting on the i386.FreeBSD ShutdownIt is important to properly shutdown the operating
system. Do not just turn off power. First, become a superuser by
typing su at the command line and entering the
root password. This will work only if the user is a member of the
group wheel. Otherwise, login as root and use
shutdown -h now.The operating system has halted.
Please press any key to reboot.It is safe to turn off the power after the shutdown command
has been issued and the message "Please press any key to reboot"
appears. If any key is pressed instead of turning off the power
switch, the system will reboot.You could also use the CTRL+ALT+DEL key
combination to reboot the system, however this is not recommended
during normal operation.Supported HardwarehardwareFreeBSD currently runs on a wide variety of ISA, VLB, EISA, and
PCI bus-based PCs with Intel, AMD, Cyrix, or NexGen
x86 processors, as well as a number of
machines based on the Compaq Alpha processor.
Support for generic IDE or
ESDI drive configurations, various SCSI controllers, PCMCIA
cards, USB devices, and network and
serial cards is also provided. FreeBSD also supports IBM's
microchannel (MCA) bus.A list of supported hardware is provided with each FreeBSD
release in the FreeBSD Hardware Notes. This document can
usually be found in a file named
HARDWARE.TXT, in the top-level directory of
a CDROM or FTP distribution or in sysinstall's documentation
menu. It lists, for a given architecture, what hardware devices
are known to be supported by each release of FreeBSD.TroubleshootinginstallationtroubleshootingThe following section covers basic installation troubleshooting,
such as common problems people have reported. There are also a few
questions and answers for people wishing to dual-boot FreeBSD with
MS-DOS.What to Do If Something Goes Wrong...Due to various limitations of the PC architecture, it is
impossible for probing to be 100% reliable, however, there are a
few things you can do if it fails.Check the Hardware Notes document for your version of
FreeBSD to make sure your hardware is
supported.If your hardware is supported and you still experience
lock-ups or other problems, reset your computer, and when the
visual kernel configuration option is given, choose it. This will
allow you to go through your hardware and supply information to the
system about it. The kernel on the boot disks is configured
assuming that most hardware devices are in their factory default
configuration in terms of IRQs, IO addresses, and DMA channels. If
your hardware has been reconfigured, you will most likely need to
use the configuration editor to tell FreeBSD where to find
things.It is also possible that a probe for a device not present will
cause a later probe for another device that is present to fail. In
that case, the probes for the conflicting driver(s) should be
disabled.Do not disable any drivers you will need during the
installation, such as your screen (sc0).
If the installation wedges or fails mysteriously after leaving
the configuration editor, you have probably removed or changed
something you should not have. Reboot and try again.In configuration mode, you can:List the device drivers installed in the kernel.Change device drivers for hardware that is not present in
your system.Change IRQs, DRQs, and IO port addresses used by a device
driver.After adjusting the kernel to match your hardware
configuration, type Q to boot with the new
settings. Once the installation has completed, any changes you
made in the configuration mode will be permanent so you do not have
to reconfigure every time you boot. It is still highly likely that
you will eventually want to build a custom kernel.MS-DOS User's Questions and AnswersDOSMany users wish to install FreeBSD on PCs inhabited by MS-DOS.
Here are some commonly asked questions about installing FreeBSD on
such systems.Help, I have no space! Do I need to delete everything
first?If your machine is already running MS-DOS and has little
or no free space available for the FreeBSD installation, all
hope is not lost! You may find the FIPS
utility, provided
in the tools directory on the FreeBSD
CDROM or various FreeBSD FTP sites to be quite
useful.FIPSFIPS allows you to split an
existing MS-DOS partition
into two pieces, preserving the original partition and
allowing you to install onto the second free piece. You
first defragment your MS-DOS partition using the Windows
DEFRAG utility (go into Explorer,
right-click on the
hard drive, and choose to defrag your
hard drive), or Norton Disk Tools. You then must run
FIPS. It
will prompt you for the rest of the information it needs.
Afterwards, you can reboot and install FreeBSD on the new
free slice. See the Distributions menu
for an estimate of how much free space you will need for the
kind of installation you want.Partition MagicThere is also a very useful
product from PowerQuest
called Partition Magic. This
application has far more functionality than
FIPS, and is
highly recommended if you plan to often add/remove
operating systems (like me). However, it does cost
money, and if you plan to install FreeBSD once and then
leave it there, FIPS will probably
be fine for you.Can I use compressed MS-DOS filesystems from
FreeBSD?No. If you are using a utility such as Stacker(tm) or
DoubleSpace(tm), FreeBSD will only be able to use whatever
portion of the filesystem you leave uncompressed. The rest
of the filesystem will show up as one large file (the
stacked/double spaced file!). Do not remove that
file or you will probably regret it
greatly!It is probably better to create another uncompressed
primary MS-DOS partition and use this for communications
between MS-DOS and FreeBSD.Can I mount my extended MS-DOS partition?partitionsslicesYes. DOS extended partitions are mapped in at the end
of the other slices in FreeBSD, e.g., your
D: drive might be
/dev/da0s5, your
E: drive,
/dev/da0s6, and so on. This example
assumes, of course, that your extended partition is on SCSI
drive 0. For IDE drives, substitute ad
for da appropriately if installing
4.0-RELEASE or later, and substitute
wd for da if you
are installing a version of FreeBSD prior to 4.0. You otherwise
mount extended partitions exactly like you would any other
DOS drive, for example:&prompt.root; mount -t msdos /dev/ad0s5 /dos_dAlpha User's Questions and AnswersAlphaThis section answers some commonly asked questions about
installing FreeBSD on Alpha systems.Can I boot from the ARC or Alpha BIOS Console?ARCAlpha BIOSSRMNo. &os;, like Compaq Tru64 and VMS, will only boot
from the SRM console.Help, I have no space! Do I need to delete
everything first?Unfortunately, yes.Can I mount my Compaq Tru64 or VMS filesystems?No, not at this time.ValentinoVaschettoContributed by Advanced Installation GuideThis section describes how to install FreeBSD in exceptional
cases.Installing FreeBSD on a System without a Monitor or
Keyboardinstallationheadless (serial console)serial consoleThis type of installation is called a "headless install",
because the machine that you are trying to install FreeBSD on
either does not have a monitor attached to it, or does not even
have a VGA output. How is this possible you ask? Using a
serial console. A serial console is basically using another
machine to act as the main display and keyboard for a
system. To do this, just follow these steps:Fetch the Right Boot Floppy ImagesFirst you will need to get the right disk images so
that you can boot into the install program. The secret
with using a serial console is that you tell the boot
loader to send I/O through a serial port instead of
displaying console output to the VGA device and trying to
read input from a local keyboard. Enough of that now,
let's get back to getting these disk images.You will need to get kern.flp and
mfsroot.flp from the
floppies directory.Write the Image Files to the Floppy Disks.The image files, such as
kern.flp, are
not regular files that you copy to
the disk. Instead, they are images of the complete
contents of the disk.This means that you can not use
commands like DOS' copy to write the
files. Instead, you must use specific tools to write the
images directly to the disk.fdimageIf you are creating the floppies on a computer running
DOS then we provide a tool to do this called
fdimage.If you are using the floppies from the CDROM, and
your CDROM is the E: drive then
you would run this:E:\>tools\fdimage floppies\kern.flp A:Repeat this command for each .flp
file, replacing the floppy disk each time. Adjust the
command line as necessary, depending on where you have
placed the .flp files. If you do not
have the CDROM then fdimage can be
downloaded from the tools
directory on the FreeBSD FTP site.If you are writing the floppies on a Unix system (such
as another FreeBSD system) you can use the &man.dd.1;
command to write the image files directly to disk. On
FreeBSD you would run:&prompt.root; dd if=kern.flp of=/dev/fd0On FreeBSD /dev/fd0 refers to
the first floppy disk (the A:
drive). /dev/fd1 would be the
B: drive, and so on. Other Unix
variants might have different names for the floppy disk
devices, and you will need to check the documentation for
the system as necessary.Enabling the Boot Floppies to Boot into a Serial
ConsoleDo not try to mount the floppy if it is write-protectedmountIf you were to boot into the floppies that you just
made, FreeBSD would boot into its normal install mode. We
want FreeBSD to boot into a serial console for our
install. To do this, you have to mount the
kern.flp floppy onto your FreeBSD
system using the &man.mount.8; command.&prompt.root; mount /dev/fd0 /mntNow that you have the floppy mounted, you must
change into the floppy directory&prompt.root; cd /mntHere is where you must set the floppy to boot into a
serial console. You have to make a file called
boot.config containing "/boot/loader
-h". All this does is pass a flag to the bootloader to
boot into a serial console.&prompt.root; echo "/boot/loader -h" > boot.configNow that you have your floppy configured correctly,
you must unmount the floppy using the &man.umount.8;
command&prompt.root; cd /
&prompt.root; umount /mntNow you can remove the floppy from the floppy
driveConnecting Your Null Modem Cablenull-modem cableYou now need to connect a null modem cable between
the two machines. Just connect the cable to the serial
ports of the 2 machines. A normal serial cable
will not work here, you need a null modem
cable because it has some of the wires inside crossed
over.Booting Up for the InstallIt is now time to go ahead and start the install. Put
the kern.flp floppy in the floppy
drive of the machine you are doing the headless install
on, and power on the machine.Connecting to Your Headless MachinecuNow you have to connect to that machine with
&man.cu.1;:&prompt.root; cu -l /dev/cuaa0That's it! You should be able to control the headless
machine through your cu session now. It will ask
you to put
in the mfsroot.flp, and then it will come
up with a selection of what kind of terminal to use. Just
select the FreeBSD color console and proceed with your
install!Preparing Your Own Installation MediaTo prevent repetition, FreeBSD disk in this context
means a FreeBSD CDROM or DVD that you have purchased, or produced
yourself.There may be some situations in which you need to create your own
FreeBSD installation media and/or source. This might be physical media,
such as a tape, or a source that Sysinstall
can use to retrieve the files, such as a local FTP site, or an MS-DOS
partition. For example;You have many machines connected to your local network, and one
FreeBSD disk. You want to create a local FTP site using the
contents of the FreeBSD disk, and then have your machines use this
local FTP site instead of needing to connect to the Internet.You have a FreeBSD disk, FreeBSD does not recognize your CD/DVD
drive, but DOS/Windows does. You want to copy the FreeBSD
installations files to a DOS partition on the same computer, and
then install FreeBSD using those files.The computer you want to install on does not have a CD/DVD
drive, or a network card, but you can connect a
Laplink-style serial or parallel cable to a computer
that does.You want to create a tape that can be used to install
FreeBSD.Creating a Local FTP Site with a FreeBSD DiskinstallationnetworkFTPFreeBSD disks are laid out in the same way as the FTP site. This
makes it very easy for you to create a local FTP site that can be used
by other machines on your network when installing FreeBSD.On the FreeBSD computer that will host the FTP site, ensure
that the CDROM is in the drive, and mounted on
/cdrom.&prompt.root; mount /cdromCreate an account for anonymous FTP in
/etc/passwd. Do this by editing
/etc/passwd using &man.vipw.8; and adding
this line.ftp:*:99:99::0:0:FTP:/cdrom:/nonexistentEnsure that the FTP service is enabled in
/etc/inetd.conf.Anyone with network connectivity to your machine can now
chose a media type of FTP and type in
ftp://your machine
after picking Other in the FTP sites menu during
the install.This approach is OK for a machine that is on your local network,
and that is protected by your firewall. Offering up FTP services to
other machines over the Internet (and not your local network)
exposes your computer to the attention of crackers and other
undesirables. We strongly recommend that you follow good security
practices if you do this.Creating Installation FloppiesinstallationfloppiesIf you must install from floppy disk (which we suggest you
do not do), either due to unsupported
hardware or simply because you insist on doing things the hard
way, you must first prepare some floppies for the installation.At a minimum, you will need as many 1.44MB or 1.2MB floppies
as it takes to hold all the files in the
bin (binary distribution) directory. If
you are preparing the floppies from DOS, then they
MUST be formatted using the MS-DOS
FORMAT command. If you are using Windows,
use Explorer to format the disks (right-click on the
A: drive, and select "Format".Do not trust factory pre-formatted
floppies. Format them again yourself, just to be sure. Many
problems reported by our users in the past have resulted from
the use of improperly formatted media, which is why we are
making a point of it now.If you are creating the floppies on another FreeBSD machine,
a format is still not a bad idea, though you do not need to put
a DOS filesystem on each floppy. You can use the
disklabel and newfs
commands to put a UFS filesystem on them instead, as the
following sequence of commands (for a 3.5" 1.44MB floppy)
illustrates:&prompt.root; fdformat -f 1440 fd0.1440
&prompt.root; disklabel -w -r fd0.1440 floppy3
&prompt.root; newfs -t 2 -u 18 -l 1 -i 65536 /dev/fd0Use fd0.1200 and
floppy5 for 5.25" 1.2MB disks.Then you can mount and write to them like any other
filesystem.After you have formatted the floppies, you will need to copy
the files to them. The distribution files are split into chunks
conveniently sized so that 5 of them will fit on a conventional
1.44MB floppy. Go through all your floppies, packing as many
files as will fit on each one, until you have all of the
distributions you want packed up in this fashion. Each
distribution should go into a subdirectory on the floppy, e.g.:
a:\bin\bin.aa,
a:\bin\bin.ab, and so on.Once you come to the Media screen during the install
process, select Floppy and you will be prompted
for the rest.Installing from an MS-DOS Partitioninstallationfrom MS-DOSTo prepare for an installation from an MS-DOS partition,
copy the files from the distribution into a directory on that
partition. For example, c:\freebsd. The directory
structure of the CDROM or FTP site must be partially reproduced
within this directory, so we suggest using the DOS
xcopy command if you are copying it from a
CD. For example, to prepare for a minimal installation of
FreeBSD:C:\>md c:\freebsdC:\>xcopy e:\bin c:\freebsd\bin\ /sC:\>xcopy e:\manpages c:\freebsd\manpages\ /sAssuming that C: is where you have
free space and E: is where your CDROM
is mounted.If you do not have a CDROM drive, you can download the
distribution from
ftp.FreeBSD.org. Each distribution is in its own directory;
for example, the bin distribution can be
found in the &rel.current;/bin/ directory.For as many distributions you wish to install from an MS-DOS
partition (and you have the free space for), install each one
under c:\freebsd — the
BIN distribution is the only one required for
a minimum installation.Creating an Installation Tapeinstallationfrom QIC/SCSI TapeInstalling from tape is probably the easiest method, short
of an online FTP install or CDROM install. The installation
program expects the files to be simply tarred onto the tape.
After getting all of the distribution files you are interested
in, simply tar them onto the tape;&prompt.root; cd /freebsd/distdir
&prompt.root; tar cvf /dev/rwt0 dist1 ... dist2When you go to do the installation, you should also make
sure that you leave enough room in some temporary directory
(which you will be allowed to choose) to accommodate the
full contents of the tape you have created.
Due to the non-random access nature of tapes, this method of
installation requires quite a bit of temporary storage. You
should expect to require as much temporary storage as you have
stuff written on tape.When starting the installation, the tape must be in the
drive before booting from the boot
floppy. The installation probe may otherwise fail to find
it.Before Installing over a Networkinstallationnetworkserial (SLIP or PPP)installationnetworkparallel (PLIP)installationnetworkEthernetThere are three types of network installations you can do.
Serial port (SLIP or PPP), Parallel port (PLIP (laplink cable)),
or Ethernet (a standard Ethernet controller (includes some
PCMCIA)).The SLIP support is rather primitive, and limited primarily
to hard-wired links, such as a serial cable running between a
laptop computer and another computer. The link should be
hard-wired as the SLIP installation does not currently offer a
dialing capability; that facility is provided with the PPP
utility, which should be used in preference to SLIP whenever
possible.If you are using a modem, then PPP is almost certainly
your only choice. Make sure that you have your service
provider's information handy as you will need to know it fairly
early in the installation process.If you use PAP or CHAP to connect your ISP (in other
words, if you can connect to the ISP in Windows without
using a script), then all you will need to do is type in
dial at the
ppp prompt. Otherwise,
you will need to know
how to dial your ISP using the AT commands
specific to your modem, as the PPP dialer provides only a very
simple terminal emulator. Please refer
to the user-ppp handbook and FAQ entries for further
information. If you have problems, logging can be directed to
the screen using the command set log local
....If a hard-wired connection to another FreeBSD (2.0-R or
later) machine is available, you might also consider installing
over a laplink parallel port cable. The data rate
over the parallel port is much higher than what is typically
possible over a serial line (up to 50kbytes/sec), thus resulting
in a quicker installation.Finally, for the fastest possible network installation, an
Ethernet adapter is always a good choice! FreeBSD supports most
common PC Ethernet cards; a table of supported cards (and their
required settings) is provided in the Hardware Notes
for each release of FreeBSD. If you are
using one of the supported PCMCIA Ethernet cards, also be sure
that it is plugged in before the laptop is
powered on! FreeBSD does not, unfortunately, currently support
hot insertion of PCMCIA cards during installation.You will also need to know your IP address on the network,
the netmask value for your address class, and the name of your
machine. If you are installing over a PPP connection and do not
have a static IP, fear not, the IP address can be dynamically
assigned by your ISP. Your system administrator can tell you
which values to use for your particular network setup. If you
will be referring to other hosts by name rather than IP address,
you will also need a name server and possibly the address of a
gateway (if you are using PPP, it is your provider's IP address)
to use in talking to it. If you want to install by FTP via a
HTTP proxy (see below), you will also need the proxy's address.
If you do not know the answers to all or most of these questions,
then you should really probably talk to your system administrator
or ISP before trying this type of
installation.Before Installing via NFSinstallationnetworkNFSThe NFS installation is fairly straight-forward. Simply
copy the FreeBSD distribution files you want onto a server
somewhere and then point the NFS media selection at it.If this server supports only privileged port
(as is generally the default for Sun workstations), you will
need to set this option in the Options menu before
installation can proceed.If you have a poor quality Ethernet card which suffers
from very slow transfer rates, you may also wish to toggle the
appropriate Options flag.In order for NFS installation to work, the server must
support subdir mounts, e.g., if your FreeBSD 3.4 distribution
directory lives
on:ziggy:/usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD, then
ziggy will have to allow the direct mounting
of /usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD, not just
/usr or
/usr/archive/stuff.In FreeBSD's /etc/exports file, this
is controlled by the . Other NFS
servers may have different conventions. If you are getting
permission denied messages from the server, then
it is likely that you do not have this enabled
properly.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/linuxemu/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/linuxemu/chapter.sgml
index 6084e56efa..c80110ae3b 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/linuxemu/chapter.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/linuxemu/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,2615 +1,2614 @@
JimMockRestructured and parts updated by Brian N.HandyOriginally contributed by RichMurpheyLinux Binary CompatibilitySynopsisLinux binary compatibilitybinary compatibilityLinuxFreeBSD provides binary compatibility with several other
Unix-like operating systems, including Linux. At this point,
you may be asking yourself why exactly, does
FreeBSD need to be able to run Linux binaries? The answer to that
question is quite simple. Many companies and developers develop
only for Linux, since it is the latest hot thing in
the computing world. That leaves the rest of us FreeBSD users
bugging these same companies and developers to put out native
FreeBSD versions of their applications. The problem is, that most
of these companies do not really realize how many people would use
their product if there were FreeBSD versions too, and most continue
to only develop for Linux. So what is a FreeBSD user to do? This
is where the Linux binary compatibility of FreeBSD comes into
play.In a nutshell, the compatibility allows FreeBSD users to run
about 90% of all Linux applications without modification. This
includes applications such as Star Office,
the Linux version of Netscape,
Adobe Acrobat,
RealPlayer
5 and 7, VMWare,
Oracle,
WordPerfect, Doom,
Quake, and more. It is also reported
that in some situations, Linux binaries perform better on FreeBSD
than they do under Linux.Linux/proc filesystemThere are, however, some Linux-specific operating system
features that are not supported under FreeBSD. Linux binaries will
not work on FreeBSD if they overly use the Linux
/proc filesystem (which is different from
FreeBSD's /proc filesystem), or i386-specific
calls, such as enabling virtual 8086 mode.After reading this chapter, you will know:How to enable Linux binary compatibility on your
system.How to install additional Linux shared
libraries.How to install Linux applications on your
FreeBSD system.The implementation details of Linux
compatibility in FreeBSD.Before reading this chapter, you should:Know how to install additional third-party
software ().InstallationKLD (kernel loadable object)Linux binary compatibility is not turned on by default. The
easiest way to enable this functionality is to load the
linux KLD object (Kernel LoaDable
object). You can load this module by simply typing
linux at the command prompt.If you would like Linux compatibility to always be enabled,
then you should add the following line to
/etc/rc.conf:linux_enable=YESThis, in turn, triggers the following action in
/etc/rc.i386:# Start the Linux binary compatibility if requested.
#
case ${linux_enable} in
[Yy][Ee][Ss])
echo -n ' linux'; linux > /dev/null 2>&1
;;
esacThe &man.kldstat.8; command can be used to verify that the
KLD is loaded:&prompt.user; kldstat
Id Refs Address Size Name
1 2 0xc0100000 16bdb8 kernel
7 1 0xc24db000 d000 linux.kokernel optionsLINUXIf for some reason you do not want to or cannot load the KLD,
then you may statically link Linux binary compatibility into the kernel
by adding options LINUX to your kernel
configuration file. Then install your new kernel as described in
.Installing Linux Runtime LibrariesLinuxinstalling Linux librariesThis can be done one of two ways, either by using the
linux_base port, or
by installing them manually.Installing Using the linux_base Portports collectionThis is by far the easiest method to use when installing the
runtime libraries. It is just like installing any other port
from the ports collection.
Simply do the following:&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/emulators/linux_base
&prompt.root; make install distcleanYou should now have working Linux binary compatibility.
Some programs may complain about incorrect minor versions of the
system libraries. In general, however, this does not seem to be
a problem.Installing Libraries ManuallyIf you do not have the ports collection
installed, you can install the libraries by hand instead. You
will need the Linux shared libraries that the program depends on
and the runtime linker. Also, you will need to create a
shadow root directory,
/compat/linux, for Linux libraries on your
FreeBSD system. Any shared libraries opened by Linux programs
run under FreeBSD will look in this tree first. So, if a Linux
program loads, for example, /lib/libc.so,
FreeBSD will first try to open
/compat/linux/lib/libc.so, and if that does
not exist, it will then try /lib/libc.so.
Shared libraries should be installed in the shadow tree
/compat/linux/lib rather than the paths
that the Linux ld.so reports.Generally, you will need to look for the shared libraries
that Linux binaries depend on only the first few times that you
install a Linux program on your FreeBSD system. After a while,
you will have a sufficient set of Linux shared libraries on your
system to be able to run newly imported Linux binaries without
any extra work.How to Install Additional Shared Librariesshared librariesWhat if you install the linux_base port
and your application still complains about missing shared
libraries? How do you know which shared libraries Linux
binaries need, and where to get them? Basically, there are 2
possibilities (when following these instructions you will need
to be root on your FreeBSD system).If you have access to a Linux system, see what shared
libraries the application needs, and copy them to your FreeBSD
system. Look at the following example:Let us assume you used FTP to get the Linux binary of
Doom, and put it on a Linux system you have access to. You
then can check which shared libraries it needs by running
ldd linuxdoom, like so:&prompt.user; ldd linuxdoom
libXt.so.3 (DLL Jump 3.1) => /usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3.1.0
libX11.so.3 (DLL Jump 3.1) => /usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3.1.0
libc.so.4 (DLL Jump 4.5pl26) => /lib/libc.so.4.6.29symbolic linksYou would need to get all the files from the last column,
and put them under /compat/linux, with
the names in the first column as symbolic links pointing to
them. This means you eventually have these files on your
FreeBSD system:/compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3.1.0
/compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3 -> libXt.so.3.1.0
/compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3.1.0
/compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3 -> libX11.so.3.1.0
/compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.29 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.29
Note that if you already have a Linux shared library
with a matching major revision number to the first column
of the ldd output, you will not need to
copy the file named in the last column to your system, the
one you already have should work. It is advisable to copy
the shared library anyway if it is a newer version,
though. You can remove the old one, as long as you make
the symbolic link point to the new one. So, if you have
these libraries on your system:/compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.27
/compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.27and you find a new binary that claims to require a
later version according to the output of
ldd:libc.so.4 (DLL Jump 4.5pl26) -> libc.so.4.6.29If it is only one or two versions out of date in the
in the trailing digit then do not worry about copying
/lib/libc.so.4.6.29 too, because the
program should work fine with the slightly older version.
However, if you like, you can decide to replace the
libc.so anyway, and that should leave
you with:/compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.29
/compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.29
The symbolic link mechanism is
only needed for Linux binaries. The
FreeBSD runtime linker takes care of looking for matching
major revision numbers itself and you do not need to worry
about it.
Installing Linux ELF BinariesLinuxELF binariesELF binaries sometimes require an extra step of
branding. If you attempt to run an unbranded ELF
binary, you will get an error message like the following;&prompt.user; ./my-linux-elf-binary
ELF binary type not known
AbortTo help the FreeBSD kernel distinguish between a FreeBSD ELF
binary from a Linux binary, use the &man.brandelf.1;
utility.&prompt.user; brandelf -t Linux my-linux-elf-binaryGNU toolchainThe GNU toolchain now places the appropriate branding
information into ELF binaries automatically, so you this step
should become increasingly more rare in the future.Configuring the Hostname ResolverIf DNS does not work or you get this message:resolv+: "bind" is an invalid keyword resolv+:
"hosts" is an invalid keywordYou will need to configure a
/compat/linux/etc/host.conf file
containing:order hosts, bind
multi onThe order here specifies that /etc/hosts
is searched first and DNS is searched second. When
/compat/linux/etc/host.conf is not
installed, Linux applications find FreeBSD's
/etc/host.conf and complain about the
incompatible FreeBSD syntax. You should remove
bind if you have not configured a name server
using the /etc/resolv.conf file.MurrayStokelyUpdated for Mathematica 4.X by BojanBistrovicMerged with work by Installing MathematicaapplicationsMathematicaThis document describes the process of installing the Linux
version of Mathematica 4.X onto
a FreeBSD system.The Linux version of Mathematica
runs perfectly under FreeBSD
however the binaries shipped by Wolfram need to be branded so that
FreeBSD knows to use the Linux ABI to execute them.The Linux version of Mathematica
or Mathematica for Students can
be ordered directly from Wolfram at http://www.wolfram.com/.Branding the Linux BinariesThe Linux binaries are located in the Unix
directory of the Mathematica CDROM
distributed by Wolfram. You
need to copy this directory tree to your local hard drive so that
you can brand the Linux binaries with &man.brandelf.1; before
running the installer:&prompt.root; mount /cdrom
&prompt.root; cp -rp /cdrom/Unix/ /localdir/
&prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Kernel/Binaries/Linux/*
&prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/FrontEnd/Binaries/Linux/*
&prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Installation/Binaries/Linux/*
&prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Graphics/Binaries/Linux/*
&prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Converters/Binaries/Linux/*
&prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/LicenseManager/Binaries/Linux/mathlm
&prompt.root; cd /localdir/Installers/Linux/
&prompt.root; ./MathInstallerAlternatively, you can simply set the default ELF brand
to Linux for all unbranded binaries with the command:&prompt.root; sysctl -w kern.fallback_elf_brand=3This will make FreeBSD assume that unbranded ELF binaries
use the Linux ABI and so you should be able to run the
installer straight from the CDROM.Obtaining Your Mathematica PasswordBefore you can run Mathematica
you will have to obtain a
password from Wolfram that corresponds to your machine
ID.EthernetMAC addressOnce you have installed the Linux compatibility runtime
libraries and unpacked Mathematica
you can obtain the
machine ID by running the program
mathinfo in the Install directory. This
machine ID is based solely on the MAC address of your first
Ethernet card.&prompt.root; cd /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Installation/Binaries/Linux
&prompt.root; mathinfo
disco.example.com 7115-70839-20412When you register with Wolfram, either by email, phone or fax,
you will give them the machine ID and they will
respond with a corresponding password consisting of groups of
numbers. You can then enter this information when you attempt to
run Mathematica for the first time
exactly as you would for any other
Mathematica platform.Running the Mathematica Frontend over a NetworkMathematica uses some special
fonts to display characters not
present in any of the standard font sets (integrals, sums, Greek
letters, etc.). The X protocol requires these fonts to be install
locally. This means you will have to copy
these fonts from the CDROM or from a host with
Mathematica
installed to your local machine. These fonts are normally stored
in /cdrom/Unix/Files/SystemFiles/Fonts on the
CDROM, or
/usr/local/mathematica/SystemFiles/Fonts on
your hard drive. The actual fonts are in the subdirectories
Type1 and X. There are
several ways to use them, as described below.The first way is to copy them into one of the existing font
directories in /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts.
This will require editing the fonts.dir file,
adding the font names to it, and changing the number of fonts on
the first line. Alternatively, you should also just be able to
run mkfontdir in the directory you have copied
them to.The second way to do this is to copy the directories to
/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts:&prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts
&prompt.root; mkdir X
&prompt.root; mkdir MathType1
&prompt.root; cd /cdrom/Unix/Files/SystemFiles/Fonts
&prompt.root; cp X/* /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/X
&prompt.root; cp Type1/* /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/MathType1
&prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/X
&prompt.root; mkfontdir
&prompt.root; cd ../MathType1
&prompt.root; mkfontdir
Now add the new font directories to your font path:&prompt.root; xset fp+ /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/X
&prompt.root; xset fp+ /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/MathType1
&prompt.root; xset fp rehashIf you are using the XFree86 server, you can have these font
directories loaded automatically by adding them to your
XF86Config file.fontsIf you do not already have a directory
called /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/Type1, you
can change the name of the MathType1
directory in the example above to
Type1.AaronKaplanContributed by RobertGetschmannThanks to Installing MapleapplicationsMapleMaple is a commercial mathematics program similar to
Mathematica. You must purchase this software from and then register there
for a license file. To install this software on FreeBSD, please
follow these simple steps.Execute the INSTALL shell
script from the product distribution. Choose the
RedHat option when prompted by the
installation program. A typical installation directory
might be /usr/local/mapleIf you have not done so, order a license for Maple
from Maple Waterloo Software (http://register.maplesoft.com)
and copy it to
/usr/local/maple/license/license.datInstall the FLEXlm
license manager by running the
INSTALL_LIC install shell script that
comes with Maple. Specify the
primary hostname for your machine for the license
server.Patch the
usr/local/maple/bin/maple.system.type
- file with the following :
+ file with the following:
----- snip ------------------
*** maple.system.type.orig Sun Jul 8 16:35:33 2001
--- maple.system.type Sun Jul 8 16:35:51 2001
***************
*** 72,77 ****
--- 72,78 ----
# the IBM RS/6000 AIX case
MAPLE_BIN="bin.IBM_RISC_UNIX"
;;
+ "FreeBSD"|\
"Linux")
# the Linux/x86 case
# We have two Linux implementations, one for Red Hat and
----- snip end of patch -----Please note that after the "FreeBSD"|\ no other
whitespace should be present.This patch instructs Maple to
recognize FreeBSD as a type of Linux system.
The bin/maple shell script calls the
bin/maple.system.type shell script
which in turn calls uname -a to find out the operating
system name. Depending on the OS name it will find out which
binaries to use.Start the license server.The following script, installed as
/usr/local/etc/rc.d/lmgrd.sh is a
convenient way to start up lmgrd: ----- snip ------------
#! /bin/sh
PATH=/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin:/sbin:/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin
PATH=${PATH}:/usr/local/maple/bin:/usr/local/maple/FLEXlm/UNIX/LINUX
export PATH
LICENSE_FILE=/usr/local/maple/license/license.dat
LOG=/var/log/lmgrd.log
case "$1" in
start)
lmgrd -c ${LICENSE_FILE} 2>> ${LOG} 1>&2
echo -n " lmgrd"
;;
stop)
lmgrd -c ${LICENSE_FILE} -x lmdown 2>> ${LOG} 1>&2
;;
*)
echo "Usage: `basename $0` {start|stop}" 1>&2
exit 64
;;
esac
exit 0
----- snip ------------Test-start maple:&prompt.user; cd /usr/local/maple/bin
&prompt.user ./xmapleYou should be up and running. Make sure to write
Maplesoft to let them know you would like a native FreeBSD
version!Common PitfallsThe FLEXlm license manager can be a difficult
tool to work with. Additional documentation on the subject
can be found at .lmgrd is known to be very picky
about the license file and to core dump if there are any
- problems. A correct license file should look like this
- :
+ problems. A correct license file should look like this:
# =======================================================
# License File for UNIX Installations ("Pointer File")
# =======================================================
SERVER chillig ANY
#USE_SERVER
VENDOR maplelmg
FEATURE Maple maplelmg 2000.0831 permanent 1 XXXXXXXXXXXX \
PLATFORMS=i86_r ISSUER="Waterloo Maple Inc." \
ISSUED=11-may-2000 NOTICE=" Technische Universitat Wien" \
SN=XXXXXXXXXSerial number and key 'X''ed out. "chillig" is a
hostname.Editing the license file works as long as you do not
touch the "FEATURE" line (which is protected by the
license key).MarcelMoolenaarContributed by Installing OracleapplicationsOraclePrefaceThis document describes the process of installing Oracle 8.0.5 and
Oracle 8.0.5.1 Enterprise Edition for Linux onto a FreeBSD
machineInstalling the Linux EnvironmentMake sure you have both linux_base and
linux_devtools from the ports collection
installed. These ports are added to the collection after the release
of FreeBSD 3.2. If you are using FreeBSD 3.2 or an older version for
that matter, update your ports collection. You may want to consider
updating your FreeBSD version too. If you run into difficulties with
linux_base-6.1 or
linux_devtools-6.1 you may have to use version
5.2 of these packages.If you want to run the intelligent agent, you will
also need to install the Red Hat Tcl package:
tcl-8.0.3-20.i386.rpm. The general command
- for installing packages with the official RPM port is :
+ for installing packages with the official RPM port is:
&prompt.root; rpm -i --ignoreos --root /compat/linux --dbpath /var/lib/rpm packageInstallation of the package should not generate any errors.Creating the Oracle EnvironmentBefore you can install Oracle, you need to set up a proper
environment. This document only describes what to do
specially to run Oracle for Linux on FreeBSD, not
what has been described in the Oracle installation guide.Kernel Tuningkernel tuningAs described in the Oracle installation guide, you need to set
the maximum size of shared memory. Do not use
SHMMAX under FreeBSD. SHMMAX
is merely calculated out of SHMMAXPGS and
PGSIZE. Therefore define
SHMMAXPGS. All other options can be used as
described in the guide. For example:options SHMMAXPGS=10000
options SHMMNI=100
options SHMSEG=10
options SEMMNS=200
options SEMMNI=70
options SEMMSL=61Set these options to suit your intended use of Oracle.Also, make sure you have the following options in your kernel
config-file:options SYSVSHM #SysV shared memory
options SYSVSEM #SysV semaphores
options SYSVMSG #SysV interprocess communicationOracle AccountCreate an Oracle account just as you would create any other
account. The Oracle account is special only that you need to give
it a Linux shell. Add /compat/linux/bin/bash to
/etc/shells and set the shell for the Oracle
account to /compat/linux/bin/bash.EnvironmentBesides the normal Oracle variables, such as
ORACLE_HOME and ORACLE_SID you must
set the following environment variables:VariableValueLD_LIBRARY_PATH$ORACLE_HOME/libCLASSPATH$ORACLE_HOME/jdbc/lib/classes111.zipPATH/compat/linux/bin
/compat/linux/sbin
/compat/linux/usr/bin
/compat/linux/usr/sbin
/bin
/sbin
/usr/bin
/usr/sbin
/usr/local/bin
$ORACLE_HOME/binIt is advised to set all the environment variables in
.profile. A complete example is:ORACLE_BASE=/oracle; export ORACLE_BASE
ORACLE_HOME=/oracle; export ORACLE_HOME
LD_LIBRARY_PATH=$ORACLE_HOME/lib
export LD_LIBRARY_PATH
ORACLE_SID=ORCL; export ORACLE_SID
ORACLE_TERM=386x; export ORACLE_TERM
CLASSPATH=$ORACLE_HOME/jdbc/lib/classes111.zip
export CLASSPATH
PATH=/compat/linux/bin:/compat/linux/sbin:/compat/linux/usr/bin
PATH=$PATH:/compat/linux/usr/sbin:/bin:/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/sbin
PATH=$PATH:/usr/local/bin:$ORACLE_HOME/bin
export PATHInstalling OracleDue to a slight inconsistency in the Linux emulator, you need to
create a directory named .oracle in
/var/tmp before you start the installer. Either
make it world writable or let it be owner by the oracle user. You
should be able to install Oracle without any problems. If you have
problems, check your Oracle distribution and/or configuration first!
After you have installed Oracle, apply the patches described in the
next two subsections.A frequent problem is that the TCP protocol adapter is not
installed right. As a consequence, you cannot start any TCP listeners.
The following actions help solve this problem:&prompt.root; cd $ORACLE_HOME/network/lib
&prompt.root; make -f ins_network.mk ntcontab.o
&prompt.root; cd $ORACLE_HOME/lib
&prompt.root; ar r libnetwork.a ntcontab.o
&prompt.root; cd $ORACLE_HOME/network/lib
&prompt.root; make -f ins_network.mk installDo not forget to run root.sh again!Patching root.shWhen installing Oracle, some actions, which need to be performed
as root, are recorded in a shell script called
root.sh. root.sh is
written in the orainst directory. Apply the
following patch to root.sh, to have it use to proper location of
chown or alternatively run the script under a
Linux native shell.*** orainst/root.sh.orig Tue Oct 6 21:57:33 1998
--- orainst/root.sh Mon Dec 28 15:58:53 1998
***************
*** 31,37 ****
# This is the default value for CHOWN
# It will redefined later in this script for those ports
# which have it conditionally defined in ss_install.h
! CHOWN=/bin/chown
#
# Define variables to be used in this script
--- 31,37 ----
# This is the default value for CHOWN
# It will redefined later in this script for those ports
# which have it conditionally defined in ss_install.h
! CHOWN=/usr/sbin/chown
#
# Define variables to be used in this scriptWhen you do not install Oracle from CD, you can patch the source
for root.sh. It is called
rthd.sh and is located in the
orainst directory in the source tree.Patching genclntshThe script genclntsh is used to create
a single shared client
library. It is used when building the demos. Apply the following
patch to comment out the definition of PATH:*** bin/genclntsh.orig Wed Sep 30 07:37:19 1998
--- bin/genclntsh Tue Dec 22 15:36:49 1998
***************
*** 32,38 ****
#
# Explicit path to ensure that we're using the correct commands
#PATH=/usr/bin:/usr/ccs/bin export PATH
! PATH=/usr/local/bin:/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin export PATH
#
# each product MUST provide a $PRODUCT/admin/shrept.lst
--- 32,38 ----
#
# Explicit path to ensure that we're using the correct commands
#PATH=/usr/bin:/usr/ccs/bin export PATH
! #PATH=/usr/local/bin:/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin export PATH
#
# each product MUST provide a $PRODUCT/admin/shrept.lstRunning OracleWhen you have followed the instructions, you should be able to run
Oracle as if it was run on Linux
itself.HolgerKippContributed by ValentinoVaschettoConverted to SGML by Installing SAP R/3 (4.6B - IDES)applicationsSAP R/3Installations of SAP Systems using FreeBSD will not be
supported by the SAP support team — they only offer support
for certified platforms.PrefaceThis document describes a possible way of installing a
SAP R/3 4.6B IDES-System
with Oracle 8.0.5
for Linux onto a FreeBSD 4.3 machine, including the installation
of FreeBSD 4.3-STABLE and
Oracle 8.0.5.Even though this document tries to describe all important
steps in a greater detail, it is not intended as a replacement
for the Oracle and
SAP R/3 installation guides.Please see the documentation that comes with the
SAP R/3
Linux edition for SAP- and
Oracle-specific questions, as well
as resources from Oracle and
SAP OSS.SoftwareThe following CDROMs have been used for
SAP-installation:NameNumberDescriptionKERNEL51009113SAP Kernel Oracle /
Installation / AIX, Linux, SolarisRDBMS51007558Oracle / RDBMS 8.0.5.X /
LinuxEXPORT151010208IDES / DB-Export / Disc
1 of 6EXPORT251010209IDES / DB-Export / Disc
2 of 6EXPORT351010210IDES / DB-Export /
Disc3 of 6EXPORT451010211IDES / DB-Export /
Disc4 of 6EXPORT551010212IDES / DB-Export /
Disc5 of 6EXPORT651010213IDES / DB-Export /
Disc6 of 6Additionally, I used the Oracle 8
Server (Pre-production version 8.0.5 for Linux,
Kernel Version 2.0.33) CD which is not really necessary, and
of course FreeBSD 4.3 stable (it was only a few days past 4.3
RELEASE).SAP-NotesThe following notes should be read before installing
SAP R/3 or proved to be useful
during installation:NumberTitle0171356SAP Software auf Linux: grundlegenden
Anmerkungen0201147INST: 4.6C R/3 Inst. on UNIX -
Oracle0373203Update / Migration Oracle 8.0.5 -->
8.0.6/8.1.6 LINUX0072984Release of Digital UNIX 4.0B for
Oracle0130581R3SETUP step DIPGNTAB terminates0144978Your system has not been installed
correctly0162266Questions and tips for R3SETUP on Windows
NT / W2KHardware-RequirementsThe following equipment is sufficient for a
SAP R/3 System (4.6B):Component4.6B4.6CProcessor2 x 800MHz Pentium III2 x 800MHz Pentium IIIMemory1GB ECC2GB ECCHard Disc Space50-60GB (IDES)50-60GB (IDES)For use in production, Xeon-Processors with large cache,
high-speed disc access (SCSI, RAID hardware controller), USV
and ECC-RAM is recommended. The large amount of Hard disc
space is due to the preconfigured IDES System, which creates
27 GB of database files during installation. Usually after
installation it is then necessary to extend some
tablespaces.I used a dual processor board with 2 800MHz Pentium III
processors, Adaptec 29160 Ultra160 SCSI adapter (for accessing
a 40/80 GB DLT tape drive and CDROM), Mylex AcelleRAID (2
channels, firmware 6.00-1-00 with 32MB RAM). To the Mylex
Raid-controller are attached two 17GB hard discs (mirrored)
and four 36GB hard discs (RAID level 5).Installation of FreeBSD 4.3-STABLEFirst I installed FreeBSD 4.3 stable. I did the
default-installation via FTP.Installation via FTPGet the diskimages
kern.flp and mfsroot.flp and put them on floppy disks (I got
mine from ftp7.de.FreeBSD.org. Please choose the appropriate
mirror).&prompt.root; dd if=kern.flp of=/dev/fd0
&prompt.root; dd if=mfsroot.flp of=/dev/fd0Do not forget to use different disks for the two images,
then boot from the floppy with the kern.flp-image on it
and follow instructions. I used the following disk
layout:FilesystemSize (1k-blocks)Size (GB)Mounted on/dev/da0s1a1.016.3031//dev/da0s1b6<swap>/dev/da0s1e2.032.6232/var/dev/da0s1f8.205.3398/usr/dev/da1s1e45.734.36145/compat/linux/oracle/dev/da1s1f2.032.6232/compat/linux/sapmnt/dev/da1s1g2.032.6232/compat/linux/usr/sapI had to configure and initialize the two logical drives
with the Mylex software beforehand. It is located on the
board itself and can be started during the boot phase of the
PC. Please note that this disk layout differs slightly from
the SAP recommendations, as SAP suggests mounting the
oracle-subdirectories (and some others) separately - I
decided to just create them as real subdirectories for
simplicity.Get the Latest STABLE SourcesFor FreeBSD 4.3 stable onwards, it is quite easy to get
the latest stable sources. With the older versions of
FreeBSD, I had my own script located in /etc/cvsup. Setting
up CVSup for FreeBSD 4.3 is quite
easy. As user
root do the following:&prompt.root; cp /etc/defaults/make.conf /etc/make.conf
&prompt.root; vi /etc/make.confThe file /etc/make.conf requires the
following entries to be active:SUP_UPDATE= yes
SUP= /usr/local/bin/cvsup
SUPFLAGS= -g -L 2
SUPHOST= cvsup8.FreeBSD.org
SUPFILE= /usr/share/examples/cvsup/stable-supfile
PORTSSUPFILE= /usr/share/examples/cvsup/ports-supfile
DOCSUPFILE= /usr/share/examples/cvsup/doc-supfileChange the SUPHOST-value
appropriately. The supfiles in
/usr/share/examples/cvsup should be
fine. If you do not want to load all the docfiles, leave the
corresponding DOCSUPFILE-entry
inactive. Starting cvsup
to get the latest stable-sources is then very easy:&prompt.root; cd /usr/src
&prompt.root; make update<command>make world</command> and a New KernelThe first thing to do is to install the sources.
As user root, do the following:&prompt.root; cd /usr/src
&prompt.root; make worldIf this goes through, one can then continue creating and
configuring the new kernel. Usually this is where to
customize the kernel configuration file. As the computer is
named troubadix, the natural name for the
config file also is troubadix:&prompt.root; cd /usr/src/sys/i386/conf
&prompt.root; cp GENERIC TROUBADIX
&prompt.root; vi TROUBADIXAt this stage one can define the drivers to use and not
to use, etc. See the appropriate documentation or have a
look at file LINT for some additional
explanations.One can then also include the parameters as described
below Creating the new kernel then requires:&prompt.root; cd /usr/src/sys/i386/conf
&prompt.root; config TROUBADIX
&prompt.root; cd /usr/src/sys/compile/TROUBADIX
&prompt.root; make depend
&prompt.root; make
&prompt.root; make installAfter make install finished
successfully, one should reboot the computer to have the new
kernel available.Installing the Linux EnvironmentI had some trouble downloading the required RPM-files (for
4.3 stable, 2nd May 2001), so you might try one of the
following locations (if all the others fail and the following
are not out of date):ftp7.de.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/distfiles/rpmftp.redhat.com/pub/redhat/linux/6.1/en/os/i386/RedHat/RPMSInstalling Linux Base-systemFirst the Linux base-system needs to be installed (as root):
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/emulators/linux_base
&prompt.root; make packageInstalling Linux DevelopmentNext, the Linux development is needed:&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/devel/linux_devtools
&prompt.root; make packageInstalling Necessary RPMsRPMsTo start the R3SETUP-Program, pam support is needed. As
this also requires some other packages, I ended up
installing several packages. After that, pam still
complained about a missing package, so I forced the
installation and it worked. I wonder if the other packages
are really needed or if it would have been sufficient to
install the pam-package.Anyway, here is the list of packages I installed:cracklib-2.7-5.i386.rpmcracklib-dicts-2.7-5.i386.rpmpwdb-0.60-1.i386.rpmpam-0.68-7.i386.rpmI installed these packages with the following
command:&prompt.root; rpm -i --ignoreos --root /compat/linux --dbpath /var/lib/rpm <package_name>except for the pam package, which I forced with&prompt.root; rpm -i --ignoreos --nodeps --root /compat/linux --dbpath /var/lib/rpm \
pam-0.68-7.i386.rpmFor Oracle to run the
intelligent agent, I also had to install the following
RedHat Tcl package (as is stated in the FreeBSD Handbook):
tcl-8.0.5-30.i386.rpm (otherwise the
relinking during Oracle install
will not work). There are some other issues regarding
relinking of Oracle, but that is
a Oracle-Linux issue, not FreeBSD specific as far as I
understand it.Creating the SAP/R3 EnvironmentCreating the Necessary Filesystems and MountpointsFor a simple installation, it is sufficient to create the
following filesystems:mountpointsize in GB/compat/linux/oracle45 GB/compat/linux/sapmnt2 GB/compat/linux/usr/sap2 GBI also created some links, so FreeBSD will also find the
correct path:&prompt.root; ln -s /compat/linux/oracle /oracle
&prompt.root; ln -s /compat/linux/sapmnt /sapmnt
&prompt.root; ln -s /compat/linux/usr/sap /usr/sapCreating Users and DirectoriesSAP R/3 needs two users and
three groups. The usernames depend on the
SAP system id (SID) which consists
of three letters. Some of these SIDs are reserved
by SAP (for example
SAP and NIX. For a
complete list please see the SAP documentation). For the IDES
installation I used IDS. We have
therefore the following groups (group ids might differ, these
are just the values I used with my installation):group idgroup namedescription100dbaData Base Administrator101sapsysSAP System102operData Base OperatorFor a default Oracle-Installation, only group
dba is used. As
oper-group, one also uses group
dba (see Oracle- and
SAP-documentation for further information).We also need the following users:user idusernamegeneric namegroupadditional groupsdescription1000idsadm<sid>admsapsysoperSAP Administrator1002oraidsora<sid>dbaoperDB AdministratorAdding the users with adduser
requires the following (please note shell and home
directory) entries for SAP-Administrator:Name: idsadm <sid>adm
Password: ******
Fullname: SAP IDES Administrator
Uid: 1000
Gid: 101 (sapsys)
Class:
Groups: sapsys dba
HOME: /home/idsadm /home/<sid>adm
Shell: /bin/shand for Database-Administrator:Name: oraids ora<sid>
Password: ******
Fullname: Oracle IDES Administrator
Uid: 1002
Gid: 100 (dba)
Class:
Groups: dba
HOME: /oracle/IDS /oracle/<sid>
Shell: /bin/shThis should also include group
oper in case you are using both
groups dba and
oper.Creating DirectoriesThese directories are usually created as separate
filesystems. This depends entirely on your requirements. I
choose to create them as simple directories, as they are all
located on the same RAID 5 anyway:First we will set owners and right of some directories (as
user root):&prompt.root; chmod 775 /oracle
&prompt.root; chmod 777 /sapmnt
&prompt.root; chown root:dba /oracle
&prompt.root; chown idsadm:sapsys /compat/linux/usr/sap
&prompt.root; chmow 775 /compat/linux/usr/sapSecond we will create directories as user ora<sid>. These
will all be subdirectories of /oracle/IDS:&prompt.root; su - oraids
&prompt.root; mkdir mirrlogA mirrlogB origlogA origlogB
&prompt.root; mkdir sapdata1 sapdata2 sapdata3 sapdata4 sapdata5 sapdata6
&prompt.root; mkdir saparch sapreorg
&prompt.root; exitIn the third step we create directories as user
idsadm (<sid>adm):&prompt.root; su - idsadm
&prompt.root; cd /usr/sap
&prompt.root; mkdir IDS
&prompt.root; mkdir trans
&prompt.root; exitEntries in /etc/servicesSAP R/3 requires some entries in file
- /etc/services , which will not be set
+ /etc/services, which will not be set
correctly during installation under FreeBSD. Please add the
following entries (you need at least those entries
corresponding to the instance number - in this case,
00. It will do no harm adding all
entries from 00 to
99 for dp,
gw, sp and
ms);sapdp00 3200/tcp # SAP Dispatcher. 3200 + Instance-Number
sapgw00 3300/tcp # SAP Gateway. 3300 + Instance-Number
sapsp00 3400/tcp # 3400 + Instance-Number
sapms00 3500/tcp # 3500 + Instance-Number
sapmsIDS 3600/tcp # SAP Message Server. 3600 + Instance-NumberNecessary LocaleslocaleSAP requires at least two locales that are not part of
the default RedHat installation. SAP offers the required
RPMs as download from their FTP-server (which is only
accessible if you are a customer with OSS-access). See note
0171356 for a list of RPMs you need.It is also possible to just create appropriate links
(for example from de_DE and
en_US ), but I would not recommend this
for a production system (so far it worked with the IDES
system without any problems, though). The following locales
are needed:de_DE.ISO-8859-1
en_US.ISO-8859-1If they are not present, there will be some problems
during the installation. If these are then subsequently
ignored (eg by setting the status of the offending steps to
OK in file CENTRDB.R3S), it will be impossible to log onto
the SAP-system without some additional effort.Kernel Tuningkernel tuningSAP R/3 Systems need a lot of resources. I therefore
added the following parameters to my kernel config-file:
# Set these for memory pigs (SAP and Oracle):
options MAXDSIZ="(1024*1024*1024)"
options DFLDSIZ="(1024*1024*1024)" # System V options needed.
options SYSVSHM #SYSV-style shared memory
options SHMMAXPGS=262144 #max amount of shared mem. pages
options SHMMNI=256 #max number of shared memory ident if.
options SHMSEG=100 #max shared mem.segs per process
options SYSVMSG #SYSV-style message queues
options MSGSEG=32767 #max num. of mes.segments in system
options MSGSSZ=32 #size of msg-seg. MUST be power of 2
options MSGMNB=65535 #max char. per message queue
options MSGTQL=2046 #max amount of msgs in system
options SYSVSEM #SYSV-style semaphores
options SEMMNU=256 #number of semaphore UNDO structures
options SEMMNS=1024 #number of semaphores in system
options SEMMNI=520 #number of semaphore indentifiers
options SEMUME=100 #number of UNDO keysThe minimum values are specified in the documentation that
comes from SAP. As there is no description for Linux, see the
HP-UX-section (32-bit) for further information.
Installing SAP R/3Preparing SAP CDROMsThere are lots of CDROMs to mount and unmount during
installation. Assuming you have enough CDROM-drives, you
can just mount them all. I decided to copy the CDROM
contents to corresponding directories:/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/<cd-name>where <cd-name> was one of KERNEL,
RDBMS, EXPORT1,
EXPORT2, EXPORT3,
EXPORT4, EXPORT5 and
EXPORT6. All the
filenames should be in capital letters, otherwise use the -g
option for mounting. So use the following commands:&prompt.root; mount_cd9660 -g /dev/cd0a /mnt
&prompt.root; cp -R /mnt/* /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/<cd-name>
&prompt.root; umount /mntRunning the install-scriptFirst we need to prepare an install-directory:&prompt.root; cd /oracle/IDS/sapreorg
&prompt.root; mkdir install
&prompt.root; cd installThen the install-script is started, which will copy nearly
all the relevant files into the install-directory:/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/KERNEL/UNIX/INSTTOOL.SHAs this is an IDES-Installation with a fully customized
SAP R/3 Demo-System, we have six instead of just three
EXPORT-CDs. At this point the installation template
CENTRDB.R3S is for installing a standard central instance
(R/3 and Database), not an IDES central instance, so copy
the corresponding CENTRDB.R3S from the EXPORT1 directory,
otherwise R3SETUP will only ask for three EXPORT-CDs.Start R3SETUPMake sure LD_LIBRARY_PATH is set correctly:&prompt.root; export LD_LIBRARY_PATH=/oracle/IDS/lib:/sapmnt/IDS/exe:/oracle/805_32/libStart R3SETUP as user root from installation
directory:&prompt.root; cd /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/install
&prompt.root; ./R3SETUP -f CENTRDB.R3SThe script then asks some questions (defaults in brackets,
followed by actual input):QuestionDefaultInputEnter SAP System ID[C11]IDS<ret>Enter SAP Instance Number[00]<ret>Enter SAPMOUNT Directory[/sapmnt]<ret>Enter name of SAP central host[troubadix.domain.de]<ret>Enter name of SAP db host[troubadix]<ret>Select character set[1] (WE8DEC)<ret>Enter Oracle server version (1) Oracle 8.0.5, (2) Oracle 8.0.6, (3) Oracle 8.1.5, (4) Oracle 8.1.61<ret>Extract Oracle Client archive[1] (Yes, extract)<ret>Enter path to KERNEL CD[/sapcd]/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/KERNELEnter path to RDBMS CD[/sapcd]/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/RDBMSEnter path to EXPORT1 CD[/sapcd]/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/EXPORT1Directory to copy EXPORT1 CD[/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/CD4_DIR]<ret>Enter path to EXPORT2 CD[/sapcd]/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/EXPORT2Directory to copy EXPORT2 CD[/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/CD5_DIR]<ret>Enter path to EXPORT3 CD[/sapcd]/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/EXPORT3Directory to copy EXPORT3 CD[/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/CD6_DIR]<ret>Enter path to EXPORT4 CD[/sapcd]/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/EXPORT4Directory to copy EXPORT4 CD[/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/CD7_DIR]<ret>Enter path to EXPORT5 CD[/sapcd]/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/EXPORT5Directory to copy EXPORT5 CD[/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/CD8_DIR]<ret>Enter path to EXPORT6 CD[/sapcd]/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/EXPORT6Directory to copy EXPORT6 CD[/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/CD9_DIR]<ret>Enter amount of RAM for SAP + DB850<ret> (in Megabytes)Service Entry Message Server[3600]<ret>Enter Group-ID of sapsys[101]<ret>Enter Group-ID of oper[102]<ret>Enter Group-ID of dba[100]<ret>Enter User-ID of <sid>adm[1000]<ret>Enter User-ID of ora<sid>[1002]<ret>Number of parallel procs[2]<ret>If I had not copied the CDs to the different locations,
then the SAP-Installer cannot find the CD needed (identified
by the LABEL.ASC-File on CD) and would
then ask you to insert / mount the CD and confirm or enter
the mount path.The CENTRDB.R3S might not be
error-free. In my case, it requested EXPORT4 again (but
indicated the correct key (6_LOCATI ON, then 7_LOCATION
etc.), so one can just continue with entering the correct
values. Do not get irritated.Apart from some problems mentioned below, everything
should go straight through up to the point where the Oracle
database software needs to be installed.Installing Oracle 8.0.5Please see the corresponding SAP-Notes and Oracle Readmes
regarding Linux and Oracle DB for possible problems. Most if
not all problems stem from incompatible librariesFor more information on installing Oracle, refer to the Installing Oracle
chapter.Installing the Oracle 8.0.5 with orainstIf Oracle 8.0.5 is to be
used, some additional libraries are needed for successfully
relinking, as Oracle 8.0.5 was linked with an old glibc
(RedHat 6.0), but RedHat 6.1 already uses a new glibc. So
you have to install the following additional packages to
ensure that linking will work:compat-libs-5.2-2.i386.rpmcompat-glibc-5.2-2.0.7.2.i386.rpmcompat-egcs-5.2-1.0.3a.1.i386.rpmcompat-egcs-c++-5.2-1.0.3a.1.i386.rpmcompat-binutils-5.2-2.9.1.0.23.1.i386.rpmSee the corresponding SAP-Notes or Oracle Readmes for
further information. If this is no option (at the time of
installation I did not have enough time to check this), one
could use the original binaries, or use the relinked
binaries from an original RedHat System.For compiling the intelligent agent, the RedHat Tcl
package must be installed. If you cannot get
tcl-8.0.3-20.i386.rpm, a newer one like
tcl-8.0.5-30.i386.rpm for RedHat 6.1
should also do.Apart from relinking, the installation is
straightforward:&prompt.root; su - oraids
&prompt.root; export TERM=xterm
&prompt.root; export ORACLE_TERM=xterm
&prompt.root; export ORACLE_HOME=/oracle/IDS
&prompt.root; cd /ORACLE_HOME/orainst_sap
&prompt.root; ./orainstConfirm all Screens with Enter until the software is
installed, except that one has to deselect the
- Oracle On-Line Text Viewer , as this is
+ Oracle On-Line Text Viewer, as this is
not currently available for Linux. Oracle then wants to
relink with i386-glibc20-linux-gcc
instead of the available gcc,
egcs or i386-redhat-linux-gcc
.Due to time constrains I decided to use the binaries
from an Oracle 8.0.5 PreProduction
release, after the first
attempt at getting the version from the RDBMS-CD working,
failed, and finding / accessing the correct RPMs was a
nightmare at that time.Installing the Oracle 8.0.5 Pre-Production release for
Linux (Kernel 2.0.33)This installation is quite easy. Mount the CD, start the
installer. It will then ask for the location of the Oracle
home directory, and copy all binaries there. I did not
delete the remains of my previous RDBMS-installation tries,
though.Afterwards, Oracle Database could be started with no
problems.Continue with SAP R/3 InstallationFirst check the environment settings of users
idsamd
(<sid>adm) and
oraids (ora<sid>). They should now
- both have the files .profile ,
+ both have the files .profile,
.login and .cshrc
which are all using hostname. In case the
system's hostname is the fully qualified name, you need to
change hostname to hostname
-s within all three files.Database LoadAfterwards, R3SETUP can either be restarted or continued
(depending on whether exit was chosen or not). R3SETUP then
creates the tablespaces and loads the data from EXPORT1 to
EXPORT6 (remember, it is an IDES system, otherwise it would
only be EXPORT1 to EXPORT3) with R3load into the
database.When the database load is finished (might take a few
hours), some passwords are requested. For test
installations, one can use the well known default passwords
(use different ones if security is an issue!):QuestionInputEnter Password for sapr3sap<ret>Confirum Password for sapr3sap<ret>Enter Password for syschange_on_install<ret>Confirm Password for syschange_on_install<ret>Enter Password for systemmanager<ret>Confirm Password for systemmanager<ret>At this point I had a few problems with
dipgntab.ListenerStart the Oracle-Listener as user
oraids (ora<sid>) as follows:umask 0; lsnrctl startOtherwise you might get ORA-12546 as the sockets will not
have the correct permissions. See SAP note 072984.Post-installation StepsRequest SAP R/3 License KeyThis is needed, as the temporary license is only valid for
four weeks. Do not forget to enter the correct Operating System:
(X) Other: FreeBSD 4.3 Stable. First get
the hardware key. Log on as user idsadm and
call saplicense:&prompt.root; /sapmnt/IDS/exe/saplicense -getCalling saplicense without options
gives a list of options. Upon receiving the license key, it can
be installed using&prompt.root; /sapmnt/IDS/exe/saplicense -installYou are then required to enter the following
values:SAP SYSTEM ID = <SID, 3 chars>
CUSTOMER KEY = <hardware key, 11 chars>
INSTALLATION NO = <installation, 10 digits>
EXPIRATION DATE = <yyyymmdd, usually "99991231">
LICENSE KEY = <license key, 24 chars>Creating UsersCreate a user within client 000 (for some tasks required
to be done within client 000, but with a user different from
users sap* and
ddic). As a username, I usually choose
wartung (or
service in English). Profiles
required are sap_new and
sap_all. For additional safety the
passwords of default users within all clients should be
changed (this includes users sap* and
ddic).Configure Transport System, Profile, Operation Modes, Etc.Within client 000, user different from ddic
and sap*, do at least the following:TaskTransactionConfigure Transport System, eg as Stand-Alone
Transport Domain EntitySTMSCreate / Edit Profile for SystemRZ10Maintain Operation Modes and InstancesRZ04These and all the other post-installation steps are
thoroughly described in SAP installation guides.Edit init<sid>.sap (initIDS.sap)The file
/oracle/IDS/dbs/initIDS.sap contains
the SAP backup profile. Here the size of the tape to be
used, type of compression and so on need to be defined. To
get this running with sapdba /
brbackup, I changed the following
values:compress = hardware
archive_function = copy_delete_save
cpio_flags = "-ov --format=newc --block-size=128 --quiet"
cpio_in_flags = "-iuv --block-size=128 --quiet"
tape_size = 38000M
tape_address = /dev/nsa0
tape_address_rew = /dev/sa0Explanations:compress The tape I use is a HP DLT1
which does hardware compression.archive_function This defines the
default behavior for saving Oracle archive logs: New logfiles
are saved to tape, already saved logfiles are saved again and
are then deleted. This prevents lots of trouble if one needs to
recover the database, and one of the archive-tapes has gone
bad.cpio_flags Default is to use -B which
sets blocksize to 5120 Bytes. For DLT-Tapes, HP recommends at
least 32K blocksize, so I used --block-size=128 for
64K. --format=newc is needed I have inode numbers greater than
65535. The last option --quiet is needed as otherwise
brbackup
complains as soon as cpio outputs the
numbers of blocks saved.cpio_in_flags Flags needed for
loading data back from tape. Format is recognized
automagically.tape_size This usually gives the raw
storage capability of the tape. For security reason (we use
hardware compression), thevalue is slightly lower than the
actual value.tape_address The non-rewindable
device to be used with cpio.tape_address_rew The rewindable device to be
used with cpio.Configuration Issues after InstallationThe following SAP-parameters should be tuned after
installation:NameValueztta/roll_extension250000000abap/heap_area_dia300000000abap/heap_area_nondia400000000em/initial_size_MB256em/blocksize_kB1024ipc/shm_psize_4070000000SAP-Note 0013026:NameValueztta/dynpro_area2500000SAP-Note 0157246:NameValuerdisp/ROLL_MAXFS16000rdisp/PG_MAXFS30000With the above parameters, on a system with 1 gigabyte
of memory, one may find memory consumption similar to:
Mem: 547M Active, 305M Inact, 109M Wired, 40M Cache, 112M Buf, 3492K FreeProblems During InstallationOSUSERSIDADM_IND_ORA During R3SETUPIf R3SETUP complains at this stage, edit file
CENTRDB.R3S. Locate [OSUSERSIDADM_IND_ORA] and edit the
following values:HOME=/home/idsadm (was empty)
STATUS=OK (had status ERROR)
Then you can restart R3SETUP with:&prompt.root; ./R3SETUP -f CENTRDB.R3SOSUSERDBSID_IND_ORA During R3SETUPPossibly R3SETUP also complains at this stage. Just edit
CENTRDB.R3S. Locate [OSUSERDBSID_IND_ORA] and edit the
following value in that section:STATUS=OKThen just restart R3SETUP again:&prompt.root; ./R3SETUP -f CENTRDB.R3Soraview.vrf FILE NOT FOUND During Oracle InstallationYou have not deselected Oracle On-Line Text Viewer
before starting the installation. This is marked for installation even
though this option is currently not available for Linux. Deselect this
product inside the Oracle installation menu and restart installation.TEXTENV_INVALID During R3SETUP, RFC or SAPGUI StartIf this error is encountered, the correct locale is
missing. SAP note 0171356 lists the necessary RPMs that need
be installed (eg saplocales-1.0-3,
saposcheck-1.0-1 for RedHat 6.1). In case
you ignored all the related errors and set the corresponding
status from ERROR to OK (in CENTRDB.R3S) every time R3SETUP
complained and just restarted R3SETUP, the SAP-System will not
be properly configured and you will then not be able to
connect to the system with a
sapgui, even though the system
can be started. Trying to connect with the old Linux
sapgui gave the following
messages:Sat May 5 14:23:14 2001
*** ERROR => no valid userarea given [trgmsgo. 0401]
Sat May 5 14:23:22 2001
*** ERROR => ERROR NR 24 occured [trgmsgi. 0410]
*** ERROR => Error when generating text environment. [trgmsgi. 0435]
*** ERROR => function failed [trgmsgi. 0447]
*** ERROR => no socket operation allowed [trxio.c 3363]
SpeicherzugriffsfehlerThis behavior is due to SAP R/3 being unable to
correctly assign a locale and also not being properly
configured itself (missing entries in some database
tables). To be able to connect to SAP, add the following
entries to file DEFAULT.PFL (see note 0043288):abap/set_etct_env_at_new_mode =0
install/collate/active =0
rscp/TCP0B =TCP0B
Restart the SAP system. Now one can connect to the
system, even though country-specific language settings might
not work as expected. After correcting country-settings
(and providing the correct locales), these entries can be
removed from DEFAULT.PFL and the SAP system can be
restarted.ORA-12546. Start Listener with Correct PermissionsStart the Oracle Listener as user
oraids with the following commands:&prompt.root; umask 0; lsnrctl startOtherwise one might get ORA-12546 as the sockets will not
have the correct permissions. See SAP note 0072984.[DIPGNTAB_IND_IND] During R3SETUPIn general, see SAP note 0130581 (R3SETUP step
DIPGNTAB
terminates). During this specific installation, for some
reasons the installation process was not using the proper
SAP system name "IDS", but the empty string "" instead. This
lead to some minor problems with accessing directories, as
the paths are generated dynamically using <sid> (in
this case IDS). So instead of accessing:/usr/sap/IDS/SYS/...
/usr/sap/IDS/DVMGS00the following path were used:/usr/sap//SYS/...
/usr/sap/D00iTo continue with the installation, I created a link and an
additional directory:&prompt.root; pwd
/compat/linux/usr/sap
&prompt.root; ls -l
total 4
drwxr-xr-x 3 idsadm sapsys 512 May 5 11:20 D00
drwxr-x--x 5 idsadm sapsys 512 May 5 11:35 IDS
lrwxr-xr-x 1 root sapsys 7 May 5 11:35 SYS -> IDS/SYS
drwxrwxr-x 2 idsadm sapsys 512 May 5 13:00 tmp
drwxrwxr-x 11 idsadm sapsys 512 May 4 14:20 trans I also found SAP notes (0029227 and 0008401) describing
this behavior.[RFCRSWBOINI_IND_IND] During R3SETUPSet STATUS of the offending step from ERROR to OK (file
CENTRDB.R3S) and restart R3SETUP. After
installation, you have to execute the report
RSWBOINS from transaction SE38. See SAP
note 0162266 for additional information about phase
RFCRSWBOINI and
RFCRADDBDIF.[RFCRADDBDIF_IND_IND] During R3SETUPSet STATUS of the offending step from ERROR to OK (file
CENTRDB.R3S) and restart R3SETUP. After
installation, you have to execute the report
RADDBDIF from transaction SE38.
See SAP note 0162266 for further information.Advanced TopicsIf you are curious as to how the Linux binary compatibility
works, this is the section you want to read. Most of what follows
is based heavily on an email written to &a.chat; by Terry Lambert
tlambert@primenet.com (Message ID:
<199906020108.SAA07001@usr09.primenet.com>).How Does It Work?execution class loaderFreeBSD has an abstraction called an execution class
loader. This is a wedge into the &man.execve.2; system
call.What happens is that FreeBSD has a list of loaders, instead of
a single loader with a fallback to the #!
loader for running any shell interpreters or shell scripts.Historically, the only loader on the Unix platform examined
the magic number (generally the first 4 or 8 bytes of the file) to
see if it was a binary known to the system, and if so, invoked the
binary loader.If it was not the binary type for the system, the
&man.execve.2; call returned a failure, and the shell attempted to
start executing it as shell commands.The assumption was a default of whatever the current
shell is.Later, a hack was made for &man.sh.1; to examine the first two
characters, and if they were :\n, then it
invoked the &man.csh.1; shell instead (we believe SCO first made
this hack).What FreeBSD does now is go through a list of loaders, with a
generic #! loader that knows about interpreters
as the characters which follow to the next whitespace next to
last, followed by a fallback to
/bin/sh.ELFFor the Linux ABI support, FreeBSD sees the magic number as an
ELF binary (it makes no distinction between FreeBSD, Solaris,
Linux, or any other OS which has an ELF image type, at this
point).SolarisThe ELF loader looks for a specialized
brand, which is a comment section in the ELF
image, and which is not present on SVR4/Solaris ELF
binaries.For Linux binaries to function, they must be
branded as type Linux;
from &man.brandelf.1;:&prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux fileWhen this is done, the ELF loader will see the
Linux brand on the file.ELFbrandingWhen the ELF loader sees the Linux brand,
the loader replaces a pointer in the proc
structure. All system calls are indexed through this pointer (in
a traditional Unix system, this would be the
sysent[] structure array, containing the system
calls). In addition, the process flagged for special handling of
the trap vector for the signal trampoline code, and sever other
(minor) fix-ups that are handled by the Linux kernel
module.The Linux system call vector contains, among other things, a
list of sysent[] entries whose addresses reside
in the kernel module.When a system call is called by the Linux binary, the trap
code dereferences the system call function pointer off the
proc structure, and gets the Linux, not the
FreeBSD, system call entry points.In addition, the Linux mode dynamically
reroots lookups; this is, in effect, what the
union option to FS mounts
(not the unionfs!) does. First, an attempt
is made to lookup the file in the
/compat/linux/original-path
directory, then only if that fails, the
lookup is done in the
/original-path
directory. This makes sure that binaries that require other
binaries can run (e.g., the Linux toolchain can all run under
Linux ABI support). It also means that the Linux binaries can
load and exec FreeBSD binaries, if there are no corresponding
Linux binaries present, and that you could place a &man.uname.1;
command in the /compat/linux directory tree
to ensure that the Linux binaries could not tell they were not
running on Linux.In effect, there is a Linux kernel in the FreeBSD kernel; the
various underlying functions that implement all of the services
provided by the kernel are identical to both the FreeBSD system
call table entries, and the Linux system call table entries: file
system operations, virtual memory operations, signal delivery,
System V IPC, etc… The only difference is that FreeBSD
binaries get the FreeBSD glue functions, and
Linux binaries get the Linux glue functions
(most older OS's only had their own glue
functions: addresses of functions in a static global
sysent[] structure array, instead of addresses
of functions dereferenced off a dynamically initialized pointer in
the proc structure of the process making the
call).Which one is the native FreeBSD ABI? It does not matter.
Basically the only difference is that (currently; this could
easily be changed in a future release, and probably will be after
this) the FreeBSD glue functions are
statically linked into the kernel, and the Linux glue functions
can be statically linked, or they can be accessed via a kernel
module.Yeah, but is this really emulation? No. It is an ABI
implementation, not an emulation. There is no emulator (or
simulator, to cut off the next question) involved.So why is it sometimes called Linux emulation?
To make it hard to sell FreeBSD! Really, it
is because the historical implementation was done at a time when
there was really no word other than that to describe what was
going on; saying that FreeBSD ran Linux binaries was not true, if
you did not compile the code in or load a module, and there needed
to be a word to describe what was being loaded—hence
the Linux emulator.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml
index 0a0d920dee..1e5e194d00 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,893 +1,893 @@
BillLloydOriginal work by JimMockRewritten by Electronic MailSynopsisemailelectronic mailElectronic Mail, better known as email, is one of the most
widely used forms of communication today. This chapter provides
a basic introduction to running a mail server on FreeBSD.
However, it is not a complete reference and in fact many
important considerations are omitted. For more complete
coverage of the subject, the reader is referred to the many
excellent books listed in .After reading this chapter, you will know:What software components are involved in sending
and receiving electronic mail.Where basic sendmail
configuration files are located in FreeBSD.How to block spammers from illegally using your
mail server as a relay.How to troubleshoot common mail server
problems.Before reading this chapter, you should:Properly setup your network connection ().Properly setup the DNS information for your mail
host ().Know how to install additional third-party
software ().Using Electronic MailPOPIMAPDNSThere are five major parts involved in an email exchange. They
are: the user program, the server daemon, DNS, a POP or
IMAP daemon, and of course, the
mailhost itself.The User ProgramThis includes command line programs such as
mutt, pine,
elm, and
mail, and GUI programs such as
balsa,
xfmail to name a few, and something
more sophisticated like a WWW browser. These
programs simply pass off the email transactions to the local mailhost, either by
calling one of the server daemons
available or delivering it over TCP.Mailhost Server Daemonmail server daemonssendmailmail server daemonspostfixmail server daemonsqmailmail server daemonseximThis is usually sendmail (by
default with FreeBSD) or one of the other mail server daemons such
as qmail,
postfix, or
exim. There are others, but those are
the most widely used.The server daemon usually has two functions—it looks
after receiving incoming mail and delivers outgoing mail. It does
not allow you to connect to it via POP or IMAP to read your mail.
You need an additional daemon
for that.Be aware that some older versions of
sendmail have some serious security
problems, however as long as you run a current version of it you
should not have any problems. As always, it is a good idea to
stay up-to-date with any software you run.Email and DNSThe Domain Name System (DNS) and its daemon
named play a large role in the delivery of
email. In order to deliver mail from your site to another, the
server daemon will look up the site in the DNS to determine the
host that will receive mail for the destination.It works the same way when you have mail sent to you. The DNS
contains the database mapping hostname to an IP address, and a
hostname to mailhost. The IP address is specified in an A record.
The MX (Mail eXchanger) record specifies the mailhost that will
receive mail for you. If you do not have an MX record for your
hostname, the mail will be delivered directly to your host.Receiving MailemailreceivingReceiving mail for your domain is done by the mail host. It
will collect mail sent to you and store it for reading or pickup.
In order to pick the stored mail up, you will need to connect to
the mail host. This is done by either using POP or IMAP. If you
want to read mail directly on the mail host, then a POP or IMAP
server is not needed.POPIMAPIf you want to run a POP or IMAP server, there are two things
you need to do:Get a POP or IMAP daemon from the ports collection and install
it on your system.Modify /etc/inetd.conf to load the
POP or IMAP server.The Mail Hostmail hostThe mail host is the name given to a server that is
responsible for delivering and receiving mail for your host, and
possibly your network.ChristopherShumwayContributed by <application>sendmail</application> Configurationsendmail&man.sendmail.8; is the default Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) in
FreeBSD. sendmail's job is to accept
mail from Mail User Agents (MUA) and deliver it to the
appropriate mailer as defined by its configuration file.
sendmail can also accept network
connections and deliver mail to local mailboxes or deliver it to
another program.sendmail uses the following
configuration files:/etc/mail/access/etc/mail/aliases/etc/mail/local-host-names/etc/mail/mailer.conf/etc/mail/mailertable/etc/mail/sendmail.cf/etc/mail/virtusertableFilenameFunction/etc/mail/accesssendmail access database
file/etc/mail/aliasesMailbox aliases/etc/mail/local-host-namesLists of hosts sendmail
accepts mail for/etc/mail/mailer.confMailer program configuration/etc/mail/mailertableMailer delivery table/etc/mail/sendmail.cfsendmail master
configuration file/etc/mail/virtusertableVirtual users and domain tables<filename>/etc/mail/access</filename>The access database defines what host(s) or IP addresses
have access to the local mail server and what kind of access
they have. Hosts can be listed as ,
, or simply passed
to sendmail's error handling routine with a given mailer error.
Hosts that are listed as , which is the
default, are allowed to send mail to this host as long as the
mail's final destination is the local machine. Hosts that are
listed as are rejected for all mail
connections. Hosts that have the option
for their hostname are allowed to send mail for any destination
through this mail server.Configuring the <application>sendmail</application>
Access Databasecyberspammer.com 550 We don't accept mail from spammers
FREE.STEALTH.MAILER@ 550 We don't accept mail from spammers
another.source.of.spam REJECT
okay.cyberspammer.com OK
128.32 RELAYIn this example we have five entries. Mail senders that
match the left hand side of the table are affected by the action
on the right side of the table. The first two examples give an
error code to sendmail's error
handling routine. The message is printed to the remote host when
a mail matches the left hand side of the table. The next entry
rejects mail from a specific host on the Internet,
another.source.of.spam. The next entry accepts
mail connections from a host
okay.cyberspammer.com, which is more exact than
the cyberspammer.com line above. More specific
matches override less exact matches. The last entry allows
relaying of electronic mail from hosts with an IP address that
begins with 128.32. These hosts would be able
to send mail through this mail server that are destined for other
mail servers.When this file is updated, you need to run
make in /etc/mail/ to
update the database.<filename>/etc/mail/aliases</filename>The aliases database contains a list of virtual mailboxes
that are expanded to other user(s), files, programs or other
aliases. Here are a few examples that can be used in
/etc/mail/aliases:Mail Aliasesroot: localuser
ftp-bugs: joe,eric,paul
bit.bucket: /dev/null
procmail: "|/usr/local/bin/procmail"The aliases update matches the mailbox name on the left of
the colon, and will expand it to the target(s) on the right. The
first example simply expands the mailbox root
- to the mailbox localuser , which is then
+ to the mailbox localuser, which is then
looked up again in the aliases database. If no match is found,
then the message is delivered to the local user
localuser. The next example shows a mail
list. Mail to the mailbox ftp-bugs is
expanded to the three local mailboxes joe,
eric, and paul. Note
that a remote mailbox could be specified as user@domain.com. The
next example shows writing mail to a file, in this case
/dev/null. The last example shows sending
mail to a program, in this case the mail message is written to the
standard input of /usr/local/bin/procmail
through a Unix pipe.When this file is updated, you need to run
make in /etc/mail/ to
update the database.<filename>/etc/mail/local-host-names</filename>This is a list of hostnames &man.sendmail.8; is to accept as
the local host name. Place any domains or hosts that
sendmail is to be receiving mail for.
For example, if this mail server was to accept mail for the
domain example.com and the host
mail.example.com, its
local-host-names might look something like
this:example.com
mail.example.comWhen this file is updated, &man.sendmail.8; needs to be
restarted for it to read the changes.<filename>/etc/mail/mailer.conf</filename>The mailer.conf configuration file
holds a table containing the real mailer that is used for the
given action. Very old software programs would hard-code in the
name and path to the mailer,
/usr/sbin/sendmail, which meant they where
incompatible with other mailers such as postfix. Today,
/usr/sbin/sendmail is a wrapper that looks
at /etc/mail/mailer.conf and executes the
correct binary. When another mail transfer agent is installed
on the system, mailer.conf should be
updated to reflect the correct programs to execute.<filename>/etc/mail/sendmail.cf</filename>sendmail's master configuration
file, sendmail.cf controls the overall
behavior of sendmail, including everything
from rewriting e-mail addresses to printing reject messages for
remote mail servers. Naturally, with such a diverse role, this
configuration file is quite complex and its details are a bit
out of the scope of this section. Fortunately, this file rarely
needs to be changed for standard mail servers.The master sendmail configuration
file can be built from &man.m4.1; macros that define features
and behavior of sendmail. Please see
/usr/src/contrib/sendmail/cf/README for
some of the details.When changes to this file are made,
sendmail needs to be restarted for
the changes to take effect.<filename>/etc/mail/virtusertable</filename>The virtualusertable maps mail for
virtual domains and
mailboxes to real mailboxes. These mailboxes can be local,
remote, an alias defined in
/etc/mail/aliases or a file.Example Virtual Domain Mail Maproot@example.com root
postmaster@example.com postmaster@noc.example.net
@example.com joeIn the above example, we have a mapping for a domain
example.com. This file is processed in a
first match order down the file. The first item maps
root@example.com to the local mailbox root. The next entry maps
postmaster@example.com to the mailbox postmaster on the host
noc.example.net. Finally, if nothing from example.com has
matched so far, it will match the last mapping, which matches
every other mail message addressed to someone at
example.com.
This will be mapped to the local mail box joe.TroubleshootingemailtroubleshootingWhy do I have to use the FQDN for hosts on my site?You will probably find that the host is actually in a
different domain; for example, if you are in
foo.bar.edu and you wish to reach
a host called mumble in the bar.edu domain, you will have to
refer to it by the fully-qualified domain name, mumble.bar.edu, instead of just
mumble.BINDTraditionally, this was allowed by BSD BIND resolvers.
However the current version of BIND
that ships with FreeBSD no longer provides default abbreviations
for non-fully qualified domain names other than the domain you
are in. So an unqualified host mumble must
either be found as mumble.foo.bar.edu, or it will be searched
for in the root domain.This is different from the previous behavior, where the
search continued across mumble.bar.edu, and mumble.edu. Have a look at RFC 1535
for why this was considered bad practice, or even a security
hole.As a good workaround, you can place the line:
search foo.bar.edu bar.edu
instead of the previous:
domain foo.bar.edu
into your /etc/resolv.conf. However, make
sure that the search order does not go beyond the
boundary between local and public administration,
as RFC 1535 calls it.sendmail says mail
loops back to myselfThis is answered in the
sendmail FAQ as follows:* I am getting Local configuration error messages, such as:
553 relay.domain.net config error: mail loops back to myself
554 <user@domain.net>... Local configuration error
How can I solve this problem?
You have asked mail to the domain (e.g., domain.net) to be
forwarded to a specific host (in this case, relay.domain.net)
by using an MX record, but the relay machine does not recognize
itself as domain.net. Add domain.net to /etc/sendmail.cw
(if you are using FEATURE(use_cw_file)) or add Cw domain.net
to /etc/sendmail.cf.The sendmail FAQ is in
/usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail and is
recommended reading if you want to do any
tweaking of your mail setup.PPPHow can I run a mail server on a dial-up PPP host?You want to connect a FreeBSD box on a LAN to the
Internet. The FreeBSD box will be a mail gateway for the LAN.
The PPP connection is non-dedicated.UUCPThere are at least two ways to do this, an alternative
being UUCP.The key is to get a Internet site to provide secondary MX
service for your domain. For example:bigco.com. MX 10 bigco.com.
MX 20 smalliap.com.Only one host should be specified as the final recipient
(add Cw bigco.com in
/etc/sendmail.cf on bigco.com).When the senders' sendmail is trying to
deliver the mail it will try to connect to you over the modem
link. It will most likely time out because you are not online.
sendmail will automatically deliver it to the
secondary MX site, i.e., your Internet provider. The secondary MX
site will try every
(sendmail_flags = -bd -q15m in
/etc/rc.conf) 15 minutes to connect to
your host to deliver the mail to the primary MX site.You might want to use something like this as a login
script.#!/bin/sh
# Put me in /usr/local/bin/pppbigco
( sleep 60 ; /usr/sbin/sendmail -q ) &
/usr/sbin/ppp -direct pppbigcoIf you are going to create a separate login script for a
user you could use sendmail -qRbigco.com
instead in the script above. This will force all mail in your
queue for bigco.com to be processed immediately.A further refinement of the situation is as follows.Message stolen from the &a.isp;.> we provide the secondary MX for a customer. The customer connects to
> our services several times a day automatically to get the mails to
> his primary MX (We do not call his site when a mail for his domains
> arrived). Our sendmail sends the mailqueue every 30 minutes. At the
> moment he has to stay 30 minutes online to be sure that all mail is
> gone to the primary MX.
>
> Is there a command that would initiate sendmail to send all the mails
> now? The user has not root-privileges on our machine of course.
In the privacy flags section of sendmail.cf, there is a
definition Opgoaway,restrictqrun
Remove restrictqrun to allow non-root users to start the queue processing.
You might also like to rearrange the MXs. We are the 1st MX for our
customers like this, and we have defined:
# If we are the best MX for a host, try directly instead of generating
# local config error.
OwTrue
That way a remote site will deliver straight to you, without trying
the customer connection. You then send to your customer. Only works for
hosts, so you need to get your customer to name their mail
machine customer.com as well as
hostname.customer.com in the DNS. Just put an A record in
the DNS for customer.com.Why do I keep getting Relaying
Denied errors when sending mail from other
hosts?In default FreeBSD installations,
Sendmail is configured to only
send mail from the host it is running on. For example, if
a POP3 server is installed, then users will be able to
check mail from school, work, or other remote locations
but they still will not be able to send outgoing emails
from outside locations. Typically, a few moments after
the attempt, an email will be sent from
MAILER-DAEMON with a
5.7 Relaying Denied error
message.There are several ways to get around this. The most
straight forward solution is to put your ISP's address in
a relay-domains file at
/etc/mail/relay-domains. A quick way
- to do this would be :
+ to do this would be:
&prompt.root; echo "your.isp.example.com" > /etc/mail/relay-domainsAfter creating this file you must restart
sendmail. This works great if
you are a server admin and don't wish to send mail
locally, or would like to use a point and click
client/system on another machine or even another ISP. It
is also very useful if you only have one or two email
accounts setup. If there are a large number of addresses
to add, you can simply open this file in your favorite
- text editor and then add the domains one per line :
+ text editor and then add the domains one per line:
your.isp.example.com
other.isp.example.net
users-isp.example.org
www.example.orgNow any mail sent through your system, by any host in
this list, providing the user has an account on your
system, will succeed. This is a very nice way to allow
users to send mail from your system remotely without
allowing people to send SPAM through your system.Advanced TopicsThe following section covers more involved topics such as mail
configuration and setting up mail for your entire domain.Basic ConfigurationemailconfigurationOut of the box, you should be able to send email to external
hosts as long as you have set up
/etc/resolv.conf or are running your own
name server. If you would like to have mail for your host
delivered to that specific host, there are two methods:Run your own name server and have your own domain. For
example, FreeBSD.orgGet mail delivered directly to your host. This is done by
delivering mail directly to the current DNS name for your
machine. For example, example.FreeBSD.org.SMTPRegardless of which of the above you choose, in order to have
mail delivered directly to your host, you must have a permanent
(static) IP address (no dynamic PPP dial-up). If you are behind a
firewall, it must pass SMTP traffic on to you. If you want to
receive mail at your host itself, you need to be sure of one of two
things:MX recordMake sure that the MX record in your DNS points to your
host's IP address.Make sure there is no MX entry in your DNS for your
host.Either of the above will allow you to receive mail directly at
your host.Try this:&prompt.root; hostname
example.FreeBSD.org
&prompt.root; host example.FreeBSD.org
example.FreeBSD.org has address 204.216.27.XXIf that is what you see, mail directly to
yourlogin@example.FreeBSD.org should work without
problems.If instead you see something like this:&prompt.root; host example.FreeBSD.org
example.FreeBSD.org has address 204.216.27.XX
example.FreeBSD.org mail is handled (pri=10) by hub.FreeBSD.orgAll mail sent to your host (example.FreeBSD.org) will end up being
collected on hub under the same username instead
of being sent directly to your host.The above information is handled by your DNS server. The DNS
record that carries mail routing information is the
Mail eXchange entry. If
no MX record exists, mail will be delivered directly to the host by
way of its IP address.The MX entry for freefall.FreeBSD.org at one time looked like
this:freefall MX 30 mail.crl.net
freefall MX 40 agora.rdrop.com
freefall MX 10 freefall.FreeBSD.org
freefall MX 20 who.cdrom.comAs you can see, freefall had many MX entries.
The lowest MX number is the host that ends up receiving the mail in
the end while the others will queue mail temporarily if
freefall is busy or down.Alternate MX sites should have separate Internet connections
from your own in order to be the most useful. Your ISP or other
friendly site should have no problem providing this service for
you.Mail for Your DomainIn order to set up a mailhost (a.k.a., mail
server) you need to have any mail sent to various workstations
directed to it. Basically, you want to hijack any
mail for your domain (in this case *.FreeBSD.org) and divert it to your mail
server so your users can check their mail via POP or directly on
the server.DNSTo make life easiest, a user account with the same
username should exist on both machines. Use
adduser to do this.The mailhost you will be using must be the designated mail
exchange for each workstation on the network. This is done in
your DNS configuration like so:example.FreeBSD.org A 204.216.27.XX ; Workstation
MX 10 hub.FreeBSD.org ; MailhostThis will redirect mail for the workstation to the mailhost no
matter where the A record points. The mail is sent to the MX
host.You cannot do this yourself unless you are running a DNS
server. If you are not, or cannot, run your own DNS server, talk
to your ISP or whoever does your DNS for you.If you are doing virtual email hosting, the following
information will come in handy. For the sake of an example, we
will assume you have a customer with their own domain, in this
case customer1.org and you want
all the mail for customer1.org
sent to your mailhost, which is named mail.myhost.com. The entry in your DNS
should look like this:customer1.org MX 10 mail.myhost.comYou do not need an A record if you only
want to handle email for the domain.Be aware that this means pinging customer1.org will not work unless
an A record exists for it.The last thing that you must do is tell
sendmail on your mailhost what domains
and/or hostnames it should be accepting mail for. There are a few
different ways this can be done. Either of the following will
work:Add the hosts to your
/etc/sendmail.cw file if you are using the
FEATURE(use_cw_file). If you are using
sendmail 8.10 or higher, the file is
/etc/mail/local-host-names.Add a Cwyour.host.com line to your
/etc/sendmail.cf or
/etc/mail/sendmail.cf if you are using
sendmail 8.10 or higher.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mirrors/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mirrors/chapter.sgml
index c867ce0a73..ad4555bff6 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mirrors/chapter.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mirrors/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,3935 +1,3935 @@
Obtaining FreeBSDCDROM PublishersRetail Boxed ProductsFreeBSD is available as a boxed product (FreeBSD CDs,
additional software, and printed documentation) from several
retailers:CompUSA
WWW: http://www.compusa.com/Frys Electronics
WWW: http://www.frys.com/Micro Center
WWW: http://www.microcenter.com/Staples
WWW: http://www.staples.com/CD SetsFreeBSD CD sets are available from many online
retailers:Daemon News2672 Bayshore Parkway, Suite 610Mountain View, CA94043USA
Phone: +1 800 407-5170
Email: sales@daemonnews.org
WWW: http://www.bsdmall.com/FreeBSD Mall, Inc.3623 Sanford StreetConcord, CA94520-1405USA
Phone: +1 925 674-0783
Fax: +1 925 674-0821
Email: info@freebsdmall.com
WWW: http://www.freebsdmall.com/DistributorsIf you are a reseller and want to carry FreeBSD CDROM products,
- please contact a distributor :
+ please contact a distributor:
Cylogistics2672 Bayshore Parkway, Suite 610Mountain View, CA94043USA
Phone: +1 650 694-4949
Fax: +1 650 694-4953
Email: sales@cylogistics.com
WWW: http://www.cylogistics.com/Ingram Micro
WWW: http://www.ingrammicro.com/Navarre
WWW: http://www.navarre.com/DVD PublishersFreeBSD is available on DVD from:FreeBSD Services Ltd11 Lapwing CloseBicesterOX26 6XRUnited Kingdom
WWW: http://www.freebsd-services.com/FTP SitesThe official sources for FreeBSD are available via anonymous FTP
from:
ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/.
The FreeBSD mirror
sites database is more accurate than the mirror listing in the
Handbook, as it gets its information from the DNS rather than relying on
static lists of hosts.Additionally, FreeBSD is available via anonymous FTP from the
following mirror sites. If you choose to obtain FreeBSD via anonymous
FTP, please try to use a site near you.Argentina,
Australia,
Brazil,
Canada,
China,
Czech Republic,
Denmark,
Estonia,
Finland,
France,
Germany,
Hong Kong,
Hungary,
Iceland,
Ireland,
Israel,
Japan,
Korea,
Lithuania,
Netherlands,
New Zealand,
Poland,
Portugal,
Romania,
Russia,
Saudi Arabia,
South Africa,
Spain,
Slovak Republic,
Slovenia,
Sweden,
Taiwan,
Thailand,
UK,
Ukraine,
USA.ArgentinaIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@ar.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.ar.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/AustraliaIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@au.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.au.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp2.au.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp3.au.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp4.au.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/BrazilIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@br.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.br.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp2.br.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp3.br.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp4.br.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp5.br.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp6.br.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp7.br.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/CanadaIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@ca.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.ca.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ChinaIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
phj@cn.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.cn.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/Czech RepublicIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@cz.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.cz.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ Contact: calda@dzungle.ms.mff.cuni.czDenmarkIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@dk.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.dk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp2.dk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp3.dk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/EstoniaIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@ee.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.ee.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/FinlandIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@fi.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.fi.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/FranceIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@fr.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.fr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp2.fr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp3.fr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp4.fr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp5.fr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp6.fr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp7.fr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/GermanyIn case of problems, please contact the mirror admins
de-bsd-hubs@de.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.de.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp2.de.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp3.de.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp4.de.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp5.de.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp6.de.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp7.de.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/Hong Kongftp://ftp.hk.super.net/pub/FreeBSD/ Contact: ftp-admin@HK.Super.NET.HungaryIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
mohacsi@ik.bme.hu for this domain.ftp://ftp.hu.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/IcelandIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@is.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.is.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/IrelandIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@ie.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.ie.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/IsraelIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@il.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.il.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp2.il.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/JapanIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@jp.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp2.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp3.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp4.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp5.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp6.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/KoreaIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@kr.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.kr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp2.kr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp3.kr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp4.kr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp5.kr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp6.kr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/LithuaniaIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@lt.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.lt.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/NetherlandsIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@nl.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.nl.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/New ZealandIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@nz.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.nz.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/PolandIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@pl.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.pl.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/PortugalIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@pt.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.pt.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp2.pt.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/RomaniaIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@ro.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.ro.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/RussiaIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@ru.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.ru.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp2.ru.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp3.ru.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp4.ru.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/Saudi ArabiaIn case of problems, please contact
ftpadmin@isu.net.saftp://ftp.isu.net.sa/pub/mirrors/ftp.freebsd.org/South AfricaIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@za.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.za.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp2.za.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp3.za.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/Slovak RepublicIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@sk.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.sk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/SloveniaIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@si.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.si.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/SpainIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@es.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.es.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/SwedenIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@se.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp2.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp3.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/TaiwanIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@tw.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp2.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp3.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp4.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/Thailandftp://ftp.nectec.or.th/pub/FreeBSD/ Contact: ftpadmin@ftp.nectec.or.th.Ukraineftp://ftp.ua.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ Contact: freebsd-mnt@lucky.net.UKIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@uk.FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp.uk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp2.uk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp3.uk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp4.uk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp5.uk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/USAIn case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
hostmaster@FreeBSD.org for this domain.ftp://ftp2.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp3.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp4.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp5.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp6.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp7.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp8.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp9.FreeBSD.org/pub/os/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp10.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp11.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp12.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ftp://ftp13.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/Anonymous CVS<anchor id="anoncvs-intro">IntroductionAnonymous CVS (or, as it is otherwise known,
anoncvs) is a feature provided by the CVS
utilities bundled with FreeBSD for synchronizing with a remote
CVS repository. Among other things, it allows users of FreeBSD
to perform, with no special privileges, read-only CVS operations
against one of the FreeBSD project's official anoncvs servers.
To use it, one simply sets the CVSROOT
environment variable to point at the appropriate anoncvs server,
provides the well-known password anoncvs with the
cvs login command, and then uses the
&man.cvs.1; command to access it like any local
repository.While it can also be said that the CVSup and anoncvs
services both perform essentially the same function, there are
various trade-offs which can influence the user's choice of
synchronization methods. In a nutshell,
CVSup is much more efficient in its
usage of network resources and is by far the most technically
sophisticated of the two, but at a price. To use
CVSup, a special client must first be
installed and configured before any bits can be grabbed, and
then only in the fairly large chunks which
CVSup calls
collections.Anoncvs, by contrast, can be used
to examine anything from an individual file to a specific
program (like ls or grep)
by referencing the CVS module name. Of course,
anoncvs is also only good for
read-only operations on the CVS repository, so if it is your
intention to support local development in one repository shared
with the FreeBSD project bits then
CVSup is really your only
option.<anchor id="anoncvs-usage">Using Anonymous CVSConfiguring &man.cvs.1; to use an Anonymous CVS repository
is a simple matter of setting the CVSROOT
environment variable to point to one of the FreeBSD project's
anoncvs servers. At the time of this
writing, the following servers are available:USA:
:pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs
(Use cvs login and enter the password
anoncvs when prompted.)Germany:
:pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.de.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs
(Use cvs login and enter the password
anoncvs when prompted.)Germany:
:pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs2.de.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs
(rsh, pserver, ssh, ssh/2022)
Japan:
:pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.jp.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs
(Use cvs login and enter the password
anoncvs when prompted.)Since CVS allows one to check out virtually
any version of the FreeBSD sources that ever existed (or, in
some cases, will exist), you need to be
familiar with the revision () flag to
&man.cvs.1; and what some of the permissible values for it in
the FreeBSD Project repository are.There are two kinds of tags, revision tags and branch tags.
A revision tag refers to a specific revision. Its meaning stays
the same from day to day. A branch tag, on the other hand,
refers to the latest revision on a given line of development, at
any given time. Because a branch tag does not refer to a
specific revision, it may mean something different tomorrow than
it means today. contains revision tags that users
might be interested
in. Again, none of these are valid for the ports collection
since the ports collection does not have multiple
revisions.When you specify a branch tag, you normally receive the
latest versions of the files on that line of development. If
you wish to receive some past version, you can do so by
specifying a date with the flag.
See the &man.cvs.1; manual page for more details.ExamplesWhile it really is recommended that you read the manual page
for &man.cvs.1; thoroughly before doing anything, here are some
quick examples which essentially show how to use Anonymous
CVS:Checking Out Something from -CURRENT (&man.ls.1;) and
Deleting It Again:&prompt.user; setenv CVSROOT :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs
&prompt.user; cvs loginAt the prompt, enter the passwordanoncvs.
&prompt.user; cvs co ls
&prompt.user; cvs release -d ls
&prompt.user; cvs logoutChecking Out the Version of &man.ls.1; in the 3.X-STABLE
Branch:&prompt.user; setenv CVSROOT :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs
&prompt.user; cvs loginAt the prompt, enter the passwordanoncvs.
&prompt.user; cvs co -rRELENG_3 ls
&prompt.user; cvs release -d ls
&prompt.user; cvs logoutCreating a List of Changes (as unified diffs) to &man.ls.1;&prompt.user; setenv CVSROOT :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs
&prompt.user; cvs loginAt the prompt, enter the passwordanoncvs.
&prompt.user; cvs rdiff -u -rRELENG_3_0_0_RELEASE -rRELENG_3_4_0_RELEASE ls
&prompt.user; cvs logoutFinding Out What Other Module Names Can Be Used:&prompt.user; setenv CVSROOT :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs
&prompt.user; cvs loginAt the prompt, enter the passwordanoncvs.
&prompt.user; cvs co modules
&prompt.user; more modules/modules
&prompt.user; cvs release -d modules
&prompt.user; cvs logoutOther ResourcesThe following additional resources may be helpful in learning
CVS:CVS Tutorial from Cal Poly.CVS Home,
the CVS development and support community.CVSWeb is
the FreeBSD Project web interface for CVS.Using CTMCTM is a method for keeping a
remote directory tree in sync with a central one. It has been
developed for usage with FreeBSD's source trees, though other
people may find it useful for other purposes as time goes by.
Little, if any, documentation currently exists at this time on the
process of creating deltas, so talk to &a.phk; for more
information should you wish to use CTM
for other things.Why Should I Use <application>CTM</application>?CTM will give you a local copy of
the FreeBSD source trees. There are a number of
flavors of the tree available. Whether you wish
to track the entire CVS tree or just one of the branches,
CTM can provide you the information.
If you are an active developer on FreeBSD, but have lousy or
non-existent TCP/IP connectivity, or simply wish to have the
changes automatically sent to you,
CTM was made for you. You will need
to obtain up to three deltas per day for the most active
branches. However, you should consider having them sent by
automatic email. The sizes of the updates are always kept as
small as possible. This is typically less than 5K, with an
occasional (one in ten) being 10-50K and every now and then a
large 100K+ or more coming around.You will also need to make yourself aware of the various
caveats related to working directly from the development sources
rather than a pre-packaged release. This is particularly true
if you choose the current sources. It is
recommended that you read Staying
current with FreeBSD.What Do I Need to Use
<application>CTM</application>?You will need two things: The CTM
program, and the initial deltas to feed it (to get up to
current levels).The CTM program has been part of
FreeBSD ever since version 2.0 was released, and lives in
/usr/src/usr.sbin/CTM if you have a copy
of the source available.If you are running a pre-2.0 version of FreeBSD, you can
fetch the current CTM sources
directly from:ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-current/src/usr.sbin/ctm/The deltas you feed
CTM can be had two ways, FTP or
email. If you have general FTP access to the Internet then the
following FTP sites support access to
CTM:ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/CTM/or see section mirrors.FTP the relevant directory and fetch the
README file, starting from there.If you wish to get your deltas via email:Send email to &a.majordomo; to subscribe to one of the
CTM distribution lists.
ctm-cvs-cur supports the entire CVS tree.
ctm-src-cur supports the head of the development
branch. ctm-src-2_2 supports the 2.2 release
branch, etc.. (If you do not know how to subscribe yourself
using majordomo, send a message first containing the word
help — it will send you back usage
instructions.)When you begin receiving your CTM
updates in the mail, you may use the
ctm_rmail program to unpack and apply them.
You can actually use the ctm_rmail program
directly from a entry in /etc/aliases if
you want to have the process run in a fully automated fashion.
Check the ctm_rmail manual page for more
details.No matter what method you use to get the
CTM deltas, you should subscribe to
the ctm-announce@FreeBSD.org mailing list. In
the future, this will be the only place where announcements
concerning the operations of the
CTM system will be posted. Send an
email to &a.majordomo; with a single line of
subscribe ctm-announce to get added to the
list.Using <application>CTM</application> for the First
TimeBefore you can start using CTM
deltas, you will need to get to a starting point for the deltas
produced subsequently to it.First you should determine what you already have. Everyone
can start from an empty directory. You must use
an initial Empty delta to start off your
CTM supported tree. At some point it
is intended that one of these started deltas be
distributed on the CD for your convenience, however, this does
not currently happen.Since the trees are many tens of megabytes, you should
prefer to start from something already at hand. If you have a
-RELEASE CD, you can copy or extract an initial source from it.
This will save a significant transfer of data.You can recognize these starter deltas by the
X appended to the number
(src-cur.3210XEmpty.gz for instance). The
designation following the X corresponds to
the origin of your initial seed.
Empty is an empty directory. As a rule a
base transition from Empty is produced
every 100 deltas. By the way, they are large! 25 to 30
Megabytes of gzip'd data is common for the
XEmpty deltas.Once you have picked a base delta to start from, you will also
need all deltas with higher numbers following it.Using <application>CTM</application> in Your Daily
LifeTo apply the deltas, simply say:&prompt.root; cd /where/ever/you/want/the/stuff
&prompt.root; ctm -v -v /where/you/store/your/deltas/src-xxx.*CTM understands deltas which have
been put through gzip, so you do not need to
gunzip them first, this saves disk space.Unless it feels very secure about the entire process,
CTM will not touch your tree. To
verify a delta you can also use the flag and
CTM will not actually touch your
tree; it will merely verify the integrity of the delta and see
if it would apply cleanly to your current tree.There are other options to CTM
as well, see the manual pages or look in the sources for more
information.That is really all there is to it. Every time you get a new
delta, just run it through CTM to
keep your sources up to date.Do not remove the deltas if they are hard to download again.
You just might want to keep them around in case something bad
happens. Even if you only have floppy disks, consider using
fdwrite to make a copy.Keeping Your Local ChangesAs a developer one would like to experiment with and change
files in the source tree. CTM
supports local modifications in a limited way: before checking
for the presence of a file foo, it first
looks for foo.ctm. If this file exists,
CTM will operate on it instead of
foo.This behavior gives us a simple way to maintain local
changes: simply copy the files you plan to modify to the
corresponding file names with a .ctm
suffix. Then you can freely hack the code, while CTM keeps the
.ctm file up-to-date.Other Interesting <application>CTM</application> OptionsFinding Out Exactly What Would Be Touched by an
UpdateYou can determine the list of changes that
CTM will make on your source
repository using the option to
CTM.This is useful if you would like to keep logs of the
changes, pre- or post- process the modified files in any
manner, or just are feeling a tad paranoid.Making Backups Before UpdatingSometimes you may want to backup all the files that would
be changed by a CTM update.Specifying the option
causes CTM to backup all files that
would be touched by a given CTM
delta to backup-file.Restricting the Files Touched by an UpdateSometimes you would be interested in restricting the scope
of a given CTM update, or may be
interested in extracting just a few files from a sequence of
deltas.You can control the list of files that
CTM would operate on by specifying
filtering regular expressions using the
and options.For example, to extract an up-to-date copy of
lib/libc/Makefile from your collection of
saved CTM deltas, run the commands:&prompt.root; cd /where/ever/you/want/to/extract/it/
&prompt.root; ctm -e '^lib/libc/Makefile' ~ctm/src-xxx.*For every file specified in a
CTM delta, the
and options are applied in the order given
on the command line. The file is processed by
CTM only if it is marked as
eligible after all the and
options are applied to it.Future Plans for <application>CTM</application>Tons of them:Use some kind of authentication into the CTM system, so
as to allow detection of spoofed CTM updates.Clean up the options to CTM,
they became confusing and counter intuitive.Miscellaneous StuffThere is a sequence of deltas for the
ports collection too, but interest has not
been all that high yet. Tell me if you want an email list for
that too and we will consider setting it up.CTM MirrorsCTM/FreeBSD is available via anonymous
FTP from the following mirror sites. If you choose to obtain CTM via
anonymous FTP, please try to use a site near you.In case of problems, please contact &a.phk;.California, Bay Area, official sourceftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/development/CTM/Germany, Trierftp://ftp.uni-trier.de/pub/unix/systems/BSD/FreeBSD/CTM/South Africa, backup server for old deltasftp://ftp.za.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/CTM/Taiwan/R.O.C, Chiayiftp://ctm.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/CTM/ftp://ctm2.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/CTM/ftp://ctm3.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/freebsd/CTM/If you did not find a mirror near to you or the mirror is
incomplete, try FTP
search at http://ftpsearch.ntnu.no/ftpsearch/.
FTP search is a great free archie server in Trondheim, Norway.Using CVSupIntroductionCVSup is a software package for
distributing and updating source trees from a master CVS
repository on a remote server host. The FreeBSD sources are
maintained in a CVS repository on a central development machine
in California. With CVSup, FreeBSD
users can easily keep their own source trees up to date.CVSup uses the so-called
pull model of updating. Under the pull
model, each client asks the server for updates, if and when they
are wanted. The server waits passively for update requests from
its clients. Thus all updates are instigated by the client.
The server never sends unsolicited updates. Users must either
run the CVSup client manually to get
an update, or they must set up a cron job to
run it automatically on a regular basis.The term CVSup, capitalized just
so, refers to the entire software package. Its main components
are the client cvsup which runs on each
user's machine, and the server cvsupd which
runs at each of the FreeBSD mirror sites.As you read the FreeBSD documentation and mailing lists, you
may see references to sup.
Sup was the predecessor of
CVSup, and it served a similar
purpose. CVSup is used much in the
same way as sup and, in fact, uses configuration files which are
backward-compatible with sup's.
Sup is no longer used in the FreeBSD
project, because CVSup is both faster
and more flexible.InstallationThe easiest way to install CVSup
is to use the precompiled net/cvsup package
from the FreeBSD packages collection.
If you prefer to build CVSup from
source, you can use the net/cvsup
port instead. But be forewarned: the
net/cvsup port depends on the Modula-3
system, which takes a substantial amount of time and
disk space to download and build.If you do not know anything about
CVSup at all and want a
single package which will install it, set up the configuration
file and start the transfer via a pointy-clicky type of
interface, then get the cvsupit
package. Just hand it to &man.pkg.add.1; and it will lead you
through the configuration process in a menu-oriented
fashion.CVSup ConfigurationCVSup's operation is controlled
by a configuration file called the supfile.
There are some sample supfiles in the
directory /usr/share/examples/cvsup/.The information in a supfile answers
the following questions for cvsup:Which files do you
want to receive?Which versions of them
do you want?Where do you want to
get them from?Where do you want to
put them on your own machine?Where do you want to
put your status files?In the following sections, we will construct a typical
supfile by answering each of these
questions in turn. First, we describe the overall structure of
a supfile.A supfile is a text file. Comments
begin with # and extend to the end of the
line. Lines that are blank and lines that contain only
comments are ignored.Each remaining line describes a set of files that the user
wishes to receive. The line begins with the name of a
collection, a logical grouping of files defined by
the server. The name of the collection tells the server which
files you want. After the collection name come zero or more
fields, separated by white space. These fields answer the
questions listed above. There are two types of fields: flag
fields and value fields. A flag field consists of a keyword
standing alone, e.g., delete or
compress. A value field also begins with a
keyword, but the keyword is followed without intervening white
space by = and a second word. For example,
release=cvs is a value field.A supfile typically specifies more than
one collection to receive. One way to structure a
supfile is to specify all of the relevant
fields explicitly for each collection. However, that tends to
make the supfile lines quite long, and it
is inconvenient because most fields are the same for all of the
collections in a supfile.
CVSup provides a defaulting mechanism
to avoid these problems. Lines beginning with the special
pseudo-collection name *default can be used
to set flags and values which will be used as defaults for the
subsequent collections in the supfile. A
default value can be overridden for an individual collection, by
specifying a different value with the collection itself.
Defaults can also be changed or augmented in mid-supfile by
additional *default lines.With this background, we will now proceed to construct a
supfile for receiving and updating the main
source tree of FreeBSD-CURRENT.Which files do you want
to receive?The files available via CVSup
are organized into named groups called
collections. The collections that are
available are described in the following section. In this
example, we
wish to receive the entire main source tree for the FreeBSD
system. There is a single large collection
src-all which will give us all of that.
As a first step toward constructing our
supfile, we
simply list the collections, one per line (in this case,
only one line):src-allWhich version(s) of them
do you want?With CVSup, you can receive
virtually any version of the sources that ever existed.
That is possible because the
cvsupd server works directly from
the CVS repository, which contains all of the versions. You
specify which one of them you want using the
tag= and value
fields.Be very careful to specify any tag=
fields correctly. Some tags are valid only for certain
collections of files. If you specify an incorrect or
misspelled tag, CVSup
will delete files which you probably
do not want deleted. In particular, use only
tag=. for the
ports-* collections.The tag= field names a symbolic tag
in the repository. There are two kinds of tags, revision
tags and branch tags. A revision tag refers to a specific
revision. Its meaning stays the same from day to day. A
branch tag, on the other hand, refers to the latest revision
on a given line of development, at any given time. Because
a branch tag does not refer to a specific revision, it may
mean something different tomorrow than it means
today. contains branch tags that
users might be interested in. When specifying a tag in
CVSup's configuration file, it
must be preceded with tag=
(RELENG_4 will become
tag=RELENG_4).
Keep in mind that only the tag=. is
relevant for the ports collection.Be very careful to type the tag name exactly as shown.
CVSup cannot distinguish
between valid and invalid tags. If you misspell the tag,
CVSup will behave as though you
had specified a valid tag which happens to refer to no
files at all. It will delete your existing sources in
that case.When you specify a branch tag, you normally receive the
latest versions of the files on that line of development.
If you wish to receive some past version, you can do so by
specifying a date with the value
field. The &man.cvsup.1; manual page explains how to do
that.For our example, we wish to receive FreeBSD-CURRENT. We
add this line at the beginning of our
supfile:*default tag=.There is an important special case that comes into play
if you specify neither a tag= field nor a
date= field. In that case, you receive
the actual RCS files directly from the server's CVS
repository, rather than receiving a particular version.
Developers generally prefer this mode of operation. By
maintaining a copy of the repository itself on their
systems, they gain the ability to browse the revision
histories and examine past versions of files. This gain is
achieved at a large cost in terms of disk space,
however.Where do you want to get
them from?We use the host= field to tell
cvsup where to obtain its updates. Any
of the CVSup mirror
sites will do, though you should try to select one
that is close to you in cyberspace. In this example we will
use a fictional FreeBSD distribution site,
cvsup666.FreeBSD.org:*default host=cvsup666.FreeBSD.orgYou will need to change the host to one that actually
exists before running CVSup.
On any particular run of
cvsup, you can override the host setting
on the command line, with .Where do you want to put
them on your own machine?The prefix= field tells
cvsup where to put the files it receives.
In this example, we will put the source files directly into
our main source tree, /usr/src. The
src directory is already implicit in
the collections we have chosen to receive, so this is the
correct specification:*default prefix=/usrWhere should
cvsup maintain its status files?The CVSup client maintains
certain status files in what
is called the base directory. These files
help CVSup to work more
efficiently, by keeping track of which updates you have
already received. We will use the standard base directory,
/usr/local/etc/cvsup:*default base=/usr/local/etc/cvsupThis setting is used by default if it is not specified
in the supfile, so we actually do not
need the above line.If your base directory does not already exist, now would
be a good time to create it. The cvsup
client will refuse to run if the base directory does not
exist.Miscellaneous supfile
settings:There is one more line of boiler plate that normally
needs to be present in the
supfile:*default release=cvs delete use-rel-suffix compressrelease=cvs indicates that the server
should get its information out of the main FreeBSD CVS
repository. This is virtually always the case, but there
are other possibilities which are beyond the scope of this
discussion.delete gives
CVSup permission to delete files.
You should always specify this, so that
CVSup can keep your source tree
fully up-to-date. CVSup is
careful to delete only those files for which it is
responsible. Any extra files you happen to have will be
left strictly alone.use-rel-suffix is ... arcane. If you
really want to know about it, see the &man.cvsup.1; manual
page. Otherwise, just specify it and do not worry about
it.compress enables the use of
gzip-style compression on the communication channel. If
your network link is T1 speed or faster, you probably should
not use compression. Otherwise, it helps
substantially.Putting it all together:Here is the entire supfile for our
example:*default tag=.
*default host=cvsup666.FreeBSD.org
*default prefix=/usr
*default base=/usr/local/etc/cvsup
*default release=cvs delete use-rel-suffix compress
src-allThe refuse FileAs mentioned above, CVSup uses
a pull method. Basically, this means that
you connect to the CVSup server, and
it says, Here is what you can download from
me..., and your client responds OK, I will take
this, this, this, and this. In the default
configuration, the CVSup client will
take every file associated with the collection and tag you
chose in the configuration file. However, this is not always
what you want, especially if you are synching the doc, ports, or
www trees — most people cannot read four or five
languages, and therefore they do not need to download the
language-specific files. If you are
CVSuping the ports collection, you
can get around this by specifying each collection individually
(e.g., ports-astrology,
ports-biology, etc instead of simply
saying ports-all). However, since the doc
and www trees do not have language-specific collections, you
must use one of CVSup's many nifty
features; the refuse file.The refuse file essentially tells
CVSup that it should not take every
single file from a collection; in other words, it tells the
client to refuse certain files from the
server. The refuse file can be found (or, if you do not yet
have one, should be placed) in
base/sup/refuse.
base is defined in your supfile; by
default, base is
/usr/local/etc/cvsup,
which means that by default the refuse file is in
/usr/local/etc/cvsup/sup/refuse.The refuse file has a very simple format; it simply
contains the names of files or directories that you do not wish
to download. For example, if you cannot speak any languages other
than English and some German, and you do not feel the need to use
the German applications (or applications for any other
languages, except for English), you can put the following in your
refuse file:ports/chinese
ports/french
ports/german
ports/hebrew
ports/japanese
ports/korean
ports/russian
ports/ukrainian
ports/vietnamese
doc/de_DE.ISO8859-1
doc/es_ES.ISO8859-1
doc/fr_FR.ISO8859-1
doc/it_IT.ISO8859-15
doc/ja_JP.eucJP
doc/nl_NL.ISO8859-1
doc/pt_BR.ISO8859-1
doc/ru_RU.KOI8-R
doc/sr_YU.ISO8859-2
doc/zh_TW.Big5and so forth for the other languages. Note that the name
of the repository is the first directory in the
refuse file.With this very useful feature, those users who are on
slow links or pay by the minute for their Internet connection
will be able to save valuable time as they will no longer need
to download files that they will never use. For more
information on refuse files and other neat
features of CVSup, please view its
manual page.Running <application>CVSup</application>You are now ready to try an update. The command line for
doing this is quite simple:&prompt.root; cvsup supfilewhere supfile
is of course the name of the supfile you have just created.
Assuming you are running under X11, cvsup
will display a GUI window with some buttons to do the usual
things. Press the go button, and watch it
run.Since you are updating your actual
/usr/src tree in this example, you will
need to run the program as root so that
cvsup has the permissions it needs to update
your files. Having just created your configuration file, and
having never used this program before, that might
understandably make you nervous. There is an easy way to do a
trial run without touching your precious files. Just create an
empty directory somewhere convenient, and name it as an extra
argument on the command line:&prompt.root; mkdir /var/tmp/dest
&prompt.root; cvsup supfile /var/tmp/destThe directory you specify will be used as the destination
directory for all file updates.
CVSup will examine your usual files
in /usr/src, but it will not modify or
delete any of them. Any file updates will instead land in
/var/tmp/dest/usr/src.
CVSup will also leave its base
directory status files untouched when run this way. The new
versions of those files will be written into the specified
directory. As long as you have read access to
/usr/src, you do not even need to be root
to perform this kind of trial run.If you are not running X11 or if you just do not like GUIs,
you should add a couple of options to the command line when you
run cvsup:&prompt.root; cvsup -g -L 2 supfileThe tells
CVSup not to use its GUI. This is
automatic if you are not running X11, but otherwise you have to
specify it.The tells
CVSup to print out the
details of all the file updates it is doing. There are three
levels of verbosity, from to
. The default is 0, which means total
silence except for error messages.There are plenty of other options available. For a brief
list of them, type cvsup -H. For more
detailed descriptions, see the manual page.Once you are satisfied with the way updates are working, you
can arrange for regular runs of CVSup
using &man.cron.8;.
Obviously, you should not let CVSup
use its GUI when running it from &man.cron.8;.<application>CVSup</application> File CollectionsThe file collections available via
CVSup are organized hierarchically.
There are a few large collections, and they are divided into
smaller sub-collections. Receiving a large collection is
equivalent to receiving each of its sub-collections. The
hierarchical relationships among collections are reflected by
the use of indentation in the list below.The most commonly used collections are
src-all, and
ports-all. The other collections are used
only by small groups of people for specialized purposes, and
some mirror sites may not carry all of them.cvs-all release=cvsThe main FreeBSD CVS repository, including the
cryptography code.distrib release=cvsFiles related to the distribution and mirroring
of FreeBSD.doc-all release=cvsSources for the FreeBSD Handbook and other
documentation. This does not include files for
the FreeBSD web site.ports-all release=cvsThe FreeBSD Ports Collection.ports-archivers
release=cvsArchiving tools.ports-astro
release=cvsAstronomical ports.ports-audio
release=cvsSound support.ports-base
release=cvsMiscellaneous files at the top of
/usr/ports.ports-benchmarks
release=cvsBenchmarks.ports-biology
release=cvsBiology.ports-cad
release=cvsComputer aided design tools.ports-chinese
release=cvsChinese language support.ports-comms
release=cvsCommunication software.ports-converters
release=cvscharacter code converters.ports-databases
release=cvsDatabases.ports-deskutils
release=cvsThings that used to be on the desktop
before computers were invented.ports-devel
release=cvsDevelopment utilities.ports-editors
release=cvsEditors.ports-emulators
release=cvsEmulators for other operating
systems.ports-ftp
release=cvsFTP client and server utilities.ports-games
release=cvsGames.ports-german
release=cvsGerman language support.ports-graphics
release=cvsGraphics utilities.ports-irc
release=cvsInternet Relay Chat utilities.ports-japanese
release=cvsJapanese language support.ports-java
release=cvsJava utilities.ports-korean
release=cvsKorean language support.ports-lang
release=cvsProgramming languages.ports-mail
release=cvsMail software.ports-math
release=cvsNumerical computation software.ports-mbone
release=cvsMBone applications.ports-misc
release=cvsMiscellaneous utilities.ports-net
release=cvsNetworking software.ports-news
release=cvsUSENET news software.ports-palm
release=cvsSoftware support for 3Com Palm(tm)
series.ports-print
release=cvsPrinting software.ports-russian
release=cvsRussian language support.ports-security
release=cvsSecurity utilities.ports-shells
release=cvsCommand line shells.ports-sysutils
release=cvsSystem utilities.ports-textproc
release=cvstext processing utilities (does not
include desktop publishing).ports-vietnamese
release=cvsVietnamese language support.ports-www
release=cvsSoftware related to the World Wide
Web.ports-x11
release=cvsPorts to support the X window
system.ports-x11-clocks
release=cvsX11 clocks.ports-x11-fm
release=cvsX11 file managers.ports-x11-fonts
release=cvsX11 fonts and font utilities.ports-x11-toolkits
release=cvsX11 toolkits.ports-x11-serversX11 servers.ports-x11-wmX11 window managers.src-all release=cvsThe main FreeBSD sources, including the
cryptography code.src-base
release=cvsMiscellaneous files at the top of
/usr/src.src-bin
release=cvsUser utilities that may be needed in
single-user mode
(/usr/src/bin).src-contrib
release=cvsUtilities and libraries from outside the
FreeBSD project, used relatively unmodified
(/usr/src/contrib).src-crypto release=cvsCryptography utilities and libraries from
outside the FreeBSD project, used relatively
unmodified
(/usr/src/crypto).src-eBones release=cvsKerberos and DES
(/usr/src/eBones). Not
used in current releases of FreeBSD.src-etc
release=cvsSystem configuration files
(/usr/src/etc).src-games
release=cvsGames
(/usr/src/games).src-gnu
release=cvsUtilities covered by the GNU Public
License (/usr/src/gnu).src-include
release=cvsHeader files
(/usr/src/include).src-kerberos5
release=cvsKerberos5 security package
(/usr/src/kerberos5).src-kerberosIV
release=cvsKerberosIV security package
(/usr/src/kerberosIV).src-lib
release=cvsLibraries
(/usr/src/lib).src-libexec
release=cvsSystem programs normally executed by other
programs
(/usr/src/libexec).src-release
release=cvsFiles required to produce a FreeBSD
release
(/usr/src/release).src-secure release=cvsCryptographic libraries and commands (/usr/src/secure).src-sbin
release=cvsSystem utilities for single-user mode
(/usr/src/sbin).src-share
release=cvsFiles that can be shared across multiple
systems
(/usr/src/share).src-sys
release=cvsThe kernel
(/usr/src/sys).src-sys-crypto
release=cvsKernel cryptography code
(/usr/src/sys/crypto).src-tools
release=cvsVarious tools for the maintenance of
FreeBSD
(/usr/src/tools).src-usrbin
release=cvsUser utilities
(/usr/src/usr.bin).src-usrsbin
release=cvsSystem utilities
(/usr/src/usr.sbin).www release=cvsThe sources for the FreeBSD WWW site.distrib release=selfThe CVSup server's own
configuration files. Used by CVSup
mirror sites.gnats release=currentThe GNATS bug-tracking database.mail-archive release=currentFreeBSD mailing list archive.www release=currentThe pre-processed FreeBSD WWW site files (not the
source files). Used by WWW mirror sites.For More InformationFor the CVSup FAQ and other
information about CVSup, see
The
CVSup Home Page.Most FreeBSD-related discussion of
CVSup takes place on the
&a.hackers;. New versions of the software are announced there,
as well as on the &a.announce;.Questions and bug reports should be addressed to the author
of the program at cvsup-bugs@polstra.com.CVSup SitesCVSup servers for FreeBSD are running
at the following sites:Argentinacvsup.ar.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
msagre@cactus.fi.uba.ar)Australiacvsup.au.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
dawes@xfree86.org)cvsup3.au.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
FreeBSD@admin.gil.com.au)Austriacvsup.at.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
postmaster@wu-wien.ac.at)Brazilcvsup.br.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
cvsup@cvsup.br.FreeBSD.org)cvsup2.br.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
tps@ti.sk)cvsup3.br.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
camposr@matrix.com.br)cvsup4.br.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
cvsup@tcoip.com.br)Canadacvsup.ca.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
dan@jaded.net)cvsup2.ca.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
hostmaster@ca.FreeBSD.org)Chinacvsup.cn.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
phj@cn.FreeBSD.org)Czech Republiccvsup.cz.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
cejkar@fit.vutbr.cz)Denmarkcvsup.dk.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
jesper@skriver.dk)Estoniacvsup.ee.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
taavi@uninet.ee)Finlandcvsup.fi.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
count@key.sms.fi)cvsup2.fi.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
count@key.sms.fi)Francecvsup.fr.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
hostmaster@fr.FreeBSD.org)cvsup2.fr.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
ftpmaint@uvsq.fr)cvsup3.fr.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
ftpmaint@enst.fr)cvsup4.fr.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
ftpmaster@t-online.fr)Germanycvsup.de.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
cvsup@cosmo-project.de)cvsup1.de.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
wosch@FreeBSD.org)cvsup2.de.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
cvsup@nikoma.de)cvsup3.de.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
ag@leo.org)cvsup4.de.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
cvsup@cosmo-project.de)cvsup5.de.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
rse@FreeBSD.org)Greececvsup.gr.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
ftpadm@duth.gr)cvsup2.gr.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
paschos@cs.uoi.gr)Icelandcvsup.is.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
hostmaster@is.FreeBSD.org)Irelandcvsup.ie.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
dwmalone@maths.tcd.ie),
Trinity College, Dublin.Japancvsup.jp.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
cvsupadm@jp.FreeBSD.org)cvsup2.jp.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
max@FreeBSD.org)cvsup3.jp.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
shige@cin.nihon-u.ac.jp)cvsup4.jp.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
cvsup-admin@ftp.media.kyoto-u.ac.jp)cvsup5.jp.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
cvsup@imasy.or.jp)cvsup6.jp.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
cvsupadm@jp.FreeBSD.org)Koreacvsup.kr.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
cjh@kr.FreeBSD.org)cvsup2.kr.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
holywar@mail.holywar.net)Latviacvsup.lv.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
system@soft.lv)Lithuaniacvsup.lt.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
domas.mituzas@delfi.lt)cvsup2.lt.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
vaidas.damosevicius@sampo.lt)New Zealandcvsup.nz.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
cvsup@langille.org)Netherlandscvsup.nl.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
xaa@xaa.iae.nl)cvsup2.nl.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
cvsup@nl.uu.net)Norwaycvsup.no.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
Per.Hove@math.ntnu.no)Polandcvsup.pl.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
Mariusz@kam.pl)Portugalcvsup.pt.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
jpedras@webvolution.net)Russiacvsup.ru.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
ache@nagual.pp.ru)cvsup2.ru.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
dv@dv.ru)cvsup3.ru.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
fjoe@iclub.nsu.ru)cvsup4.ru.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
zhecka@klondike.ru)cvsup5.ru.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
maxim@macomnet.ru)cvsup6.ru.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
pvr@corbina.net)Slovak Republiccvsup.sk.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
tps@tps.sk)cvsup2.sk.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
tps@tps.sk)Sloveniacvsup.si.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
blaz@si.FreeBSD.org)South Africacvsup.za.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
markm@FreeBSD.org)cvsup2.za.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
markm@FreeBSD.org)Spaincvsup.es.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
jesusr@FreeBSD.org)cvsup2.es.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
jesusr@FreeBSD.org)cvsup3.es.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
jose@we.lc.ehu.es)Swedencvsup.se.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
pantzer@ludd.luth.se)cvsup2.se.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
cvsup@dataphone.net)Taiwancvsup.tw.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
jdli@FreeBSD.csie.nctu.edu.tw)cvsup2.tw.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
ycheng@sinica.edu.tw)cvsup3.tw.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
foxfair@FreeBSD.org)Ukrainecvsup2.ua.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
freebsd-mnt@lucky.net)cvsup3.ua.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
ftpmaster@ukr.net), Kievcvsup4.ua.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
phantom@cris.net)United Kingdomcvsup.uk.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
ftp-admin@plig.net)cvsup2.uk.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
brian@FreeBSD.org)cvsup3.uk.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
ben.hughes@uk.easynet.net)cvsup4.uk.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
ejb@leguin.org.uk)cvsup5.uk.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
mirror@teleglobe.net)USAcvsup1.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
cwt@networks.cwu.edu), Washington
statecvsup3.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
wollman@FreeBSD.org), Massachusettscvsup5.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
mjr@blackened.com), Arizonacvsup6.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
cvsup@cvsup.adelphiacom.net), Illinoiscvsup7.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
jdp@FreeBSD.org), Washington statecvsup8.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
hostmaster@bigmirror.com), Washington
statecvsup9.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
jdp@FreeBSD.org), Minnesotacvsup10.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
jdp@FreeBSD.org), Californiacvsup11.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
cvsup@research.uu.net), Virginiacvsup12.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
will@FreeBSD.org), Indianacvsup13.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
dima@valueclick.com), Californiacvsup14.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
freebsd-cvsup@mfnx.net), Californiacvsup15.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
cvsup@math.uic.edu), Illinoiscvsup16.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
pth3k@virginia.edu), Virginiacvsup17.FreeBSD.org (maintainer
cvsup@mirrortree.com), Washington stateCVS TagsWhen obtaining or updating sources from
cvs and
CVSup a revision tag (reference to a
date in time) must be specified. The following tags are
available, each specifying different branches of FreeBSD at
different points of time:The ports tree does not have any tag associated with it,
it is always CURRENT.The most common tags are:HEADSymbolic name for the main line, or FreeBSD-CURRENT.
Also the default when no revision is specified.In CVSup, this tag is represented
by a . (not punctuation, but a literal
. character).In CVS, this is the default when no revision tag is
specified. It is usually not
a good idea to checkout or update to CURRENT sources
on a STABLE machine, unless that is your intent.RELENG_4The line of development for FreeBSD-4.X, also known
as FreeBSD-STABLE.RELENG_4_5The release branch for FreeBSD-4.5, used only
for security advisories and other seriously critical fixes.RELENG_4_4The release branch for FreeBSD-4.4, used only
for security advisories and other seriously critical fixes.RELENG_4_3The release branch for FreeBSD-4.3, used only
for security advisories and other seriously critical fixes.RELENG_3The line of development for FreeBSD-3.X, also known
as 3.X-STABLE.RELENG_2_2The line of development for FreeBSD-2.2.X, also known
as 2.2-STABLE. This branch is mostly obsolete.Other revision tags that are available include:RELENG_4_5_0_RELEASEFreeBSD 4.5.RELENG_4_4_0_RELEASEFreeBSD 4.4.RELENG_4_3_0_RELEASEFreeBSD 4.3.RELENG_4_2_0_RELEASEFreeBSD 4.2.RELENG_4_1_1_RELEASEFreeBSD 4.1.1.RELENG_4_1_0_RELEASEFreeBSD 4.1.RELENG_4_0_0_RELEASEFreeBSD 4.0.RELENG_3_5_0_RELEASEFreeBSD-3.5.RELENG_3_4_0_RELEASEFreeBSD-3.4.RELENG_3_3_0_RELEASEFreeBSD-3.3.RELENG_3_2_0_RELEASEFreeBSD-3.2.RELENG_3_1_0_RELEASEFreeBSD-3.1.RELENG_3_0_0_RELEASEFreeBSD-3.0.RELENG_2_2_8_RELEASEFreeBSD-2.2.8.RELENG_2_2_7_RELEASEFreeBSD-2.2.7.RELENG_2_2_6_RELEASEFreeBSD-2.2.6.RELENG_2_2_5_RELEASEFreeBSD-2.2.5.RELENG_2_2_2_RELEASEFreeBSD-2.2.2.RELENG_2_2_1_RELEASEFreeBSD-2.2.1.RELENG_2_2_0_RELEASEFreeBSD-2.2.0.AFS SitesAFS servers for FreeBSD are running at the following sites;SwedenThe path to the files are:
/afs/stacken.kth.se/ftp/pub/FreeBSD/stacken.kth.se # Stacken Computer Club, KTH, Sweden
130.237.234.43 #hot.stacken.kth.se
130.237.237.230 #fishburger.stacken.kth.se
130.237.234.3 #milko.stacken.kth.seMaintainer ftp@stacken.kth.se
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ports/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ports/chapter.sgml
index d37430155b..4cf4451331 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ports/chapter.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ports/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,1544 +1,1544 @@
Installing Applications: Packages and PortsSynopsisportspackagesFreeBSD is bundled with a rich collection of system tools as
part of the base system. However, there is only so much one can
do before needing to install an additional third-party
application to get real work done. FreeBSD provides two
complementary technologies for installing third party software
on your system; the FreeBSD Ports Collection, and binary
software packages. Either system may be used to install the
newest version of your favorite applications from local media or
straight off the network.After reading this chapter, you will know:How to install third-party binary software packages.How to build third-party software from the ports
collection.How to remove previously installed packages or ports.Overview of Software InstallationIf you have used a Unix system before you will know that the typical
procedure for installing third party software goes something like
this:Download the software, which might be distributed in source code
format, or as a binary.Unpack the software from its distribution format (typically a
tarball compressed with either &man.compress.1; or &man.gzip.1;).Locate the documentation (perhaps a README
file, or some files in a doc/ subdirectory) and
read up on how to install the software.If the software was distributed in source format, compile it.
This may involve editing a Makefile, or
running a configure script, and other work.Test and install the software.And that is only if everything goes well. If you are installing a
software package that was not deliberately ported to FreeBSD you may
even have to go in and edit the code to make it work properly.Should you want to, you can continue to install software the
traditional way with FreeBSD. However, FreeBSD
provides two technologies which can save you a lot of effort;
packages and ports. At the time of writing, over &os.numports;
third party applications have been made available in this
way.For any given application, the FreeBSD package for that application
is a single file which you must download. The package contains
pre-compiled copies of all the commands for the application, as well as
any configuration files or documentation. A downloaded package file can
be manipulated with FreeBSD package management commands, such as
&man.pkg.add.1;, &man.pkg.delete.1;, &man.pkg.info.1;, and so on.Installing a new application can be carried out with a single
command.A FreeBSD port for an application is a collection of files designed
to automate the process of compiling an application from source
code.Remember that there are a number of steps you would normally carry
out if you compiled a program yourself (unpacking, patching, compiling,
installing). The files that make up a port contain all the necessary
information to allow the system to do this for you. You run a handful
of simple commands and the source code for the application is
automatically downloaded, extracted, patched, compiled, and installed
for you.In fact, the ports system can also be used to generate packages
which can later be manipulated with pkg_add
and the other package management commands that will be introduced
shortly.Both packages and ports understand
dependencies. Suppose you want to install an
application that depends on a specific library being installed. Both
the application and the library have been made available as FreeBSD
ports and packages. If you use the pkg_add command
or the ports system to add the application, both will notice that the
library has not been installed, and the commands will install the
library first.Given that the two technologies are quite similar, you might be
wondering why FreeBSD bothers with both. Packages and ports both have
their own strengths, and which one you use will depend on your own
preference.Package BenefitsA compressed package tarball is typically smaller than the
compressed tarball containing the source code for the application.Packages do not require any additional compilation. For large
applications, such as Mozilla,
KDE, or GNOME
this can be important, particularly if you are on a slow system.Packages do not require you to understand the process
involved in compiling software on FreeBSD.Ports BenefitsPackages are normally compiled with conservative options,
because they have to run on the maximum number of systems. By
installing from the port, you can tweak the compilation options to
(for example) generate code that is specific to a Pentium
III or Athlon processor.Some packages have compile time options relating to what they
can and cannot do. For example, Apache
can be configured with a wide variety of different built-in options.
By building from the port you do not have to accept the default
options, and can set them yourself.In some cases, multiple packages will exist for the same
application to specify certain settings. For example,
Ghostscript is available as a
ghostscript package and a
ghostscript-nox11 package, depending on whether
or not you have installed an X11 server. This sort of rough
tweaking is possible with packages, but rapidly becomes impossible
if an application has more than one or two different compile time
options.The licensing conditions of some software distributions forbid
binary distribution. They must be distributed as source
code.Some people do not trust binary distributions. At least with
source code, you can (in theory) read through it and look for
potential problems yourself.If you have local patches, you will need the source in order to
apply them.Some people like having code around, so they can read it if they
get bored, hack it, borrow from it (license permitting, of course),
and so on.To keep track of updated ports, subscribe to the
freebsd-ports@FreeBSD.org mailing list.The remainder of this chapter will explain how to use packages and
ports to install and manage third party software on FreeBSD.Finding Your ApplicationBefore you can install any applications you need to know what you
want, and what the application is called.FreeBSD's list of available applications is growing all the
time. Fortunately, there are a number of ways to
find what you want.The FreeBSD web site maintains an up-to-date searchable list of
all the available applications, at
http://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/.
The name space is divided in to categories, and you may either
search for an application by name (if you know it), or you can list
all the applications available in a category.FreshPortsDan Langille maintains FreshPorts, at
http://www.FreshPorts.org/.
FreshPorts tracks changes to the applications in the ports tree as
they happen, and allows you to watch one or more
ports, and will send you an email when they are updated.FreshMeatIf you do not know the name of the application you want, try
using a site like FreshMeat
(http://www.freshmeat.net/)
to find an application, then check back at the FreeBSD site to see
if the application has been ported yet.ChernLeeContributed by Using the Packages SystemInstalling a Packagepackagesinstallingpkg_addYou can use the &man.pkg.add.1; utility to install a
FreeBSD software package from a local file or from a server on
the network.Downloading a Package and then Installing It Locally&prompt.root; ftp -a ftp2.FreeBSD.org
Connected to ftp2.FreeBSD.org.
220 ftp2.FreeBSD.org FTP server (Version 6.00LS) ready.
331 Guest login ok, send your email address as password.
230-
230- This machine is in Vienna, VA, USA, hosted by Verio.
230- Questions? E-mail freebsd@vienna.verio.net.
230-
230-
230 Guest login ok, access restrictions apply.
Remote system type is UNIX.
Using binary mode to transfer files.
ftp>cd /pub/FreeBSD/ports/packages/sysutils/
250 CWD command successful.
ftp>get lsof-4.56.4.tgz
local: lsof-4.56.4.tgz remote: lsof-4.56.4.tgz
200 PORT command successful.
150 Opening BINARY mode data connection for 'lsof-4.56.4.tgz' (92375 bytes).
100% |**************************************************| 92375 00:00 ETA
226 Transfer complete.
92375 bytes received in 5.60 seconds (16.11 KB/s)
ftp>exit
&prompt.root; pkg_add lsof-4.56.4.tgzIf you do not have a source of local packages (such as a
FreeBSD CDROM set) then it will probably be easier to use the
-r option to &man.pkg.add.1;. This will cause the utility to
automatically determine the correct object format and release
and then to fetch and install the package from an FTP site.
pkg_add&prompt.root; pkg_add -r lsof-4.56.4The example above would download the correct package and add it without
any further user intervention.Package files are distributed in .tgz format. You can
find them at
ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/packages/,
or on the FreeBSD CDROM distribution. Every CD on the
FreeBSD 4-CD set (and PowerPak, etc) contains packages in
the /packages directory. The layout of
the packages is similar to that of the
/usr/ports tree. Each category has its
own directory, and every package can be found within the
All directory.
The directory structure of the package system is identical
to that of the ports; they work with each other to form the entire
package/port system.
Deleting a Packagepkg_deletepackagesdeletingTo remove a previously installed software package, use the
&man.pkg.delete.1; utility.
&prompt.root pkg_delete xchat-1.7.1Managing Packagespackagesmanaging&man.pkg.info.1; is a utility that lists and describes
the various packages installed.
pkg_info&prompt.root pkg_info
cvsup-16.1 A general network file distribution system optimized for CV
docbook-1.2 Meta-port for the different versions of the DocBook DTD
...&man.pkg.version.1; is a utility that summarizes the
versions of all installed packages. It compares the package
version to the current version found in the ports tree.
&prompt.root pkg_version
cvsup =
docbook =
...The symbols in the second column indicate the relative age
of the installed version and the version available in the local
ports tree.SymbolMeaning=The version of the
installed package matches that of the one found in the
local ports tree.<The installed version is older then the one available
in the ports tree.>The installed version is newer
than the one found in the local ports tree. (local ports
tree is probably out of date)?The installed package cannot be
found in the ports index.*There are multiple versions of the
package.MiscellaneousAll package information is stored within the
/var/db/pkg directory. The installed
file list and descriptions of each package can be found within
files in this directory.
Using the Ports CollectionThe following sections provide basic instructions on using the
ports collection to install or remove programs from your
system.Obtaining the Ports CollectionBefore you can install ports, you must first obtain the
ports collection—which is essentially a set of Makefiles,
patches, and description files usually placed in
/usr/ports.
When installing your FreeBSD system,
Sysinstall asked if you would like to
install the ports collection. If you chose no, you can follow
these instructions to obtain the ports collection.Sysinstall MethodThis method involves using
sysinstall again to manually
install the ports collection.As root, run /stand/sysinstall as
shown below:&prompt.root; /stand/sysinstallScroll down and select Configure,
Press EnterScroll down and select
Distributions, Press EnterScroll down to ports, Press the
Space keyScroll up to Exit, Press
EnterSelect your desired installation media, such as CDROM,
FTP, and so on.Follow the menus to Exit sysinstallThe alternative method to obtain and keep your ports
collection up to date is by using
CVSup. Look at the ports
CVSup file,
/usr/share/examples/cvsup/ports-supfile.
See Using CVSup () for more information on using
CVSup and the mentioned file.CVSup MethodThis is a quick method to getting the ports collection
using CVSup. If you want to keep
your ports tree up to date, or learn more about
CVSup, read the previously
mentioned sections.Install the net/cvsup port. See CVSup Installation () for more details.As root, copy
/usr/share/examples/cvsup/ports-supfile
to a new location, such as /root or your
home directoryEdit ports-supfileChange CHANGE_THIS.FreeBSD.org to a
CVSup near you. See CVSupp Mirrors () for a complete listing of mirror
sites.Run cvsup -g -L 2 <path_to_supfile>&prompt.root; cvsup -g -L 2 /root/ports-supfileRunning this consequent times at later dates will
download all the recent changes to your ports
collection.Installing PortsportsinstallingThe first thing that should be explained
when it comes to the ports collection is what is actually meant
by a skeleton. In a nutshell, a port skeleton is a
minimal set of files that tell your FreeBSD system how to
cleanly compile and install a program. Each port skeleton includes:A Makefile. The
Makefile contains various statements that
specify how the application should be compiled and where it
should be installed on your systemA distinfo file. This file contains
information about the files that must be downloaded to build the
port, and checksums, to ensure that those files have not been
corrupted during the download.A files directory. This directory
contains patches to make the program compile and install on
your FreeBSD system. Patches are basically small files that
specify changes to particular files. They are in plain text
format, and basically say Remove line 10 or
Change line 26 to this .... Patches are also
known as diffs because they are generated by the
diff program.This directory may also contain other files used in building
the port.A pkg-comment file. This is a one-line
description of the program.A pkg-descr file. This is a more
detailed, often multiple-line, description of the program.A pkg-plist file. This is a list of all
the files that will be installed by the port. It also tells the
ports system what files to remove upon deinstallation.Some ports have other files, such as
pkg-message. The ports system uses these
files to handle special situations. If you want more details
on these files, and on ports in general, check out the FreeBSD Porter's
Handbook.Now that you have enough background information to know what
the ports collection is used for, you are ready to install your
first port. There are two ways this can be done, and each is
explained below.Before we get into that however, you will need to choose a
port to install. There are a few ways to do this, with the
easiest method being the ports listing on the FreeBSD
web site. You can browse through the ports listed there
or use the search function on the site. Each port also includes
a description so you can read a bit about each port before
deciding to install it.Another method is to use the whereis
command. To use whereis, simply type
whereis <program you want to
install> at the prompt, and if it is found on
your system, you will be told where it is, like so:&prompt.root; whereis lsof
lsof: /usr/ports/sysutils/lsofThis tells us that lsof (a system utility)
can be found in the
/usr/ports/sysutils/lsof directory.Yet another way of finding a particular port is by using the
ports collection's built-in search mechanism. To use the search
feature, you will need to be in the
/usr/ports directory. Once in that
directory, run make search name=program-name
where program-name is the name of the program you
want to find. For example, if you were looking for
lsof:&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports
&prompt.root; make search name=lsof
Port: lsof-4.56.4
Path: /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof
Info: Lists information about open files (similar to fstat(1))
Maint: obrien@FreeBSD.org
Index: sysutils
B-deps:
R-deps: The part of the output you want to pay particular attention
to is the Path: line, since that tells you where to
find it. The other information provided is not needed in order
to install the port directly, so it will not be covered
here.For more in-depth searching you can also use
make search key=string where
string is some text to search for. This searches
port names, comments, descriptions and dependencies and can be used
to find ports which relate to a particular subject if you don't
know the name of the program you are looking for.In both of these cases, the search string is case-insensitive.
Searching for LSOF will yield the same results as
searching for lsof.You must be the root user to install
ports.Now that you have found a port you would like to install,
you are ready to do the actual installation. The port
includes instructions on how to build source code, but no
actual source code. You can get the source code from a CDROM
or from the Internet. Source code is distributed in whatever
manner the software author desires. Frequently this is a
tarred and gzipped file, but it might be compressed with some
other tool or even uncompressed. The program source code,
whatever form it comes in, is called a
distfile. You can get the distfile from a
CDROM or from the Internet.Installing Ports from a CDROMportsinstalling from CDROMThe FreeBSD Project's official CDROM images no longer
include distfiles. They take up a lot of room that is
better used by precompiled packages. CDROM products such as
the FreeBSD Power Pak do include distfiles, and you can
order these sets from a vendor such as the FreeBSD Mall.
This section assumes you have such a FreeBSD CDROM
set.Place your FreeBSD CDROM in the drive. Mount it on
/cdrom. (If you use a different mount
point, the install will not work.) To begin, change to the
directory for the port you want to install:&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/sysutils/lsofOnce inside the lsof directory,
you will see the port
skeleton. The next step is to compile (also called build) the
port. This is done by simply typing make at
the prompt. Once you have done so, you should see something
like this:&prompt.root; make
>> lsof_4.57D.freebsd.tar.gz doesn't seem to exist in /usr/ports/distfiles/.
>> Attempting to fetch from file:/cdrom/ports/distfiles/.
===> Extracting for lsof-4.57
...
[extraction output snipped]
...
>> Checksum OK for lsof_4.57D.freebsd.tar.gz.
===> Patching for lsof-4.57
===> Applying FreeBSD patches for lsof-4.57
===> Configuring for lsof-4.57
...
[configure output snipped]
...
===> Building for lsof-4.57
...
[compilation snipped]
...
&prompt.root;Take notice that once the compile is complete you are
returned to your prompt. The next step is to install the
port. In order to install it, you simply need to tack one word
onto the make command, and that word is
install:&prompt.root; make install
===> Installing for lsof-4.57
...
[install routines snipped]
...
===> Generating temporary packing list
===> Compressing manual pages for lsof-4.57
===> Registering installation for lsof-4.57
===> SECURITY NOTE:
This port has installed the following binaries which execute with
increased privileges.
&prompt.root;Once you are returned to your prompt, you should be able to
run the application you just installed. Since
lsof is a
program that runs with increased privileges, a security
warning is shown. During the building and installation of
ports, you should take heed of any other warnings that
may appear.You can save an extra step by just running make
install instead of make and
make install as two separate steps.Please be aware that the licenses of a few ports do not
allow for inclusion on the CDROM. This could be because a
registration form needs
to be filled out before downloading, redistribution is not
allowed, and so on. If you wish to install a port not
included on the CDROM, you will need to be online in order to
do so (see the next
section).Installing Ports from the InternetAs with the last section, this section makes an assumption
that you have a working Internet connection. If you do not,
you will need to perform the CDROM
installation.Installing a port from the Internet is done exactly the same
way as it would be if you were installing from a CDROM. The
only difference between the two is that the port distfile
is downloaded from the Internet instead of pulled from the
CDROM.The steps involved are identical:&prompt.root; make install
>> lsof_4.57D.freebsd.tar.gz doesn't seem to exist in /usr/ports/distfiles/.
>> Attempting to fetch from ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/distfiles/.
Receiving lsof_4.57D.freebsd.tar.gz (439860 bytes): 100%
439860 bytes transferred in 18.0 seconds (23.90 kBps)
===> Extracting for lsof-4.57
...
[extraction output snipped]
...
>> Checksum OK for lsof_4.57D.freebsd.tar.gz.
===> Patching for lsof-4.57
===> Applying FreeBSD patches for lsof-4.57
===> Configuring for lsof-4.57
...
[configure output snipped]
...
===> Building for lsof-4.57
...
[compilation snipped]
...
===> Installing for lsof-4.57
...
[install routines snipped]
...
===> Generating temporary packing list
===> Compressing manual pages for lsof-4.57
===> Registering installation for lsof-4.57
===> SECURITY NOTE:
This port has installed the following binaries which execute with
increased privileges.
&prompt.root;As you can see, the only difference is the line that tells
you where the system is fetching the port from.That about does it for installing ports onto your
system. In the next section you will learn how to remove a
port from your system.Removing Installed PortsportsremovingNow that you know how to install ports, you are probably
wondering how to remove them, just in case you install one and
later on you decide that you installed the wrong port.
We will remove our previous example (which was
lsof for
those of you not paying attention). As with installing ports,
the first thing you must do is change to the port directory,
/usr/ports/sysutils/lsof. After you change
directories, you are ready to uninstall lsof.
This is done with
the make deinstall command:&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof
&prompt.root; make deinstall
===> Deinstalling for lsof-4.57That was easy enough. You have removed
lsof
from your system. If you would like to reinstall it, you can do
so by running make reinstall from the
/usr/ports/sysutils/lsof directory.The make deinstall and make
reinstall sequence does not work once you have run
make clean. If you want to deinstall a
port after cleaning, use pkg_delete as
discussed in the Packages
section of the Handbook.Post-installation activitiesAfter installing a new application you will normally want to read
any documentation it may have included, edit any configuration files
that are required, ensure that the application starts at boot time (if
it is a daemon), and so on.The exact steps you need to take to configure each application will
obviously be different. However, if you have just installed a new
application and are wondering What now? these tips might
help.Use &man.pkg.info.1; to find out which files were installed,
and where they were installed to. For example, if you have just
installed FooPackage version 1.0.0, then this command&prompt.root; pkg_info -L foopackage-1.0.0 | lesswill show all the files installed by the package. Pay special
attention to files in man/ directories, which
will be manual pages, etc/ directories, which
will be configuration files, and doc/, which will be
more comprehensive documentation.If you are not sure which version of the application was just
installed, a command like this&prompt.root; pkg_info | grep foopackagewill find all the installed packages that have
foopackage in the package name. Replace
foopackage in your commandline as
necessary.Once you have identified where the application's manual pages
have been installed, review them using &man.man.1;. Similarly,
look over the sample configuration files, and any additional
documentation that may have been provided.If the application has a web site, check it for additional
documentation, frequently asked question files, and so forth. If
you are not sure of the web site address it may be listed in the
output from&prompt.root; pkg_info foopackage-1.0.0will often include a WWW: line with the URL
of the application's web site.TroubleshootingThe following sections cover some of the more frequently asked
questions about the ports collection and some basic troubleshooting
techniques, and what do to if a port is broken.Some Questions and AnswersI thought this was going to be a discussion about
modems??!Ah, you must be thinking of the serial ports on the back
of your computer. We are using port here to
mean the result of porting a program from one
version of Unix to another.What is a patch?A patch is a small file that specifies how to go from
one version of a file to another. It contains plain text,
and basically says things like delete line 23,
add these two lines after line 468, or
change line 197 to this. They are also known
as diffs because they are generated by the
diff program.tarballWhat is all this about
tarballs?It is a file ending in .tar, or
with variations such as .tar.gz,
.tar.Z, .tar.bz2,
and even .tgz.Basically, it is a directory tree that has been archived
into a single file (.tar) and
optionally compressed (.gz). This
technique was originally used for Tape
ARchives (hence the name
tar), but it is a widely used way of
distributing program source code around the Internet.You can see what files are in them, or even extract
them yourself by using the standard Unix
tar program, which comes with the base
FreeBSD system, like this:&prompt.user; tar tvzf foobar.tar.gz
&prompt.user; tar xzvf foobar.tar.gz
&prompt.user; tar tvf foobar.tar
&prompt.user; tar xvf foobar.tarchecksumAnd a checksum?It is a number generated by adding up all the data in
the file you want to check. If any of the characters
change, the checksum will no longer be equal to the total,
so a simple comparison will allow you to spot the
difference.I did what you said for compiling ports from a CDROM and
it worked great until I tried to install the kermit
port.&prompt.root; make install
>> cku190.tar.gz doesn't seem to exist on this system.
>> Attempting to fetch from ftp://kermit.columbia.edu/kermit/archives/.Why can it not be found? Have I got a dud CDROM?As explained in the compiling ports from CDROM
section, some ports cannot be put on the CDROM set
due to licensing restrictions. Kermit is an example of
that. The licensing terms for kermit do not allow us to put
the tarball for it on the CDROM, so you will have to fetch
it by hand—sorry!The reason why you got all those error messages was
because you were not connected to the Internet at the time.
Once you have downloaded it from any of the MASTER_SITES
(listed in the Makefile), you can restart the install
process.I did that, but when I tried to put it into
/usr/ports/distfiles I got some error
about not having permission.The ports mechanism will download distribution
tarballs into /usr/ports/distfiles,
but many system administrators will symlink this directory
to a remote file server or local read-only CDROM media.
If this is the case, then you should specify a different
directory to be used for storing distfiles with the
- following command :
+ following command:
&prompt.root; make DISTDIR=/local/dir/with/write/permission installDoes the ports scheme only work if you have everything
in /usr/ports? My system administrator
says I must put everything under
/u/people/guests/wurzburger, but it
does not seem to work.You can use the PORTSDIR and
PREFIX variables to tell the ports
mechanism to use different directories. For
instance,&prompt.root; make PORTSDIR=/u/people/guests/wurzburger/ports installwill compile the port in
/u/people/guests/wurzburger/ports and
install everything under
/usr/local.&prompt.root; make PREFIX=/u/people/guests/wurzburger/local installwill compile it in /usr/ports and
install it in
/u/people/guests/wurzburger/local.And of course,&prompt.root; make PORTSDIR=../ports PREFIX=../local installwill combine the two (it is too long to write fully on
the page, but it should give you the general idea).imakeSome ports that use &man.imake.1; (a part of the X Windows
System) do not work well with PREFIX, and will insist on
installing under /usr/X11R6. Similarly, some Perl ports
ignore PREFIX and install in the Perl tree. Making these
ports respect PREFIX is a difficult or impossible
job.If you do not fancy typing all that in every time you
install a port, it is a good idea to put these variables
into your environment. Read the manual page for your shell for
instructions on doing so.I do not have a FreeBSD CDROM, but I would like to have
all the tarballs handy on my system so I do not have to wait
for a download every time I install a port. Is there any
way to get them all at once?To get every single tarball for the ports collection,
do:&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports
&prompt.root; make fetchFor all the tarballs for a single ports directory,
do:&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/directory
&prompt.root; make fetchand for just one port—well, you have probably
guessed already.I know it is probably faster to fetch the tarballs from
one of the FreeBSD mirror sites close by. Is there any way
to tell the port to fetch them from servers other than the
ones listed in the MASTER_SITES?Yes. If you know, for example, that ftp.FreeBSD.org is much closer to you
than the sites listed in MASTER_SITES,
do as follows:&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/directory
&prompt.root; make MASTER_SITE_OVERRIDE= \
ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/distfiles/ fetchI want to know what files make is
going to need before it tries to pull them down.make fetch-list will display a list
of the files needed for a port.Is there any way to stop the port from compiling? I
want to do some hacking on the source before I install it,
but it is a bit tiresome to watch it and hit control-C every
time.Doing make extract will stop it
after it has fetched and extracted the source code.I am trying to make my own port and I want to be able
to stop it compiling until I have had a chance to see if my
patches worked properly. Is there something like
make extract, but for patches?Yes, make patch is what you want.
You will probably find the PATCH_DEBUG
option useful as well. And by the way, thank you for your
efforts!I have heard that some compiler options can cause bugs.
Is this true? How can I make sure that I compile ports
with the right settings?Yes, with version 2.6.3 of gcc (the
version shipped with FreeBSD 2.1.0 and 2.1.5), the
option could result in buggy code
unless you used the
option as well. (Most of the ports do not use
). You should be
able to specify the compiler options used by something
like:&prompt.root; make CFLAGS='-O2 -fno-strength-reduce' installor by editing /etc/make.conf, but
unfortunately not all ports respect this. The surest way
is to do make configure, then go into
the source directory and inspect the Makefiles by hand, but
this can get tedious if the source has lots of
sub-directories, each with their own Makefiles.The default FreeBSD compiler options are quite conservative,
so if you have not changed them you should not have any
problems.There are so many ports it is hard to find the one I
want. Is there a list anywhere of what ports are
available?Look in the INDEX file in
/usr/ports. If you would like to
search the ports collection for a keyword, you can do that
too. For example, you can find ports relevant to the LISP
programming language using:&prompt.user; cd /usr/ports
&prompt.user; make search key=lispI went to install the foo port but
the system suddenly stopped compiling it and starting
compiling the bar port. What is going
on?The foo port needs something that is
supplied with bar — for instance,
if foo uses graphics,
bar might have a library with useful
graphics processing routines. Or bar
might be a tool that is needed to compile the
foo port. I installed the
grizzle program from the ports and
frankly it is a complete waste of disk space. I want to
delete it but I do not know where it put all the files.
Any clues?No problem, just type:&prompt.root; pkg_delete grizzle-6.5Alternatively, you can type:&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/somewhere/grizzle
&prompt.root; make deinstallHang on a minute, you have to know the version number
to use that command. You do not seriously expect me to
remember that, do you?Not at all, you can find it out by doing:&prompt.root; pkg_info -I 'grizzle*'
Information for grizzle-6.5:
grizzle-6.5 - the combined piano tutorial, LOGO interpreter and shoot 'em up
arcade game.The version number can also be found using the
pkg_info or by typing:
ls /var/db/pkgTalking of disk space, the ports directory seems to be
taking up an awful lot of room. Is it safe to go in there
and delete things?Yes, if you have installed the program and are fairly
certain you will not need the source again, there is no
point in keeping it hanging around. The surest way to do
this is:&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports
&prompt.root; make cleanwhich will go through all the ports subdirectories and
delete everything except the skeletons for each
port.It is possible to achieve the same effect without
recursively calling each makefile. For example, you
can delete all of the work subdirectories directly
with the following command:
&prompt.root; find /usr/ports -depth -name work -exec rm -rf {} \;I tried that and it still left all those tarballs or
whatever you called them in the
distfiles directory. Can I delete
those as well?Yes, if you are sure you have finished with them,
those can go as well. They can be removed manually, or by
using make distclean.I like having lots and lots of programs to play with.
Is there any way of installing all the ports in one
go?Just do:&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports
&prompt.root; make installBe careful, as some ports may install files with the same
name. If you install two graphics ports and they both install
/usr/local/bin/plot then you will obviously
have problems.OK, I tried that, but I thought it would take a very
long time so I went to bed and left it to get on with it.
When I looked at the computer this morning, it had only
done three and a half ports. Did something go
wrong?No, the problem is that some of the ports need to ask
you questions that we cannot answer for you (e.g., Do
you want to print on A4 or US letter sized paper?)
and they need to have someone on hand to answer
them.I really do not want to spend all day staring at the
monitor. Any better ideas?OK, do this before you go to bed/work/the local
park:&prompt.root cd /usr/ports
&prompt.root; make -DBATCH installThis will install every port that does
not require user input. Then, when
you come back, do:&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports
&prompt.root; make -DINTERACTIVE installto finish the job.At work, we are using frobble, which
is in your ports collection, but we have altered it quite a
bit to get it to do what we need. Is there any way of making
our own packages, so we can distribute it more easily around
our sites?No problem, assuming you know how to make patches for
your changes:&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/somewhere/frobble
&prompt.root; make extract
&prompt.root; cd work/frobble-2.8
[Apply your patches]
&prompt.root; cd ../..
&prompt.root; make packageThis ports stuff is really clever. I am desperate to
find out how you did it. What is the secret?Nothing secret about it at all, just look at the
bsd.port.mk and
bsd.port.subdir.mk files in
/usr/ports/Mk/.(Readers with an aversion to intricate shell-scripts are
advised not to look at the files in this directory.)Help! This Port Is Broken!If you come across a port that does not work for you, there are
a few things you can do, including:Fix it! The Porter's
Handbook includes detailed information on the
"Ports" infrastructure so that you can fix the occasional
broken port or even submit your own!Gripe—by email only! Send
email to the maintainer of the port first. Type make
maintainer or read the Makefile
to find the maintainer's email address. Remember to include
the name and version of the port (send the
$FreeBSD: line from the
Makefile) and the output leading up to the
error when you email the maintainer. If you do not get a
response from the maintainer, you can use
send-pr to submit a bug report.Grab the package from an ftp site near you. The
master package collection is on ftp.FreeBSD.org in the packages
directory, but be sure to check your local mirror
first! These are more likely to work
than trying to compile from source and are a lot faster as
well. Use the &man.pkg.add.1; program to install the package
on your system.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/preface/preface.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/preface/preface.sgml
index 16193a52f9..b7a8525477 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/preface/preface.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/preface/preface.sgml
@@ -1,467 +1,467 @@
PrefaceIntended
AudienceThe FreeBSD newcomer will find that the first section of this
book guides the user through the FreeBSD installation process, and
gently introduces the concepts and conventions that underpin Unix.
Working through this section requires little more than the desire
to explore, and the ability to take on board new concepts as they
are introduced.Once you've have travelled this far, the second, far larger,
section of the Handbook is a comprehensive reference to all manner
of topics of interest to FreeBSD system administrators. Some of
these chapters may recommend that you do some prior reading, and
this is noted in the synopsis at the beginning of each
chapter.For a list of additional sources of information, please see .Changes from the
First EditionThis second edition is the culmination of over two years of
work by the dedicated members of the FreeBSD Documentation
Project. The following are the major changes in this new
edition:A complete Index has been added.All ASCII figures have been replaced by graphical diagrams.A standard synopsis has been added to each chapter to
give a quick summary of what information the chapter contains,
and what the reader is expected to know.The content has been logically reorganized into three
parts: "Getting Started", "System Administration", and
"Appendices".Chapter 2 ("Installing FreeBSD") was completely
rewritten with many screenshots to make it much easier for new
users to grasp the text.Chapter 3 ("Unix Basics") has been expanded to contain
additional information about processes, daemons, and
signals.Chapter 4 ("Installing Applications") has been expanded
to contain additional information about binary package
management.Chapter 5 ("The X Window System") has been completely
rewritten with an emphasis on using modern desktop
technologies such as KDE and GNOME on XFree86 4.X.Chapter 7 ("The FreeBSD Booting Process") has been
expanded.Chapter 12 ("Storage") has been written from what used
to be two separate chapters on "Disks" and "Backups". We feel
that the topics are easier to comprehend when presented as a
single chapter. A section on RAID (both hardware and
software) has also been added.Chapter 15 ("Serial Communications") has been completely
reorganized and updated for FreeBSD 4.X/5.X.Chapter 16 ("PPP and SLIP") has been substantially
updated.Many new sections have been added to Chapter 17
("Advanced Networking").Chapter 18 ("Electronic Mail") has been expanded to
include more information about configuring
sendmail.Chapter 20 ("Linux Compatibility") has been expanded to
include information about installing
Oracle and
SAP/R3.The following new topics are covered in this second
edition:Configuration and Tuning (Chapter 6).Sound (Chapter 14)Organization of This
BookThis book is split into three logically distinct sections.
The first section, Getting Started, covers
the installation and basic usage of FreeBSD. It is expected that
the reader will follow these chapters in sequence, possibly
skipping chapters covering familiar topics. The second section,
System Administration, covers a broad
collection of subjects that are of interest to more advanced
FreeBSD users. Each section begins with a succinct synopsis that
describes what the chapter covers and what the reader is expected
to already know. This is meant to allow the casual reader to skip
around to find chapters of interest. The third section contains
appendices of reference information.Chapter 1, IntroductionIntroduces FreeBSD to a new user. It describes the
history of the FreeBSD Project, the goals, development model,
and everything else they've done for the FreeBSD project.Chapter 2, InstallationWalks a user through the entire installation process.
Some advanced installation topics, such as installing through
a serial console, are also covered.Chapter 3, Unix BasicsCovers the basic commands and functionality of the
FreeBSD operating system. If you are familiar with Linux or
another flavor of Unix then you can probably skip this
chapter.Chapter 4, Installing ApplicationsCovers the installation of third-party software with
both FreeBSD's innovative "Ports Collection" and standard
binary packages.Chapter 5, The X Window SystemDescribes the X Window System in general and using
XFree86 on FreeBSD in particular. Also describes common
desktop environments such as KDE and GNOME.Chapter 6, Configuration and TuningDescribes the parameters available for system
administrators to tune a FreeBSD system for optimum
performance. Also describes the various configuration files
used in FreeBSD and where to find them.Chapter 7, Booting ProcessDescribes the FreeBSD boot process and explains
how to control this process with configuration options.Chapter 8, Users and Basic Account
ManagementDescribes the creation and manipulation of user
accounts. Also discusses resource limitations that can be
set on users and other account management tasks.Chapter 9, Configuring the FreeBSD
KernelExplains why you might need to configure a new kernel
and provides detailed instructions for configuring, building,
and installing a custom kernel.Chapter 10, SecurityDescribes many different tools available to help keep your
FreeBSD system secure, including Kerberos, IPSec, OpenSSH, and
network firewalls.Chapter 11, PrintingDescribes managing printers on FreeBSD, including
information about banner pages, printer accounting, and
initial setup.Chapter 12, StorageDescribes how to manage storage media and filesystems
with FreeBSD. This includes physical disks, RAID arrays,
optical and tape media, memory-backed disks, and network
filesystems.Chapter 13, LocalizationDescribes how to use FreeBSD in languages other than
English. Covers both system and application level
localization.Chapter 14, SoundShows how to setup sound support for your system. Also
describes some sample audio applications.Chapter 15, Serial CommunicationsExplains how to connect terminals and modems to your
FreeBSD system for both dial in and dial out connections.Chapter 16, PPP and SLIPDescribes how to use PPP, SLIP, or PPP over Ethernet to
connect to remote systems with FreeBSD.Chapter 17, Advanced NetworkingDescribes many networking topics, including sharing an
Internet connection with other computers on your LAN, using
network filesystems, sharing account information via NIS,
setting up a name server, and much more.Chapter 18, Electronic MailExplains the different components of an email server and
dives into simple configuration topics for the most popular
mail server software:
sendmail.Chapter 19, The Cutting EdgeExplains the different between FreeBSD-STABLE,
FreeBSD-CURRENT, and FreeBSD releases. Describes which users
would benefit from tracking a development system and outlines
that process.Chapter 20, Linux Binary CompatibilityDescribes the Linux compatibility features of FreeBSD.
Also provides detailed installation instructions for many
popular Linux applications such as Oracle, SAP/R3, and
Mathematica.Appendix A, Obtaining FreeBSD Lists different sources for obtaining FreeBSD media on CDROM
or DVD as well as different sites on the Internet that allow
you to download and install FreeBSD.Appendix B, Bibliography This book touches on many different subjects that may
leave you hungry for a more detailed explanation. The
bibliography lists many excellent books that are referenced in
the text.Appendix C, Resources on the InternetDescribes the many forums available for FreeBSD users to
post questions and engage in technical conversations about
FreeBSD.Appendix D, PGP KeysLists the PGP fingerprints of several FreeBSD Developers.Conventions used
in this bookTo provide a consistent and easy to read text, several
conventions are followed throughout the book.Typographic
ConventionsItalicAn italic font is used for filenames, URLs,
emphasized text, and the first usage of technical terms.MonospaceA monospaced font is
used for error messages, commands, environment variables,
names of ports, hostnames, user names, group names, device
names, variables, and code fragments.BoldA bold font is used for
applications, commands, and keys.User InputKeys are rendered in bold to stand out from
other text. Key combinations that are meant to be typed
simultaneously are rendered with `+' between
- the keys, such as :
+ the keys, such as:
CtrlAltDelKeys that are meant to be typed in sequence will be separated with
- commas, for example :
+ commas, for example:
CtrlX,
CtrlSWould mean that the user is expected to type the
Ctrl and X keys simultaneously
and then to type the Ctrl and S
keys simultaneously.ExamplesExamples starting with E:\>
indicate a MS-DOS command. Unless otherwise noted, these commands
may be executed from a "Command Prompt" window in a modern Microsoft
Windows environment.E:\>tools\fdimage floppies\kern.flp A:Examples starting with &prompt.root; indicate a command that
must be invoked as the superuser in FreeBSD. You can login as
root to type the command, or login as your
normal account and use su to gain
superuser privileges.&prompt.root; dd if=kern.flp of=/dev/fd0Examples starting with &prompt.user; indicate a command that
should be invoked from a normal user account. Unless otherwise
noted, C-shell syntax is used for setting environment variables
and other shell commands.&prompt.user; topAcknowledgmentsThe book you are holding represents the efforts of many hundreds of
people around the world. Whether they sent in fixes for typos, or
submitted complete chapters, all the contributions have been
useful.Several companies have supported the development of this
document by paying authors to work on it full-time, paying for
publication, etc. In particular, BSDi (subsequently acquired by
Wind River Systems)
paid members of the FreeBSD Documentation Project to work on
improving this book full time leading up to the publication of the
first printed edition in March 2000 (ISBN 1-57176-241-8). Wind
River Systems then paid several additional authors to make a
number of improvements to the print-output infrastructure and to add
additional chapters to the text. This work culminated in the
publication of the second printed edition in November 2001 (ISBN
1-57176-303-1).
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MatthewDillonMuch of this chapter has been taken from the
security(7) manual page by SecuritysecuritySynopsisThis chapter will provide a basic introduction to system security
concepts, some general good rules of thumb, and some advanced topics
under FreeBSD. A lot of the topics covered here can be applied
to system and Internet security in general as well. The Internet
is no longer a friendly place in which everyone
wants to be your kind neighbor. Securing your system is imperative
to protect your data, intellectual property, time, and much more
from the hands of hackers and the like.FreeBSD provides an array of utilities and mechanisms to
ensure the integrity and security of your system and
network.After reading this chapter, you will know:Basic system security concepts, in respect to FreeBSD.About the various crypt mechanisms available in FreeBSD,
such as DES and MD5.How to setup S/Key, an alternative, one-time password
authentication system.How to setup Kerberos, another alternative
authentication system.How to create firewalls using IPFW.How to configure IPSec.How to configure and use OpenSSH, FreeBSD's SSH
implementation.Before reading this chapter, you should:Understand basic FreeBSD and Internet concepts.IntroductionSecurity is a function that begins and ends with the system
administrator. While all BSD Unix multi-user systems have some
inherent security, the job of building and maintaining additional
security mechanisms to keep those users honest is
probably one of the single largest undertakings of the sysadmin.
Machines are only as secure as you make them, and security concerns
are ever competing with the human necessity for convenience. Unix
systems, in general, are capable of running a huge number of
simultaneous processes and many of these processes operate as
servers – meaning that external entities can connect and talk
to them. As yesterday's mini-computers and mainframes become
today's desktops, and as computers become networked and
internetworked, security becomes an even bigger issue.Security is best implemented through a layered
onion approach. In a nutshell, what you want to do is
to create as many layers of security as are convenient and then
carefully monitor the system for intrusions. You do not want to
overbuild your security or you will interfere with the detection
side, and detection is one of the single most important aspects of
any security mechanism. For example, it makes little sense to set
the schg flags (see &man.chflags.1;) on every
system binary because
while this may temporarily protect the binaries, it prevents an
attacker who has broken in from making an easily detectable change
that may result in your security mechanisms not detecting the attacker
at all.System security also pertains to dealing with various forms of
attack, including attacks that attempt to crash, or otherwise make a
system unusable, but do not attempt to compromise the
root account (break root).
Security concerns
can be split up into several categories:Denial of service attacks.User account compromises.Root compromise through accessible servers.Root compromise via user accounts.Backdoor creation.DoS attacksDenial of Service (DoS)securityDoS attacksDenial of Service (DoS)Denial of Service (DoS)A denial of service attack is an action that deprives the
machine of needed resources. Typically, DoS attacks are
brute-force mechanisms that attempt to crash or otherwise make a
machine unusable by overwhelming its servers or network stack. Some
DoS attacks try to take advantage of bugs in the networking
stack to crash a machine with a single packet. The latter can only
be fixed by applying a bug fix to the kernel. Attacks on servers
can often be fixed by properly specifying options to limit the load
the servers incur on the system under adverse conditions.
Brute-force network attacks are harder to deal with. A
spoofed-packet attack, for example, is nearly impossible to stop,
short of cutting your system off from the Internet. It may not be
able to take your machine down, but it can saturate your
Internet connection.securityaccount compromisesA user account compromise is even more common than a DoS
attack. Many sysadmins still run standard
telnetd, rlogind,
rshd,
and ftpd servers on their machines.
These servers, by default, do
not operate over encrypted connections. The result is that if you
have any moderate-sized user base, one or more of your users logging
into your system from a remote location (which is the most common
and convenient way to login to a system) will have his or her
password sniffed. The attentive system admin will analyze his
remote access logs looking for suspicious source addresses even for
successful logins.One must always assume that once an attacker has access to a
user account, the attacker can break root.
However, the reality is that in a well secured and maintained system,
access to a user account does not necessarily give the attacker
access to root. The distinction is important
because without access to root the attacker
cannot generally hide his tracks and may, at best, be able to do
nothing more than mess with the user's files, or crash the machine.
User account compromises are very common because users tend not to
take the precautions that sysadmins take.securitybackdoorsSystem administrators must keep in mind that there are
potentially many ways to break root on a machine.
The attacker may know the root password,
the attacker may find a bug in a root-run server and be able
to break root over a network
connection to that server, or the attacker may know of a bug in
a suid-root program that allows the attacker to break
root once he has broken into a user's account.
If an attacker has found a way to break root
on a machine, the attacker may not have a need
to install a backdoor. Many of the root holes
found and closed to date involve a considerable amount of work
by the attacker to cleanup after himself, so most attackers install
backdoors. A backdoor provides the attacker with a way to easily
regain root access to the system, but it
also gives the smart system administrator a convenient way
to detect the intrusion.
Making it impossible for an attacker to install a backdoor may
actually be detrimental to your security, because it will not
close off the hole the attacker found to break in the first
place.Security remedies should always be implemented with a
multi-layered onion peel approach and can be
categorized as follows:Securing root and staff accounts.Securing root – root-run servers
and suid/sgid binaries.Securing user accounts.Securing the password file.Securing the kernel core, raw devices, and
filesystems.Quick detection of inappropriate changes made to the
system.Paranoia.The next section of this chapter will cover the above bullet
items in greater depth.securitysecuringSecuring FreeBSDCommand vs. ProtocolThroughout this document, we will use
bold text to refer to a command or
application. This is used for instances such as ssh, since it is
a protocol as well as command.The sections that follow will cover the methods of securing your
FreeBSD system that were mentioned in the last section of this chapter.Securing the <username>root</username> Account and
Staff AccountssuFirst off, do not bother securing staff accounts if you have
not secured the root account.
Most systems have a password assigned to the root
account. The first thing you do is assume
that the password is always compromised.
This does not mean that you should remove the password. The
password is almost always necessary for console access to the
machine. What it does mean is that you should not make it
possible to use the password outside of the console or possibly
even with the &man.su.1; command. For example, make sure that
your pty's are specified as being unsecure in the
/etc/ttys file so that direct
root logins
via telnet or rlogin are
disallowed. If using other login services such as
sshd, make sure that direct
root logins are disabled there as well.
You can do this by editing
your /etc/ssh/sshd_config file, and making
sure that PermitRootLogin is set to
NO. Consider every access method –
services such as FTP often fall through the cracks.
Direct root logins should only be allowed
via the system console.wheelOf course, as a sysadmin you have to be able to get to
root, so we open up a few holes.
But we make sure these holes require additional password
verification to operate. One way to make root
accessible is to add appropriate staff accounts to the
wheel group (in
/etc/group). The staff members placed in the
wheel group are allowed to
su to root.
You should never give staff
members native wheel access by putting them in the
wheel group in their password entry. Staff
accounts should be placed in a staff group, and
then added to the wheel group via the
/etc/group file. Only those staff members
who actually need to have root access
should be placed in the
wheel group. It is also possible, when using
an authentication method such as Kerberos, to use Kerberos'
.k5login file in the root
account to allow a &man.ksu.1; to root
without having to place anyone at all in the
wheel group. This may be the better solution
since the wheel mechanism still allows an
intruder to break root if the intruder
has gotten hold of your
password file and can break into a staff account. While having
the wheel mechanism is better than having
nothing at all, it is not necessarily the safest option.An indirect way to secure staff accounts, and ultimately
root access is to use an alternative
login access method and
do what is known as starring out the crypted
password for the staff accounts. Using the &man.vipw.8;
command, one can replace each instance of a crypted password
with a single * character.
This command will update the /etc/master.passwd
file and user/password database to disable password-authenticated
logins.A staff account entry such as:foobar:R9DT/Fa1/LV9U:1000:1000::0:0:Foo Bar:/home/foobar:/usr/local/bin/tcsh
- Should be changed to this :
+ Should be changed to this:foobar:*:1000:1000::0:0:Foo Bar:/home/foobar:/usr/local/bin/tcshThis change will prevent normal logins from occurring,
since the encrypted password will never match
*. With this done,
staff members must use
another mechanism to authenticate themselves such as
&man.kerberos.1; or &man.ssh.1; using a public/private key
pair. When using something like Kerberos, one generally must
secure the machines which run the Kerberos servers and your
desktop workstation. When using a public/private key pair
with ssh, one must generally secure
the machine used to login from (typically
one's workstation). An additional layer of protection can be
added to the key pair by password protecting the key pair when
creating it with &man.ssh-keygen.1;. Being able to
star out the passwords for staff accounts also
guarantees that staff members can only login through secure
access methods that you have setup. This forces all staff
members to use secure, encrypted connections for all of their
sessions, which closes an important hole used by many
intruders: sniffing the network from an unrelated,
less secure machine.The more indirect security mechanisms also assume that you are
logging in from a more restrictive server to a less restrictive
server. For example, if your main box is running all sorts of
servers, your workstation should not be running any. In order for
your workstation to be reasonably secure you should run as few
servers as possible, up to and including no servers at all, and
you should run a password-protected screen blanker. Of course,
given physical access to a workstation an attacker can break any
sort of security you put on it. This is definitely a problem that
you should consider, but you should also consider the fact that the
vast majority of break-ins occur remotely, over a network, from
people who do not have physical access to your workstation or
servers.KerberosUsing something like Kerberos also gives you the ability to
disable or change the password for a staff account in one place,
and have it immediately effect all the machines on which the staff
member may have an account. If a staff member's account gets
compromised, the ability to instantly change his password on all
machines should not be underrated. With discrete passwords,
changing a password on N machines can be a mess. You can also
impose re-passwording restrictions with Kerberos: not only can a
Kerberos ticket be made to timeout after a while, but the Kerberos
system can require that the user choose a new password after a
certain period of time (say, once a month).Securing Root-run Servers and SUID/SGID BinariesntalkcomsatfingersandboxessshdtelnetdrshdrlogindThe prudent sysadmin only runs the servers he needs to, no
more, no less. Be aware that third party servers are often the
most bug-prone. For example, running an old version of
imapd or
popper is like giving a universal
root ticket out to the entire world.
Never run a server that you have not checked out carefully.
Many servers do not need to be run as root.
For example, the ntalk,
comsat, and
finger daemons can be run in special
user sandboxes. A sandbox is not perfect,
unless you go through a large amount of trouble, but the onion
approach to security still stands: If someone is able to break
in through a server running in a sandbox, they still have to
break out of the sandbox. The more layers the attacker must
break through, the lower the likelihood of his success. Root
holes have historically been found in virtually every server
ever run as root, including basic system servers.
If you are running a machine through which people only login via
sshd and never login via
telnetd or
rshd or
rlogind, then turn off those
services!FreeBSD now defaults to running
ntalkd,
comsat, and
finger in a sandbox. Another program
which may be a candidate for running in a sandbox is &man.named.8;.
/etc/defaults/rc.conf includes the arguments
necessary to run named in a sandbox in a
commented-out form. Depending on whether you are installing a new
system or upgrading an existing system, the special user accounts
used by these sandboxes may not be installed. The prudent
sysadmin would research and implement sandboxes for servers
whenever possible.sendmailThere are a number of other servers that typically do not run
in sandboxes: sendmail,
popper,
imapd, ftpd,
and others. There are alternatives to some of these, but
installing them may require more work than you are willing to
perform (the convenience factor strikes again). You may have to
run these servers as root and rely on other
mechanisms to detect break-ins that might occur through them.The other big potential root holes in a
system are the
suid-root and sgid binaries installed on the system. Most of
these binaries, such as rlogin, reside
in /bin, /sbin,
/usr/bin, or /usr/sbin.
While nothing is 100% safe, the system-default suid and sgid
binaries can be considered reasonably safe. Still,
root holes are occasionally found in these
binaries. A root hole was found in
Xlib in 1998 that made
xterm (which is typically suid)
vulnerable. It is better to be safe than sorry and the prudent
sysadmin will restrict suid binaries, that only staff should run,
to a special group that only staff can access, and get rid of
(chmod 000) any suid binaries that nobody uses.
A server with no display generally does not need an
xterm binary. Sgid binaries can be
almost as dangerous. If an intruder can break an sgid-kmem binary,
the intruder might be able to read /dev/kmem
and thus read the crypted password file, potentially compromising
any passworded account. Alternatively an intruder who breaks
group kmem can monitor keystrokes sent through
pty's, including pty's used by users who login through secure
methods. An intruder that breaks the tty
group can write to
almost any user's tty. If a user is running a terminal program or
emulator with a keyboard-simulation feature, the intruder can
potentially generate a data stream that causes the user's terminal
to echo a command, which is then run as that user.Securing User AccountsUser accounts are usually the most difficult to secure. While
you can impose Draconian access restrictions on your staff and
star out their passwords, you may not be able to
do so with any general user accounts you might have. If you do
have sufficient control, then you may win out and be able to secure
the user accounts properly. If not, you simply have to be more
vigilant in your monitoring of those accounts. Use of
ssh and Kerberos for user accounts is
more problematic, due to the extra administration and technical
support required, but still a very good solution compared to a
crypted password file.Securing the Password FileThe only sure fire way is to * out as many
passwords as you can and use ssh or
Kerberos for access to those accounts. Even though the crypted
password file (/etc/spwd.db) can only be read
by root, it may be possible for an intruder
to obtain read access to that file even if the attacker cannot
obtain root-write access.Your security scripts should always check for and report
changes to the password file (see the Checking file integrity section
below).Securing the Kernel Core, Raw Devices, and
FilesystemsIf an attacker breaks root he can do
just about anything, but
there are certain conveniences. For example, most modern kernels
have a packet sniffing device driver built in. Under FreeBSD it
is called the bpf device. An intruder
will commonly attempt to run a packet sniffer on a compromised
machine. You do not need to give the intruder the capability and
most systems do not have the need for the
bpf device compiled in.sysctlBut even if you turn off the bpf
device, you still have
/dev/mem and
/dev/kmem
to worry about. For that matter, the intruder can still write to
raw disk devices. Also, there is another kernel feature called
the module loader, &man.kldload.8;. An enterprising intruder can
use a KLD module to install his own bpf
device, or other sniffing
device, on a running kernel. To avoid these problems you have to
run the kernel at a higher secure level, at least securelevel 1.
The securelevel can be set with a sysctl on
the kern.securelevel variable. Once you have
set the securelevel to 1, write access to raw devices will be
denied and special chflags flags,
such as schg,
will be enforced. You must also ensure that the
schg flag is set on critical startup binaries,
directories, and script files – everything that gets run up
to the point where the securelevel is set. This might be overdoing
it, and upgrading the system is much more difficult when you
operate at a higher secure level. You may compromise and run the
system at a higher secure level but not set the
schg flag for every system file and directory
under the sun. Another possibility is to simply mount
/ and /usr read-only.
It should be noted that being too Draconian in what you attempt to
protect may prevent the all-important detection of an
intrusion.Checking File Integrity: Binaries, Configuration Files,
Etc.When it comes right down to it, you can only protect your core
system configuration and control files so much before the
convenience factor rears its ugly head. For example, using
chflags to set the schg bit
on most of the files in / and
/usr is probably counterproductive, because
while it may protect the files, it also closes a detection window.
The last layer of your security onion is perhaps the most
important – detection. The rest of your security is pretty
much useless (or, worse, presents you with a false sense of
safety) if you cannot detect potential incursions. Half the job
of the onion is to slow down the attacker, rather than stop him, in
order to give the detection side of the equation a chance to catch
him in the act.The best way to detect an incursion is to look for modified,
missing, or unexpected files. The best way to look for modified
files is from another (often centralized) limited-access system.
Writing your security scripts on the extra-secure limited-access
system makes them mostly invisible to potential attackers, and this
is important. In order to take maximum advantage you generally
have to give the limited-access box significant access to the
other machines in the business, usually either by doing a
read-only NFS export of the other machines to the limited-access
box, or by setting up ssh key-pairs to
allow the limited-access box to ssh to
the other machines. Except for its network traffic, NFS is the
least visible method – allowing you to monitor the
filesystems on each client box virtually undetected. If your
limited-access server is connected to the client boxes through a
switch, the NFS method is often the better choice. If your
limited-access server is connected to the client boxes through a
hub, or through several layers of routing, the NFS method may be
too insecure (network-wise) and using
ssh may be the better choice even with
the audit-trail tracks that ssh
lays.Once you give a limited-access box, at least read access to the
client systems it is supposed to monitor, you must write scripts
to do the actual monitoring. Given an NFS mount, you can write
scripts out of simple system utilities such as &man.find.1; and
&man.md5.1;. It is best to physically md5 the client-box files
at least once a day, and to test control files such as those
found in /etc and
/usr/local/etc even more often. When
mismatches are found, relative to the base md5 information the
limited-access machine knows is valid, it should scream at a
sysadmin to go check it out. A good security script will also
check for inappropriate suid binaries and for new or deleted files
on system partitions such as / and
/usr.When using ssh rather than NFS,
writing the security script is much more difficult. You
essentially have to scp the scripts to the client
box in order to
run them, making them visible, and for safety you also need to
scp the binaries (such as find) that those
scripts use. The ssh client on the
client box may already be compromised. All in all, using
ssh may be necessary when running over
unsecure links, but it is also a lot harder to deal with.A good security script will also check for changes to user and
staff members access configuration files:
.rhosts, .shosts,
.ssh/authorized_keys and so forth…
files that might fall outside the purview of the
MD5 check.If you have a huge amount of user disk space, it may take too
long to run through every file on those partitions. In this case,
setting mount flags to disallow suid binaries and devices on those
partitions is a good idea. The nodev and
nosuid options (see &man.mount.8;) are what you
want to look into. You should probably scan them anyway, at least
once a week, since the object of this layer is to detect a break-in
whether or not the break-in is effective.Process accounting (see &man.accton.8;) is a relatively
low-overhead feature of the operating system which might help
as a post-break-in evaluation mechanism. It is especially
useful in tracking down how an intruder has actually broken into
a system, assuming the file is still intact after the break-in
occurs.Finally, security scripts should process the log files, and the
logs themselves should be generated in as secure a manner as
possible – remote syslog can be very useful. An intruder
tries to cover his tracks, and log files are critical to the
sysadmin trying to track down the time and method of the initial
break-in. One way to keep a permanent record of the log files is
to run the system console to a serial port and collect the
information on a continuing basis through a secure machine
monitoring the consoles.ParanoiaA little paranoia never hurts. As a rule, a sysadmin can add
any number of security features, as long as they do not effect
convenience, and can add security features that
do effect convenience with some added thought.
Even more importantly, a security administrator should mix it up a
bit – if you use recommendations such as those given by this
document verbatim, you give away your methodologies to the
prospective attacker who also has access to this document.Denial of Service AttacksDenial of Service (DoS)This section covers Denial of Service attacks. A DoS attack
is typically a packet attack. While there is not much you can do
about modern spoofed packet attacks that saturate your network,
you can generally limit the damage by ensuring that the attacks
cannot take down your servers.Limiting server forks.Limiting springboard attacks (ICMP response attacks, ping
broadcast, etc.).Kernel Route Cache.A common DoS attack is against a forking server that attempts
to cause the server to eat processes, file descriptors, and memory,
until the machine dies. inetd
(see &man.inetd.8;) has several
options to limit this sort of attack. It should be noted that
while it is possible to prevent a machine from going down, it is
not generally possible to prevent a service from being disrupted
by the attack. Read the inetd manual
page carefully and pay
specific attention to the , ,
and options. Note that spoofed-IP attacks
will circumvent the option to
inetd, so
typically a combination of options must be used. Some standalone
servers have self-fork-limitation parameters.Sendmail has its
option, which tends to work
much better than trying to use sendmail's load limiting options
due to the load lag. You should specify a
MaxDaemonChildren parameter, when you start
sendmail, high enough to handle your
expected load, but not so high that the computer cannot handle that
number of sendmails without falling on
its face. It is also prudent to run sendmail in queued mode
() and to run the daemon
(sendmail -bd) separate from the queue-runs
(sendmail -q15m). If you still want real-time
delivery you can run the queue at a much lower interval, such as
, but be sure to specify a reasonable
MaxDaemonChildren option for
that sendmail to prevent cascade failures.Syslogd can be attacked directly
and it is strongly recommended that you use the
option whenever possible, and the option
otherwise.You should also be fairly careful with connect-back services
such as tcpwrapper's reverse-identd,
which can be attacked directly. You generally do not want to use
the reverse-ident feature of
tcpwrappers for this reason.It is a very good idea to protect internal services from
external access by firewalling them off at your border routers.
The idea here is to prevent saturation attacks from outside your
LAN, not so much to protect internal services from network-based
root compromise.
Always configure an exclusive firewall, i.e.,
firewall everything except ports A, B,
C, D, and M-Z. This way you can firewall off all of your
low ports except for certain specific services such as
named (if you are primary for a zone),
ntalkd,
sendmail, and other Internet-accessible
services. If you try to configure the firewall the other way
– as an inclusive or permissive firewall, there is a good
chance that you will forget to close a couple of
services, or that you will add a new internal service and forget
to update the firewall. You can still open up the high-numbered
port range on the firewall, to allow permissive-like operation,
without compromising your low ports. Also take note that FreeBSD
allows you to control the range of port numbers used for dynamic
binding, via the various net.inet.ip.portrangesysctl's (sysctl -a | fgrep
portrange), which can also ease the complexity of your
firewall's configuration. For example, you might use a normal
first/last range of 4000 to 5000, and a hiport range of 49152 to
65535, then block off everything under 4000 in your firewall
(except for certain specific Internet-accessible ports, of
course).ICMP_BANDLIMAnother common DoS attack is called a springboard attack
– to attack a server in a manner that causes the server to
generate responses which overloads the server, the local
network, or some other machine. The most common attack of this
nature is the ICMP ping broadcast attack.
The attacker spoofs ping packets sent to your LAN's broadcast
address with the source IP address set to the actual machine they
wish to attack. If your border routers are not configured to
stomp on ping's to broadcast addresses, your LAN winds up
generating sufficient responses to the spoofed source address to
saturate the victim, especially when the attacker uses the same
trick on several dozen broadcast addresses over several dozen
different networks at once. Broadcast attacks of over a hundred
and twenty megabits have been measured. A second common
springboard attack is against the ICMP error reporting system.
By constructing packets that generate ICMP error responses, an
attacker can saturate a server's incoming network and cause the
server to saturate its outgoing network with ICMP responses. This
type of attack can also crash the server by running it out of
mbuf's, especially if the server cannot drain the ICMP responses
it generates fast enough. The FreeBSD kernel has a new kernel
compile option called
which limits the effectiveness
of these sorts of attacks. The last major class of springboard
attacks is related to certain internal
inetd services such as the
udp echo service. An attacker simply spoofs a UDP packet with the
source address being server A's echo port, and the destination
address being server B's echo port, where server A and B are both
on your LAN. The two servers then bounce this one packet back and
forth between each other. The attacker can overload both servers
and their LANs simply by injecting a few packets in this manner.
Similar problems exist with the internal
chargen port. A
competent sysadmin will turn off all of these inetd-internal test
services.Spoofed packet attacks may also be used to overload the kernel
route cache. Refer to the net.inet.ip.rtexpire,
rtminexpire, and rtmaxcachesysctl parameters. A spoofed packet attack
that uses a random source IP will cause the kernel to generate a
temporary cached route in the route table, viewable with
netstat -rna | fgrep W3. These routes
typically timeout in 1600 seconds or so. If the kernel detects
that the cached route table has gotten too big it will dynamically
reduce the rtexpire but will never decrease it
to less than rtminexpire. There are two
problems:The kernel does not react quickly enough when a lightly
loaded server is suddenly attacked.The rtminexpire is not low enough for
the kernel to survive a sustained attack.If your servers are connected to the Internet via a T3 or
better, it may be prudent to manually override both
rtexpire and rtminexpire
via &man.sysctl.8;. Never set either parameter to zero (unless
you want to crash the machine). Setting both
parameters to 2 seconds should be sufficient to protect the route
table from attack.Access Issues with Kerberos and SSHsshKerberosThere are a few issues with both Kerberos and
ssh that need to be addressed if
you intend to use them. Kerberos V is an excellent
authentication protocol, but there are bugs in the kerberized
telnet and
rlogin applications that make them
unsuitable for dealing with binary streams. Also, by default
Kerberos does not encrypt a session unless you use the
option. ssh
encrypts everything by default.ssh works quite well in every
respect except that it forwards encryption keys by default. What
this means is that if you have a secure workstation holding keys
that give you access to the rest of the system, and you
ssh to an unsecure machine, your keys
becomes exposed. The actual keys themselves are not exposed, but
ssh installs a forwarding port for the
duration of your login, and if an attacker has broken
root on the
unsecure machine he can utilize that port to use your keys to gain
access to any other machine that your keys unlock.We recommend that you use ssh in
combination with Kerberos whenever possible for staff logins.
ssh can be compiled with Kerberos
support. This reduces your reliance on potentially exposable
ssh keys while at the same time
protecting passwords via Kerberos. ssh
keys should only be used for automated tasks from secure machines
(something that Kerberos is unsuited to do). We also recommend that
you either turn off key-forwarding in the
ssh configuration, or that you make use
of the from=IP/DOMAIN option that
ssh allows in its
authorized_keys file to make the key only
usable to entities logging in from specific machines.BillSwingleParts rewritten and updated by DES, MD5, and CryptsecuritycryptcryptDESMD5Every user on a Unix system has a password associated with
their account. It seems obvious that these passwords need to be
known only to the user and the actual operating system. In
order to keep these passwords secret, they are encrypted with
what is known as a one-way hash, that is, they can
only be easily encrypted but not decrypted. In other words, what
we told you a moment ago was obvious is not even true: the
operating system itself does not really know
the password. It only knows the encrypted
form of the password. The only way to get the
plain-text password is by a brute force search of the
space of possible passwords.Unfortunately the only secure way to encrypt passwords when
Unix came into being was based on DES, the Data Encryption
Standard. This was not such a problem for users resident in
the US, but since the source code for DES could not be exported
outside the US, FreeBSD had to find a way to both comply with
US law and retain compatibility with all the other Unix
variants that still used DES.The solution was to divide up the encryption libraries
so that US users could install the DES libraries and use
DES but international users still had an encryption method
that could be exported abroad. This is how FreeBSD came to
use MD5 as its default encryption method. MD5 is believed to
be more secure than DES, so installing DES is offered primarily
for compatibility reasons.Recognizing Your Crypt MechanismBefore FreeBSD 4.4 libcrypt.a was a
symbolic link pointing to the library which was used for
encryption. FreeBSD 4.4 changed libcrypt.a to
provide a configurable password authentication hash library.
Currently the library supports DES, MD5 and Blowfish hash
functions. By default FreeBSD uses MD5 to encrypt
passwords.It is pretty easy to identify which encryption method
FreeBSD is set up to use. Examining the encrypted passwords in
the /etc/master.passwd file is one way.
Passwords encrypted with the MD5 hash are longer than those
encrypted with the DES hash and also begin with the characters
$1$. Passwords starting with
$2$ are encrypted with the
Blowfish hash function. DES password strings do not
have any particular identifying characteristics, but they are
shorter than MD5 passwords, and are coded in a 64-character
alphabet which does not include the $
character, so a relatively short string which does not begin with
a dollar sign is very likely a DES password.The password format used for new passwords is controlled
by the passwd_format login capability in
/etc/login.conf, which takes values of
des or md5 or
blf. See the &man.login.conf.5; manual page
for more information about login capabilities.S/KeyS/KeysecurityS/KeyS/Key is a one-time password scheme based on a one-way hash
function. FreeBSD uses the MD4 hash for compatibility but other
systems have used MD5 and DES-MAC. S/Key has been part of the
FreeBSD base system since version 1.1.5 and is also used on a
growing number of other operating systems. S/Key is a registered
trademark of Bell Communications Research, Inc.From version 5.0 of FreeBSD, S/Key has been replaced with
the functionally equivalent OPIE (Onetime Passwords In
Everything). OPIE uses the MD5 hash by default.There are three different sorts of passwords which we will talk
about in the discussion below. The first is your usual Unix-style or
Kerberos password; we will call this a Unix password.
The second sort is the one-time password which is generated by the
S/Key key program or the OPIE
opiekey program and accepted by the
keyinit or opiepasswd programs
and the login prompt; we will
call this a one-time password. The final sort of
password is the secret password which you give to the
key/opiekey programs (and
sometimes the
keyinit/opiepasswd programs)
which it uses to generate
one-time passwords; we will call it a secret password
or just unqualified password.The secret password does not have anything to do with your Unix
password; they can be the same but this is not recommended. S/Key
and OPIE secret passwords are not limited to 8 characters like Unix
passwords, they can be as long as you like. Passwords of six or
seven word long phrases are fairly common. For the most part, the
S/Key or OPIE system operates completely independently of the Unix
password system.Besides the password, there are two other pieces of data that
are important to S/Key and OPIE. One is what is known as the
seed or key, consisting of two letters
and five digits. The other is what is called the iteration
count, a number between 1 and 100. S/Key creates the
one-time password by concatenating the seed and the secret password,
then applying the MD4/MD5 hash as many times as specified by the
iteration count and turning the result into six short English words.
These six English words are your one-time password. The
authentication system (primarily PAM) keeps
track of the last one-time password used, and the user is
authenticated if the hash of the user-provided password is equal to
the previous password. Because a one-way hash is used it is
impossible to generate future one-time passwords if a successfully
used password is captured; the iteration count is decremented after
each successful login to keep the user and the login program in
sync. When the iteration count gets down to 1, S/Key and OPIE must be
reinitialized.There are three programs involved in each system
which we will discuss below. The key and
opiekey programs accept an iteration
count, a seed, and a secret password, and generate a one-time
password or or a consecutive list of one-time passwords. The
keyinit and opiepasswd
programs are used to initialize S/Key and OPIE respectively,
and to change passwords, iteration counts, or seeds; they
take either a secret passphrase, or an iteration count,
seed, and one-time password. The keyinfo
and opieinfo programs examine the
relevant credentials files (/etc/skeykeys or
/etc/opiekeys) and print out the invoking user's
current iteration count and seed.There are four different sorts of operations we will cover. The
first is using keyinit or
opiepasswd over a secure connection to set up
one-time-passwords for the first time, or to change your password
or seed. The second operation is using keyinit
or opiepasswd over an insecure connection, in
conjunction with key or opiekey
over a secure connection, to do the same. The third is using
key/opiekey to log in over
an insecure connection. The fourth is using key
or opiekey to generate a number of keys which
can be written down or printed out to carry with you when going to
some location without secure connections to anywhere.Secure Connection InitializationTo initialize S/Key for the first time, change your password,
or change your seed while logged in over a secure connection
(e.g., on the console of a machine or via ssh), use the
keyinit command without any parameters while
logged in as yourself:&prompt.user; keyinit
Adding unfurl:
Reminder - Only use this method if you are directly connected.
If you are using telnet or rlogin exit with no password and use keyinit -s.
Enter secret password:
Again secret password:
ID unfurl s/key is 99 to17757
DEFY CLUB PRO NASH LACE SOFTFor OPIE, opiepasswd is used instead:&prompt.user; opiepasswd -c
[grimreaper] ~ $ opiepasswd -f -c
Adding unfurl:
Only use this method from the console; NEVER from remote. If you are using
telnet, xterm, or a dial-in, type ^C now or exit with no password.
Then run opiepasswd without the -c parameter.
Using MD5 to compute responses.
Enter new secret pass phrase:
Again new secret pass phrase:
ID unfurl OTP key is 499 to4268
MOS MALL GOAT ARM AVID COED
At the Enter new secret pass phrase: or
Enter secret password: prompts, you
should enter a password or phrase. Remember, this is not the
password that you will use to login with, this is used to generate
your one-time login keys. The ID line gives the
parameters of your particular instance; your login name, the
iteration count, and seed. When logging in the system
will remember these parameters and present them back to you so you
do not have to remember them. The last line gives the particular
one-time password which corresponds to those parameters and your
secret password; if you were to re-login immediately, this
one-time password is the one you would use.Insecure Connection InitializationTo initialize or change your secret password over an
insecure connection, you will need to already have a secure
connection to some place where you can run key
or opiekey; this might be in the form of a
desk accessory on a Macintosh, or a shell prompt on a machine you
trust. You will also need to make up an iteration count (100 is
probably a good value), and you may make up your own seed or use a
randomly-generated one. Over on the insecure connection (to the
machine you are initializing), use the keyinit
-s command:&prompt.user; keyinit -s
Updating unfurl:
Old key: to17758
Reminder you need the 6 English words from the key command.
Enter sequence count from 1 to 9999: 100
Enter new key [default to17759]:
s/key 100 to 17759
s/key access password:
s/key access password:CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GOREFor OPIE, you need to use opiepasswd:&prompt.user; opiepasswd
Updating unfurl:
You need the response from an OTP generator.
Old secret pass phrase:
otp-md5 498 to4268 ext
Response: GAME GAG WELT OUT DOWN CHAT
New secret pass phrase:
otp-md5 499 to4269
Response: LINE PAP MILK NELL BUOY TROY
ID mark OTP key is 499 gr4269
LINE PAP MILK NELL BUOY TROY
To accept the default seed (which the
keyinit program confusingly calls a
key), press Return.
Then before entering an
access password, move over to your secure connection or S/Key desk
accessory, and give it the same parameters:&prompt.user; key 100 to17759
Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin.
Enter secret password: <secret password>
CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GOREOr for OPIE:&prompt.user; opiekey 498 to4268
Using the MD5 algorithm to compute response.
Reminder: Don't use opiekey from telnet or dial-in sessions.
Enter secret pass phrase:
GAME GAG WELT OUT DOWN CHAT
Now switch back over to the insecure connection, and copy the
one-time password generated over to the relevant program.Generating a Single one-time PasswordOnce you have initialized S/Key or OPIE, when you login you will be
presented with a prompt like this:&prompt.user; telnet example.com
Trying 10.0.0.1...
Connected to example.com
Escape character is '^]'.
FreeBSD/i386 (example.com) (ttypa)
login: <username>
s/key 97 fw13894
Password: Or for OPIE:&prompt.user; telnet example.com
Trying 10.0.0.1...
Connected to example.com
Escape character is '^]'.
FreeBSD/i386 (example.com) (ttypa)
login: <username>
otp-md5 498 gr4269 ext
Password: As a side note, the S/Key and OPIE prompts have a useful feature
(not shown here): if you press Return
at the password prompt, the
prompter will turn echo on, so you can see what you are
typing. This can be extremely useful if you are attempting to
type in a password by hand, such as from a printout.MS-DOSWindowsMacOSAt this point you need to generate your one-time password to
answer this login prompt. This must be done on a trusted system
that you can run key or
opiekey on. (There are versions of these for DOS,
Windows and MacOS as well.) They need both the iteration count and
the seed as command line options. You can cut-and-paste these
right from the login prompt on the machine that you are logging
in to.On the trusted system:&prompt.user; key 97 fw13894
Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin.
Enter secret password:
WELD LIP ACTS ENDS ME HAAGFor OPIE:&prompt.user; opiekey 498 to4268
Using the MD5 algorithm to compute response.
Reminder: Don't use opiekey from telnet or dial-in sessions.
Enter secret pass phrase:
GAME GAG WELT OUT DOWN CHATNow that you have your one-time password you can continue
logging in:login: <username>
s/key 97 fw13894
Password: <return to enable echo>
s/key 97 fw13894
Password [echo on]: WELD LIP ACTS ENDS ME HAAG
Last login: Tue Mar 21 11:56:41 from 10.0.0.2 ... Generating Multiple one-time PasswordsSometimes you have to go places where you do not have
access to a trusted machine or secure connection. In this case,
it is possible to use the key command to
generate a number of one-time passwords before hand to be printed
out and taken with you. For example:&prompt.user; key -n 5 30 zz99999
Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin.
Enter secret password: <secret password>
26: SODA RUDE LEA LIND BUDD SILT
27: JILT SPY DUTY GLOW COWL ROT
28: THEM OW COLA RUNT BONG SCOT
29: COT MASH BARR BRIM NAN FLAG
30: CAN KNEE CAST NAME FOLK BILKThe requests five keys in sequence, the
specifies what the last iteration number
should be. Note that these are printed out in
reverse order of eventual use. If you are
really paranoid, you might want to write the results down by hand;
otherwise you can cut-and-paste into lpr. Note
that each line shows both the iteration count and the one-time
password; you may still find it handy to scratch off passwords as
you use them.Restricting Use of Unix PasswordsRestrictions can be placed on the use of Unix passwords based
on the host name, user name, terminal port, or IP address of a
login session. These restrictions can be found in the
configuration file /etc/skey.access. The
&man.skey.access.5; manual page has more information on the complete
format of the file and also details some security cautions to be
aware of before depending on this file for security.If there is no /etc/skey.access file
(this is the FreeBSD default), then all users will be allowed to
use Unix passwords. If the file exists, however, then all users
will be required to use S/Key unless explicitly permitted to do
otherwise by configuration statements in the
skey.access file. In all cases, Unix
passwords are permitted on the console.Here is a sample configuration file which illustrates the
three most common sorts of configuration statements:permit internet 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0
permit user fnord
permit port ttyd0The first line (permit internet) allows
users whose IP source address (which is vulnerable to spoofing)
matches the specified value and mask, to use Unix passwords. This
should not be considered a security mechanism, but rather, a means
to remind authorized users that they are using an insecure network
and need to use S/Key for authentication.The second line (permit user) allows the
specified username, in this case fnord, to use
Unix passwords at any time. Generally speaking, this should only
be used for people who are either unable to use the
key program, like those with dumb terminals, or
those who are uneducable.The third line (permit port) allows all
users logging in on the specified terminal line to use Unix
passwords; this would be used for dial-ups.MarkMurrayContributed by MarkDapozBased on a contribution by KerberosKerberosKerberos is a network add-on system/protocol that allows users to
authenticate themselves through the services of a secure server.
Services such as remote login, remote copy, secure inter-system file
copying and other high-risk tasks are made considerably safer and more
controllable.The following instructions can be used as a guide on how to set up
Kerberos as distributed for FreeBSD. However, you should refer to the
relevant manual pages for a complete description.Installing KerberosMITKerberosinstallingKerberos is an optional component of FreeBSD. The easiest
way to install this software is by selecting the 'krb4' or
'krb5' distribution in sysinstall
during the initial installation of FreeBSD. This will install
the 'eBones' (KerberosIV) or 'Heimdal' (Kerberos5)
implementation of Kerberos. These implementations are
included because they are developed outside the USA/Canada and
were thus available to system owners outside those countries
during the era of restrictive export controls on cryptographic
code from the USA.Alternatively, the MIT implementation of Kerberos is
available from the ports collection as
security/krb5.Creating the Initial DatabaseThis is done on the Kerberos server only. First make sure that
you do not have any old Kerberos databases around. You should change
to the directory /etc/kerberosIV and check that
only the following files are present:&prompt.root; cd /etc/kerberosIV
&prompt.root; ls
README krb.conf krb.realmsIf any additional files (such as principal.*
or master_key) exist, then use the
kdb_destroy command to destroy the old Kerberos
database, or if Kerberos is not running, simply delete the extra
files.You should now edit the krb.conf and
krb.realms files to define your Kerberos realm.
In this case the realm will be EXAMPLE.COM and the
server is grunt.example.com. We edit
or create the krb.conf file:&prompt.root; cat krb.conf
EXAMPLE.COM
EXAMPLE.COM grunt.example.com admin server
CS.BERKELEY.EDU okeeffe.berkeley.edu
ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos.mit.edu
ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-1.mit.edu
ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-2.mit.edu
ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-3.mit.edu
LCS.MIT.EDU kerberos.lcs.mit.edu
TELECOM.MIT.EDU bitsy.mit.edu
ARC.NASA.GOV trident.arc.nasa.govIn this case, the other realms do not need to be there. They are
here as an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple
realms. You may wish to not include them for simplicity.The first line names the realm in which this system works. The
other lines contain realm/host entries. The first item on a line is a
realm, and the second is a host in that realm that is acting as a
key distribution center. The words admin
server following a host's name means that host also
provides an administrative database server. For further explanation
of these terms, please consult the Kerberos manual pages.Now we have to add grunt.example.com
to the EXAMPLE.COM realm and also add an entry to
put all hosts in the .example.com
domain in the EXAMPLE.COM realm. The
krb.realms file would be updated as
follows:&prompt.root; cat krb.realms
grunt.example.com EXAMPLE.COM
.example.com EXAMPLE.COM
.berkeley.edu CS.BERKELEY.EDU
.MIT.EDU ATHENA.MIT.EDU
.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDUAgain, the other realms do not need to be there. They are here as
an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple realms. You
may wish to remove them to simplify things.The first line puts the specific system into
the named realm. The rest of the lines show how to default systems of
a particular subdomain to a named realm.Now we are ready to create the database. This only needs to run
on the Kerberos server (or Key Distribution Center). Issue the
kdb_init command to do this:&prompt.root; kdb_initRealm name [default ATHENA.MIT.EDU ]:EXAMPLE.COM
You will be prompted for the database Master Password.
It is important that you NOT FORGET this password.
Enter Kerberos master key:Now we have to save the key so that servers on the local machine
can pick it up. Use the kstash command to do
this.&prompt.root; kstashEnter Kerberos master key:
Current Kerberos master key version is 1.
Master key entered. BEWARE!This saves the encrypted master password in
/etc/kerberosIV/master_key.Making It All RunTwo principals need to be added to the database for
each system that will be secured with Kerberos.
Their names are kpasswd and rcmd
These two principals are made for each system, with the instance being
the name of the individual system.These daemons, kpasswd and
rcmd allow other systems to change Kerberos
passwords and run commands like rcp,
rlogin and rsh.Now let us add these entries:&prompt.root; kdb_edit
Opening database...
Enter Kerberos master key:
Current Kerberos master key version is 1.
Master key entered. BEWARE!
Previous or default values are in [brackets] ,
enter return to leave the same, or new value.
Principal name:passwdInstance:grunt
<Not found>, Create [y] ?y
Principal: passwd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1
New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here
Verifying password
New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here
Random password [y] ?y
Principal's new key version = 1
Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ?Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ?Attributes [ 0 ] ?
Edit O.K.
Principal name:rcmdInstance:grunt
<Not found>, Create [y] ?
Principal: rcmd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1
New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here
Verifying password
New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here
Random password [y] ?
Principal's new key version = 1
Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ?Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ?Attributes [ 0 ] ?
Edit O.K.
Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exitCreating the Server FileWe now have to extract all the instances which define the
services on each machine. For this we use the
ext_srvtab command. This will create a file
which must be copied or moved by secure
means to each Kerberos client's
/etc/kerberosIV directory. This file must
be present on each server and client, and is crucial to the
operation of Kerberos.&prompt.root; ext_srvtab gruntEnter Kerberos master key:
Current Kerberos master key version is 1.
Master key entered. BEWARE!
Generating 'grunt-new-srvtab'....Now, this command only generates a temporary file which must be
renamed to srvtab so that all the servers can pick
it up. Use the mv command to move it into place on
the original system:&prompt.root; mv grunt-new-srvtab srvtabIf the file is for a client system, and the network is not deemed
safe, then copy the
client-new-srvtab to
removable media and transport it by secure physical means. Be sure to
rename it to srvtab in the client's
/etc/kerberosIV directory, and make sure it is
mode 600:&prompt.root; mv grumble-new-srvtab srvtab
&prompt.root; chmod 600 srvtabPopulating the DatabaseWe now have to add some user entries into the database. First
let us create an entry for the user jane. Use the
kdb_edit command to do this:&prompt.root; kdb_edit
Opening database...
Enter Kerberos master key:
Current Kerberos master key version is 1.
Master key entered. BEWARE!
Previous or default values are in [brackets] ,
enter return to leave the same, or new value.
Principal name:janeInstance:
<Not found>, Create [y] ?y
Principal: jane, Instance: , kdc_key_ver: 1
New Password: <---- enter a secure password here
Verifying password
New Password: <---- re-enter the password here
Principal's new key version = 1
Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ?Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ?Attributes [ 0 ] ?
Edit O.K.
Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exitTesting It All OutFirst we have to start the Kerberos daemons. NOTE that if you
have correctly edited your /etc/rc.conf then this
will happen automatically when you reboot. This is only necessary on
the Kerberos server. Kerberos clients will automagically get what
they need from the /etc/kerberosIV
directory.&prompt.root; kerberos &
Kerberos server starting
Sleep forever on error
Log file is /var/log/kerberos.log
Current Kerberos master key version is 1.
Master key entered. BEWARE!
Current Kerberos master key version is 1
Local realm: EXAMPLE.COM
&prompt.root; kadmind -n &
KADM Server KADM0.0A initializing
Please do not use 'kill -9' to kill this job, use a
regular kill instead
Current Kerberos master key version is 1.
Master key entered. BEWARE!Now we can try using the kinit command to get a
ticket for the id jane that we created
above:&prompt.user; kinit jane
MIT Project Athena (grunt.example.com)
Kerberos Initialization for "jane"
Password:Try listing the tokens using klist to see if we
really have them:&prompt.user; klist
Ticket file: /tmp/tkt245
Principal: jane@EXAMPLE.COM
Issued Expires Principal
Apr 30 11:23:22 Apr 30 19:23:22 krbtgt.EXAMPLE.COM@EXAMPLE.COMNow try changing the password using passwd to
check if the kpasswd daemon can get
authorization to the Kerberos database:&prompt.user; passwd
realm EXAMPLE.COM
Old password for jane:New Password for jane:
Verifying password
New Password for jane:
Password changed.Adding <command>su</command> PrivilegesKerberos allows us to give each user
who needs root privileges their own
separatesu password.
We could now add an id which is authorized to
su to root. This is
controlled by having an instance of root
associated with a principal. Using kdb_edit
we can create the entry jane.root in the
Kerberos database:&prompt.root; kdb_edit
Opening database...
Enter Kerberos master key:
Current Kerberos master key version is 1.
Master key entered. BEWARE!
Previous or default values are in [brackets] ,
enter return to leave the same, or new value.
Principal name:janeInstance:root
<Not found>, Create [y] ? y
Principal: jane, Instance: root, kdc_key_ver: 1
New Password: <---- enter a SECURE password here
Verifying password
New Password: <---- re-enter the password here
Principal's new key version = 1
Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ?Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ?12 <--- Keep this short!
Attributes [ 0 ] ?
Edit O.K.
Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exitNow try getting tokens for it to make sure it works:&prompt.root; kinit jane.root
MIT Project Athena (grunt.example.com)
Kerberos Initialization for "jane.root"
Password:Now we need to add the user to root's
.klogin file:&prompt.root; cat /root/.klogin
jane.root@EXAMPLE.COMNow try doing the su:&prompt.user; suPassword:and take a look at what tokens we have:&prompt.root; klist
Ticket file: /tmp/tkt_root_245
Principal: jane.root@EXAMPLE.COM
Issued Expires Principal
May 2 20:43:12 May 3 04:43:12 krbtgt.EXAMPLE.COM@EXAMPLE.COMUsing Other CommandsIn an earlier example, we created a principal called
jane with an instance root.
This was based on a user with the same name as the principal, and this
is a Kerberos default; that a
<principal>.<instance> of the form
<username>.root will allow
that <username> to su to
root if the necessary entries are in the
.klogin file in root's
home directory:&prompt.root; cat /root/.klogin
jane.root@EXAMPLE.COMLikewise, if a user has in their own home directory lines of the
form:&prompt.user; cat ~/.klogin
jane@EXAMPLE.COM
jack@EXAMPLE.COMThis allows anyone in the EXAMPLE.COM realm
who has authenticated themselves to jane or
jack (via kinit, see above)
access to rlogin to jane's
account or files on this system (grunt) via
rlogin, rsh or
rcp.For example, jane now logs into another system using
Kerberos:&prompt.user; kinit
MIT Project Athena (grunt.example.com)
Password:
&prompt.user; rlogin grunt
Last login: Mon May 1 21:14:47 from grumble
Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994
The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved.
FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995Or Jack logs into Jane's account on the same machine
(jane having
set up the .klogin file as above, and the person
in charge of Kerberos having set up principal
jack with a null instance:&prompt.user; kinit
&prompt.user; rlogin grunt -l jane
MIT Project Athena (grunt.example.com)
Password:
Last login: Mon May 1 21:16:55 from grumble
Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994
The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved.
FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995GaryPalmerContributed by AlexNashFirewallsfirewallsecurityfirewallsFirewalls are an area of increasing interest for people who are
connected to the Internet, and are even finding applications on private
networks to provide enhanced security. This section will hopefully
explain what firewalls are, how to use them, and how to use the
facilities provided in the FreeBSD kernel to implement them.People often think that having a firewall between your
internal network and the Big Bad Internet will solve all
your security problems. It may help, but a poorly setup firewall
system is more of a security risk than not having one at all. A
firewall can add another layer of security to your systems, but it
cannot stop a really determined cracker from penetrating your internal
network. If you let internal security lapse because you believe your
firewall to be impenetrable, you have just made the crackers job that
much easier.What Is a Firewall?There are currently two distinct types of firewalls in common use
on the Internet today. The first type is more properly called a
packet filtering router, where the kernel on a
multi-homed machine chooses whether to forward or block packets based
on a set of rules. The second type, known as a proxy
server, relies on daemons to provide authentication and to
forward packets, possibly on a multi-homed machine which has kernel
packet forwarding disabled.Sometimes sites combine the two types of firewalls, so that only a
certain machine (known as a bastion host) is
allowed to send packets through a packet filtering router onto an
internal network. Proxy services are run on the bastion host, which
are generally more secure than normal authentication
mechanisms.FreeBSD comes with a kernel packet filter (known as
IPFW), which is what the rest of this
section will concentrate on. Proxy servers can be built on FreeBSD
from third party software, but there is such a variety of proxy
servers available that it would be impossible to cover them in this
section.Packet Filtering RoutersA router is a machine which forwards packets between two or more
networks. A packet filtering router has an extra piece of code in
its kernel which compares each packet to a list of rules before
deciding if it should be forwarded or not. Most modern IP routing
software has packet filtering code within it that defaults to
forwarding all packets. To enable the filters, you need to define a
set of rules for the filtering code so it can decide if the
packet should be allowed to pass or not.To decide whether a packet should be passed on, the code looks
through its set of rules for a rule which matches the contents of
this packets headers. Once a match is found, the rule action is
obeyed. The rule action could be to drop the packet, to forward the
packet, or even to send an ICMP message back to the originator.
Only the first match counts, as the rules are searched in order.
Hence, the list of rules can be referred to as a rule
chain.The packet matching criteria varies depending on the software
used, but typically you can specify rules which depend on the source
IP address of the packet, the destination IP address, the source
port number, the destination port number (for protocols which
support ports), or even the packet type (UDP, TCP, ICMP,
etc).Proxy ServersProxy servers are machines which have had the normal system
daemons (telnetd,
ftpd, etc) replaced with special servers.
These
servers are called proxy servers as they
normally only allow onward connections to be made. This enables you
to run (for example) a proxy telnet server on your firewall host,
and people can telnet in to your firewall from the outside, go
through some authentication mechanism, and then gain access to the
internal network (alternatively, proxy servers can be used for
signals coming from the internal network and heading out).Proxy servers are normally more secure than normal servers, and
often have a wider variety of authentication mechanisms available,
including one-shot password systems so that even if
someone manages to discover what password you used, they will not be
able to use it to gain access to your systems as the password
instantly expires. As they do not actually give users access to the
host machine, it becomes a lot more difficult for someone to install
backdoors around your security system.Proxy servers often have ways of restricting access further, so
that only certain hosts can gain access to the servers, and often
they can be set up so that you can limit which users can talk to
which destination machine. Again, what facilities are available
depends largely on what proxy software you choose.What Does IPFW Allow Me to Do?ipfwIPFW, the software supplied with
FreeBSD, is a packet filtering and accounting system which resides in
the kernel, and has a user-land control utility,
&man.ipfw.8;. Together, they allow you to define and query the
rules currently used by the kernel in its routing decisions.There are two related parts to IPFW.
The firewall section allows you to perform packet filtering. There is
also an IP accounting section which allows you to track usage of your
router, based on similar rules to the firewall section. This allows
you to see (for example) how much traffic your router is getting from
a certain machine, or how much WWW (World Wide Web) traffic it is
forwarding.As a result of the way that IPFW is
designed, you can use IPFW on non-router
machines to perform packet filtering on incoming and outgoing
connections. This is a special case of the more general use of
IPFW, and the same commands and techniques
should be used in this situation.Enabling IPFW on FreeBSDipfwenablingAs the main part of the IPFW system
lives in the kernel, you will need to add one or more options to your
kernel configuration file, depending on what facilities you want, and
recompile your kernel. See "Reconfiguring your Kernel" ()
for more details on how to recompile your
kernel.There are currently three kernel configuration options relevant to
IPFW:options IPFIREWALLCompiles into the kernel the code for packet
filtering.options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSEEnables code to allow logging of packets through
&man.syslogd.8;. Without this option, even if you specify
that packets should be logged in the filter rules, nothing will
happen.options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT=10Limits the number of packets logged through
&man.syslogd.8; on a per entry basis. You may wish to use
this option in hostile environments in which you want to log
firewall activity, but do not want to be open to a denial of
service attack via syslog flooding.When a chain entry reaches the packet limit specified,
logging is turned off for that particular entry. To resume
logging, you will need to reset the associated counter using the
&man.ipfw.8; utility:&prompt.root; ipfw zero 4500Where 4500 is the chain entry you wish to continue
logging.Previous versions of FreeBSD contained an
IPFIREWALL_ACCT option. This is now obsolete as
the firewall code automatically includes accounting
facilities.Configuring IPFWipfwconfiguringThe configuration of the IPFW software
is done through the &man.ipfw.8; utility. The syntax for this
command looks quite complicated, but it is relatively simple once you
understand its structure.There are currently four different command categories used by the
utility: addition/deletion, listing, flushing, and clearing.
Addition/deletion is used to build the rules that control how packets
are accepted, rejected, and logged. Listing is used to examine the
contents of your rule set (otherwise known as the chain) and packet
counters (accounting). Flushing is used to remove all entries from
the chain. Clearing is used to zero out one or more accounting
entries.Altering the IPFW RulesThe syntax for this form of the command is:
ipfw-NcommandindexactionlogprotocoladdressesoptionsThere is one valid flag when using this form of the
command:-NResolve addresses and service names in output.The command given can be shortened to the
shortest unique form. The valid commands
are:addAdd an entry to the firewall/accounting rule listdeleteDelete an entry from the firewall/accounting rule
listPrevious versions of IPFW used
separate firewall and accounting entries. The present version
provides packet accounting with each firewall entry.If an index value is supplied, it is used to
place the entry at a specific point in the chain. Otherwise, the
entry is placed at the end of the chain at an index 100 greater than
the last chain entry (this does not include the default policy, rule
65535, deny).The log option causes matching rules to be
output to the system console if the kernel was compiled with
IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE.Valid actions are:rejectDrop the packet, and send an ICMP host or port unreachable
(as appropriate) packet to the source.allowPass the packet on as normal. (aliases:
pass and
accept)denyDrop the packet. The source is not notified via an
ICMP message (thus it appears that the packet never
arrived at the destination).countUpdate packet counters but do not allow/deny the packet
based on this rule. The search continues with the next chain
entry.Each action will be recognized by the
shortest unambiguous prefix.The protocols which can be specified
are:allMatches any IP packeticmpMatches ICMP packetstcpMatches TCP packetsudpMatches UDP packetsThe address specification is:fromaddress/maskporttoaddress/maskportvia interfaceYou can only specify port in
conjunction with protocols which support ports
(UDP and TCP).The is optional and may specify the IP
address or domain name of a local IP interface, or an interface name
(e.g. ed0) to match only packets coming
through this interface. Interface unit numbers can be specified
with an optional wildcard. For example, ppp*
would match all kernel PPP interfaces.The syntax used to specify an
address/mask is:
address
or
address/mask-bits
or
address:mask-patternA valid hostname may be specified in place of the IP address.
is a decimal
number representing how many bits in the address mask should be set.
e.g. specifying 192.216.222.1/24 will create a
mask which will allow any address in a class C subnet (in this case,
192.216.222) to be matched.
is an IP
address which will be logically AND'ed with the address given. The
keyword any may be used to specify any IP
address.The port numbers to be blocked are specified as:
port,port,port…
to specify either a single port or a list of ports, or
port-port
to specify a range of ports. You may also combine a single range
with a list, but the range must always be specified first.The options available are:fragMatches if the packet is not the first fragment of the
datagram.inMatches if the packet is on the way in.outMatches if the packet is on the way out.ipoptions specMatches if the IP header contains the comma separated list
of options specified in spec. The
supported list of IP options are: ssrr
(strict source route), lsrr (loose source
route), rr (record packet route), and
ts (time stamp). The absence of a
particular option may be denoted with a leading
!.establishedMatches if the packet is part of an already established
TCP connection (i.e. it has the RST or ACK bits set). You can
optimize the performance of the firewall by placing
established rules early in the
chain.setupMatches if the packet is an attempt to establish a TCP
connection (the SYN bit is set but the ACK bit is
not).tcpflags flagsMatches if the TCP header contains the comma separated
list of flags. The supported flags
are fin, syn,
rst, psh,
ack, and urg. The
absence of a particular flag may be indicated by a leading
!.icmptypes typesMatches if the ICMP type is present in the list
types. The list may be specified
as any combination of ranges and/or individual types separated
by commas. Commonly used ICMP types are: 0
echo reply (ping reply), 3 destination
unreachable, 5 redirect,
8 echo request (ping request), and
11 time exceeded (used to indicate TTL
expiration as with &man.traceroute.8;).Listing the IPFW RulesThe syntax for this form of the command is:
ipfw-a-t-NlThere are three valid flags when using this form of the
command:-aWhile listing, show counter values. This option is the
only way to see accounting counters.-tDisplay the last match times for each chain entry. The
time listing is incompatible with the input syntax used by the
&man.ipfw.8; utility.-NAttempt to resolve given addresses and service
names.Flushing the IPFW RulesThe syntax for flushing the chain is:
ipfwflushThis causes all entries in the firewall chain to be removed
except the fixed default policy enforced by the kernel (index
65535). Use caution when flushing rules, the default deny policy
will leave your system cut off from the network until allow entries
are added to the chain.Clearing the IPFW Packet CountersThe syntax for clearing one or more packet counters is:
ipfwzeroindexWhen used without an index argument,
all packet counters are cleared. If an
index is supplied, the clearing operation
only affects a specific chain entry.Example Commands for <application>ipfw</application>This command will deny all packets from the host evil.crackers.org to the telnet port of the
host nice.people.org:&prompt.root ipfw add deny tcp from evil.crackers.org to nice.people.org 23The next example denies and logs any TCP traffic from the entire
crackers.org network (a class C) to
the nice.people.org machine (any
port).&prompt.root; ipfw add deny log tcp from evil.crackers.org/24 to nice.people.orgIf you do not want people sending X sessions to your internal
network (a subnet of a class C), the following command will do the
necessary filtering:&prompt.root; ipfw add deny tcp from any to my.org/28 6000 setupTo see the accounting records:
&prompt.root; ipfw -a list
or in the short form
&prompt.root; ipfw -a lYou can also see the last time a chain entry was matched
with:&prompt.root; ipfw -at lBuilding a Packet Filtering FirewallThe following suggestions are just that: suggestions. The
requirements of each firewall are different and we cannot tell you
how to build a firewall to meet your particular requirements.When initially setting up your firewall, unless you have a test
bench setup where you can configure your firewall host in a controlled
environment, it is strongly recommend you use the logging version of the
commands and enable logging in the kernel. This will allow you to
quickly identify problem areas and cure them without too much
disruption. Even after the initial setup phase is complete, I
recommend using the logging for `deny' as it allows tracing of
possible attacks and also modification of the firewall rules if your
requirements alter.If you use the logging versions of the accept
command, it can generate large amounts of log
data as one log line will be generated for every packet that passes
through the firewall, so large FTP/http transfers, etc, will really
slow the system down. It also increases the latencies on those
packets as it requires more work to be done by the kernel before the
packet can be passed on. syslogd will
also start using up a lot
more processor time as it logs all the extra data to disk, and it
could quite easily fill the partition /var/log
is located on.You should enable your firewall from
/etc/rc.conf.local or
/etc/rc.conf. The associated manual page explains
which knobs to fiddle and lists some preset firewall configurations.
If you do not use a preset configuration, ipfw list
will output the current ruleset into a file that you can
pass to rc.conf. If you do not use
/etc/rc.conf.local or
/etc/rc.conf to enable your firewall,
it is important to make sure your firewall is enabled before
any IP interfaces are configured.The next problem is what your firewall should actually
do! This is largely dependent on what access to
your network you want to allow from the outside, and how much access
to the outside world you want to allow from the inside. Some general
rules are:Block all incoming access to ports below 1024 for TCP. This is
where most of the security sensitive services are, like finger,
SMTP (mail) and telnet.Block all incoming UDP traffic. There
are very few useful services that travel over UDP, and what useful
traffic there is, is normally a security threat (e.g. Suns RPC and
NFS protocols). This has its disadvantages also, since UDP is a
connectionless protocol, denying incoming UDP traffic also blocks
the replies to outgoing UDP traffic. This can cause a problem for
people (on the inside) using external archie (prospero) servers.
If you want to allow access to archie, you will have to allow
packets coming from ports 191 and 1525 to any internal UDP port
through the firewall. ntp is another
service you may consider allowing through, which comes from port
123.Block traffic to port 6000 from the outside. Port 6000 is the
port used for access to X11 servers, and can be a security threat
(especially if people are in the habit of doing xhost
+ on their workstations). X11 can actually use a
range of ports starting at 6000, the upper limit being how many X
displays you can run on the machine. The upper limit as defined
by RFC 1700 (Assigned Numbers) is 6063.Check what ports any internal servers use (e.g. SQL servers,
etc). It is probably a good idea to block those as well, as they
normally fall outside the 1-1024 range specified above.Another checklist for firewall configuration is available from
CERT at http://www.cert.org/tech_tips/packet_filtering.htmlAs stated above, these are only guidelines.
You will have to decide what filter rules you want to use on your
firewall yourself. We cannot accept ANY responsibility if someone
breaks into your network, even if you follow the advice given
above.IPFW Overhead and OptimizationMany people want to know how much overhead IPFW adds to a
system. The answer to this depends mostly on your rule set and
processor speed. For most applications dealing with Ethernet
and small rule sets, the answer is
negligible. For those of you that need actual
measurements to satisfy your curiosity, read on.The following measurements were made using 2.2.5-STABLE on
a 486-66. (While IPFW has changed slightly in later releases
of FreeBSD, it still performs with similar speed.) IPFW was
modified to measure the time spent within the
ip_fw_chk routine, displaying the results
to the console every 1000 packets.Two rule sets, each with 1000 rules were tested. The
first set was designed to demonstrate a worst case scenario by
repeating the rule:&prompt.root; ipfw add deny tcp from any to any 55555This demonstrates worst case by causing most of IPFW's
packet check routine to be executed before finally deciding
that the packet does not match the rule (by virtue of the port
number). Following the 999th iteration of this rule was an
allow ip from any to any.The second set of rules were designed to abort the rule
check quickly:&prompt.root; ipfw add deny ip from 1.2.3.4 to 1.2.3.4The non-matching source IP address for the above rule
causes these rules to be skipped very quickly. As before, the
1000th rule was an allow ip from any to
any.The per-packet processing overhead in the former case was
approximately 2.703ms/packet, or roughly 2.7 microseconds per
rule. Thus the theoretical packet processing limit with these
rules is around 370 packets per second. Assuming 10Mbps
Ethernet and a ~1500 byte packet size, we would only be able
to achieve a 55.5% bandwidth utilization.For the latter case each packet was processed in
approximately 1.172ms, or roughly 1.2 microseconds per rule.
The theoretical packet processing limit here would be about
853 packets per second, which could consume 10Mbps Ethernet
bandwidth.The excessive number of rules tested and the nature of
those rules do not provide a real-world scenario -- they were
used only to generate the timing information presented here.
Here are a few things to keep in mind when building an
efficient rule set:Place an established rule early on
to handle the majority of TCP traffic. Do not put any
allow tcp statements before this
rule.Place heavily triggered rules earlier in the rule set
than those rarely used (without changing the
permissiveness of the firewall, of course).
You can see which rules are used most often by examining
the packet counting statistics with ipfw -a
l.OpenSSLsecurityOpenSSLOpenSSLAs of FreeBSD 4.0, the OpenSSL toolkit is a part of the base
system. OpenSSL
provides a general-purpose cryptography library, as well as the
Secure Sockets Layer v2/v3 (SSLv2/SSLv3) and Transport Layer
Security v1 (TLSv1) network security protocols.However, one of the algorithms (specifically IDEA)
included in OpenSSL is protected by patents in the USA and
elsewhere, and is not available for unrestricted use.
IDEA is included in the OpenSSL sources in FreeBSD, but it is not
built by default. If you wish to use it, and you comply with the
license terms, enable the MAKE_IDEA switch in
/etc/make.conf and
rebuild your sources using make world.Today, the RSA algorithm is free for use in USA and other
countries. In the past it was protected by a patent.OpenSSLinstallSource Code InstallationsOpenSSL is part of the src-crypto and
src-secure cvsup collections. See the Obtaining FreeBSD section for more
information about obtaining and updating FreeBSD source
code.YoshinobuInoueContributed by IPsecIPsecsecurityIPsecTerminating CharactersThroughout examples in this section, and other sections,
you will notice that there is a ^D at the end
of some examples. This means to hold down the Control
key and hit the D key. Another commonly used
character is ^C, which respectively means to hold
down Control and press C.For other HOWTOs detailing IPSec implementation in
FreeBSD, take a look at
and .The IPsec mechanism provides secure communication for IP
layer and socket layer communication. This section should
explain how to use them. For implementation details, please
refer to The
Developers' Handbook.The current IPsec implementation supports both transport mode
and tunnel mode. However, tunnel mode comes with some restrictions.
http://www.kame.net/newsletter/
has more comprehensive examples.Please be aware that in order to use this functionality, you
must have the following options compiled into your kernel:options IPSEC #IP security
options IPSEC_ESP #IP security (crypto; define w/IPSEC)Transport Mode Example with IPv4Let us setup security association to deploy a secure channel
between HOST A (10.2.3.4) and HOST B (10.6.7.8). Here we show a little
complicated example. From HOST A to HOST B, only old AH is used.
From HOST B to HOST A, new AH and new ESP are combined.Now we should choose an algorithm to be used corresponding to
AH/new AH/ESP/
new ESP. Please refer to the &man.setkey.8; man
page to know algorithm names. Our choice is MD5 for AH, new-HMAC-SHA1
for new AH, and new-DES-expIV with 8 byte IV for new ESP.Key length highly depends on each algorithm. For example, key
length must be equal to 16 bytes for MD5, 20 for new-HMAC-SHA1,
and 8 for new-DES-expIV. Now we choose MYSECRETMYSECRET,
KAMEKAMEKAMEKAMEKAME, PASSWORD,
respectively.OK, let us assign SPI (Security Parameter Index) for each protocol.
Please note that we need 3 SPIs for this secure channel since three
security headers are produced (one for from HOST A to HOST B, two for
from HOST B to HOST A). Please also note that SPI MUST be greater
than or equal to 256. We choose, 1000, 2000, and 3000,
respectively.
(1)
HOST A ------> HOST B
(1)PROTO=AH
ALG=MD5(RFC1826)
KEY=MYSECRETMYSECRET
SPI=1000
(2.1)
HOST A <------ HOST B
<------
(2.2)
(2.1)
PROTO=AH
ALG=new-HMAC-SHA1(new AH)
KEY=KAMEKAMEKAMEKAMEKAME
SPI=2000
(2.2)
PROTO=ESP
ALG=new-DES-expIV(new ESP)
IV length = 8
KEY=PASSWORD
SPI=3000
Now, let us setup security association. Execute &man.setkey.8;
on both HOST A and B:
&prompt.root; setkey -c
add 10.2.3.4 10.6.7.8 ah-old 1000 -m transport -A keyed-md5 "MYSECRETMYSECRET" ;
add 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 ah 2000 -m transport -A hmac-sha1 "KAMEKAMEKAMEKAMEKAME" ;
add 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 esp 3000 -m transport -E des-cbc "PASSWORD" ;
^D
Actually, IPsec communication does not process until security policy
entries are defined. In this case, you must setup each host.
At A:
&prompt.root; setkey -c
spdadd 10.2.3.4 10.6.7.8 any -P out ipsec
ah/transport/10.2.3.4-10.6.7.8/require ;
^D
At B:
&prompt.root; setkey -c
spdadd 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 any -P out ipsec
esp/transport/10.6.7.8-10.2.3.4/require ;
spdadd 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 any -P out ipsec
ah/transport/10.6.7.8-10.2.3.4/require ;
^D
HOST A --------------------------------------> HOST E
10.2.3.4 10.6.7.8
| |
========== old AH keyed-md5 ==========>
<========= new AH hmac-sha1 ===========
<========= new ESP des-cbc ============
Transport Mode Example with IPv6Another example using IPv6.ESP transport mode is recommended for TCP port number 110 between
Host-A and Host-B.
============ ESP ============
| |
Host-A Host-B
fec0::10 -------------------- fec0::11
Encryption algorithm is blowfish-cbc whose key is
kamekame, and authentication algorithm is hmac-sha1
whose key is this is the test key.
Configuration at Host-A:
&prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF
spdadd fec0::10[any] fec0::11[110] tcp -P out ipsec
esp/transport/fec0::10-fec0::11/use ;
spdadd fec0::11[110] fec0::10[any] tcp -P in ipsec
esp/transport/fec0::11-fec0::10/use ;
add fec0::10 fec0::11 esp 0x10001
-m transport
-E blowfish-cbc "kamekame"
-A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ;
add fec0::11 fec0::10 esp 0x10002
-m transport
-E blowfish-cbc "kamekame"
-A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ;
EOF
and at Host-B:&prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF
spdadd fec0::11[110] fec0::10[any] tcp -P out ipsec
esp/transport/fec0::11-fec0::10/use ;
spdadd fec0::10[any] fec0::11[110] tcp -P in ipsec
esp/transport/fec0::10-fec0::11/use ;
add fec0::10 fec0::11 esp 0x10001 -m transport
-E blowfish-cbc "kamekame"
-A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ;
add fec0::11 fec0::10 esp 0x10002 -m transport
-E blowfish-cbc "kamekame"
-A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ;
EOF
Note the direction of SP.Tunnel Mode Example with IPv4Tunnel mode between two security gatewaysSecurity protocol is old AH tunnel mode, i.e. specified by
RFC1826, with keyed-md5 whose key is this is the test as
authentication algorithm.
======= AH =======
| |
Network-A Gateway-A Gateway-B Network-B
10.0.1.0/24 ---- 172.16.0.1 ----- 172.16.0.2 ---- 10.0.2.0/24
Configuration at Gateway-A:
&prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF
spdadd 10.0.1.0/24 10.0.2.0/24 any -P out ipsec
ah/tunnel/172.16.0.1-172.16.0.2/require ;
spdadd 10.0.2.0/24 10.0.1.0/24 any -P in ipsec
ah/tunnel/172.16.0.2-172.16.0.1/require ;
add 172.16.0.1 172.16.0.2 ah-old 0x10003 -m any
-A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ;
add 172.16.0.2 172.16.0.1 ah-old 0x10004 -m any
-A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ;
EOF
If the port number field is omitted such as above then
[any] is employed. -m
specifies the mode of SA to be used. -m any means
wild-card of mode of security protocol. You can use this SA for both
tunnel and transport mode.and at Gateway-B:
&prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF
spdadd 10.0.2.0/24 10.0.1.0/24 any -P out ipsec
ah/tunnel/172.16.0.2-172.16.0.1/require ;
spdadd 10.0.1.0/24 10.0.2.0/24 any -P in ipsec
ah/tunnel/172.16.0.1-172.16.0.2/require ;
add 172.16.0.1 172.16.0.2 ah-old 0x10003 -m any
-A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ;
add 172.16.0.2 172.16.0.1 ah-old 0x10004 -m any
-A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ;
EOF
Making SA bundle between two security gatewaysAH transport mode and ESP tunnel mode is required between
Gateway-A and Gateway-B. In this case, ESP tunnel mode is applied first,
and AH transport mode is next.
========== AH =========
| ======= ESP ===== |
| | | |
Network-A Gateway-A Gateway-B Network-B
fec0:0:0:1::/64 --- fec0:0:0:1::1 ---- fec0:0:0:2::1 --- fec0:0:0:2::/64
Tunnel Mode Example with IPv6Encryption algorithm is 3des-cbc, and authentication algorithm
for ESP is hmac-sha1. Authentication algorithm for AH is hmac-md5.
Configuration at Gateway-A:
&prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF
spdadd fec0:0:0:1::/64 fec0:0:0:2::/64 any -P out ipsec
esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::1/require
ah/transport/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::1/require ;
spdadd fec0:0:0:2::/64 fec0:0:0:1::/64 any -P in ipsec
esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:2::1-fec0:0:0:1::1/require
ah/transport/fec0:0:0:2::1-fec0:0:0:1::1/require ;
add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::1 esp 0x10001 -m tunnel
-E 3des-cbc "kamekame12341234kame1234"
-A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ;
add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::1 ah 0x10001 -m transport
-A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ;
add fec0:0:0:2::1 fec0:0:0:1::1 esp 0x10001 -m tunnel
-E 3des-cbc "kamekame12341234kame1234"
-A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ;
add fec0:0:0:2::1 fec0:0:0:1::1 ah 0x10001 -m transport
-A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ;
EOF
Making SAs with the different endESP tunnel mode is required between Host-A and Gateway-A. Encryption
algorithm is cast128-cbc, and authentication algorithm for ESP is
hmac-sha1. ESP transport mode is recommended between Host-A and Host-B.
Encryption algorithm is rc5-cbc, and authentication algorithm for ESP is
hmac-md5.
================== ESP =================
| ======= ESP ======= |
| | | |
Host-A Gateway-A Host-B
fec0:0:0:1::1 ---- fec0:0:0:2::1 ---- fec0:0:0:2::2
Configuration at Host-A:
&prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF
spdadd fec0:0:0:1::1[any] fec0:0:0:2::2[80] tcp -P out ipsec
esp/transport/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::2/use
esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::1/require ;
spdadd fec0:0:0:2::1[80] fec0:0:0:1::1[any] tcp -P in ipsec
esp/transport/fec0:0:0:2::2-fec0:0:0:l::1/use
esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:2::1-fec0:0:0:1::1/require ;
add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::2 esp 0x10001
-m transport
-E cast128-cbc "12341234"
-A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ;
add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::1 esp 0x10002
-E rc5-cbc "kamekame"
-A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ;
add fec0:0:0:2::2 fec0:0:0:1::1 esp 0x10003
-m transport
-E cast128-cbc "12341234"
-A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ;
add fec0:0:0:2::1 fec0:0:0:1::1 esp 0x10004
-E rc5-cbc "kamekame"
-A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ;
EOF
ChernLeeContributed by OpenSSHOpenSSHsecurityOpenSSHSecure shell is a set of network connectivity tools used to
access remote machines securely. It can be used as a direct
replacement for rlogin,
rsh, rcp, and
telnet. Additionally, any other TCP/IP
connections can be tunneled/forwarded securely through ssh.
ssh encrypts all traffic to effectively eliminate eavesdropping,
connection hijacking, and other network-level attacks.OpenSSH is maintained by the OpenBSD project, and is based
upon SSH v1.2.12 with all the recent bug fixes and updates. It
is compatible with both SSH protocols 1 and 2. OpenSSH has been
in the base system since FreeBSD 4.0.Advantages of Using OpenSSHNormally, when using &man.telnet.1; or &man.rlogin.1;,
data is sent over the network in an clear, un-encrypted form.
Network sniffers anywhere in between the client and server can
steal your user/password information or data transferred in
your session. OpenSSH offers a variety of authentication and
encryption methods to prevent this from happening.Enabling sshdOpenSSHenablingBe sure to make the following additions to your
rc.conf file:sshd_enable="YES"This will load the ssh daemon
the next time your system initializes. Alternatively, you can
simply run the sshd daemon.SSH ClientOpenSSHclientThe &man.ssh.1; utility works similarly to
&man.rlogin.1;.&prompt.root ssh user@example.com
Host key not found from the list of known hosts.
Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no)? yes
Host 'example.com' added to the list of known hosts.
user@example.com's password: *******The login will continue just as it would have if a session was
created using rlogin or
telnet. SSH utilizes a key fingerprint
system for verifying the authenticity of the server when the
client connects. The user is prompted to enter
yes only when
connecting for the first time. Future attempts to login are all
verified against the saved fingerprint key. The SSH client
will alert you if the saved fingerprint differs from the
received fingerprint on future login attempts. The fingerprints
are saved in ~/.ssh/known_hosts, or
~/.ssh/known_hosts2 for SSH v2
fingerprints.By default, OpenSSH servers are configured to accept both
SSH v1 and SSH v2 connections. The client, however, can choose
between the two. Version 2 is known to be more robust and
secure than its predecessor.ssh can be forced to use either protocol
by passing it the or argument
for v1 and v2, respectively.Secure CopyOpenSSHsecure copyscpThe scp command works similarly to
rcp; it copies a file to or from a remote machine,
except in a secure fashion.&prompt.root scp user@example.com:/COPYRIGHT COPYRIGHT
user@example.com's password:
COPYRIGHT 100% |*****************************| 4735
00:00
&prompt.rootSince the fingerprint was already saved for this host in the
previous example, it is verified when using scp
here.The arguments passed to scp are similar
to cp, with the file or files in the first
argument, and the destination in the second. Since the file is
fetched over the network, through SSH, one or more of the file
arguments takes on the form
.ConfigurationOpenSSHconfigurationThe system-wide configuration files for both the OpenSSH
daemon and client reside within the /etc/ssh
directory.ssh_config configures the client
settings, while sshd_config configures the
daemon.Additionally, the
(/usr/sbin/sshd by default), and
rc.conf
options can provide more levels of configuration.ssh-keygenInstead of using passwords, &man.ssh-keygen.1; can
be used to generate RSA keys to authenticate a user.&prompt.user ssh-keygen
Initializing random number generator...
Generating p: .++ (distance 66)
Generating q: ..............................++ (distance 498)
Computing the keys...
Key generation complete.
Enter file in which to save the key (/home/user/.ssh/identity):
Enter passphrase:
Enter the same passphrase again:
Your identification has been saved in /home/user/.ssh/identity.
...&man.ssh-keygen.1; will create a public and private
key pair for use in authentication. The private key is stored in
~/.ssh/identity, whereas the public key is
stored in ~/.ssh/identity.pub. The public
key must be placed in ~/.ssh/authorized_keys
of the remote machine in order for the setup to work.This will allow connection to the remote machine based upon
RSA authentication instead of passwords.If a passphrase is used in &man.ssh-keygen.1;, the user
will be prompted for a password each time in order to use the private
key.A SSH v2 DSA key can be created for the same purpose by using
the ssh-keygen -d command (or
ssh-keygen -t dsa for FreeBSD &os.current;).
This will
create a public/private DSA key for use in SSH v2 sessions only.
The public key is stored in ~/.ssh/id_dsa.pub,
while the private key is in ~/.ssh/id_dsa.DSA public keys are placed in
~/.ssh/authorized_keys2 on the remote
machine.&man.ssh-agent.1; and &man.ssh-add.1; are
utilities used in managing multiple passworded private keys.SSH TunnelingOpenSSHtunnelingOpenSSH has the ability to create a tunnel to encapsulate
another protocol in an encrypted session.The following command tells &man.ssh.1; to create a tunnel
for telnet.&prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 5023:localhost:23 user@foo.example.com
&prompt.user;The ssh command is used with the
following options:Forces ssh to use version 2 of
the protocol. (Do not use if you are working with older
ssh servers)Indicates no command, or tunnel only. If omitted,
ssh would initiate a normal
session.Forces ssh to run in the
background.Indicates a local tunnel in
localport:remotehost:remoteport
fashion.The remote SSH server.An SSH tunnel works by creating a listen socket on
localhost on the specified port.
It then forwards any connection received
on the local host/port via the SSH connection to the specified
remote host and port.In the example, port 5023 on
localhost is being forwarded to port
23 on localhost
of the remote machine. Since 23 is telnet,
this would create a secure telnet session through an SSH tunnel.This can be used to wrap any number of insecure TCP protocols
such as SMTP, POP3, FTP, etc.Using SSH to create a secure tunnel for SMTP&prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 5025:localhost:25 user@mailserver.example.com
user@mailserver.example.com's password: *****
&prompt.user; telnet localhost 5025
Trying 127.0.0.1...
Connected to localhost.
Escape character is '^]'.
220 mailserver.example.com ESMTPThis can be used in conjunction with an
&man.ssh-keygen.1; and additional user accounts to create a
more seamless/hassle-free SSH tunneling environment. Keys
can be used in place of typing a password, and the tunnels
can be run as a separate user.Practical SSH Tunneling ExamplesSecure Access of a POP3 serverAt work, there is an SSH server that accepts
connections from the outside. On the same office network
resides a mail server running a POP3 server. The network,
or network path between your home and office may or may not
be completely trustable. Because of this, you need to check
your e-mail in a secure manner. The solution is to create
an SSH connection to your office's SSH server, and tunnel
through to the mail server.&prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 2110:mail.example.com:110 user@ssh-server.example.com
user@ssh-server.example.com's password: ******When the tunnel is up and running, you can point your
mail client to send POP3 requests to localhost
port 2110. A connection here will be forwarded securely across
the tunnel to mail.example.com.Bypassing a Draconian FirewallSome network administrators impose extremely Draconian
firewall rules, filtering not only incoming connections,
but outgoing connections. You may be only given access
to contact remote machines on ports 22 and 80 for SSH
and web surfing.You may wish to access another (perhaps non-work
related) service, such as an Ogg Vorbis server to stream
music. If this Ogg Vorbis server is streaming on some other
port than 22 or 80, you will not be able to access it.The solution is to create an SSH connection to a machine
outside of your network's firewall, and use it to tunnel to
the Ogg Vorbis server.&prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 8888:music.example.com:8000 user@unfirewalled.myserver.com
user@unfirewalled.myserver.com's password: *******Your streaming client can now be pointed to
localhost port 8888, which will be
forwarded over to music.example.com port
8000, successfully evading the firewall.Further ReadingOpenSSH&man.ssh.1; &man.scp.1; &man.ssh-keygen.1;
&man.ssh-agent.1; &man.ssh-add.1;&man.sshd.8; &man.sftp-server.8;
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml
index 9113aef2b1..323e8eed9e 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,2615 +1,2615 @@
Serial CommunicationsSynopsisserial communicationsUnix has always had support for serial communications. In fact,
the very first Unix machines relied on serial lines for user input
and output. Things have changed a lot from the days when the average
terminal consisted of a 10-character-per-second serial
printer and a keyboard. This chapter will cover some of the ways in
which FreeBSD uses serial communications.After reading this chapter, you will know:How to connect terminals to your FreeBSD
system.How to use a modem to dial out to remote
hosts.How to allow remote users to login to your
system with a modem.How to boot your system from a serial
console.Before reading this chapter, you should:Know how to configure and install a new kernel ().Understand Unix permissions and processes ().Have access to the technical manual for the
serial hardware (modem or multi-port card) that you would like
to use with FreeBSD.IntroductionTerminologybits-per-secondbpsBits per Second — the rate at which data is
transmittedDTEDTEData Terminal Equipment — for example, your
computerDCEDCEData Communications Equipment — your modemRS-232RS-232C cablesEIA standard for hardware serial communicationsWhen talking about communications data rates, this section
does not use the term baud. Baud refers to the
number of electrical state transitions that may be made in a
period of time, while bps (bits per second) is
the correct term to use (at least it does not
seem to bother the curmudgeons quite a much).Cables and PortsTo connect a modem or terminal to your FreeBSD system, you
will need a serial port on your computer and the proper cable to connect
to your serial device. If you are already familiar with your
hardware and the cable it requires, you can safely skip this
section.CablesThere are several different kinds of serial cables. The
two most common types for our purposes are null-modem cables
and standard ("straight") RS-232 cables. The documentation
for your hardware should describe the type of cable
required.Null-modem Cablesnull-modem cableA null-modem cable passes some signals straight through, like
signal ground, but switches other signals. For
example, the send data pin on one end goes to the
receive data pin on the other end.If you like making your own cables, you can construct
a null-modem cable for use with
terminals. This table shows the RS-232C signal names and the pin
numbers on a DB-25 connector.SignalPin #Pin #SignalTxD2connects to3RxDRxD3connects to2TxDDTR20connects to6DSRDSR6connects to20DTRSG7connects to7SGDCD8connects to4RTSRTS45CTSCTS5connects to8DCDFor DCD to RTS, connect pins 4 to 5 internally in the
connector hood, and then to pin 8 in the remote
hood.Standard RS-232C CablesRS-232C cablesA standard serial cable passes all the RS-232C signals
straight-through. That is, the send data pin on one
end of the cable goes to the send data pin on the
other end. This is the type of cable to connect a modem to your
FreeBSD system, and the type of cable needed for some
terminals.PortsSerial ports are the devices through which data is transferred
between the FreeBSD host computer and the terminal. This section
describes the kinds of ports that exist and how they are addressed
in FreeBSD.Kinds of PortsSeveral kinds of serial ports exist. Before you purchase or
construct a cable, you need to make sure it will fit the ports on
your terminal and on the FreeBSD system.Most terminals will have DB25 ports. Personal computers,
including PCs running FreeBSD, will have DB25 or DB9 ports. If you
have a multiport serial card for your PC, you may have RJ-12 or
RJ-45 ports.See the documentation that accompanied the hardware for
specifications on the kind of port in use. A visual inspection of
the port often works too.Port NamesIn FreeBSD, you access each serial port through an entry in
the /dev directory. There are two different
kinds of entries:Call-in ports are named
/dev/ttydN
where N is the port number,
starting from zero. Generally, you use the call-in port for
terminals. Call-in ports require that the serial line assert
the data carrier detect (DCD) signal to work.Call-out ports are named
/dev/cuaaN.
You usually do not use the call-out port for terminals, just
for modems. You may use the call-out port if the serial cable
or the terminal does not support the carrier detect
signal.If you have connected a terminal to the first serial port
(COM1 in MS-DOS), then you want to
use /dev/ttyd0 to refer to the terminal. If
it is on the second serial port (also known as
COM2), it is
/dev/ttyd1, and so forth.Kernel ConfigurationFreeBSD supports four serial ports by default. In the
MS-DOS world, these are known as
COM1:,
COM2:,
COM3:, and
COM4:. FreeBSD currently supports
dumb multiport serial interface cards, such as
the BocaBoard 1008 and 2016, as well as more
intelligent multi-port cards such as those made by Digiboard
and Stallion Technologies. However, the default kernel only looks
for the standard COM ports.To see if your kernel recognizes any of your serial ports, watch
for messages while the kernel is booting, or use the
/sbin/dmesg command to replay the kernel's boot
messages. In particular, look for messages that start with the
characters sio.To view just the messages that have the word
sio, use the command:&prompt.root; /sbin/dmesg | grep 'sio'For example, on a system with four serial ports, these are the
serial-port specific kernel boot messages:sio0 at 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 on isa
sio0: type 16550A
sio1 at 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa
sio1: type 16550A
sio2 at 0x3e8-0x3ef irq 5 on isa
sio2: type 16550A
sio3 at 0x2e8-0x2ef irq 9 on isa
sio3: type 16550AIf your kernel does not recognize all of your serial
ports, you will probably need to configure a custom FreeBSD
kernel for your system. For detailed information on
configuring your kernel, please see .The relevant device lines for your kernel configuration
file would look like this:device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty irq 4 vector siointr
device sio1 at isa? port "IO_COM2" tty irq 3 vector siointr
device sio2 at isa? port "IO_COM3" tty irq 5 vector siointr
device sio3 at isa? port "IO_COM4" tty irq 9 vector siointrYou can comment-out or completely remove lines for devices
you do not have. Please see the &man.sio.4; manual page for
complete information on how to write configuration lines for
multiport boards. Be careful if you are using a configuration
file that was previously used for a different version of
FreeBSD because the device flags have changed between
versions.port "IO_COM1" is a substitution for
port 0x3f8, IO_COM2 is
0x2f8, IO_COM3 is
0x3e8, and IO_COM4 is
0x2e8, which are fairly common port addresses for
their respective serial ports; interrupts 4, 3, 5, and 9 are fairly
common interrupt request lines. Also note that regular serial ports
cannot share interrupts on ISA-bus PCs
(multiport boards have on-board electronics that allow all the
16550A's on the board to share one or two interrupt request
lines).Device Special FilesMost devices in the kernel are accessed through device
special files, which are located in the
/dev directory. The sio
devices are accessed through the
/dev/ttydN (dial-in)
and /dev/cuaaN
(call-out) devices. FreeBSD also provides initialization devices
(/dev/ttyidN and
/dev/cuai0N) and
locking devices
(/dev/ttyldN and
/dev/cual0N). The
initialization devices are used to initialize communications port
parameters each time a port is opened, such as
crtscts for modems which use
CTS/RTS signaling for flow control. The locking
devices are used to lock flags on ports to prevent users or programs
changing certain parameters; see the manual pages &man.termios.4;,
&man.sio.4;, and &man.stty.1; for
information on the terminal settings, locking and initializing
devices, and setting terminal options, respectively.Making Device Special FilesFreeBSD 5.0 includes the devfs
filesystem which automatically creates device nodes as
needed. If you are running a version of FreeBSD with
devfs enabled then you can safely skip
this section.A shell script called MAKEDEV in the
/dev directory manages the device special
files. To use MAKEDEV to make dial-up device
special files for COM1: (port 0),
cd to /dev and issue the
command MAKEDEV ttyd0. Likewise, to make dial-up
device special files for COM2: (port 1),
use MAKEDEV ttyd1.MAKEDEV not only creates the
/dev/ttydN device
special files, but also the
/dev/cuaaN,
/dev/cuaiaN,
/dev/cualaN,
/dev/ttyldN,
and
/dev/ttyidN
nodes.After making new device special files, be sure to check the
permissions on the files (especially the
/dev/cua* files) to make sure that only users
who should have access to those device special files can read and
write on them — you probably do not want to allow your average
user to use your modems to dial-out. The default permissions on the
/dev/cua* files should be sufficient:crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 129 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cuaa1
crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 161 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cuaia1
crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 193 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cuala1These permissions allow the user uucp and
users in the group dialer to use the call-out
devices.Serial Port ConfigurationttydcuaaThe ttydN (or
cuaaN) device is the
regular device you will want to open for your applications. When a
process opens the device, it will have a default set of terminal I/O
settings. You can see these settings with the command&prompt.root; stty -a -f /dev/ttyd1When you change the settings to this device, the settings are in
effect until the device is closed. When it is reopened, it goes back to
the default set. To make changes to the default set, you can open and
adjust the settings of the initial state device. For
example, to turn on mode, 8 bit communication,
and flow control by default for
ttyd5, type:&prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyid5 clocal cs8 ixon ixoffrc filesrc.serialSystem-wide initialization of the serial devices is
controlled in /etc/rc.serial. This file
affects the default settings of serial devices.To prevent certain settings from being changed by an
application, make adjustments to the lock state
device. For example, to lock the speed of
ttyd5 to 57600 bps, type:&prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyld5 57600Now, an application that opens
ttyd5 and tries to change the speed of
the port will be stuck with 57600 bps.MAKEDEVNaturally, you should make the initial state and lock state devices
writable only by the root account.SeanKellyContributed by TerminalsterminalsTerminals provide a convenient and low-cost way to access
your FreeBSD system when you are not at the computer's console or on
a connected network. This section describes how to use terminals with
FreeBSD.Uses and Types of TerminalsThe original Unix systems did not have consoles. Instead, people
logged in and ran programs through terminals that were connected to
the computer's serial ports. It is quite similar to using a modem and
terminal software to dial into a remote system to do text-only
work.Today's PCs have consoles capable of high quality graphics, but
the ability to establish a login session on a serial port still exists
in nearly every Unix-style operating system today; FreeBSD is no
exception. By using a terminal attached to an unused serial port, you
can log in and run any text program that you would normally run on the
console or in an xterm window in the X Window
System.For the business user, you can attach many terminals to a FreeBSD
system and place them on your employees' desktops. For a home user, a
spare computer such as an older IBM PC or a Macintosh can be a
terminal wired into a more powerful computer running FreeBSD. You can
turn what might otherwise be a single-user computer into a powerful
multiple user system.For FreeBSD, there are three kinds of terminals:Dumb terminalsPCs acting as terminalsX terminalsThe remaining subsections describe each kind.Dumb TerminalsDumb terminals are specialized pieces of hardware that let you
connect to computers over serial lines. They are called
dumb because they have only enough computational power
to display, send, and receive text. You cannot run any programs on
them. It is the computer to which you connect them that has all the
power to run text editors, compilers, email, games, and so
forth.There are hundreds of kinds of dumb terminals made by many
manufacturers, including Digital Equipment Corporation's VT-100 and
Wyse's WY-75. Just about any kind will work with FreeBSD. Some
high-end terminals can even display graphics, but only certain
software packages can take advantage of these advanced
features.Dumb terminals are popular in work environments where workers do
not need access to graphic applications such as those provided by
the X Window System.PCs Acting As TerminalsIf a dumb terminal has just
enough ability to display, send, and receive text, then certainly
any spare personal computer can be a dumb terminal. All you need is
the proper cable and some terminal emulation
software to run on the computer.Such a configuration is popular in homes. For example, if your
spouse is busy working on your FreeBSD system's console, you can do
some text-only work at the same time from a less powerful personal
computer hooked up as a terminal to the FreeBSD system.X TerminalsX terminals are the most sophisticated kind of terminal
available. Instead of connecting to a serial port, they usually
connect to a network like Ethernet. Instead of being relegated to
text-only applications, they can display any X application.We introduce X terminals just for the sake of completeness.
However, this chapter does not cover setup,
configuration, or use of X terminals.ConfigurationThis section describes what you need to configure on your FreeBSD
system to enable a login session on a terminal. It assumes you have
already configured your kernel to support the serial port to which the
terminal is connected—and that you have connected it.Recall from that the
init process is responsible for all process
control and initialization at system startup. One of the
tasks performed by init is to read the
/etc/ttys file and start a
getty process on the available terminals.
The getty process is responsible for
reading a login name and starting the login
program.Thus, to configure terminals for your FreeBSD system the
- following steps should be taken as root :
+ following steps should be taken as root:
Add a line to /etc/ttys for the entry in
the /dev directory for the serial port if it
is not already there.Specify that /usr/libexec/getty be run on
the port, and specify the appropriate
getty type from the
/etc/gettytab file.Specify the default terminal type.Set the port to on.Specify whether the port should be
secure.Force init to reread the
/etc/ttys file.As an optional step, you may wish to create a custom
getty type for use in step 2 by making an
entry in /etc/gettytab. This chapter does
not explain how to do so; you are encouraged to see the
&man.gettytab.5; and the &man.getty.8; manual pages for more
information.Adding an Entry to <filename>/etc/ttys</filename>The /etc/ttys file lists all of the ports
on your FreeBSD system where you want to allow logins. For example,
the first virtual console ttyv0 has an entry in
this file. You can log in on the console using this entry. This
file also contains entries for the other virtual consoles, serial ports,
and pseudo-ttys. For a hardwired terminal, just list the serial
port's /dev entry without the
/dev part (for example,
/dev/ttyv0 would be listed as
ttyv0).A default FreeBSD install includes an
/etc/ttys file with support for the first
four serial ports: ttyd0 through
ttyd3. If you are attaching a terminal
to one of those ports, you do not need to add another entry.Adding Terminal Entries to
<filename>/etc/ttys</filename>Suppose we would like to connect two terminals to the
system: a Wyse-50 and an old 286 IBM PC running
Procomm terminal software
emulating a VT-100 terminal. We connect the Wyse to the
second serial port and the 286 to the sixth serial port (a
port on a multiport serial card). The corresponding
entries in the /etc/ttys file would
look like this:ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wy50 on insecure
ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" vt100 on insecure
The first field normally specifies the name of
the terminal special file as it is found in
/dev.The second field is the command to execute for
this line, which is usually &man.getty.8;.
getty initializes and opens the
line, sets the speed, prompts for a user name and then
executes the &man.login.1; program.The getty program accepts one
(optional) parameter on its command line, the
getty type. A
getty type tells about
characteristics on the terminal line, like bps rate
and parity. The getty program reads
these characteristics from the file
/etc/gettytab.The file /etc/gettytab
contains lots of entries for terminal lines both old
and new. In almost all cases, the entries that start
with the text std will work for
hardwired terminals. These entries ignore parity.
There is a std entry for each bps
rate from 110 to 115200. Of course, you can add your
own entries to this file. The &man.gettytab.5; manual
page provides more information.When setting the getty
type in the /etc/ttys file, make
sure that the communications settings on the terminal
match.For our example, the Wyse-50 uses no parity and
connects at 38400 bps. The 286 PC uses no parity and
connects at 19200 bps.The third field is the type of terminal usually
connected to that tty line. For dial-up ports,
unknown or
dialup is typically used in this
field since users may dial up with practically any
type of terminal or software. For hardwired
terminals, the terminal type does not change, so you
can put a real terminal type from the &man.termcap.5;
database file in this field.For our example, the Wyse-50 uses the real
terminal type while the 286 PC running
Procomm will be set to
emulate at VT-100. The fourth field specifies if the port should be
enabled. Putting on here will have
the init process start the program
in the second field, getty. If you
put off in this field, there will
be no getty, and hence no logins on
the port.The final field is used to specify whether the
port is secure. Marking a port as secure means that
you trust it enough to allow the
root account (or any account with
a user ID of 0) to login from that port. Insecure
ports do not allow root logins.
On an insecure port, users must login from
unprivileged accounts and then use &man.su.1; or a
similar mechanism to gain superuser privileges.It is highly recommended that you use
insecure
even for terminals that are behind locked doors. It
is quite easy to login and use su
if you need superuser privileges.Force <command>init</command> to Reread
<filename>/etc/ttys</filename>After making the necessary changes to the
/etc/ttys file you should send a SIGHUP
(hangup) signal to the init process to
- force it to re-read its configuration file. For example :
+ force it to re-read its configuration file. For example:
&prompt.root; kill -HUP 1init is always the first process run
on a system, therefore it will always have PID 1.If everything is set up correctly, all cables are in
place, and the terminals are powered up, then a
getty process should be running on each
terminal and you should see login prompts on your terminals
at this point.Troubleshooting Your ConnectionEven with the most meticulous attention to detail, something could
still go wrong while setting up a terminal. Here is a list of
symptoms and some suggested fixes.No login prompt appearsMake sure the terminal is plugged in and powered up. If it
is a personal computer acting as a terminal, make sure it is
running terminal emulation software on the correct serial
port.Make sure the cable is connected firmly to both the terminal
and the FreeBSD computer. Make sure it is the right kind of
cable.Make sure the terminal and FreeBSD agree on the bps rate and
parity settings. If you have a video display terminal, make
sure the contrast and brightness controls are turned up. If it
is a printing terminal, make sure paper and ink are in good
supply.Make sure that a getty process is running
and serving the terminal. For example, to get a list of
running getty processes with
ps, type:&prompt.root; ps -axww|grep gettyYou should see an entry for the terminal. For
example, the following display shows that a
getty is running on the second serial
port ttyd1 and is using the
std.38400 entry in
/etc/gettytab:22189 d1 Is+ 0:00.03 /usr/libexec/getty std.38400 ttyd1If no getty process is running, make sure
you have enabled the port in /etc/ttys.
Also remember to run kill -HUP 1
after modifying the ttys file.Garbage appears instead of a login promptMake sure the terminal and FreeBSD agree on the bps rate and
parity settings. Check the getty processes
to make sure the
correct getty type is in use. If
not, edit /etc/ttys and run kill
-HUP 1.Characters appear doubled; the password appears when
typedSwitch the terminal (or the terminal emulation software)
from half duplex or local echo to
full duplex.GuyHelmerContributed by SeanKellyAdditions by Dial-in Servicedial-in serviceConfiguring your FreeBSD system for dial-in service is very
similar to connecting terminals except that you are dealing with
modems instead of terminals.External vs. Internal ModemsExternal modems seem to be more convenient for dial-up, because
external modems often can be semi-permanently configured via
parameters stored in non-volatile RAM and they usually provide
lighted indicators that display the state of important RS-232
signals. Blinking lights impress visitors, but lights are also very
useful to see whether a modem is operating properly.Internal modems usually lack non-volatile RAM, so their
configuration may be limited only to setting DIP switches. If your
internal modem has any signal indicator lights, it is probably
difficult to view the lights when the system's cover is in
place.Modems and CablesmodemIf you are using an external modem, then you will of
course need the proper cable. A standard RS-232C serial
cable should suffice as long as all of the normal signals
- are wired :
+ are wired:
Transmitted Data (SD)Received Data (RD)Request to Send (RTS)Clear to Send (CTS)Data Set Ready (DSR)Data Terminal Ready (DTR)Carrier Detect (CD)Signal Ground (SG)FreeBSD needs the RTS and
CTS signals for flow-control at speeds above
2400bps, the CD signal to detect when a call has
been answered or the line has been hung up, and the
DTR signal to reset the modem after a session is
complete. Some cables are wired without all of the needed signals,
so if you have problems, such as a login session not going away when
the line hangs up, you may have a problem with your cable.Like other Unix-like operating systems, FreeBSD uses the
hardware signals to find out when a call has been answered
or a line has been hung up and to hangup and reset the modem
after a call. FreeBSD avoids sending commands to the modem
or watching for status reports from the modem. If you are
familiar with connecting modems to PC-based bulletin board
systems, this may seem awkward.Serial Interface ConsiderationsFreeBSD supports NS8250-, NS16450-, NS16550-, and NS16550A-based
EIA RS-232C (CCITT V.24) communications interfaces. The 8250 and
16450 devices have single-character buffers. The 16550 device
provides a 16-character buffer, which allows for better system
performance. (Bugs in plain 16550's prevent the use of the
16-character buffer, so use 16550A's if possible). Because
single-character-buffer devices require more work by the operating
system than the 16-character-buffer devices, 16550A-based serial
interface cards are much preferred. If the system has many active
serial ports or will have a heavy load, 16550A-based cards are
better for low-error-rate communications.Quick OverviewgettyAs with terminals, init spawns a
getty process for each configured serial
port for dial-in connections. For example, if a modem is
attached to /dev/ttyd0, the command
ps ax might show this: 4850 ?? I 0:00.09 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0When a user dials the modem's line and the modems connect, the
CD (Carrier Detect) line is reported by the modem.
The kernel
notices that carrier has been detected and completes
getty's open of the port. getty
sends a login: prompt at the specified initial line
speed. getty watches to see if legitimate
characters are received, and, in a typical configuration, if it finds
junk (probably due to the modem's connection speed being different
than getty's speed), getty tries
adjusting the line speeds until it receives reasonable
characters./usr/bin/loginAfter the user enters his/her login name,
getty executes
/usr/bin/login, which completes the login
by asking for the user's password and then starting the user's
shell.Configuration FilesThere are three system configuration files in the
/etc directory that you will probably need to
edit to allow dial-up access to your FreeBSD system. The first,
/etc/gettytab, contains configuration information
for the /usr/libexec/getty daemon. Second,
/etc/ttys holds information that tells
/sbin/init what tty devices
should have getty processes running on them.
Lastly, you can place port initialization commands in the
/etc/rc.serial script.There are two schools of thought regarding dial-up modems on Unix.
One group likes to configure their modems and systems so that no matter
at what speed a remote user dials in, the local computer-to-modem
RS-232 interface runs at a locked speed. The benefit of this
configuration is that the remote user always sees a system login
prompt immediately. The downside is that the system does not know
what a user's true data rate is, so full-screen programs like Emacs
will not adjust their screen-painting methods to make their response
better for slower connections.The other school configures their modems' RS-232 interface to vary
its speed based on the remote user's connection speed. For example,
V.32bis (14.4 Kbps) connections to the modem might make the modem run
its RS-232 interface at 19.2 Kbps, while 2400 bps connections make the
modem's RS-232 interface run at 2400 bps. Because
getty does not understand any particular modem's
connection speed reporting, getty gives a
login: message at an initial speed and watches the
characters that come back in response. If the user sees junk, it is
assumed that they know they should press the
Enter key until they see a recognizable
prompt. If the data rates do not match, getty sees
anything the user types as junk, tries going to the next
speed and gives the login: prompt again. This
procedure can continue ad nauseam, but normally only takes a keystroke
or two before the user sees a good prompt. Obviously, this login
sequence does not look as clean as the former
locked-speed method, but a user on a low-speed
connection should receive better interactive response from full-screen
programs.This section will try to give balanced configuration information,
but is biased towards having the modem's data rate follow the
connection rate.<filename>/etc/gettytab</filename>/etc/gettytab/etc/gettytab is a &man.termcap.5;-style
file of configuration information for &man.getty.8;. Please see the
&man.gettytab.5; manual page for complete information on the
format of the file and the list of capabilities.Locked-Speed ConfigIf you are locking your modem's data communications rate at a
particular speed, you probably will not need to make any changes
to /etc/gettytab.Matching-Speed ConfigYou will need to setup an entry in
/etc/gettytab to give
getty information about the speeds you wish to
use for your modem. If you have a 2400 bps modem, you can
probably use the existing D2400 entry.#
# Fast dialup terminals, 2400/1200/300 rotary (can start either way)
#
D2400|d2400|Fast-Dial-2400:\
:nx=D1200:tc=2400-baud:
3|D1200|Fast-Dial-1200:\
:nx=D300:tc=1200-baud:
5|D300|Fast-Dial-300:\
:nx=D2400:tc=300-baud:If you have a higher speed modem, you will probably need to
add an entry in /etc/gettytab; here is an
entry you could use for a 14.4 Kbps modem with a top interface
speed of 19.2 Kbps:#
# Additions for a V.32bis Modem
#
um|V300|High Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\
:nx=V19200:tc=std.300:
un|V1200|High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\
:nx=V300:tc=std.1200:
uo|V2400|High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\
:nx=V1200:tc=std.2400:
up|V9600|High Speed Modem at 9600,8-bit:\
:nx=V2400:tc=std.9600:
uq|V19200|High Speed Modem at 19200,8-bit:\
:nx=V9600:tc=std.19200:This will result in 8-bit, no parity connections.The example above starts the communications rate at 19.2 Kbps
(for a V.32bis connection), then cycles through 9600 bps (for
V.32), 2400 bps, 1200 bps, 300 bps, and back to 19.2 Kbps.
Communications rate cycling is implemented with the
nx= (next table) capability.
Each of the lines uses a tc= (table
continuation) entry to pick up the rest of the
standard settings for a particular data rate.If you have a 28.8 Kbps modem and/or you want to take
advantage of compression on a 14.4 Kbps modem, you need to use a
higher communications rate than 19.2 Kbps. Here is an example of
a gettytab entry starting a 57.6 Kbps:#
# Additions for a V.32bis or V.34 Modem
# Starting at 57.6 Kbps
#
vm|VH300|Very High Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\
:nx=VH57600:tc=std.300:
vn|VH1200|Very High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\
:nx=VH300:tc=std.1200:
vo|VH2400|Very High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\
:nx=VH1200:tc=std.2400:
vp|VH9600|Very High Speed Modem at 9600,8-bit:\
:nx=VH2400:tc=std.9600:
vq|VH57600|Very High Speed Modem at 57600,8-bit:\
:nx=VH9600:tc=std.57600:If you have a slow CPU or a heavily loaded system and do
not have 16550A-based serial ports, you may receive
siosilo errors at 57.6 Kbps.<filename>/etc/ttys</filename>/etc/ttysConfiguration of the /etc/ttys file
was covered in .
Configuration for modems is similar but we must pass a
different argument to getty and specify a
different terminal type. The general format for both
locked-speed and matching-speed configurations is:ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty xxx" dialup onThe first item in the above line is the device special file for
this entry — ttyd0 means
/dev/ttyd0 is the file that this
getty will be watching. The second item,
"/usr/libexec/getty
xxx"
(xxx will be replaced by the initial
gettytab capability) is the process
init will run on the device. The third item,
dialup, is the default terminal type. The fourth
parameter, on, indicates to
init that the line is operational. There can be
a fifth parameter, secure, but it should only be
used for terminals which are physically secure (such as the system
console).The default terminal type (dialup in the
example above) may depend on local preferences.
dialup is the traditional default terminal type
on dial-up lines so that users may customize their login scripts to
notice when the terminal is dialup and
automatically adjust their terminal type. However, the author finds
it easier at his site to specify vt102 as the
default terminal type, since the users just use VT102 emulation on
their remote systems.After you have made changes to /etc/ttys,
you may send the init process a
HUP signal to re-read the file. You can use the
command
&prompt.root; kill -HUP 1
to send the signal. If this is your first time setting up the
system, you may want to wait until your modem(s) are properly
configured and connected before signaling init.
Locked-Speed ConfigFor a locked-speed configuration, your
ttys entry needs to have a fixed-speed entry
provided to getty. For a modem whose port
speed is locked at 19.2 Kbps, the ttys entry
might look like this:ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" dialup onIf your modem is locked at a different data rate,
substitute the appropriate value for
std.speed
instead of std.19200. Make sure that
you use a valid type listed in
/etc/gettytab.Matching-Speed ConfigIn a matching-speed configuration, your
ttys entry needs to reference the appropriate
beginning auto-baud (sic) entry in
/etc/gettytab. For example, if you added the
above suggested entry for a matching-speed modem that starts at
19.2 Kbps (the gettytab entry containing the
V19200 starting point), your
ttys entry might look like this:ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty V19200" dialup on<filename>/etc/rc.serial</filename>rc filesrc.serialHigh-speed modems, like V.32, V.32bis, and V.34 modems,
need to use hardware (RTS/CTS) flow
control. You can add stty commands to
/etc/rc.serial to set the hardware flow
control flag in the FreeBSD kernel for the modem
ports.For example to set the termios flag
crtscts on serial port #1's
(COM2:) dial-in and dial-out initialization
devices, the following lines could be added to
- /etc/rc.serial :
+ /etc/rc.serial:
# Serial port initial configuration
stty -f /dev/ttyid1 crtscts
stty -f /dev/cuai01 crtsctsModem SettingsIf you have a modem whose parameters may be permanently set in
non-volatile RAM, you will need to use a terminal program (such as
Telix under MS-DOS or tip under FreeBSD) to set the
parameters. Connect to the modem using the same communications speed
as the initial speed getty will use and configure
the modem's non-volatile RAM to match these requirements:CD asserted when connectedDTR asserted for operation; dropping DTR
hangs up line and resets modemCTS transmitted data flow controlDisable XON/XOFF flow controlRTS received data flow controlQuiet mode (no result codes)No command echoPlease read the documentation for your modem to find out what
commands and/or DIP switch settings you need to give it.For example, to set the above parameters on a USRobotics
Sportster 14,400 external modem, one could give these commands to
the modem:ATZ
AT&C1&D2&H1&I0&R2&WYou might also want to take this opportunity to adjust other
settings in the modem, such as whether it will use V.42bis and/or MNP5
compression.The USR Sportster 14,400 external modem also has some DIP switches
that need to be set; for other modems, perhaps you can use these
settings as an example:Switch 1: UP — DTR NormalSwitch 2: N/A (Verbal Result Codes/Numeric Result
Codes)Switch 3: UP — Suppress Result CodesSwitch 4: DOWN — No echo, offline commandsSwitch 5: UP — Auto AnswerSwitch 6: UP — Carrier Detect NormalSwitch 7: UP — Load NVRAM DefaultsSwitch 8: N/A (Smart Mode/Dumb Mode)Result codes should be disabled/suppressed for dial-up modems to
avoid problems that can occur if getty mistakenly
gives a login: prompt to a modem that is in command
mode and the modem echoes the command or returns a result
code. This sequence can result in a extended, silly conversation
between getty and the modem.Locked-speed ConfigFor a locked-speed configuration, you will need to configure the
modem to maintain a constant modem-to-computer data rate independent
of the communications rate. On a USR Sportster 14,400 external
modem, these commands will lock the modem-to-computer data rate at
the speed used to issue the commands:ATZ
AT&B1&WMatching-speed ConfigFor a variable-speed configuration, you will need to configure
your modem to adjust its serial port data rate to match the incoming
call rate. On a USR Sportster 14,400 external modem, these commands
will lock the modem's error-corrected data rate to the speed used to
issue the commands, but allow the serial port rate to vary for
non-error-corrected connections:ATZ
AT&B2&WChecking the Modem's ConfigurationMost high-speed modems provide commands to view the modem's
current operating parameters in a somewhat human-readable fashion.
On the USR Sportster 14,400 external modems, the command
ATI5 displays the settings that are stored in the
non-volatile RAM. To see the true operating parameters of the modem
(as influenced by the USR's DIP switch settings), use the commands
ATZ and then ATI4.If you have a different brand of modem, check your modem's
manual to see how to double-check your modem's configuration
parameters.TroubleshootingHere are a few steps you can follow to check out the dial-up modem
on your system.Checking out the FreeBSD SystemHook up your modem to your FreeBSD system, boot the system, and,
if your modem has status indication lights, watch to see whether the
modem's DTR indicator lights when the
login: prompt appears on the system's console
— if it lights up, that should mean that FreeBSD has started a
getty process on the appropriate communications
port and is waiting for the modem to accept a call.If the DTR indicator does not light, login to
the FreeBSD system through the console and issue a ps
ax to see if FreeBSD is trying to run a
getty process on the correct port. You should see
a lines like this among the processes displayed: 114 ?? I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0
115 ?? I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd1If you see something different, like this: 114 d0 I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0and the modem has not accepted a call yet, this means that
getty has completed its open on the
communications port. This could indicate a problem with the cabling
or a mis-configured modem, because getty should
not be able to open the communications port until
CD (carrier detect) has been asserted by the
modem.If you do not see any getty processes waiting
to open the desired
ttydN port,
double-check your entries in /etc/ttys to see
if there are any mistakes there. Also, check the log file
/var/log/messages to see if there are any log
messages from init or getty
regarding any problems. If there are any messages, triple-check the
configuration files /etc/ttys and
/etc/gettytab, as well as the appropriate
device special files /dev/ttydN, for any
mistakes, missing entries, or missing device special files.Try Dialing InTry dialing into the system; be sure to use 8 bits, no parity,
and 1
stop bit on the remote system. If you do not get a prompt right
away, or get garbage, try pressing Enter
about once per second. If you still do not see a
login: prompt after a while, try sending a
BREAK. If you are using a high-speed modem to do
the dialing, try dialing again after locking the dialing modem's
interface speed (via AT&B1 on a USR
Sportster, for example).If you still cannot get a login: prompt, check
/etc/gettytab again and double-check
thatThe initial capability name specified in
/etc/ttys for the line matches a name of a
capability in /etc/gettytabEach nx= entry matches another
gettytab capability nameEach tc= entry matches another
gettytab capability nameIf you dial but the modem on the FreeBSD system will not answer,
make sure that the modem is configured to answer the phone when
DTR is asserted. If the modem seems to be
configured correctly, verify that the DTR line is
asserted by checking the modem's indicator lights (if it has
any).If you have gone over everything several times and it still does
not work, take a break and come back to it later. If it still does
not work, perhaps you can send an electronic mail message to the
&a.questions;describing your modem and your problem, and the good
folks on the list will try to help.Dial-out Servicedial-out serviceThe following are tips to getting your host to be able to connect
over the modem to another computer. This is appropriate for
establishing a terminal session with a remote host.This is useful to log onto a BBS.This kind of connection can be extremely helpful to get a file on
the Internet if you have problems with PPP. If you need to FTP
something and PPP is broken, use the terminal session to FTP it. Then
use zmodem to transfer it to your machine.My Stock Hayes Modem Is Not Supported, What Can I Do?Actually, the manual page for tip is out of date.
There is a generic Hayes dialer already built in. Just use
at=hayes in your /etc/remote
file.The Hayes driver is not smart enough to recognize some of the
advanced features of newer modems—messages like
BUSY, NO DIALTONE, or
CONNECT 115200 will just confuse it. You should
turn those messages off when you use tip (using
ATX0&W).Also, the dial timeout for tip is 60 seconds.
Your modem should use something less, or else tip will think there is
a communication problem. Try ATS7=45&W.As shipped, tip does not yet support
Hayes modems fully. The solution is to edit the file
tipconf.h in the directory
/usr/src/usr.bin/tip/tip. Obviously you need the
source distribution to do this.Edit the line #define HAYES 0 to
#define HAYES 1. Then make and
make install. Everything works nicely after
that.How Am I Expected to Enter These AT Commands?/etc/remoteMake what is called a direct entry in your
/etc/remote file. For example, if your modem is
hooked up to the first serial port, /dev/cuaa0,
then put in the following line:cuaa0:dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#19200:pa=noneUse the highest bps rate your modem supports in the br capability.
Then, type tip cuaa0 and you will be connected to
your modem.If there is no /dev/cuaa0 on your system, do
this:&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV cuaa0Or use cu as root with the following
command:&prompt.root; cu -lline -sspeedline is the serial port
(e.g./dev/cuaa0) and
speed is the speed
(e.g.57600). When you are done entering the AT
commands hit ~. to exit.The <literal>@</literal> Sign for the pn Capability Does Not
Work!The @ sign in the phone number capability tells
tip to look in /etc/phones for a phone number.
But the @ sign is also a special character in
capability files like /etc/remote. Escape it
with a backslash:pn=\@How Can I Dial a Phone Number on the Command Line?Put what is called a generic entry in your
/etc/remote file. For example:tip115200|Dial any phone number at 115200 bps:\
:dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#115200:at=hayes:pa=none:du:
tip57600|Dial any phone number at 57600 bps:\
:dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du:Then you can things like:&prompt.root; tip -115200 5551234If you prefer cu over tip,
use a generic cu entry:cu115200|Use cu to dial any number at 115200bps:\
:dv=/dev/cuaa1:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du:and type:&prompt.root; cu 5551234 -s 115200Do I Have to Type in the bps Rate Every Time I Do That?Put in an entry for tip1200 or
cu1200, but go ahead and use whatever bps rate is
appropriate with the br capability. tip thinks a
good default is 1200 bps which is why it looks for a
tip1200 entry. You do not have to use 1200 bps,
though.I Access a Number of Hosts through a Terminal Server.Rather than waiting until you are connected and typing
CONNECT <host> each time, use tip's
cm capability. For example, these entries in
/etc/remote:pain|pain.deep13.com|Forrester's machine:\
:cm=CONNECT pain\n:tc=deep13:
muffin|muffin.deep13.com|Frank's machine:\
:cm=CONNECT muffin\n:tc=deep13:
deep13:Gizmonics Institute terminal server:\
:dv=/dev/cuaa2:br#38400:at=hayes:du:pa=none:pn=5551234:will let you type tip pain or tip
muffin to connect to the hosts pain or muffin, and
tip deep13 to get to the terminal server.Can Tip Try More Than one Line for each Site?This is often a problem where a university has several modem lines
and several thousand students trying to use them...Make an entry for your university in
/etc/remote and use @ for the
pn capability:big-university:\
:pn=\@:tc=dialout
dialout:\
:dv=/dev/cuaa3:br#9600:at=courier:du:pa=none:Then, list the phone numbers for the university in
/etc/phones:big-university 5551111
big-university 5551112
big-university 5551113
big-university 5551114tip will try each one in the listed order, then
give up. If you want to keep retrying, run tip in
a while loop.Why Do I Have to Hit
<keycombo action="simul">
<keycap>Ctrl</keycap>
<keycap>P</keycap>
</keycombo>
Twice to Send
<keycombo action="simul">
<keycap>Ctrl</keycap>
<keycap>P</keycap>
</keycombo>
Once?CtrlP is the default force character, used to tell
tip that the next character is literal data. You
can set the force character to any other character with the
~s escape, which means set a
variable.Type
~sforce=single-char
followed by a newline. single-char is any
single character. If you leave out
single-char, then the force character is
the nul character, which you can get by typing
Ctrl2
or
CtrlSpace.
A pretty good value for single-char is
ShiftCtrl6, which is only used on some terminal
servers.You can have the force character be whatever you want by
specifying the following in your $HOME/.tiprc
file:force=<single-char>Suddenly Everything I Type Is in UPPER CASE??You must have pressed
CtrlA, tip's
raise character, specially designed for people with
broken caps-lock keys. Use ~s as above and set the
variable raisechar to something reasonable. In
fact, you can set it to the same as the force character, if you never
expect to use either of these features.Here is a sample .tiprc file perfect for
Emacs users who need to type
Ctrl2
and
CtrlA
a lot:force=^^
raisechar=^^The ^^ is
ShiftCtrl6.How Can I Do File Transfers with <command>tip</command>?If you are talking to another Unix system, you can send and
receive files with ~p (put) and
~t (take). These commands run
cat and echo on the remote
system to accept and send files. The syntax is:~plocal-fileremote-file~tremote-filelocal-fileThere is no error checking, so you probably should use another
protocol, like zmodem.How Can I Run zmodem with <command>tip</command>?To receive files, start the sending program on the remote end.
Then, type ~C rz to begin receiving them
locally.To send files, start the receiving program on the remote end.
Then, type ~C sz files
to send them to the remote system.KazutakaYOKOTAContributed by BillPaulBased on a document by Setting Up the Serial Consoleserial consoleIntroductionFreeBSD has the ability to boot on a system with only
a dumb terminal on a serial port as a console. Such a configuration
should be useful for two classes of people: system administrators who
wish to install FreeBSD on machines that have no keyboard or monitor
attached, and developers who want to debug the kernel or device
drivers.As described in , FreeBSD employs a three stage
bootstrap. The first two stages are in the boot block code which is
stored at the beginning of the FreeBSD slice on the boot disk. The
boot block will then load and run the boot loader
(/boot/loader) as the third stage code.In order to set up the serial console you must configure the boot
block code, the boot loader code and the kernel.Serial Console ConfigurationPrepare a serial cable.null-modem cableYou will need either a null-modem cable or a standard serial
cable and a null-modem adapter. See for
a discussion on serial cables.Unplug your keyboard.Most PC systems probe for the keyboard during the Power-On
Self-Test (POST) and will generate an error if the keyboard is not
detected. Some machines complain loudly about the lack of a
keyboard and will not continue to boot until it is plugged
in.If your computer complains about the error, but boots anyway,
then you do not have to do anything special. (Some machines with
Phoenix BIOS installed merely say Keyboard
failed and continue to boot normally.)If your computer refuses to boot without a keyboard attached
then you will have to configure the BIOS so that it ignores this
error (if it can). Consult your motherboard's manual for details
on how to do this.Setting the keyboard to Not installed in the
BIOS setup does not mean that you will not
be able to use your keyboard. All this does is tell the BIOS
not to probe for a keyboard at power-on, so it will not
complain if the keyboard is not plugged in. You can leave the
keyboard plugged in even with this flag set to Not
installed and the keyboard will still work.If your system has a PS/2 mouse, chances are very good that
you may have to unplug your mouse as well as your keyboard.
This is because PS/2 mice share some hardware with the keyboard
and leaving the mouse plugged in can fool the keyboard probe
into thinking the keyboard is still there. It is said that a
Gateway 2000 Pentium 90MHz system with an AMI BIOS that behaves
this way. In general, this is not a problem since the mouse is
not much good without the keyboard anyway.Plug a dumb terminal into COM1:
(sio0).If you do not have a dumb terminal, you can use an old PC/XT
with a modem program, or the serial port on another Unix box. If
you do not have a COM1:
(sio0), get one. At this time, there is
no way to select a port other than COM1:
for the boot blocks without recompiling the boot blocks. If you
are already using COM1: for another
device, you will have to temporarily remove that device and
install a new boot block and kernel once you get FreeBSD up and
running. (It is assumed that COM1: will
be available on a file/compute/terminal server anyway; if you
really need COM1: for something else
(and you cannot switch that something else to
COM2: (sio1)),
then you probably should not even be bothering with all this in
the first place.)Make sure the configuration file of your kernel has
appropriate flags set for COM1:
(sio0).Relevant flags are:0x10Enables console support for this unit. The other
console flags are ignored unless this is set. Currently, at
most one unit can have console support; the first one (in
config file order) with this flag set is preferred. This
option alone will not make the serial port the console. Set
the following flag or use the option
described below, together with this flag.0x20Forces this unit to be the console (unless there is
another higher priority console), regardless of the
option discussed below. This flag
replaces the COMCONSOLE option in FreeBSD
versions 2.X. The flag 0x20 must be used
together with the flag.0x40Reserves this unit (in conjunction with
0x10) and makes the unit
unavailable for normal access. You should not set
this flag to the serial port unit which you want to
use as the serial console. The only use of this
flag is to designate the unit for kernel remote
debugging. See The
Developer's Handbook for more information on
remote debugging.In FreeBSD 4.0 or later the semantics of the
flag 0x40 are slightly different and
there is another flag to specify a serial port for remote
debugging.Example:device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty flags 0x10 irq 4See the &man.sio.4; manual page for more details.If the flags were not set, you need to run UserConfig (on a
different console) or recompile the kernel.Create boot.config in the root directory
of the a partition on the boot drive.This file will instruct the boot block code how you would like
to boot the system. In order to activate the serial console, you
need one or more of the following options—if you want
multiple options, include them all on the same line:Toggles internal and serial consoles. You can use this
to switch console devices. For instance, if you boot from
the internal (video) console, you can use
to direct the boot loader and the kernel
to use the serial port as its console device. Alternatively,
if you boot from the serial port, you can use the
to tell the boot loader and the kernel
to use the video display as the console instead.Toggles single and dual console configurations. In the
single configuration the console will be either the internal
console (video display) or the serial port, depending on the
state of the option above. In the dual
console configuration, both the video display and the
serial port will become the console at the same time,
regardless of the state of the option.
However, that the dual console configuration takes effect
only during the boot block is running. Once the boot loader
gets control, the console specified by the
option becomes the only console.Makes the boot block probe the keyboard. If no keyboard
is found, the and
options are automatically set.Due to space constraints in the current version of the
boot blocks, the option is capable of
detecting extended keyboards only. Keyboards with less
than 101 keys (and without F11 and F12 keys) may not be
detected. Keyboards on some laptop computers may not be
properly found because of this limitation. If this is
the case with your system, you have to abandon using
the option. Unfortunately there is no
workaround for this problem.Use either the option to select the
console automatically, or the option to
activate the serial console.You may include other options described in &man.boot.8; as
well.The options, except for , will be passed to
the boot loader (/boot/loader). The boot
loader will determine which of the internal video or the serial
port should become the console by examining the state of the
option alone. This means that if you specify
the option but not the
option in /boot.config, you can use the
serial port as the console only during the boot block; the boot
loader will use the internal video display as the console.Boot the machine.When you start your FreeBSD box, the boot blocks will echo the
contents of /boot.config to the console. For
example;/boot.config: -P
Keyboard: noThe second line appears only if you put in
/boot.config and indicates presence/absence
of the keyboard. These messages go to either serial or internal
console, or both, depending on the option in
/boot.config.OptionsMessage goes tononeinternal consoleserial consoleserial and internal consolesserial and internal consoles, keyboard presentinternal console, keyboard absentserial consoleAfter the above messages, there will be a small pause before
the boot blocks continue loading the boot loader and before any
further messages printed to the console. Under normal
circumstances, you do not need to interrupt the boot blocks, but
you may want to do so in order to make sure things are set up
correctly.Hit any key, other than Enter, at the console to
interrupt the boot process. The boot blocks will then prompt you
for further action. You should now see something like:>> FreeBSD/i386 BOOT
Default: 0:wd(0,a)/boot/loader
boot:Verify the above message appears on either the serial or
internal console or both, according to the options you put in
/boot.config. If the message appears in the
correct console, hit Enter to continue the boot
process.If you want the serial console but you do not see the prompt
on the serial terminal, something is wrong with your settings. In
the meantime, you enter and hit Enter/Return
(if possible) to tell the boot block (and then the boot loader and
the kernel) to choose the serial port for the console. Once the
system is up, go back and check what went wrong.After the boot loader is loaded and you are in the third stage of
the boot process you can still switch between the internal console and
the serial console by setting appropriate environment variables in the
boot loader. See .SummaryHere is the summary of various settings discussed in this section
and the console eventually selected.Case 1: You Set the flags to 0x10 for
<devicename>sio0</devicename>device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty flags 0x10 irq 4Options in /boot.configConsole during boot blocksConsole during boot loaderConsole in kernelnothinginternalinternalinternalserialserialserialserial and internalinternalinternalserial and internalserialserial, keyboard presentinternalinternalinternal, keyboard absentserial and internalserialserialCase 2: You Set the flags to 0x30 for sio0device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty flags 0x30 irq 4Options in /boot.configConsole during boot blocksConsole during boot loaderConsole in kernelnothinginternalinternalserialserialserialserialserial and internalinternalserialserial and internalserialserial, keyboard presentinternalinternalserial, keyboard absentserial and internalserialserialTips for the Serial ConsoleSetting a Faster Serial Port SpeedBy default, the serial port settings are: 9600 baud, 8
bits, no parity, and 1 stop bit. If you wish to change the speed, you
need to recompile at least the boot blocks. Add the following line
to /etc/make.conf and compile new boot
blocks:BOOT_COMCONSOLE_SPEED=19200If the serial console is configured in some other way than by
booting with , or if the serial console used by
the kernel is different from the one used by the boot blocks, then
you must also add the following option to the kernel configuration
file and compile a new kernel:options CONSPEED=19200Using Serial Port Other Than <devicename>sio0</devicename> for
the ConsoleUsing a port other than sio0 as the
console requires some recompiling. If you want to use another
serial port for whatever reasons, recompile the boot blocks, the
boot loader and the kernel as follows.Get the kernel source. (See )Edit /etc/make.conf and set
BOOT_COMCONSOLE_PORT to the address of the
port you want to use (0x3F8, 0x2F8, 0x3E8 or 0x2E8). Only
sio0 through
sio3 (COM1:
through COM4:) can be used; multiport
serial cards will not work. No interrupt setting is
needed.Create a custom kernel configuration file and add
appropriate flags for the serial port you want to use. For
example, if you want to make sio1
(COM2:) the console:device sio1 at isa? port "IO_COM2" tty flags 0x10 irq 3ordevice sio1 at isa? port "IO_COM2" tty flags 0x30 irq 3The console flags for the other serial ports should not be
set.Recompile and install the boot blocks:&prompt.root; cd /sys/boot/i386/boot2
&prompt.root; make
&prompt.root; make installRecompile and install the boot loader:&prompt.root; cd /sys/boot/i386/loader
&prompt.root; make
&prompt.root; make installRebuild and install the kernel.Write the boot blocks to the boot disk with
&man.disklabel.8; and boot from the new kernel.Entering the DDB Debugger from the Serial LineIf you wish to drop into the kernel debugger from the serial
console (useful for remote diagnostics, but also dangerous if you
generate a spurious BREAK on the serial port!) then you should
compile your kernel with the following options:options BREAK_TO_DEBUGGER
options DDBGetting a Login Prompt on the Serial ConsoleWhile this is not required, you may wish to get a
login prompt over the serial line, now that you
can see boot messages and can enter the kernel debugging session
through the serial console. Here is how to do it.Open the file /etc/ttys with an editor
and locate the lines:ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure
ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure
ttyd2 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure
ttyd3 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off securettyd0 through ttyd3
corresponds to COM1 through
COM4. Change off to
on for the desired port. If you have changed the
speed of the serial port, you need to change
std.9600 to match the current setting, e.g.
std.19200.You may also want to change the terminal type from
unknown to the actual type of your serial
terminal.After editing the file, you must kill -HUP 1
to make this change take effect.Changing Console from the Boot LoaderPrevious sections described how to set up the serial console by
tweaking the boot block. This section shows that you can specify the
console by entering some commands and environment variables in the
boot loader. As the boot loader is invoked at the third stage of the
boot process, after the boot block, the settings in the boot loader
will override the settings in the boot block.Setting up the Serial ConsoleYou can easily specify the boot loader and the kernel to use the
serial console by writing just one line in
/boot/loader.rc:set console=comconsoleThis will take effect regardless of the settings in the boot
block discussed in the previous section.You had better put the above line as the first line of
/boot/loader.rc so as to see boot messages on
the serial console as early as possible.Likewise, you can specify the internal console as:set console=vidconsoleIf you do not set the boot loader environment variable
console, the boot loader, and subsequently the
kernel, will use whichever console indicated by the
option in the boot block.In versions 3.2 or later, you may specify the console in
/boot/loader.conf.local or
/boot/loader.conf, rather than in
/boot/loader.rc. In this method your
/boot/loader.rc should look like:include /boot/loader.4th
startThen, create /boot/loader.conf.local and
put the following line there.console=comconsoleorconsole=vidconsoleSee &man.loader.conf.5; for more information.At the moment, the boot loader has no option equivalent to the
option in the boot block, and there is no
provision to automatically select the internal console and the
serial console based on the presence of the keyboard.Using Serial Port Other than <devicename>sio0</devicename> for
the ConsoleYou need to recompile the boot loader to use a serial port other
than sio0 for the serial console. Follow the
procedure described in .CaveatsThe idea here is to allow people to set up dedicated servers that
require no graphics hardware or attached keyboards. Unfortunately,
while most systems will let you boot without a keyboard, there
are quite a few that will not let you boot without a graphics adapter.
Machines with AMI BIOSes can be configured to boot with no graphics
adapter installed simply by changing the `graphics adapter' setting in
the CMOS configuration to `Not installed.'However, many machines do not support this option and will refuse
to boot if you have no display hardware in the system. With these
machines, you will have to leave some kind of graphics card plugged in,
(even if it is just a junky mono board) although you will not have to
attach a monitor into it. You might also try installing an AMI
BIOS.